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|hcc.aodctAccq n
Statistical
To I
AnOvervewofCommonAppIcatons
nSocaIScences
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1 I 11111 \ \ 11 1l1r Netherlands
Profac 1
Statistical Tool 9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
2.1
Statistical Data 11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. o o o . o o o o o o. o. o o o. . o o o o o o o. o o o o o o o o. 1 1
Four Levels of Measurement . . . .. o. o o . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o. o o o o o . o. o o o o o o o o o o o 12
Selecting Uni ts of Analysi s: Random Sampli ng ............................ 15
Coll ecti ng Stati sti cal Data . o o o. o o o o. o. o o o o o o o o o o o. o o o . . o = o o. o o o o o. . . o o o . o o o o o o o o o .. o o o o 1 7
Data Quali ty . o. o. o. o . o o o o o o o o o . o o o o o o. o o o o o o... o o o .o .. o o o o o . . . o o o o .. .. o. o. . . .. o.. . .. o o.. . . . o o. o 1 9
From Col lecti ng Data to Answering Research Questi ons . o.... . . = o. o 22
Descriptive Statistics 23
Introduction o o o o o .. o .o . . . .. o .o. . .o o o o o .. . . o o . . .. o o o o . . . o o o o. . . . o o o. . .. o o o . . ... o o. o.. . o o o . . .. o . o . 23
2.2 Graphi cal Descri pti on of a Si ngl e Variable o o o . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o . o o o o o o o . o o 23
Bar Chart . . o o o o o . . o o o .. . . o o.. . .. o o o o . . . o o o .. . o. o. o o. .. o o o o o .. o. o. . . .. . . o. .. . . o o o .. . o o o o . . .. 23
Pie Chart o. o o .. o. o o o o .. o o o o o o o o o o o o. o. o. o. o o o. o o o o. o o o o o o o o. o o o o o o o o o o o. o. o. o. o o o o. o o o o o o o o 24
Hi stogram o o o . . . . o o o o . . . . o . o . . . o. o o o . o o . o o o. . o o o o o o .. o o o o. .. o. o. o . o. o. o : ................... 25
Stem-and-leaf Plot o o. o . o o o o o o. o o o. o o o o o. o o. o . . o.. . o . . .. . . o. .. .. o. o. . o o. o o o . . . . .. . . . . 26
2.3 Numeri cal Descri pti on of a Si ngle Vari able . o. o. o. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Frequency Table o. o . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o. o o o. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. o. . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 28
2.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency o o o o o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . o... o. o . o. o o . ....... 29
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.4.1
Mode o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o = o = o o o o o o o o o = = Z'
Medi an . o. o..... ........ o.. o. o. o . o... o...... o. o. o. . o ............o . o............... ..... . o . .'
Mean o o o . o o o o o o. o. o o o o o . o. o. o o o o o. o o o o o o o o o o. o. o. o.. o o . o o o o o o o. o. o. o =.. o.................. ... ''
Measures of Variabi l i ty o o. o o o. o o o o... o. o...... .. . .. . ..... .. ........... ..... ......, .''
Range o o. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o. o. o. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o. o o o o . o. o o . .. .. . o o............... . .. . . ''
l nterquartile Range (IQR)...... . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .....................
11
Detecti ng Outliers with Box pl ots . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .................
111
Standard Deviation and Vari ance . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..................
l!\
Measures of Relati ve Standi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................
J
I
Percenti les .. o o . . o o o o o . . o o.. ................... ....... ................. .....
J!
Z-scores o. o ... o. o. . . . o .... . .. o.. . . ... o. . . ... .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . o o ........ I \
Chebyshev's Rule and Empi ri cal Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ....
Stati sti cal Rel ations between Two Vari ables . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ...... .
Graphi cal Description of a Bi vari ate Relati on ................ . .
Box Plot ........................... ........ .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... .
Scatter Plot. . .. . ..... .. ..... . . ...... ........ ..... .. . . ... .. . . ........ ........... .... ..
Li ne Graph . . . . . . . . ... . . . ..... . ...... . ..... . ..... . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. ..
2.5 Summary o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o o .. . . o o o. . . o o o o o . o o o o o o. o o o o o o o o. o o o o o o o o o .... ... o o o o. o o o....... '\!
51
3
Inferential Statistics
51
3_1 .....
52
c..--
55
...
58
.,-,,..
rf
62
3.2 o
c.-,..v..-,
62
32_1 . . -.
.. . . 65
3 2 2 ...,,
. .
3.3 .. c-,.
Y_
_,
,,
6
3.3.1 -.d c.-,
,.,.
.. . ... 7
3.3.2
-,,.,.
73
3 3 3 AnalySI v..
7
. -..o.v.... 7
3 4 v..un O A .
77 .
[ j [j c,,...
78
3.4.1
/,...i:... I
.
\1:::,\'1L;' | ,
..
.v....
g
.1
' and c.-.v
84 |1 Q\11|
\ o.v....
MI.1-l1l` A ..
85
_ _|' Rank c.
... . ..
. . 88
|! 1r1 nan' s
.c.
`\
,\ '+
+ .
.
91
v,sur ./......-.v...
91
.c.c
. . . . . . ......... .. .
93
.\ '+ Z
'+.O
..
,../.,..
. ... 98
o
-.
. 1g:
3
.
6
v.
....v....v.
0
5
3.
6
.
1
.
g
3.6.2
-.v.
I
-..c,...... . . .
1
0
7
c.,,..
1
0
8
v.
I .
1
0
9
v.,..-,..
/.,
11 o
...-.- ..
.
111 v,
.-v....
v,o.. -
116
..-,../.,../...-,.
117
3.7 c.--.,
c.,--..c.... . . 118
1 1 9
Index
1 22
Notes
Preface
T
hlrl:
2
o
88 UOW Vari blcV|ov
2
.
2 2 !'.
.
!':
!'t\\IO! | |'|JLUSOl |fC0U\
|,
l li''il'"' |
1.2 FOUR LEV -L' M ASUREMENT
A va|. ah| c mcsu| s 1 s | c . | | . | . .c| c|. s| . co|l hc u u. ls auJ uo' Js va|. -
ous va| ucs. |o| cxa| | |, a | | ll'SjHIIId . | | s uavc a spcci c agc and a spc-
ci1c | cvc| oIcducal . ou. I lc1 tcr:tll y, || | c|c .s a | ol oIvariationamongthcsc
charactcristics, Ior . us| aucc, |.souJcul s` agcs may Ia| l tctvccn l o and
?O ycars old. Mosl va|. ah| cs |vc a ' . m. | cJ scl olcatcgorics to c|assily
thc units oIana|ysi s. Thcsc ca| cgo|. cs a|c . Jcul . | cd through uni quc nu-
mcrica| codcsi nthc sprcaJshccl . | o|cxamp| c, lhc variat lc marital state
in ligurc l | has Iourcatcgor. cs l ha| a|c codcd | , 2, 3, and 4. Typi ca|ly,
i nIormationrcgardingthc mcaning olcodcs cautcIoundi nthcdatasct` s
accompanyingcodctook,tut i sa| so ollcu louud i nthc dataIi l citsc|l To
i | |ustratc thc |attcr, |igurc | . 2 shovs thc codcs Ior thc variatl c marital
state, vhich rcprcscnt ' ^ot marricd` (codc l ), ' Marri cd` (codc 2), ` D. -
vorccd` (codc3) , and ' Wi dov/Widovcr`(codc4).
M.m
_|e _mu ]=o.iom _o=|,:e _u(o |||||e. ~dd_+s do _e|p
VdlU0L00S
:pO||lng...
Figure 1 .2 SPSS Variable View (upper panel) and Value Labels (lower
panel)
Iu
.
s| . | s| . cs, V:ll'l:thkn 1'/111 | I .tll')'.llllll'd . u| o ouc o|| | | c | ' | ow. ug |\ Is
i\! IIIC;tSIIrCiliCIII:
Nom ua|
O|J. ua |
lul c|va|
|al . o
Nn111i1
l ic fi ndings | o a
popu|ation tascd on a | imitcd numbcr oI sc|cctcd units. Thi s samp| c
compriscs a rc| ativc|y sma| | part oIthc cntirc popu|ati on. l n thc Wcscn
vor|d, scvcra| organizati ons (c. g. , Thc Wor|d Va| uc Survcy Ncl wo||
( vvvvor| dva|ucssu|vcy. o|g) ) |cgu| a| ' y intrvicv a ' 8rg samp| c o|
pcop| conva|ious | op. cs, sucuaspo| . | . ca' vol inghcuav. o|. Tucsc samp| cs
o'Jcu comp|isc o| scvc|a | l ' ious. . . . os o!. uoiv. dua| s ( o| cu |clc||cd | o as
' |cspoudcul s` i rrtll Wll i dl 1 wi lk SJll'\' 1 1111 1 1 o|dal . | . s co| ' cc| cd. As wi' '
hc suowu i u h: l pl l'l I, :t t:u1dn111 s:unpk a | ' ows |csca|cuc|s lo make
s| a| . mcu| s ; 1 h011l 1 1 1 1' l'lllltl' l"l
l
liiLIIIIIII l'11 Ill val i d, 111 s gcuc|. d sl a| c-
l lJU1 l srequi rl' till': lllllph 111 | 11 11111 li'JIII"I'Iilnllilll tH1JI ptlpul:lti1llt. | l
| nuui 1
is ol' ten sai d t hat a sample should he ( surlic icnt|y) refJI'C.I'C'IIIotil'e, wh ich
means that thc sampl cshould possess thc samc kcy charact eri st i cs of t he
targct popu|ation. A random samplccomprisinga Icma|c-to-malcratiool
l . 5 i snotrcprcscntativcas i nmostpopu|ationsthcratioi sc|oscrto l . I.
Simple.r.dom s(J g is acommonlyuscdstratcgy to obtain arcp-
rcscntativc samp|coIthcpopu|ati on. | n thi ssamp| i ngproccdurc, rcspon-
dcntsarc choscn random|y Iromthctargctpopu|ationand a|| rcspondcnts
havc thc samc probabi |ity oIbcing sc|cctcd. Simp|c random samp|ing i s
l ikc scl cctingnamctags Iroma baskctbya b| indIo| dcdpcrson.1oavoi d
non-random di stortion ( ' bi as` ), thc tags arc mixcd-up thoroughly bcIorc
cachsc|cction.
Stratijed random sampling_is a stratcgy typi ca| l yappl icd vhcrc units
arc not di rcctIy scIcctcd
-
at random but arc Irst groupcd into catcgorics
cct.org).
1.4 COLLECTING STATISTICAL DATA
1hcrcarcIourcommonl yuscdmcthodstocollect st at i st i cal data:
Survcy
lxpcrimcnt
Obscrvation
Sccondarydata
In a _urvey, data arc collcctcd Irom a |argc numbcr oI(prcIcrab|y) ran-
dom|y sc|cctcd rcspondcnts. lor (PhD) studcnts and rcscarchcrs i n gcn-
cra|, i t is c|osc to impossib|c to carry out a survcy indcpcndcnt|y, cspc-
cia| |y iIa l argc samplc i srcquircd. 1hcrcIorc, gcncral l y only spccia| izcd
rcscarch i nstitutcs, univcrsitics, andgovcrnmcnt agcncics coll cct stati sti-
ca| data using|argc-scal csurvcys,i nvhichscvcralrcscarchcrscontributc
to thc qucstionnairc. An cxamp|c i s thc Dutch SOCO procct
(vvv ru. n| /socio| ogy/rcscarch/socon), in vhich rcscarchcrsIromthcdi s-
ci pl incs oI psychology, sociol ogy, and communication sci cncc at thc
Radboud Ini vcrsity !i mcgcn (^cthcr|ands) intcrvicv l , 5OO Dutch rc-
spondcntsevery 5 years about a wi de array of subcct s includingrcl i gi on,
mcdiausage, a l l i ludcs towards (et hni c) minori t i es, and proIcssions.
| | | . l l i i pl i ll
/c'XJWrilllell/.' an.: | | | St:l' OII d v. | y o| co| | cct . ug Ja| a i ll wl 1 i ll |cspou-
dent s a|c |auoou| yass| 1 1 d to |oups. o| p|ccxi s| . ng g|oupsa|c usco. | n
c| assi ccxp|. mcu|s, | wo |oupsc. s| . l hctrcatmcntgroup vhorcccivc a
sti mul us` and a compa|. soug|oupwho do not (rcIcrrcdto as thc control
group). In arcccntcxamp| c, cmp| oyccscommutingbycarvcrcrandomly
assigncd to a trcatmcnt o| a coul |ol group Thc cmployccs vi thi n thc
trcatmcnt group vcrc askcd to commutc by bicyclc instcad oIby car (i n
thi scxamplc thc stimulus i s|hc bicyclc, rcsulting i nmorcphysicalcxcr-
ci sc) 1hc cmployccs i nthc control group continucd commuting by car
AItcr six months thc physical condition oIthc cmpl oyccsvas comparcd
to thcir physical condition at thc bcginning oI thc cxpcrimcnt. Thc cx-
pcrimcntal rcsults suggcst that thc physical condi ti on oIthc bi kc com-
mutcrs improvcd signicantly and thcy al so rcportcd Icvcrbouts oIi l l -
ncsscomparcdtopartici pants i nthccontrolgroup.
Observation is a rcl ati vcl yl abor intcnsi vc mcthod Ior collcctingdata
This data collcction mcthod rcquircs rcscarchcrs to bccomc part oIthc
group undcr invcsti gation (participant observation). Altcmativcly, rc-
scarchcrscan rcIrai nIromIul l participation,thusmi nimal1zingthcir l cvcl
oIi nucncconthoscundcrinvcstigation(unobtrusive observation). Both
obscrvational stratcgicsuti lizcthcnaturalcnvi ronmcntoIthcparticipants
bcing studi cd lor cxamplc, participant obscrvation i s uscd in cul tural
anthropology,vhcrc rcscarchcrs study (sub-)culturcs by mcans oIactual
parti ci pation, and unobtrusivc obscrvation is uscd i npsychological stud-
i csthatcxplorcthcintcractionsbctvccnschoolchi l drcn.
Survcys,cxpcrimcntsandobscrvationscanbc(partly)cxccutcdbythc
rcscarchcr, but comc vi th considcrabl c timc and nancial constraints
Al tcnati vcl y, rcscarchcrs canmakc uscoIthc cnormous amountoIdi gi -
ta| | y storcd statistical data thathasalrcady bccn coll cctcd. lurthcrmorc,
l hcscsecondar data arc vi dcl yavailablcon thc I ntcmct. Thcsc dataarc
routi ncly col l cctcd, oIIcn using hi gh quality random samplcs, and can
al so capturccntircpopulations( i . c. , ccnsuscs). Hcrc is usta shortl i stoI
importantvcbsitcsthatprovidc,orl i nkto, sccondary data.
vvv. cbs. nl/statlinc(dataIromthc!cthcrlands)
vvv dans knav. nl ( idcm)
http. //css nsd. uib. no(luropcanSocial SurvcysIrom2OO2)
http.//cpp.curostat cc. curopa.cu(othcrdataIromluropc)
http.//Iactndcr.ccnsus.gov(ccnsusdatai nLSA)
https.//intcmational . i pums. org/intcmational(ccnsusdata)
vvv mcasurcdhs. com( dcmog|aph i cano hca | t h su|vcys)
http.//ropcrccn|ciuconu. cou/ ( su|vcys. u|'Ai
h|1p.//soc. os. t c. uc| /Ja| abascs pup( worl dwi de l i hr: 1 |y i
h| l p. //'s| apcs. o|p// s2 gi ( wor l dwi dv l i hr : r r y )
h| | p / /s| cs. org/i d:il a/ |sr : 1 1 r l r 1 ' 1 1 ) '
,
1 1 1 1 ' )
: il 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : d l i ! 1 . 1
| ' |
1. 5 DATA QUAI I I Y
A| | hougu t i ll: pri 1 1 1 : 1 r l r ll'liS o| | u. s ooo| .s ou dcscript. vc and i n|crcntial
stat t sl r cs, son1 c a t l clll i oJ I w. | | oc pa. otothcquality oIstati sti cal data On
thconc hauo. i t . s o| cua|guco l hal rcsults Iromstati sticalrcscarcharc to
bcv. cwcow. | hs|cpl . c. smbccauscthcdatavcrccol lcctcdi naninappro-
pnatc manncr On thc othcr hand, pcopl coItcn cl ai mthatstatistical out-
comcs should notbc chal l cngcdas thcyarcbascd on ' rcprcscntati vc` rc-
scarchsamplcs 1hctruth, hovcvcr,probabl yl icssomcvhcrci n-bctvccn
hcsc
,
tvo
.
cxtrcmcs. Statistical rcscarch cannot provc somcthi ng to bc
tru
d 1hc qucstion ' Havc I bccn unclcar about ccrtain aspccts?` is Iar
upcnor bccausc thi s timc thc tcachcr` spcrIormancc is bcing cvaluatcd
mstad
l l l l d ' I'Si ; J Id j )i ii'IS o| l h ' l' I H I I'Sl: COil f cnt . | I |hat rc| ati onship
docsuo| CX I SI , Olll' ll l q,lr l l l iiVl' ) '. IHHI Il' : I SOII i ll l j ii CSi i on the vu| . o. ty oI th
2. 1 INTRODUCTION
Wucu dcscri bi ng statistical data, tt t not vcry uscI| to dcscribc cvc
uu| | scparatc|y a stratcgy morc c|osc|y tting vith qua| i tativc tcct_
u| qucs such as i n-dcpth intcrvi cvs. Bccausc thc numbcr oIobscrva| i oh
d l
.
.
l
. . . ata scts t rcativcl y largc, adcquatc summari cs oI|uc data arc l llC\
c| ur
mativc
hcscsummaricscan |crcprc
placcd on thc horizontal axi s (x-axi s) oIthc chart On thc vcrtica| y-ax
| uc abso|utc or rc|ativc proportion ( i n pcrccntagcs) oI cach catcgory `
shovn lvcry catcgory i srcprcscntcdi nt hcchartbyabar 1hc hci ghts
| ucsc bars is proport ional to thc Ircqucncy oIoccurrcncc 1hc bars ha\f
cqua' w| d|h, vhi l c thcrc is somc spaci ng i n-bctvccn bars 1o cnsu
|cadahi ' i |y oIthc chart, thc numbcr oIcatcgorics shoul dnotbctoo lar
@
Zb7
=
ZU7
.
g b7
2
c U7
b7
UY L
|
t
n
I
L. Secondary
I
Elementary
L Levels
Lower Vocational
Secondary
Vocational
P Levels
~
|
!
Other
College
Un1vers1ty
Figure 2. 1 Bar Chart for Highest Completed Educational Level
Pie chart
Pie charts providcauscIul al tcrnativctobarcharts. 1hc diagramcontains
a c. |c| c, and cach scgmcnt oIthc circlc rcprcscnts a catcgory. Lach scg-
mcul covcrs an arcathat is proportional to thc Ircqucncy oIoccurrcncc.
l. c cua|l s arc Ircqucntly uscd to shov rcsults i n thc mcdia (c. g. , during
pol i l ica| cl cctions). I n sci cncc, bar charts arc gcncral ly prcIcrrcd instcad
|ccauscthcyarcclcarcrandpcoplcarcl cssl i kcl ytomi s udgcthcpropor-
tions oIcacharcatothccxtcntthatthcy dovhcn cvaluatingpic charts. I I
a pi c chart i s choscn, corrcsponding pcrccntagcs shoul d bc i ncl udc i n
cach sccti on t oavoidmi sconccption (sccligurc2. 2). Pi ccharts arc di I-
cul tt oi ntcrprct vhcn many catcgorics arc rcprcscntcd, cspcci all yvhcn
thcrcarcno catcgorics vi th a high Ircqucncy oIoccurrcncc. In practicc,
thc uscoIpicchartsis l i mi tcdto nominal (and to a lcsscrcxtcntordinal )
variablcs vith a smal l numbcr oIcatcgorics, vhi l c (prcIcrab|y) onl y a
Icv catcgoricsrcprcscntl argcportionsoIal l units,as in li gurc2. 2.
| lu i l pi i V< i l l i i i i , I I L
Married,
54. 2%
Wi dow/
WK l ow | ,
'. 8%
Not Married,
29. 4%
Figure 2.2
.
Pie Chart for Marital State (ercentages incuded)
l l istogram
S ncc i ntcrvalndratiovariablcs gcncral l yhavca largcruumoc|oIca| c-
oncs,a dcscnptionoIthcsc variablcsusinga barchart i spre|cla|l c l oa
p1 c chart. A bar chart, hovcvcr, has spacingbctvccn ad accntcatcgorics
( sec |igurc 2. 1 ) and symbol izcs thc Iactthat thc cxact di stancc bctvccn
: i l l c
'
ommal and ordinal variablcs. Hovcvcr, thc subscqucnt intcrvals bc-
| wc
2li Cl l ; qJI I Z
60
50
40
&
0
1
E
30
x
20
1 0
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
Age
Figure 2.3 Histogramfor Age (range: 18- 69 year, one-year interval
Stem-and-leaf plot
A t:n-oou-lc pl ot is an altcmativcvayoIgraphi cal l yprcscntingvari-
ahlcs mcasurcd at i ntcrval and ratio |cvcl s. Likc a histogram, stcm-and-
| ca |p| ol sgi vc i nIormationaboutthc shapcoIavariabl c` sdistribution. l n
| ucsc p| ol s, a di stinction i s madc bctvccn thc stem and leaf ligurc 2. 4
suowsthcdi stri butionoIthcvccklyvorkinghours. ThcstcmoIthcchart
contains thc rst digit ( ' stcm-vidth=I O` ) and thc lcavcs dcnotc thc scc-
onddigit(vhcrc cvcry lcaIrcprcscnts a sing|c obscrvation ( ' cach l caI. l
casc` )) . 1hc rst rov contains Ivc rcspondcnts vho vork at |cast l O
hours pcrvcck(as i ndicatcd by thc stcm oIl ) 1hc l cavcs i ndicatc hov
many hours cach individual vorks. To i | |ustratc. tvo rcspondcntsvork
l O hours ( l O O), thc othcrthrcc vork l 2 ( | O 2), 1 ( | O + 3), and l 4
( l O + 4) hours, rcspccti vcl y. 1hc s|cm-and- l calp| o| cl carl y shovs that
vorking Iorty hours a vcc| i s mos| r|cqucu| : 42 |cspouJcul s havc a
' ninc-to- h vc` oo. 1hc i u| crva| /ra| | o ch; r ract r o| s' c. . | -auJ-| ca | pl ol s | s
mi rrorcd |yl ucl i uLa| . uc|casc | . di | so' s | . . s, l' V' l l i l " there a|c uooo-
sc|vat . ous a| | acucJ | o t i l l' sl vr 1 1 . Tl t v s l l ' ' " n 1 1 d k: r r pl ul is cspeci a l | y
su. | cJ | o |cp|csc. i ' . . . i n h' l l' : t l l l l l l l l l l l ! d l l . i l r k YY r t | | . ' | | i i . | c| . i . . | i i oc|ol "
. /
oosc|va| . ous. | . | i | jt d: l l ; t set s, | u c |ows vc|y qu. c|l y occomc loo l oug.
1o couu| c| | u. s, s| a| s| i ca l so| tvarc such as SPSS makcs i t possi bl c |or
cacu l ca||o|cp|cscu| mo|cl hauasingl cobscrvation. 1his,hovcvcr,may
rcsult in a s | . gul l y lcss accuratc plot, vhcrc thc di stribution is l css rcad-
ab|c. A morc suitcd graphi cal dcscription oIi ntcrval and ratio vari abl cs
vi th many obscrvations is thc histogram.
Worki ng hours a Week
Stem Width: 1 0
Each Leaf: 1 Case)
c.... c.-- -.
5 1 . 00234
1 0 1 . 5555668889
1 3 2. 00000001 23344
9 2. 566778889
1 9 3. 0000000001 222222222
27 3. 566666666666777888888888888.
42 4. 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
2 4. 55
7 5. 0000000
2 5. 55
Figure 2.4 Stem-and-Leaf Plotfor Working fours l Wed
2. 3 NUMERICAL DESCRIPTION OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Thc prcvious sccti on shovcd hov a mu| titudc oIdata can |c app|op|i -
atcly summarizcd using graphical too|s. !cvcrthc|css, prcscntmg (thc
shapc o{ a distribution i s olcn notthc only ob cctvc. In stati sti
cs
.
thcrc
arc al so various vays to numerically cxprcss spccrc charactcnstics oI
thatdi stribution. Thcscnumcrica|dcscriptionsgcncra||yrcl atctothccen
ter and thc variabilit oIa variablc (scc ligurc 2 5) . |or cxampl c, it i s
i nstruct i vct oprcscntboth ccntcrandvariationoIthc agc distributi onnot
onlygraphi ca| | y(scc|i gurc2 3) butal sonumcrical l y.
c-.-
VH|| HD| | | | y
4
Cl r . r pl or ?
cascs , . ul c|va' auJ|a| o v. . . . 1 |s. | ' ucscqucucc 1 0, 30, 50, (J O, 90, | hc
rangc cqua| s SO ( 90 I0 ) . | | owcv |, I uc Uovusidc olus . ug | hi smcasurc
is its hi gh scns. t . v. | y 'o | | u sco|cs. vhcu ust onc scorc ol | ?O | s
addcdt othc scqucncc aoovc, I uc|augc . sdoub|cd. Anothcrdisadvantagc
is thatthc rangc i s not . u | u|ua| . vcaoou| l uc cxact shapc oIthc di stribu-
ti on. To i | lustratc thi s, |. gu|c 2. 1 3 shovs tvo qui tc di IIcrcnt| y shapcd
distributions thathavcthcsamc |augc ( SO) .
l
V !
V
Figure 2. 1 3 Same Range but Different Shaped Distributions
Interquartile Range (I QR)
A morc appropriatc a|tcrnativc is thc interquartile range ( | QR). This
mcasurc i ndicatcs thc rangc oIthc mi dd| c 5O oIa|l obscrvations. To
dctcrmincthis, quarti | cs arcuscd. Quartil cs sp| i t thc distribution in Iour
cqua| | y sizcd parts, vhcrc cach part contains 25 oIa|| obscrvations.
Prcviousl y, thc mcdianvassaidto bcthcpoi ntatvhichha| Ithcnumbcr
oIobscrvationshas bccn countcd(aItcrranking). l ntcmsoIquarti | cs, thc
mcdian is thc sccond quarti l c (i ndicatcd as Q2). Thc di IIcrcncc bctvccn
thc Irst and thc third quarti| cthcn i sthc i ntcrquarti | crangc (Q3 - Ql
IQR), asshovn in ligurc2. l 4
D - Fi rst 25% of Observations
D - Central 50%
- Last 25%
01
IQR
02 03
Figure 2. 1 4 Meonin,!!, oj' (hwrtill 's l ll l r l lll li ' l "r fl l r l l 'li ll ' Hnllge (IQ!?)
Do:a; r r pl r vo ' l i i l r : , l rc: .
As p|cv . ous| y s ' a| . J, l i r e . . cJ au ( Q2 . s |obust, wu. cu mcaus | ual | u. s
ucasu|c | s |c' a | . vc' y . uscus . | . vc | ocxtrcmc scorcs Thi s mcaus | ua l Q| ,
Q3, auJ couscqucnt| y, l uc | QRsharc thi srobustucss as vc| | . Thcadvau-
l agc o|thc | QR ovcrthc rangc i s that thc di IIcrcnccs in thc dcgrcc ol
vari abi | ity arc bcttcr rcprcscntcd. li gurc 2. | 5 shovs thc distri buti ons
| iom li gurc 2. I 3, but nov vi th thc addi ti on oIthc i ntcrquarti | c rangc.
Thc | QRoIthc rstdi stribution is 4O, vhi | cthc IQR is onl yha| Iolthat
( 2O)Iorthcsccond. Thi s i s bccausc thcsc di stri buti ons h c quitc di Ilcr-
cutshapcs. Asviththcrangc,thcI QRcan bc ca|cu| atcd vitha| | typcs ol
variabl cscxccptnomina| oncs. Tab|c2. l shovsthcmcdian(Q2), raugc,
mi ni mum and maximum, and thc thrcc quarti| cs Ior thc vari ab|cs boc6;
height and body weight. Noticcthat in SPSSthcIQR is not prcscu|cUauJ
hast obcca|cu| atcdIromQ| andQ3aItcrvards (I QRbody height = Q3
Ql l O - l ? l 3and | QRbody weight = 5- o= l 9 .
Figure 2. 1 5 Diferent JQR due to D[/r( 'ff/ ,)'/'nt wr l ! J,, , ,, , hl l tl l l l l
Table 2. 16 Numerical Measures ofthe Voriahilil \ ' u/
Body Height and Body Weight
Hei ght Wei ght
Number of Observations
1 , 209 1 , 209
Medi an 1 73 75
Range 52 81
Mi ni mum 1 52 44
Maxi mum 204 1 25
Quartiles 1 st (Q1 ) 1 67 66
2nd (02) 1 73 75
r( l ( QJ) 1 80 85
b
Detecting OuUi crs wi C h Bux pl uC s
Box plots vcrc uo| i | | t l stral d vh i l t |scri bi ng charts i n scct | on 2 2 Ior
thc rcason that thcy cou| . | . . s| a| . s | | a | mcasurcs that had not yct bccni n-
troduccd at that poi n| t he . . J| . | . . , qua|l . | cs, andthc i ntcrquarti l c rangc.
Box p|ots arc vc| | sui t cJ t o dclecl cxcept i onal ly |ov and hi gh scorcs, to
dcscribcthcovcra| | di s|ri bu| i ou, auJt ocomparcdi stributions(thcl attcris
dcscribcdin scction2. 4 |)
As mcntioncd, somc mcasurcs | i |c |hc mcan arc scnsitivc to cxccp-
ti onal l y |ov and hi gh scorcs ( | uowu as outliers). Out|i crs can originatc
Irom crrors duringdatacntry ( |ur instancc, somconc crroncous|ycntcrs a
scorc oI l OO into thc data basc i nstcad oI thc intcndcd I O). A|so, it i s
commonpracticct odcsignatcrc|ativc| yhighscorcs( or)t ospccia|
catcgorics such as thc ansvcr ' don` t knov` in qucstions about attitudcs.
Whcnanal yzi ngdata,thcsc scorcs nccdto bc sct to ' mi ssi ng` duringthc
data c| cani ng proccss but occasi ona| | y mistakcs occur. lina| | y, cxtrcmc
scorcs canrcsul tIromva| i dobscrvations thcincomc camcd bytop scn-
ior managcrs, Ior cxamp| c. In box plots crcatcd by SPSS thc cxtrcmc
|ov/high scorcs arc indicatcdvith 0 and * Obscrvations i ndicatcd vi th
0 arc |ocatcd bctvccn Q| l . 5 I QR and Ql 3 | QR(l ov scorcs), and
Q3 + l . 5 IQRand Q3 + 3 | QR(highscorcs). Obscrvations i ndicatcdvi th
* arc l ocatcdoutsidcQ| 3 I QR(cxtrcmc|yl ovscorcs), and Q3 3 I QR
(cxtrcmcly hi gh scorcs). Vcry cxtrcmc |ov/high scorcs arc potcntia| | y
unvantcdout| i crsthati nucnccthcrcsultsi nanundcsirab|cvay.
To i | l ustratc, ligurc 2. | ? shovs a box p| ot Ior thc variab|c weekly
working hours. In this gurc, Q| cqua|s 24 vorkinghours pcrvcckand
Q3 cqua|s 4O hours pcr vcck(I QRthus cqual s l ) . Thc cxtrcmc scorcs
arc | ocatcd at thc top oIthc di stribution. Obscrvations i ndi catcd vi th 0
arc bctvccn Q3 + l . 5 IQRand Q3 3 I QR, that is,4and hours(4O +
l . 5 * l 4 and 4O + 3 * l ). Thc obscrvcd scorcs 5, , ?, ?O,
?2, ?5, OIa| | intothatintcrva| . Somcobscrvations(i ndicatcdvith *) arc
| ocatcd bcyond thc point Q3 + 3 * I QR- . Thcir cxact scorcs arc O
andhours. !otcthatthcboxpl otindicatcspotcntia|out| icrsbuti t docs
not shov cxact|y how many obscrvations havc cxtrcmc scorcs. A Irc-
qucncy tab|c i s suitcd to providc i nIormation about thc Ircqucncy oIoc-
currcncc(sccTab|c2. l ) . 1abl c2. | shovsthat24rcspondcntsvork5
hoursormorc.Asmcntioncdcar|icr,thcmcani sscnsitivctosuchscorcs
ThcscorcsOandvi| | cxcr| |hcs| |ougcsl .ul l ucucc, andthcrcscarchcr
may rightIu| | y vonUcr whc| uc| | ucs` : 1 r v: t li d observu| ions at a| | . On
cl oscr i nspcct i ou_ t he coJ ooo| shows t | 1 i l ti lL'SL' : 1n; coJcs lor | hc an-
svc|s ' Jou ` | k uov (
1
) 0) : 1 1 1 d ' di d t i PI . | l '- Wt ' |
:
( 1 11 1 ) | l l SPSS | hcsc coJcs
shou | J oe dcs i l.! t l at nl :1s | | | | '-| | | j ' V t l t w , , wl 1 1
1
| . t ' \ t " i t
< ks t hem ||ou auy
st at i st i l'al al l : t l yst .
|lo: H: I i pl l vo : 1 nl i : l l lc: 1
1 00
80
60
40
20
0
Hi ghest score (=60)
within 03 (=40) en
03 + 1 . 5 * | OR(=64)
Lowest score (=0)
wi thi n 01 (=24) en
01 - 1 . 5 * | OR(=0)
j 03 + 3 ' OR(=88)
+
+
C
C
1
Weekly Worki ng Hours
03 + 1 . 5 | OR(=64)
03 (=40)
|OR(=1 6)
01 (=24)
Figure 2. 1 7 Box Plot for Weekly Working Hours
Table 2. 1 8 Respondents Working More Than 64 Hours a Week
Frequency Cumul ative
Counts Percentages Percentages
65
4. 2 4. 2
66
4. 2 8. 3
67
4. 2 1 2. 5
70 1 1 45. 8 58. 3
72
4. 2 62. 5
75 2 8. 3 70. 8
80 5 20. 8 91 . 7
90
4. 2 95. 8
99 d . 7 1 00
Total ; ,t | | |H
' J /
. . . . . I .
1o . || cnn . . | | . . . . ' | . a. . .. | . o oy | u sc cx| |c. | | c c+scs, | | . . . . ca. . auJ
l uc qua|| . |s . | . . . a|u| . . | . o | . | ' | . . sc . . a|. os. | uc' us. o. . 1 1 1 : dl cascs | ua|
sco|cJ90auJ91) , . \ c
| . . s . .
1
1 1 | | . . s. c. . scs,auJcxc| us | ouo| a | | cascsvi th
o5 olmo|cwo||| u | . o . . s 1 uc . . s. . | | s . . |c shovn inTah| c2. | 9.
Table 2. 1 9 DesaitJiil '< ' .\'totistil s l l ' iiiJ oud \ithout Out/iers
Weekly Working Hours J u| | Sampl e 90 and 99 >64
Excluded Excluded
Val i d Observations 1 , 31 3 1 , 31 1 1 , 289
Mean 33. 74 33. 65 32. 99
Fi rst Quartile 24 24 24
Medi an (Second Quarti le) 38 38 37
Thi rd Quartil e 40 40 40
Whcnthccascsvith scorcs Oandarc cxc| udcdIrom thc sampl c, thc
mcan changcs sl i ght|y Irom 33. 4 to 33. o5. Thcrc i s only onc casc that
scorcd O and on|y onc casc vith , vhi ch cxp|ains thc rathcr minor
changc |Ithcrcvcrca substantial proportionviththcscscorcsthc mcan
voul dhavc bccn scriousl y aIIcctcd !otc that a| l quarti l cs rcmaincd cx-
act|ythc samc.
lxcl usionoIa|lcxtrcmcscorcs(morcthano4hours)hasmorcscrious
conscqucnccs Ior thc mcan as it dccrcascs by thrcc quartcrs oIan hour,
vhcrcas thc mcdian dccrcascs by onc hour Bccausc it i s p|ausiblc that
pcop| c vork oO hours pcr vcck bcaring in mind |ong vorking hours,
Ior instancc, i nbars,rcstaurants, and Iinancc thc sccondco| umn i nTa-
blc2. l sccmstobc bcstIor dcscribingvorkinghours.Thati s, cxc| usion
oIO and scorcs (not rcprcscnting obscrvcd hours) and i nc| usion oI
thcrcspondcntsvorkingbctvccno4andoOhourspcrvcck
Standard Deviation and Variance
Thcstandard deviation i sthcmostcommonl yuscdmcasurc Ior variabi|-
ity Thismcasurc is rc|atcd to thc distancc bctvccnthc obscrvationsand
thcmcan. lorcxamplc,supposcvchavcthcIol |ovi ngrangcoInumbcrs.
l O,2O,3O,4O, 5O, oO, 0, 80,O,and l OO. Thcmcan is 55 ( ( | O + 2O+ 3O
. . | OO) I l O) . Uow cau | uc variabi|ity around thc mcan bc bcst dc-
Incd?Takinga | | J| s| auccs h+m | ucmcan | ogc| uc|isinappropriatcasthis
vou|d rcsu|l . u | uc |aupc. 45 ( |0 5 5 ) , - J5, - 2), - | 5, -5, 5, | 5, 25, 35
and 45. Tucs. . . i | o| | u| s |. . . | jc . sol\ l 't / \ '.1' 0, vu .u o| c oa|sc i s not i nlo|-
,1'|
| 1 t t | i I i Vt | O| l!| l I
ua| | vc l l l ' | | | . v. . . . . ' . ' . . , | | . . | . . . . . . op|| a| c | o | u|u a | | J. s| . . uccs . u| o
ohsolutc J s' . | . | .. s| | | . . | . 1 _ . | . . . | | . p| y. . . p| uc ucga| . vc uumoc|s oy- | i . 1uc
sum | ucu a u . . . . | s | .' ' | | (
Io25O(
-.
45
:
+ -35
:
+ -25
:
+ - l 5
:
+ -5
:
+ 5
:
+ | 5
:
+ 25
:
+ 35
:
+ 45
:
| | . . . . . squa|cJ | . | oglams, as is
thc casc w| | u v. . . . aucc ( . .s u. . . o |o . . . . . ( . | c vua| .\' ifi iOred kilograms
vou| J mcau | . . . i | . . | | . . | . . . | . v.
|
. . .
|
c. , 1ao| .) . 2 1 suows tuc mcan,
thc stauJaJ Jcv . . . | . . . , . . . o l l w . . . . . . . . O| | l | v. . . . . . o|s hld1 lwight and
hodv l l 'ei.e.tl .
4| || . 1 pl o1 2
Table 2. 2 1 tti, ^li u li l ' ' i |: ilit i i iiO Variance of l: ii lil iiO Ut 't_hl
Mean
Standard Deviation
Vari ance
Hei ght
1 73. 83
9. 48
89. 90
Wei ght
76. 24
1 3. 41
1 79. 70
Rough|yspcaking,rcspondcu|sJ. vergc ou avcragc . 4ccntimctcrs Irom
thc mcan body hcight ( l ?3. 3 ) auJ Jivcrgc on avcragc approximatc|y
l 3. 4l ki |ograms Iromthcmcan body vc| ght(?. 24). Thcvord ' divcrgc`
is uscd bccausc thc disti nction bctvccn | ong/short and | ight/hcavy is no
|ongcrrc|cvant. This i sbccausc a| | di IIcrcnccs bctvccn obscrvations and
thc mcanvcrc squarcdtoca|cu|atcthc standarddcviation. Conscqucnt|y,
rcspondcntsvcighing3 ki |ograms bc|ovavcragc andrcspondcntsvcigh-
i ng3 ki | ograms abovc avcragcbothscorc ` squarc ki|ograms` sothc in-
Iormati onvhcthcrthcyarcbc|ovorabovcavcragc i s|ost.
Li kcthcmcan,thcstandarddcvi ationcanbccomparcdtoaba|anccin
cqui | i brium. Wccanrcdistributca| | rcspondcntsi nsuchavaythatha|IoI
thcmmcasurc l 4. 35ccntimctcrs(thcmcanminusthcstandarddcviation
- l ?3. 3 - .4) and vcigh 2. 3 ki |ograms (?. 24 l 3 . 4 l ) vhi | cthc
othcrs mcasurc l 3. 3 l ccnti mctcrs( l ?3 . 3 .4) andvcigh .5 ki| o-
grams( ?. 24+ l 3.4l). Thcscncv| yconstructcddi stributionsoIthcvari-
ab| csheight andweight havcthcsamcmcanandsamcstandarddcviation
as thc origina| variab| cs. Thc on|y di IIcrcncc is that novall respondents
arc at a distancc oI. 4and l 3 .4 l uni ts uom thc mcan rcspcctivc|y (scc
|i gurc 2.22vhichshovsthisIorthcvariab|cbody weight).
Bccausc thc mcan is partoIthc ca|cu| ation, thc standard dcvi ation is
ou| ysui tab| cIor i ntcrva|andratiovariab| cs. A|so | ikcthcmcan,thcstan-
Uard dcvi ation is scnsitivc to out| icrs, and in thc casc oIcxtrcmc| yright
and | clt skcvcd di stributi ons,thc |QR is actua||yabcttcr-suitcd mcasurc
|hanthcstandarddcvation.
50% of al l observati ons wei gh l ess than average
- 50% weigh more than average
62. 83 76. 24
1 3. 41
1
89. 65
Figure 2.22 Standard Deviation os l >istr lllr ' t ' In tltc ' ^ I: i ii i
(/Jod1' Utt_ll lu:ii os ' ' ' ' ""I 'll ' )
l lo::CI I I il lvn ! ) l ai i : . I I L: I
2. 3. 3 MEASURES L H ATI VE STANDI NG
A commou p|oo|u . u cs a|cu. s incomparabi | | |y. O| cu, Jal aouva|. ous
vari ab| cs arc ava. | ao| c, oul l uc uni ts oI mcasurcmcnt arc uo| i dcu| | ca| .
Thi s | s prob| cmat| c vhcu thcsc variab| cs nccdt obc comparcd. |rcvi ous
ca| cu| at i ons dcmonstratcd that thc standard dcvi ation Ior O' c/_!l . s
9. 48 ccnti mctcrs and l 3. 4l ki |ograms Ior ody weight (scc Tab| c 2. 2 l )
|rom this vc cannot i nIcr that body hcight shovs |css variab| | i ty l uau
oody vcight - this vou|dbc| ikc comparing app|cs and orangcs. Th| sis
uotto say thatapp| csandorangcscannotbc comparcd ata| | , oncou | yuas
| o takc i nto account thci r si mi | aritics. lorcxamp| c, thcamount o|v. l a-
mi us and/or ca|orics i n app|cs and orangcs i s pcrIcct| y comparah| c auJ
somcthing si mi |ar i s possib|c vi th body hci ghtand body wci gu|, |ou-
si dcr, Iorinstancc,apcrson vho mcasurcs l O ccnti mctcrs auJwc. gus
<
) ( )
|| | ograms. Bascd on thc mcans (shovn i n Tab| c 2. 2 l) _ . l cau oc t` O| |
c| udcd thatthi s pcrson i sboth ta|| cr andhcavicrthau |ue avc|aj. | . 01
Jcrt omakc a propcr comparisonthough, thc posi l . on . u l uc J. s| | ' . | . | |
o|hcightandvcightmustbccomparcd. W| th rcgarJs | o u . ju' , | [ | | t ` |
son | s locatcd tothcright oIthcmcan. Thi s | sa| so l ru | I i ! | | . s [ ' | ' | |
vcight, but this obscrvation | ics Iar morc to thc |i gu| o|| uc | | | i' | | | 1 1 1 1 11
ever_ thcqucstionrcmains. hovmuchmorctol uc |i gul cxa lI y
Hei ght
1 80 90
A 1 73. 83 A 76. 24
I Vt | Q| i l
Figu re 2. 23 lJooliull n/ I l 'S] u l i i l i i i lli lltOi ltt_!l | tiii i tiit l
lIti li I J 't it /il '|/ l. i
4Z
Percent i les
Onc ansvcr to l h| squ. s| ou ' s |u pc|ctu|agcs. In this casc, vc havc to
cal cul atc thc perccu| agc o | |cspomkut s v | h a hci ght oIl oO ccntimctcrs
or|css, andthcpcrccntagc o|ispouJcu| svci ghingOki | ograms or|css.
Thcsc pcrccntagcs arc ca| | cJ perentiles. | n Iact, vc a |rcady cxp|ai ncd
vhat pcrccnti | cs mcan, bccausc l hc quarl | |cs in Tab|c 2. l arc cqua| to
thc 25th, 5Oth, and ?5thpcrccn| i | c | n othcr vords, a pcrccnti | c i ndicatcs
thc pcrccntagc oI( rankcd) obscrvations that is countcd Irom obscrvation
no. l onvards. Todctcrmincthccxactpcrccnti |c,cumu| ativcpcrccntagcs
arcmostuscIu| . Tab|c 2. 24 shovs(partsoI)thcIrcqucncytab|cs Ior body
height and body weight. Thc cumu|ativc pcrccntagcs i ndicatc that thc
(truncatcd) pcrccnti | cscorcs arc ? (Ior l oO cm) and (O kg), rcspcc-
tivc| y. Bascdon thcsc scorcs, a Iai rcomparison i s possi b| c. Comparcd to
thcpcrson vho mcasurcs l oO ccntimctcrs andvcighsOki |ograms, 24
oIa| | rcspondcnts arc ta| l cr,but ' on| y` l 4 arc hcavicr. Sothcpcrson in
thi s cxampl c is rc| ativc| y morc hcavy than hc is ta| | . Pcrccntil cs arc
common|y uscd incl uding i n cducation Ior a| l kinds oIschoo| pcrIorm-
ancc tcsts. Thc pcrccnti|c i ndicatcs thc cumu|ativc pcrccntagc oIpcop|c
pcrIormingcqual l yvcl | orvorsccomparcdtoapupi l ` stcstpcrIormancc.
Table 2.24 Frequency Table for Body Height and Body Weight
Hei ght Wei ght
Frequency Cumulative Frequency Cumulative
Counts Percentage Counts Percentage
1 78 72 70. 9 88 21 81 . 5
1 79 1 2 71 . 9 89 1 5 82. 7
1 80 58 76. 7 90 46 86. 5
1 81 1 8 78. 2 91 1 2 87. 5
1 82 35 81 . 1 92 1 5 88. 8
| ina| |y, i tshou| dbc notcd that pcrccnti| cs canbc computcd Ior al I vari -
ab|cs cxccpt Ior nomina| variab|cs. | nthccasc oIi ntcrva|andratio vari-
ab| cs, z-scores can bc uscd i n addi ti on to pcrccn|i| cs to i ndicatc thc rc|a-
tivcstandi ng.Z-scorcsa|cJ| scusscJ |u |uc ucx | scc| | on.
1o Jc| crm| uc |c| a| . v s| 1 . J ugs, | uc aoso| ul c J| || c|cuccs oc| wccu oosc|-
va| | ous auJ | uc mcau a|c |cqu | .cJ. l u ourcxamp| c whc|c a pc.sou mca-
surcs l oO ccul | mcl c|s auJ vcighs O ki |ograms, thcsc abso| ul c J| | 1r-
cnccsamountto. ' ccntimctcrs( l oO l 3 o3) and l 3. |i |ograms( 90
7. 24). It is i ncorrcct to inIcr that this pcrson di IIcrs approxi matcly
|vi cc as much Irom thc mcanbodyvcightcomparcd tothc mcau ooJy
hcight. As statcdbcIorc, thc tvovariab|csar
i ncomparab|cbccausc J| |
|crcnt units oI mcasurcmcnts arc bci ng uscd ( i . c. , ccntimctcrs vs. |i |o-
grams).
Toobtai na common mcasurc othcrthanpcrccnti |cs, thcstandard Jc-
viationi svcryuscIul as itindi catcsthcavcragcdcviationIom |hc mcau
|orcxamp|c,i nli gurc2. 23 thcrcarc rcspondcntsvhoarc cxac|ly | s| au-
dard dcviation to thc right oI thc mcan. Thcsc rcsponJcu|s mcasu.c
l o3. 3 l ccntimctcrs ( l 3. o3 . 4o) and vci gh . 5 |i ' ograms ( Cl . .l
l 3. 4l ) . In absolute tcrms, thcy arc locatcd at . 4 ccu| i mc| crs nnd I 1 . 1 1
|i |ograms Iromthcirrcspcctivcmcans.Relativel)l, uowcvc|, | ' . . s. J ll'PJ l k
arc cqual | y tal | and hcavy, Ior thcir rclati vc pos| | | ou | o I l l 1 1 1 . . . . s | ' +
samc - cxact|y | standarddcvi ati on' Tvovari ao|cswi t h di f 'l l t l' l l l . . . . . | s1o l
mcasurcmcnt can bc corrcct|y comparcd whcu aoso' u| . di r i ' t vt l i ' i' ' :. 1 1
rcp|accd vith rc|ativc di IIcrcnccs. To ach | cvc |u| s v. l l : I Vl' | . i' I I I I I J I I I f t
thcrc|ativcstandingin tcrmsoIstandarddcvi a| | on.
Wc rcturn to our cxamp|c to i || ustratc | h| s. 1uc ahso| l t i I` d i l i l ' t i ' l l t i"l
bctvccn obscrvations and mcan amount to . ' 7 ccu| i mtl s 1 1 1 1 d r I / I
|i |ograms (scc prcvious ca| cu|ations). Thc standard Jcv at | ons : 1 1 1' I J 1 >
and | 3 . 4 l , rcspccti vcl y. I is clcarthat thc hcight Ji |f crs | css | ' . . | . | I s | a .
darddcviation Iromthc mcanhcight. Thc vcightJ| uc|sapp|ox u. . | c | v |
standard dcvi ationIrom thc mcan vci ght. Thc cxact J| | lc.cnccs, ' . . |c| d
::-scores, arc. . 5 (ca|cu| ati on. . l ? / . 4) and | . O3 ( l 3 . / 1 3 . 4 1 ) . 1 T| |
rc|ativc vcight is thus about onc and a ha| Itimcsas largc as l hc rcl|| vc
hcight ( l . O3 / . 5 l . 5o). Z-scorcs can bc cal cu| atcd i u sla| | s| | ca| so| l -
varc packagcs. | n Tab|c 2. 25, thc z-scorcs Ior rcspondcnts l 8O ccu| | mc-
|crs ta| l ( 5obscrvati ons) and 4 rcspondcnts vci ghingO |i j ogramsa.c
shovn(ca|cu|ations. SPSS).
Table 2.25 Z-scores for Bodv Height= 1 80 Cand Body Weight= 90 kg
Hei ght = 1 80 I| Weight 90 ki l o
Z-score ( i ! l l 1 . 026
Chebyshev' s Rul e anc l J< : mpi ri(: al Rul e
Bcsidcs compar| ug | nd. v. dua| oosc.va| | ons hom di l|crcnl variab| cs and
mcasurcs, z-scorcs a.c uscJ |o coupa.c | hc rc|ativc standi ng oImultip|c
obscrvations i n onc s . ug| c di s| ri |u| | on. Whcn Irom any di stribution thc
obscrvationsarc takcn l ha| | . c wi t hi n z-scores -2 and2, thcnthi ssc|cction
always compriscs at | cast 31 ( 7YX, ) o| a| | obscrvati ons. Bctvccn thc z-
scorcs -3 and 3 at | cast % ( 88. 9'Yo ) o|a|| obscrvations arc always Iound
(sccligurc 2. 26). Gcncra| | y, |oranynumbcroItota| obscrvati ons,a pro-
portion oIat |cast | - l / z
:
is |ocatcd bctvccn -z andz (vhcrc z is thc
numbcr oIstandard dcviations). 1his Iomula is knovn as Chcbyshcv` s
Ru|c,namcdaItcr a ni nctccnth ccnturyRussianmathcmatician.otcthat
vhcn thcIonu| ais appl i cdtoz | , atleast zcro obscrvations( I - l / l
:
O) arc | ocatcdvithinz-scorcs- I and l . C| carly, this is not i nIormativc.
Chcbyshcv` s ru|c thcrcIorc i s uscIu| Ior any z - l , but it i s cspcci a| | y
knovnIorz 2 (75%) andz 3 (88. 9%). Chcbyshcv` s ru| cmaybcuscd
Ior any di stributi on, rcgard|css oI its shapc. 1hc di str|bution shovn in
ligurc 2. 26 has mu| ti pl c pcaks and has a numbcr oIsuddcn riscs and
Ial | s. A|so, this distribution is skcvcd to thc right. cvcrthc|css, Chcby-
shcv` s ru|c isva| i d'
- -3 -2 mean 2 3
Figure 2.26 Chebyshev 's Rule (applicable to any distribution)
Whcn a di stribution is approximatcly symmctrica| and hi l l -shapcd (scc
li gurc 2. l 4), thc empirical rule is much morc i nIormativc comparcd to
Chcbyshcv` s nlc. l tstatcsthatIorcvcryrough|ysymmctricalhi l | -shapcd
di stribution,approximatc| y68% oIa| | obscrvations Ia| | vi thi nthcz-scorc
rangc - l and l . Bctvccn z-scorcs -2 and 2, approxi matc|y95% oIa| l ob-
scrvations arc |ocatcd, and approximatc|y a| | obscrvations (99. 7%) I i c
vithin -3 and 3 ( Scc |i gurc 2. 27) . otc that | hc wo.J ' approx| matc|y' | s
uscd in thc cmpirica| ru|c, bccausc i l | s a Jc|| v: t | . v o| | uc cxac| ru| c,
vhich statcs l hal 68. 27% ol a | | oosc.va| | ous: t t"L hl" I W\Tt t Z scorcs - I auJ
| , tha| 95. 45" | s | oca| cJ oc| wccu -2 . . . . | . ) , : t t H I | I L t l ' /' I [ \
0
0 |s | oc. . | cJ
oc| wccu -3 auJ . 1ucex< t ct .u l e . so . | v: t l t d ' "' l l w / t/t. tl . ///tl///n,
Docr r pl r vo l ; 1 1 1 : : 1 1 r : :
wh| ch | s syum | . ca| a. . J | . . | | su. . pcJ auJ cau oc Jcsc.| ocJ w| | ' . . . |c| . |
| | vc|y s| mp| c | nuu |a ( ou ou. wcos | lc a S|SS( syulax ) | | c. s a va . |a o| c| o
ca|cu|al c pc.ccu| agcs |o. auy z-scorc i n a norma| d| s|ri but| on) Wc vi 1 1
.Ctun to this di sl r| bul i on i n chaptcr 3 bccausc i | p|ays a c|i l | ca| |o| c . u
inIcrcntia|stati sti cs.
Approximately 99. 7%
3 -2 -1 mean 2
Figure 2.27 Empirical Rule (suitable for |n0uc/r/: ( //!( / l/ / ll /t. t
/ ` t l . //
tributions)
Asummary oIboth ru|csis shovnbc|ov.
Withi n
z-scores
-1 and +1
-2 and +2
-3 and +3
Any Di stri buti on
(Chebyshev's Rul e)
at least 75% of al l observations
at least 88. 9%
Symmol r i c t i i H I I I I I I d t o t t u " l
( mpt l l < : t l I { I l l " )
approxi t t l l t l ! ly 1 > 1 1 ' 1,
approxi t nnl ol y ! l ! > %
approxi mat ly ! l ! l /%
2. 4 STATISTICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO VARI ABLES
ptothispoint, a| | ourdcscriptivc statisticsrc| atctoonc si ug|c va.| ao| c,
and arc thcrcby ca| |cd univariate dcscri ptions. Wi th bivariate s| a| i s| | cs,
|hc stati stica| rc|ati onship bctvccntvovariab|cs i s dcscribcd |us| caJ o|
`rc|ationship, othcr vords | i kc association, intc|dcpcudcucc, o.
`corrc|ationarcuscd l odcnotc| ha| tvo variab|csarcslati sl i cal | yrc|a| cU
1vo variab| cs a |c pos | | . vc| y .c| a| cJ whcu | ow sco.cs ou a | i rs| va|. ao| c
co| ncidcw| | u | owscocs r l l l ; t scco. | J v. . | . ao| cauJu . gu va' ucsou| uc | |s'
gologc| hc.v| | | t l t i ) , l t Sl r u r: s 01 1 | ' . . SLT< l l l d v; t . . ao| C. Wucu | owva| ucsou
ouc va. | aol L' O
i l l \' t r k \\ t i l t l 1 1 1 ' l t \ . t i l l \' o . l i l r: o| ue. va| . ao| c < l l l d v i ce
vc.sa, | uc |c |l . < l . t . | l .
l
| ' Au | | | i i , d l y l t l ' l ' : t l t VI ' ^ hi v; t r i : t l s| a| | s| . a| | l ; 1
1 | +,. . .
l i onsu . p ca. . o suow . . | | . , . . | ' . . . . ' | y ( us i ug p| o| s i o l l l l l l l l' I I L' : I i l y.
Numeri cal sl a | . s| . cd |c' . ' . . . . s' . . s . . o| j t 1 st used . u : |s. . . | . v. s| a| . s-
tics,bu|a|ca l so uscJ | | | . . |. . | i | . . . | s| a| i s| . cs( . . c. , gcuc|a ' . .. u | o a ' . |gc|
population). | u |c|cul . a' s' a| s| . c. d . . . . . . s. . |csa|c dcscribcd . u chapter 3.
2. 4. 1 GRAPHICAL DESCRI PTI ON OF A BIVARIATE RELATION
Box plot
Box plots havc alrcady bccn descr i bed i n scction 2. 3. 2 to dctcct cx-
trcmcly l ov and cxtrcmclyhi gh scores. Box p| ots, hovcvcr, can al so bc
uscd to dcscribcthc distribution oIa dcpcndcntvariablc ( indicatcd asy
variable and Iound on thc y-axis oIthc plot) |or cach catcgory oIan in-
dcpcndcnt variablc (indicatcd as x variable and Iound on thc x-axis).
ligurc 2. 2 shovs an cxampl c i nvhich thc distribution oIcducational
attainmcnt(scc1ablc2. Ior dctail s) i scomparcd bctvccnthrcccohorts,
rcspondcntsbornbctvccn l 35- l 5O, l 5 l - l ? l , and l ? l - l O.
8
7 -
L
6 L
(
5
7
U
7
4
w
L
c
3
L
(
J
.
J
ge
'
`
_
me .
1 935- 1 950
03
| OR
01
an (02)
1 951 - 1 970
coho|t
1 971 -1 980
Figure 2.28 Box Plotfor Highest Educational Level and Cohort
ligurc 2. 28 i | l usl rales | ual t he mcJ. au ror p op' . ||o| . | | uc o| dest cohor|
cqual s 3, luc mcJ. au |o| . . | . JJ'
l' ( ) hnl . q. . . | | s . J . . . . J | | .
medi an ror t he
youngest couo|l cq. . . | s . T| | s. . . . . . . s | ' | . | | ' . . d | . | ' ' . .
|
op|o,l oug| n_ t o
11 /
l uc o| Jcsl co| . o. ' | . , cop| c oon bel vcen 1 935 and 1 950) co. . . | |J
cduea t i on at t he Lower Scconda|y School or l ower. I n | ucm. JJ| cco| .| ,
ua| | ' o| " t hc pcopl ccomp| ctcdSccondaryVocat i ona' School l evel o| ' owc|,
whi l e in thc youngcst cohort, halIoIthc |cspoudculs have I | cvc' s l
l ower as thcir highcst lcvcl oIcducational attai nmcn| |u|| uc|mo|c, 1 : i
ure 2. 2 shovs that thc rst quarti l c (Ql ) bccomcs i ncreas i ngl y u. gu |,
and thatthcthirdquarti l c Ior thcol dcst cohor| i sc' eary l ower | ua . . . | . s
lo|boththcothcrcohorts.1hcintcrquart i | crangcs ( | QR) | u|l uc | |s| | wo
cohorts arc cqual but l argcr than
| . . | j| i .
1 Zb
C
C
1 Z0
)c:
c:
C
1 1 b
oH
C
C
U
1 1 0
C C C C C
E
C C
1 0b
C
L
O 1 00
9b
C
L
90
6b
0
60 L
7b U
70 0
C
6b
~
.
60
O
bb
`
:
b0
4b
C
40
1 b0 1 bb 1 60 1 6b 1 70 1 7b 1 60 1 6b 1 90 1 9b Z00 Z0b
Hei ght ( Measured in Centi meters)
Figure 2. 29 Scatter Plot for the Relationship between Height and Weight
Line graph
1hc rclationship bctvccn thc variab|cs body height and body weight is
c| carto scc inthc scattcrp|ot. ta| |crpcop|carcindccdhcavicr. Hovcvcr,
|hi s cxampl c i s rclativcl y clcar-cut and thc rc|ationship i s quitc strong.
Ccncral l y, such strong rclationships arc rarc in thc socia| scicnccs, rcn-
Jcr. ng scattcrp|ots di Hcul tto rcad and intcrprct. |or cxamp|c, thc rc|a-
| i onship bctvccn thc number of hours someone watches television and
age i sshovnin|igurc2. 3O. |n communicationstudics, iti shypothcsizcd
thatol dcrpcopl ctcnd tovatchtc|cvisionmorcthanyoungcrpcopl c, but
thi s isnotobvious i nthc scattcrpl ot.1hisi sbccauscthc rc|ationshipbc-
tvccn agc and tcl cvision vatching i s rc|ativc|y vcak and al so bccausc
cach obscrvation i sdcpictcd scparatc| yin a scattcr p| ot. Whcn thc aver
age hoursoIvatchingtcl cvisionarcshovnIor cach agccatcgory,amuch
c| carcrpicturcariscs. Suchapl ot i scal cd a/nc graph, vhi chi stypical l y
bcttcr suitcdatgaugingstati stica| rc| al ionsu i rs l uau arcscattcrpl ots. |or
cxamp|c, |i gurc 2. 3 l shovs l ual o| Jc|p. op| c . . J.cJ l LnJ lovatch morc
tcl cvisi on than youngcr pcop| c Jo. | . spc ci . d | y a | t| age 55 thc avcragc
ti mc spcnt wal cu. ug TV . . . |c. | s.s su. . p| v | | . wc vc, .l . s impossi bl c to
concl udcl u| s ||om | . ju . . . H . v. . t l l t l l ) '. l l | Ol l p| ol susc l uc cxacl samc
samp| co|o|sc|v. . l . ous'
l )o:;cl ipllvo Slnll : ; l lw
L
J
7
b
3
`
Z
L
0
C
20 30
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
4 0 ! l( ) l i ( )
Age ( M HH| i | . . . Yt i H )
4! |
C
C C
/ | |
Figure 2.30 Scatter Plot.for IHC tlOltOOS/ll] //i | t| f , . , . rt| / | | tl 11 1 1 1 1 / I
2
L
c
L
0
O
O
L
U L
`
|
b L
J
L
c
: U
L
U
L
b
L
J
O
1 6 Z3 2fI 33 3h 43 4h b3 b6 63 Uh
Qt (Me | SH| O || Years)
Figure 2.3 1 . l/l f I/ t t 'l/ l / lt ' ` ' t//t t/ \ /l l] hc ' fl l 'l '< 'l l Age ( // 1( / UOlt//t/l :
]
| | | . i | t .
2. 5 Summary
We summa|. zc | u. s ci l ; 1 ptc r ' s t' ullkl l t scucmal . ca| ' y . | ' 1 ': 1 hks l . .L auJ
2. 33. |or any g. vcu u | casu|c . . ' I l l | vc' , ouc o| mo|c su. l ao' c g|apuica'
andnumcri cal dcsc|. p| . vc | oo' s: 1 r pr\scut cJ. |or bi var| a| c |c| al | onsui ps,
1ab|c 2. 33 rcports g|apu. ca| Jcsc|. p| . ous onl y. Bccausc numcrica| dc-
scriptions oIbivaria|c |c| al . oi | su. ps a.c o| Icu gcncra|i zcdto a popu|ation,
vcvi | | di scussthcsc in| uc ucx| cuap| c|on inIcrcntialstati stics.
Table 2.32 Descriptive StatisliIs /or u 'iu/c Variable (univariate)
Numerical description
Measure-
Center Variability
ment level Graphi cal description
Bar Chart
Frequency Table
Nomi nal
Pi e Chart
Mode (when number of
categories is smal l )
Frequency Table
Bar Chart Mode*
(when number of
Ordi nal
Box Plot Medi an
categories smal l )
Range
l nterquartile range
Frequency Table*
Box Plot (when number of
Hi stogram Mode* categories is smal l )
I nterval/Ratio Stem-and-Leaf Plot Medi an* Range*
(when observations are Mean I QR*
l i mited) Vari ance
Standard Devi ati on
* Thi s description i s general l y only used 1f other measures fall short, for Instance
due to extreme skewness or to (extreme) outliers.
Table 2.33 Descriptive Statistics (graphical) for Two Variables (bivariate)
Dependent I ndependent variable (x)
variable (y)
Nomi nal Ordi nal I ntervai/Ratio
Nomi nal None
'
None None
Box Plot
Ordi nal (When categories are
Box plot l i mited)
I nterval/Ratio
Scatter Plot
Line Graph
IM|EPEMTIALSTATISTICS
3. 1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISJICAL INFERENCE
Thcprcvi ouschaptcraddrcsscddcscri pti vcs| a| . s| . csq l ual . s. | ucg|apu| . . . |
and numcrica| dcscription oI quantitativc da|a. l u l c|Cul ia l s| . | | . s| . cs po.s
onc important stcp Iurthcr. bascd on Jal a ||om a |auJom s. | u | p' ` gVI I l ' l
a| i zationsarc madcaboutthcpopu |a| . ou h+ m wi l i c i l l hL' s 1 . 1 pk i . d r : r w1 1
(sccli gurc 3. l ). lori nstancc, l|om ca| c. | a| . . 1 1 1 l l i L' : i l l ' ul 1 1 1 dl \' h l 1 !
a|s i narandom samp|c, gcncra | i zal . ousc1 11 h ' 1 1 1 : Hk . 1o. . t i H' 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 i j ' t
i nthcpopulation.
POPULA I N
Figure 3. 1 Generalizing Outcomesji-om u .\utiJ. / . | / ' itl t tt tt
A statcmcnt | ikc ' Morcthanha|IoIal | rcsponJcu| s a|c ovc|4) . . |s o| J`
| sa dcscriptivc stati sti c, a parti cul ar charac|cr| st| c o|| ucJa| a sc| . s si l l .
p|ydcscribcdvithout Irthcr gcncral i zati on. On thc cou| |a|y, a sl al cmcu|
| ikc ` Bascdonarandomsamp|cIrom2OO?, 25to3Opc|ccu| o|l ucDut ch
pcoplc smokc` , rcsults Irom i nIcrcnti al stati sti cs. 1ocorrcc|l y |'U l ucsc
gcncral i zi ng statcmcnts, somc thcorctical knov|cdgc oIstat . sl ica l . u | |-
cncc i s rcquircd. 1hi sthcoryvi l | bccxcmpl i Icdbc|ov usingJa| a ||oma
census (i . c. , aproccdurctocol lcctdataIromthc entire popu' a| . ou ).
Lnti| l ? l in thc cthcr|ands, it vas customary to conduc| ccus. . scs
vhcrc cach and cvcry i nhahi |an| had scvcral pc|sona l va|. ao| cs aoou|
| ucmco' ' cc| cJ, sucu. . s`i, ;f .< '. . . uJ Auri/u/ 'lu/0. I u | uc I X99 ccusus,
l uc mcau agc l i l l : . | | . | 11 1 i l l io11 I ) l l t dt w. . s 27. 1 yca|s auJ l uc s| auJa|J
Jcv. al . ouo|| i l t' t ' dl l: l l i l I | l I l l l l l ll l l l'd . . | | ohl' 20. (l yca|s. Such cua|ac-
l c|. s| . cs ( ) i ' t i ll' j ll l j l l d, i l l l ll l l , d l \ - d f lt l/ t l/ 1 / t ' ft / '.\' . |L' gt: l l CI '< I I I y i ndi L i l tl' l l
us i ng ( ! reek ! el l 'I ' S. Tl w l l l L ': I I I 1 1 1 : 1 popul : 1 t i on is i 1 1 d1 \ n l nl i i J| | j j i ( pr
nunci at i on: mu (as i n ii lls
i t } ) : 1 1u l I l l st a1 1 dard devial l l ll l 1 .' l l l l l t c: t t nl us-
i ng l ( si gma ) . Fi l H . \ . _ sl l uws t h age di st ri but i on 1 '1 ut l l I X' N, and
popu|a|ionparamLl crs j : 1 1 t d .
C
C
0
I
C
0
..
U
1 40000
1 20000
1 00000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0
Mean Age ( I) 27. 1 years
Standard Deviation (o) 20. 6 years
1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00
Age
Figure 3.2 Age Distribution (Age 0 - I 01) in the Netherlands in 1 899
(source: CBS, http://statline. cbs. ni/Stat Web/dome/? P, theme: population)
Central Limit Theorem
Novadays, duc to high costs and strictprivacy | cgi s| ation, i t is a|most
i mpossi bl c to ho|d a c| assica| ccnsus i nthc Ncthcr|ands. Hovcvcr, i t is
sti | | possi b| cto gainknov|cdgcaboutthccntircpopu|ati on. |n stati sticsit
i s not rcquircdtoknov,Iorcxamp|c,thcagcoIcachandcvcry i ndivi dua|
in a popu|ationtotc| | thc mcan agc Ior that popu|ati on. lnstcad, a rc| a-
ti vcly sma|| samp|cvi | | provi dcavcry good approximation oIthispopu-
|ationparamctcr.
1o i | | ustratc that a smal | random samp|c can indccd achicvc thi s, a
thought cxpcrimcnt is dcscribcd bc|ov. Supposc that in l o a simp|c
random samp| c oI | ,OOO rcspondcnts vas dravn Iromthc popu| ation oI
5. l mi | | i onDutchpcop| c. 1hcqucstion oIi ntcrcsti swhat is the mean age
for all people in that sample? Gi vcnthc mcanagc i nthc popu|ation Irom
l o ( i . c. , 2T. | ycars), i ti shi gh| yimprobab| ctha| thi svou|d havcbccn
bc| ov | O ycars. Suchan i mprobab| csamp| cvou|dhavcconsi stcdoIprc-
dominant|y young ki ds. 1hi s i n |un vou|d i mpl y that i n thi s samp| c oI
I ,OOO rcspondcnts randoml y drawn l'ro m t he popul at i on oI 5. l mi | | i on
pcop| c, hardly any adu l t s were sckckd. Thi s is qui t e un| i |e|y hccausc
I l l re was ahot l l : 1 l t l t y l t l t y L'l t : I I I Cc tltal : 1 Dut ch pcrso1 1 you1 1 gcr t ha1 1 2 |
w: t s randomly sl kvkd I Hll l l t i l e I X9<) popul at i on ( i n |X99 2. 35 mi l l i on
Ol l l or 5. | mi l l i ol l I )ut cl l pcopk were younger t han 2 | years ) . 1hc prob-
: t hi l i t y t ha t no person ol ' a t | casl 2 l ycars o|agc vas sc|cctcd aItcr | vc
onsecut i ve J|awscqua | s2. 35/5. O l * 2. 35/5 . O | * 2. 35/5. O | * 2. 35/5 . O | *
2. 35/5. O| . O2, vhich is a chancc oI on|y tvo pcrccnt' Gi vcn thc agc
di stribution in thc popu| ation, it is most | ikc| y that quitc a numbcr oI
aUu||s vi | | bc rcprcscntcd i n thc saaip| c. Although thc mcan agc i nthc
samp| cvi | | gcncra| |y not bccxact|ycqua|to thc mcan agci nthc popu|a-
t i on, iti shi gh| yun| i kc| ythatthcmcanagcvi | | bcmuch| ovcrorhighcr.
To dctcrminc vhich samp|cmcans (notation. x ) mayrcsu|tIrom a ran-
dom samp|c oI l ,OOO Dutch pcop| c, thc thought cxpcrimcnt is cxtcndcd
| urthcr. 1histimc,assumingtimcandmoncy is i nnitc,vcdrav | OO,OOO
random samp| cs Irom thc | o popu|ati on, cach consisting oI l ,OOO
rcspondcnts. Ncxt, thc mcan agc in cach oIthcsc samp|cs is ca| cu| atcd,
hcncc rcsu| ting in l OO,OOO mcans. Ising statistica| soItvarc such as
SPSS, this thought cxpcrimcnt is casy to pcrIorm gi vcn |i gurc 3. 2 and
t hcrcsu|tsoIthi s arcprcscntcdi nligurc3. 3.
:
600(
400(
200(
*
E( x ) " 27. 1
OX " . 65
-
l-T -
25 26 27 28 29 30
Mean age i n sampl e
Figure 3.3. `lu /u / //r/lv/t/ou ]r 1:uu c (1 00, 000 Samples,
l , ||| uUi t 'iUu:l\ t ,ciiilt)
|. gu|c 3. 3 suows I | l di S t l l hu l l l l l l t ) l " t h 1 00,000 l l l ' i i i i S t or : q t , l l' St i l t i 1 1 g
Irom |00,000 |auJou s: t 1 npks. Thi s di s t r i but i on . sc; t l kd : r \i iiiiluit OtS-
tribution. | ntc|cs| i ug| y_ t h . l ) VL' ra l l l l l t: : t n o|a| | I 00,000 S: l l npk ucaus . s
a| most idcntica| l o l uc rea l 1 1 1 a gL i n l hc popu| al . ou . u I W)9 27. l
ycars ' 1his is no coi nci dcu. , i ua| u. ma| i ca| | y. thc ovcra | | mcan oI all
possibl c samp| c mcans ( . uJ. ca| cJ w. | u l(x )) cqua| s thc mcan in thc
popu| ation ( () exactly. Thcic ' |c, . u s| al . sl . cs i t is said that thc samp| c
mcan i s an unbiased estimator o| l uc popu| a|ion mcan. |urthcrmorc, an
intcrcsting rc| ationship cxis|s ocl wccu l uc ori gi na| standard dcviation (a
2O. , scc |i gurc 3. 2) and thc s|andard dcvi a|i on oIthc samp| i ng di stri-
bution oImcans (a x ). 1his standard dcvia| i on a x appcars to cqual a /
| uco| g. -
ua' va|. ao' c . s syl l l l l l l: l ri ca l ( au a ' mos| cqua| u umoc| o| oosc|val . ous l o
l uc | c|t and t o t he |. gul o|l hcmcan) Wi th cvcn sma| | crsamp| csi zcs(2
| 4) , thc ori gi na| variab| c shou| drcscmblc a norma| di stribution to gcncr-
al ca ( c| oscto) normal samp| ingdistribution.
Confdence Intervals
Whcn thc samp| ing di stribution oIthc mcan is approximatc|y normally
di stributcd (scc|i gurc 3. 3), thc position oIcxtrcmc hi gh and lov mcans
canbc cas i ly ca|cu| atcd. |orcxamp| c, 5oIal l possiblc sampl cmcans
arc |ocatcd at a maximum di stancc oI2 ( morc prcci scl y. l . ) standard
crrors tothc | cII andtothcrightoIthcpopu| ationmcan ((.). 1hcva| uc2
is az-scorc (sccscction 2. 3 . 3), a|though in thc casc oIsamp| i ngd. st |. ou
tions, thc tcmz- value is morc Ircqucnt| yuscd. ln thc samp| ing d. s| | . ou-
tion oIthcmcan agci n l , 5 oIal | samp| cmcans a|c ' ocal cJ oc-
tvccn 2?. l 2 * .5 - 25. and 2.4. Bccausc a norma | di st r i but i o1 1 i s
symmctrica|,2. 5oIal l sampl cmcans | i cbc| ov 25. 8 wuc|cas 2 . .'Y, a rL
|ocatcd abovc 2. 4 (scc thc grcy arcas i n |. gu|c 3 4) | u o| uc| words_ oi '
cach l ,OOO sampl cs, approximatcly 25 samp| cs w. | | uav.. a 1 1 1 e: 1 1 1 i i ) ' ,L'
|ovcr than 25. and approximatc|y 25 s8mp| cs vi | | have a l l l t:al l agl'
hi ghcrthan2. 4.
z-val ue - -2
2 * a x
25. 8 27. 1
p 27. 1
a x . 65
z-val ue +2
2. 5%
28. 4
Figure 3.4 The Percentage ofSample Means outside -2 and outside + 2
Standard Errors from ]I in a Normal Distribution
Sad| y, ourt hought cxpc|. mcu| . s uo| rca | . sl iC_ asi tvou| dcostaIortuncto
J|aw I 00,000 sa1 npl s i 1 1 ordt: r |o | uJ| uccxacl popu' at . ou paramctcr Ior
t he mean a c. hl l l t l l l nl dy, Ol l l ' si 1 1 t pk raudom samp| c su uccs bccausc
sc. cu| . s| s g ' l l l ' l ! d l y l l l l ' I I PI l l i l l ' I L' Si l' d i l l l l i c ex: r cl va | ucS o| popu' al . ou
l i i i J i l t | !
pa|amcc|s, ou| sc| | | | t | vc . y i good app|ox . u| . | ' i ous 1 1 1 dc: ul '. . |p|. s-
. ug' y, ou| youc|c| a| . vc | y sn. l l r: t 1 ul o1 n s. unp' cs u|
| ccst p . . .
' . . c vc | ' s '
lmaginc l ual ||om | uc I 00, 000 saup| cssuowu | u | . pu| ` ' . ' , | us| ouc
simp|c random samp| c . s J|awu h+m | uc popu' a l | ou wua| . s luc cx-
pcctcd mcan agc i n | hi s samp| c' Vcaus hc| ow 25. 8 aud aoovc 2. 4 arc
hardly to bc cxpcctcd, Fi guc 3 . 4 Jcmousl|atcd that thc chancc oIthis i s
on| y 5. 1hi s mcans thal l uc cuauccs o|| 1ndi ng a mcan (x ) bctvccn
25. oand28. 4(2. | 2 * . 5 i svc|y | a|gc. 5( l OO 5) .
Cl car|y, thc distancc oI|hc popu| a|i on mcan (1) t oa ccrtain sampl c
mcan (x ) i s cqua| t othc distancc o| |hat spcci c samp|c mcan t o thc
population mcan. 1hcrcIorc, it is a| so corrcct to statc that thcrc is a 5
chancc that a samp|c vi | | bcdravn in vhi chthcpopu|ation mcan (1) i s
|ocatcd i nthc intcrvalx 2 * a x . l n|i gurc 3 5, vcca|cu|atcd suchi n-
tcrval s ca||cdconfidence intervals (orCl) - Iromthrcc sampl cs. | nthc
Irst samp|c, thc sampl cmcan agc is 25. oycars. 1hc condcncc i ntcrva|
thcn cqua|s 25 o 2 * O. o5 (24. 5, 2. I ) . 1hc mcan agc in thc popu|a-
tion (2. | ) l i cs ustvithin this intcrval 1hc samccan bc saidIor thc i n-
tcrva| associatcdviththcsccondsamp|c thcmcanagcoIvhi chis2o. 4
ycars. 2o. 4 2 * O. o5= (2. l , 2. ). 1hismcansthat every samp|cvhcrc
thc samplc mcan agc is bctvccn 25. o and 2o. 4 (thc grcy arca in |i gurc
3. 5) hasaconIdcnccintcrva|inc|udingthcpopu|ationmcan oI2. I ! 1o-
gcthcr,thcscsamp|csconsti tutc 5 oIa|| possib|csampl cs. 1hcrcmain-
ing 5 vi | | havc a 5 conIdcncc intcrva| excluding thc popu|ation
mcan oI2. | . lorcxampl c, thcthi rd samp|c (x 2 l ) bc|ongs to thcsc
5asthcconIdcncc intcrval is2. | 2 * O. o5 (2. o, 3O. 4) .
1hc crucia|conc|usion Irom li gurc 3. 5 is that vithalmost l OO ccr-
|ainty(5tobcprccisc), vc vi | | drav asamp|c in vhichthc popu|ation
mcan (1) is |ocatcd somcvhcrc in thc intcrva| x 2 * a x . 1his mcans
|hatoIcvcry l OO samp|cs, an avcragc oI5 samp|cs hol dsa 5 conI-
dcncc intcrva|that inc|udcsthcpopulationmcan. | nothcrvords,thcrcis
a rathcr s| i m chancc ( i . c. , 5) that vc vi | | drav a sampl cthat docs not
i nc| udcthc popu|ationmcanin its 5 CI. OIcoursc,onccou|dchoosca
vcry |argcconIdcnccintcrva| . |orcxamp|c, vc cou|dcasi|ystatc thatvc
arc |OO condcnt that thc mcan agc i n thc popu|ation - vhich is
norma||y unknovn oIcoursc - i n | o vas somcvhcrc bctvccn O and
l O l ycars. Hovcvcr, a|thoughvcarc l OO condcntthatthi sis truc, i t
docsnotprovidcuscIul i nIormati on. Wccou|dhavcsaidcxact|ythc samc
thingvithoutdravinga samp|c, andvc cou| d havc donc so comIortab| y
vithoutanyknov|cdgcoIstati s|i cs.
l nl t l l l l l i l l nl : ; t . l l l : . t l t : :
25. 8
28. 4 29. 1
L _ - 0. 65
Sample si ze = 1 , 000
= Al l sampl es
(95% of total )
where p i s wi thi n 95% Cl
I
= A sampl e
(from 5% of total )
where p i s not withi n
95% CI
= sampl e means
Figure 3.5 The 95% Confidence interval.
(Cl) OOU llit ' l 'i ii :lit t i i
Parameter (Mean Age (f) = 27. 1)
Hovcvcr, itis a|sonotdcsirab|ctohavcrc|ativc|y |ovcou| 1dcucc | cvc' s
instcad. | maginc, Ior cxampl c, arandom samp|ci nvhi chrcspondcn|s on
avcragc arc2. ycars o|d. According to |igurc 34, this samplc mcan is
quitcp|ausib|c. Statistica| thcorydictatcsthatthcbordcr| incs (ca| | cd con
fidence limits) oIthc4O conIdcncc intcrvalarc |ocatcdatabout.5 stan-
dardcrrorsIromthcsamp|cmcan. 1hismcansthatvcarc4OconIdcnt,
that thc popu|ation mcan is |ocatcd somcvhcrc bctvccn 2. 4 and 2o. O
(ca|culati on. 2. O. 5 * . o5). 1his statistica| statcmcnt is quitc intcrcst-
ing Ior it narrovs thc intcrva|, but thi s timc it is rathcr qucstionab|c
vhcthcr this narrov intcrva| ` capturcs` thc ( unknovn) popu|ation mcan.
Rcca| | that in a 4O conIdcncc intcrva|, thc popu|ation mcan vi l | bc
vi thi n this intcrva| approximatcly 4O out oI I OO samp| cs. otc that thc
samp|c vith a mcan agc oI2. docs not bc|ong to thcsc 4O samp|cs
(40-C| (2. 4, 28. 0 , vhi |c L 2 . | ). lngcncra|,oncvantstoarrivcat
|al hcr ua||ow cou | Jcucc . u| c|va| s vithou| |osi ng too much ccrtainty.
Tu| s|cs u' | s | u ' |cquc. | | | y uscJ |vc' so|
34). 1hcrcIorc,
in relative tcrms, thc di IIcrcncc bctvccn thc samp|c csti matc and thc as-
sumcd popu|ation mcan i s 4. 5 (= -. 2 | / . O45o) standard crrors. So, thc
associatcdt-va| uci s-4. 5(scc|i gurc3. o) .
1hc na| qucstion is vhcthcr thc rc|ativc di stancc oI 4. 5 is | argc
cnough to rc cct thc nu| | hypothcsis and conscqucnt|yacccpt thc a|tcrna-
tivchypothcsis. Bccauscthc t-di stribution is symmctrica| and hi | | -shapcd
in cascs oI|argc samp|cs(sccli gurc 3.), thc cmpirica| ru| capp| ics. Rc-
ca' ' that according to thisru| capproxi matc|y. oIa| | samp|c mcans
( .\ ) | i cvithin -3 and 3 standard crrors oIJo. 1his mcans that approxi -
ma|c' y. 3oIa| | samp|cmcansarc |ocatcdoutsidcsthcsc | imits. Bccausc
thc di stribution is symmctri ca|, approximatc|y . | 5 oI thcsc cxtrcmc
mcansarctobcIoundtothc | cIt oIjq. 1hcsamp| ccstimatcoI| . is | o-
catcd i nthi sarca, Iorthcassociatcdt-va|uccxcccds -3. It isqui tccasy to
ca| cu|atc thc cxact cumu| ativc p|ohah. | | | y associatcd vi th a t-va| uc oI
-4. 5. G. vcuour h|s| approxima|ion us. ugl hccmpirica|ru|c, it is not sur-
prising to Iind this probabi | i ty |o hc vcy sma ' | . . 0OOOO3 (on our vcb
pagc vc oIIcr casy-to-usc SPSS p|og|ams |o ca' cu| a|c probabi | itics Ior
anyt-va| uc).
Hov i st that a samp|cmcan oI l . 9 | s | uJ w' ' c luc chanccs oI
Iud| ug l u. s ou| comc | s cxtrcmc|y |ov acco|J. up | o l | , , ` 1uc|c arc |vo
poss. o| c ausw :s | o | '| s qucs| . ou. || |sl | y, | '. s s puc oaJ | uc|` - hy
shccr cuaucc . . . c| . . . . sa . . p' c was J|awu. | 'cu. . ps, Juc |o cuaucc.
many | | m | | . s w | ' . . ' . | . | . . wccsamp' cJ, | uc. oy cJ c| u | 'c mcau
I
I I
uumoc | o| c| . | J| . i p 'I l l l l l l i l y , . +o. . J| y, | uc n u l l hypot i iL'S I S I S i ncorrect ;
tuc | ruc popul a| i on 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 1 . I . s t l t : 1 1 1 IlLoursc, | uc secnnd a uswc| i s
much more l i kel y | ua| t l l l t t sl t l t l . 1uc|c|o|c, thc u u | | uypo| hcsi s i src-
cctcd ( at thc . 0 1 l evel ( ) l ' si gn l l t r: l l tce ( u) ) audthcal tcna| i vc hypothcsis
i sacccptcd( L < 2)
|or i l lustrati vcpurposcs wc w. ' ' | a|c | ui s tcst onc stcp lrthcr. Ducto
thccxtrcmcp-valuc ( . 000003 ), | is a| mosl vi thoutdoubtthatthc popul a-
tionmcanindccd is lcss thau 2. 'o, ouc coul d al sotcstvhcthcr it is l css
than l . , orcvcn l css thau |` Couscqucut| y, a point vi l l bc rcachcdat
vhi chthc nul l hypothcsis vi l | uo l ougc| hc rccctcd. Atthc . O5 signi I-
cancc l cvcl , thi spoi nt i sapproxi matc| y | ocatcd atthcmcanoIl . ?. 1hc
t-valucatthis pointi s- l . ? (calcul atiou. ( l . ?-l . ?) /( l . 24 /
?34). 1his
t-val uc isassociatcdvithaonc-tai l cd p-val uc oI. O45 andmcansthatthc
nul l hypothcsiscanbcrccctcd. A nul l hypothcsisvi th anassumcdpopu-
lation mcan oI l . (or l css), a sampl c csti matc oI l . ?, and a l cvcl oI
signiIcanccoI. O5, vi l l nol ongcrrcsul ti nrccctingthcnul l hypothcsis.
One-tailed probabi li ty
(p) = .000003
( black area)
x - 1 . 79 0= 2
Sampl i ng distri bution
(t-distributed)
Fi urc 3.8 A t-Testfor a Mean (,2, . = l . ?, sl . 24,andn-?34)
| i ua| l y, vc voul d l i kc to cmphasizc that a mcan tcst using thc t-
o i sl rihution i s statistical l y corrcct onl y vhcn thc sampl i ng distribution
approximatcs a t-distribution. Wit hrclativcly largc random samplcs this
i s gcucra| ly truc. Whcnusi ng sampl cs sizcsbctvccn l 5 and 3Oobscrva-
tious, this is onl y thc casc vhcn thc tcst variablc (i . c. , thc variabl c Ior
vhi ch thc mcan is calculatcd) is approxi matcly symmctrical ( as many
ohscrvatious arc locatcd to thc l cl as |o | uc |. pu| o| l hc mcau) . With
smal l er uumhcrs o|oosc|va| ous, | '` | s| vari ahl ` s'ou' J |c approxi-
matc| y uorma l l y J. s| | ou| cJ i 1 1 t i l e o | . . ' . + . I 1 1 S j lLTi i 1 1 g | ' . ui s| ogramo|
| uc lcsl va| ao' c . u t i l e sau t pk i 1 1 di 1 t ' t ' l l y 1 1 t l t l l t l l 'i , , ., : l i t l l i l | u . s. The L est
va| ao| c Nu111hcr nj' ( '/ult !r. u ; l , dl l
/
''' ' 1 , 1 1 1 1 \ 'i \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 : t l ( : 1 1 |. . s| u | uc
l nl o1 nl inl ,' l : tll:-> l lc: ; bb
`c| uc|| auJs . | ur at L t cl 1| vc|y mauy( youug) coupl cs vithoutchi | drcu
auJ|clat vc| y rew o1 1 pl es v| | u morc thau thrccchi ldrcn. l nthis casc, thc
appropriatc stat sl ica| |cst | orthc mcan uumhcr oIchi l drcn i nthcNcthcr-
l ands must hc carricd out vi th random sampl cs consisting oIat lcast 3O
couplcs. | ngcncral, such analyscsusc Iar l argcr sampl cs. 1hc advantagc
hcingthatthcstandardcrrorisrclativclysmal l (cal cul atcdbydividingthc
staudard dcviation (s) by
atunoIthctcstvariablcbythcsquarcrootoIthcsamplc
si z
onal,
`
hichmcans that thc rcscarchcrcxpcctsthc mcau d. ||c|cucc | o
bccithcrhighcror|ovcr(positivcoI ncgati vc).
Inc
a
'
s oIcducation to obtain an intcrva| variab| c). Thc scouJ a . . |
utiltzcsapanclstudyIrom | o5and | O. I nboth ycars, l ucswne g.oups
oI rcspondcnts (thc panc| ) vcrc askcd about thci r church alcuJaucc
(m
nsrcquircsthatthcindcpcndcntgroups
a| csuIIcicnt|y | a|gc( u 2 30) . W. | hsma| | cr groups ( 3O> n - 4), it i sas-
sumcdthat lhc t est va|i ab' e iu | ue popu| at . ou Io| ool h g|oups i sapproxi-
atc|y symmc| c. d. l csarcl l shows, uowcvc|, l ha| | uc tcstisa|so app| i -
cab| c wheu bo1 l 1 d1 s l 1 1 hl l l t ons . . c a-symmc| | ca l . out bcar stron
rcsemo| aucc. l
.
l 1 si o) ', I : I I I I S 1 1 1 t l 1 1 v: 1 1 i : 1 hl s i n l ue samp| cp|ov. Jcinsighta
|o l hcsha
2 3
2 3
Groups Groups
Figure 3. 1 6 Small F-value (lcfi uuc/) unu Iurc |-i u/uc (rihl Onel}
| n| t | t | | | | . | '| . H| . | |t:
To t kt crmi ne whcl l i L' I : 1 1 1 1 : va | uc . s | a|pc cuoupu | o |cccl | hc u ul | hy-
po| uCsl s, J cot l l put cr p|ogral | | ( suc| asSlSS cau hc uscJ loca| cu' al cl hc
p-va ' uc . u | hc 1 :-di st r i but i on. 1h. s samp| ing di stribution | s rightvard|y
s|cwcJ ( scc |. gu|c 3.1 7). Only p-va| ucs to thc right arc oIintcrcst bc-
causccxtrcmc |-val ucsarcalways IoundtothcIarrightoI0. 1 9
F-distribution
0
Observed F-value
Figure 3. 1 7 An F-distribution, Observed F-value, and - iu/m
1o i | | ustratc thc ana|ys| soIva|. aucc, au cxalpk | ' | ows l 'n1 1 1 1 a l l ' Sl': l l t ' l t
pro cct rcgarding thc rc|ati onshi p bet we<;n c u. | u r: 1 i s i ng : t l l t t l l < ks 1 1 1 u l
|cvclsoIcducation. Cogni ti vc l hco|. cs su p. s| t l l n l 1 1 1 l' dl l t at 1 ( ) 1 1 : d h wl
attaincd inIlucnccs thcsc aui tuJcs. 1omcasu|. : t t l i l l l ( ks . . . d1 dd l : l l h l l l )' ,
rcspondcntsvcrc askcdto rcspond lo | uc | t ( | ow. u sl : t l l' l l l l' l l t : " l \ oy:1 I ` 1 1 1
c ra|scd morc | cni cnt than gi rl s hy choosi ng ( ) l l (; or ' "l' l ' : i l q, ( l i l `
complctc|y agrcc` (codc l ), ` agrcc` ( 2 , ucu| |a ' ` (i , ' d i s: t gt'l'l' ' ( I ) ,
` comp|ctc| ydtsagrcc` ( 5) . Strictly spcaki ng, | hi s is a o|J. ua ' va . ao' c hut
it i s c
mm
( 55. 3I ?5)
O. 23
+
1hc mcrit oICramcr` s V is that its va|ucs arc always bctvccn O
and l . A va|uc oIO i ndicatcs no rc|ationship (thc obscrvcd numbcrs arc
thcn idcntica| to thc cxpcctcd numbcrs, so chi-squarc O). 1hc va| uc l ,
on thc othcrhand, indicatcs a pcrIcctrc|ationship (scc 1ab|c 3
2? Ior an
cxamp| c) .
Tahk J. 27 't i]c `c ' ! f,' , ft J I I ' II ' II It ' /: l i | : i i c u:clitucl .ti : i itti l lntti t i t
I 'i t ii i i l `\ I
Educational Level
Secondary L levels or more Total
Vocati onal or less
I ncome 2, 000 at maxi mum
more t han 2, 000
Total
567
0
567
0
408
408
567
408
975
A| thoughCramcr` s V is a|vays | i mitcdbctvccn O and l , i tis notcasy l o
i ndicatcvhcnarc|ationshipi s` vcak` or` strong` . Contrarytorcscarch . u
thc natura| scicnccs, i t i s vi rtua| | y impossib|c to Indva|ucso I C|amc|` s
V that cxcccd . in mostsocia| scicncc rcscarch. Morcovcr, i ncommou
rcscarch app|ications a va| uc oI. i sconsidcrcd cxccptiona||y high. Fo
cxamp|c, thc rc|ationship bctvccn cducation and incomc vi | | ncvc| he
pcrIcct (Cramcr` s V = l ) bccausc othcr Iactors a| so p| ay a :o| c, sucu . s
vorkcxpcricncc, vcck|ynumbcr oIhours oIvork, typc oIoo, auJ sex.
Wcproposcthc Io| |ovingindi catorsIorthcstrcngthoIarc|ationshi p.
- 0 .lO vcryvcak
. l O- . 25 vcak
. 25 . 35 modcratc
. 35 . 45 strong
- .45 vcrystrong
Asa mcasurcoIassociation, Cramcr` s V i scommon| yuscdvucual ' cas|
oncoIthc variab|cs i snomi na|andboth variab|cs donothavc |oo mauy
catcgorics. 1hcrcIorc, i nmanyinstanccs both variab|cs vi | | bc uom. ua| ,
oronc may possib|y bcordi na| . otc that thc variab|cs education c\t`
and income i n our cxamp|c arc dichotomous and thcrcby havc . u lc|va|
charactcristics(sccscction l . 2). 1his mcans that othcrmcasurcs o|asso-
ci ati onthatprcsumca highcr | cvc| o|mcasurcmcu| app| y tothiscxa.i p| c
asvc| | andvi | | | caJ | ol uccxacl samca|so| u| cva| ucasCramcr`s v. -'
1o :cstvhcthcra ca | cu'a | cu| |au|` s V-va | uc J. ||c|s Iom 0, luc cu. -
squarctcstcan ocuscJ w| . c. . su | | i c. . . | | oosc|val | ousa|c p|cscul . l | Cocu-
ran` s ru| c is uol sa| . s | i d, . . . l' X : I l' l | . s| suou| u oc uscd . usl cad. l u o| uc|
vords i I l uc V< l i l l l' l ( l l i ' l l i Sql l : l l l ' . s s j u . | . | . i | | y J. | ||cul | |ou 0,
Cram-r` s V . s : ( i / i ll i q . | | | | | i i i | | y d i l l vl vl l l as wc ' ' , | | | uc | al l c| . s J. -
rcct|yJc|. vcJ ' . . |I l l ' I PI I I I I ' i
Wc cuJ l u s s. . 1 1 1 1 1 1 v . . ' 1 1 1 1 \ ' " " l ( l h ' . . . I . . . a|` s V . s | uc onl y
co||ccl me: I SI I I I ' 1 1 1 1 1 ' " | . | ' . . \ \ . . ' . l ( l l l ' ', i i i ) J I . s wu l uc| . | |c' . | -
l ions u. p ex i st s I l l ' I \\ . ! ' " t l i i ' | u\ ' '"' '' ' ' l i P/ / t I I I I I I I I I L I I ) . . J tililii : ti ul t '
JJreji! re11ces ( uo. | | u. . ' i 1 1 1 l l l l ' Nvl l t 1 l : 1 1 t ds ( sc:c Table \. .' h ) l l n l '. t c:y
shaJcJ cel l s show l l t ; l I H l l l l l l l' t i l hL t s l t : t vc: a s| |oug prc: ll. :1 ' I I T l ot kl i
ving part | cs. Dul cu ' al l t nl t rs l t ndt ' i ou: d | y havcJ| || cu | l . cs i 1 1 cuoos| ug
bctvccn | cIt wi ug ( au c ot Hi t l l i e; i l i nl rc: sl ) auJ Ch|| sl | au parl | cs ( a cu| -
tural intcrcst), wh | ' c Prol csl ; l l t l s | dout | uaul |y prcIcr Chri stian partics.
1hc rc|ativc|y | argc J| l lcreu c:s l gardi 1 1 g po| | tica| party prcIcrcnccs arc
rcI|cctcd i na strong rc| al i ousu| p h 1 w c: t t re: I | g| ous aII | iation and po|iti-
cal party prcIcrcnccs (Cram
c
r' s V . 39, p- va| uc < . 00 I , and di IIcrs si g-
ni Icant|y Irom 0 vith a| | commou va' ucs or a) . As a si dc commcnt, vc
voul d l ikcto addthatthcsc
d
at a arc 0+ m 2005 aud thcy suggcstthatpo-
| itica|partyprcIcrcnccs sti | l arc |c| a|cJ |o rc| | gi ousaI| iation,dcspitcthc
vc| | documcntcdproccsscsoIsccul arizal i on.
Table 3.28 Relationship between Religious Affliation and Political Part
Preferences (counts, percentages, Camer 's V and p-value)
Rel i gi ous afi l iation
Political party i n the
Netherlands Catholi c Protestant None Total
Chri sti an parties
79 1 26 39 244
38. 7% 63. 6% 6. 4% 24. 2%
Left wi ng parties
84 47 409 540
41 . 2% 23. 7% 67. 4% 53. 5%
Ri ght wi ng parties
35 21 1 1 3 1 69
1 7. 2% 1 0. 6% 1 8. 6% 1 6. 7%
Li beral party
6 4 46 56
2. 9% 2. 0% 7. 6% 5. 6%
Total
204 1 98 607 1 , 009
1 00% 1 00% 1 00%
Cramer' s V = . 39, p < . 001
3. 4. 3 MEASURES OF ASSOCIATIONS FOR ORDI NAL VARIABLES
I n thc prcvious scction vcuscdchi-squarc andCramcr` sV to dctcrminc
thc rclationship bctvccn variabl cs oIvhi ch at |cast onc vas nomina| . II
both variab|cs arc ordina| , not on| y can thc strcngth oIthc rclationship
bctvccnthctvobcdctcrmincd,butsocanitsdirection. |orcxamp| c, i tis
obvious to cxpcct a positivc rc|ationship bctvccn educational level and
income: thc highcr thc |cvc| oI cducation attai ncd, thc morc incomc
carncd. Likcvisc, studics shov a ncgativc re| a| | oushi p bctvccn health
care and child mortality: lhc more a govcnmcu| | uvcs| s | u hca| l h carc,
thc lower chi | d morta | | t y wi l l he. | u hol h cases. C ' r: t nt ( r' s V i s uo| appro
priatc,as it |a| | s l oJcl ccl l hL di r +| | o. | 01 S i ) ', l l l l f l l l \ ' t l ' i : t i i ( I I I S i l l j l .
| | . l Ol l Hl l i r d ) l r d | | | i . i
l(cndal l ' s Raul< ' m l' l nf MM. f au h and l au C
Vau|| cc Kcu|1 1 ( 1 1 JO/ 1 1JX3 ) coustructcd a ran| corrc|ation to cxprcss
uo| on| y l hcprcscl l cc a1 1 d sl rcngth oIa rc|ati onshi p bctvccn tvo ordina|
variab|cs, bul a' so | uc di rcction. Kcndal | ` s corrclationrcachcs thc maxi-
mum vaucs o| I o| - | in a contingcncy tab| c vith ordina| variab|cs, in
cascal lobscrvationsarc| ocatcd onthcmaindiagonal(scc1ab|c3. 29).
Table 3.29 Perfect Positive and Perfect Negative Relationship
Low
Moderate
Hi gh
Low Moderate High
Kendal l ' s tau b 1
Low Moderate Hi gh
. '
Kendal l 's tau b -1
1ab|c 3. 29 i s hi gh| yhypothctica| as such situations vi | | rarc|y occu|, il
cvcr. I nthc socia| scicnccs it is morc rca|istic to nd thc o|1 J| agoua '
ccl | s|| cdto somccxtcntasvc| | . I n cascso I positivc|c' al | oush| ps, uu| ' s
(c. g. , rcspondcnts) scoringl ovonthc rst variab|c tenJ | o score l ow on
thc sccond variab|c and units scoring high on |hc | |sl var| ah| c l end l o
scorc high on thc sccond variab|c as vc||. Hovcvcr, thcrc wi l l a| so bl:
units vhcrc hi gh scorcs on variab|c l rc|atc to |ov scorcs on va|| ao' c 2
and vicc vcrsa. 1hcsc vi ol ationsvi l | causc thc positivcrcl ali onsh| plo hc
|css than l . Kcndal | constructcd hi s rank corrc| ation tau (i n notation l hc
Crcck | cttcr T oIIcn i s uscd) bycomparing thc numbcr oIpositivcly rc-
latcd obscrvations vith thc numbcr oI ncgativc|y rc| atcd obscrvations.
1abl c3 . 30 i sancxamplcIorcducationa||cvc| andincomc.
Table 3.30 Relationship beteen Education and Income, as Example 20
Respondents with Average Education and Average Income
(+ indicates positive relation, - indicates negative relation)
Educational
Lowest Low Average Hi gh Hi ghest
level :
I ncome:
Lowest + 20 + 5 - 3 - 4
Low + 5 + 1 0
0
- 2 - 1
Average
Hi gh 4 + 1 5 + 1 0
Hi ghesl
_
. + 5 + 25
ll|
| u 1ao| c:LW. | u u . l d i ) hkd 1 1 1 1 1 \ ' 1 l 1 1 . | | us | a| :s| | |c. + | . 1 1 1 i i l l l l l l 1 ! 1 |. cu-
Ja| | ` s l au. 1u. s cc| | |`j sc . . | s . '0 c s o| i : |u| sw. | u av . . . j I v | s1 1 1 cuu-
ca|. ou auJ . ucomc 1yp. a | | , c| . . . . . | . ou auJ . ucomc
I
ls i | . vc| y |c-
|atcd, thus |cspouJcul sw. | ua | owo| vc|y | owcJucal . oua| | cvc| a|c | . |c| y
t o havc an i ncomc | owc| l uau l uc 20 pcop|c i n thc g|cy suaJcJ cc| | .
Li kcvi sc, pcop| c vi|h a u. gu o vc|y u . gu |cvc| oIcduca|i on vi | | typi -
ca| | yhavcahighcr | cvc| o|. ucomccompa|cd vith thcsc 2Orcspondcnts.
I ndccd, thi s i s thc casc |o| l uc |cspouJcul s in thc cc| | s markcd ' ` ,
amounti ng to 5 rcspondcn| s( 20 5 | 5 ' |O l 5 + lO + 5 +25) . 1hi s
mcansthat IorcachoIthc2O |cspouJcul s in thc grcy shadcd cc|l, 5 rc-
spondcnts bchavc according to thc prcsumcd posi ti vc rc|ationshi p. Si ncc
thcrcarc2Orcspondcnts in thcgrcy shadcd cc| | , thcrcarc5 2O l OO
combi nations vhich arc ca||cd concordant pairs. On thc othcrhand, rc-
spondcnts in cc| | smarkcd vi th a ' ` i ndi catc a ncgativc associ ati on. I n
tota| thcrc arc l (3 + 4 + 2 +l + 4 + | 2 2)rcspondcnts vhodonot
bchavc to thc assumcd posi tivc rc| ati onshi p, rcsu| ti ng in 3O (2O l )
discordant pairs. oticcthat thc cc| | si nthc samc rov and co| umn as thc
grcy shadcdcc| | (ca|cd ' ti cs ` ) arc not uscdvhcn ca| cu| atingthc numbcr
o|concordantanddi scordant pairs. |o|| ovi ngthi sstratcgy vc can ca|cu-
|a|c|hcnumbcroIconcordantanddi scordantpairsIorcvcrycc|| i n 1ab|c
3. 3O. Kendafl 's tau is si mp|y thc di IIcrcncc (notati on. S)bctvccn thcto-
ta| numbcroIconcordantanddi scordantpairs,di vi dcdby a ccrtai nnum-
bcr to kccptau i n thc rangc oI- l (pcrIcct ncgativc rc|ati onshi p) and +I
(pcrIcctposi ti vcrc|ationshi p).
Kcnda| | uscd hrccdi IIcrcntdcnominators Ior tautocnsurcarangc oI
(- l , +l), rcsu|ting in thc cxi stcncc oIthrcc di IIcrcnttau mcasurcs. tau a,
tau b, and tau c.
:
1au b and tau c arccspcci a| | yi mportant in socia| sci-
cnccrcscarch. Taub canrcachva| ucs- I andl vhcnaconti ngcncytab|c
has an cqua| numbcr oIco| um
. . . . d | y, 1 1 1 1 assumcs l ua| l uc l o| a| . |
.
.
o|couco.uau| . 1 1 H| d i SI' I I I d: l l l l p:ms ac cqua| , so' 0auJKcuJa | | `
l au
| J
11 1 O
va| uc
0 |o l csl wuc| u r | | . . . os
.
| I
-
carc
1o conc|udc | . s sccton, tvo cxampcs rom socm sctcncc rc
h
vi | | bc givcn. Thc rst cxamp|c rcgards thc rc|ationship bctvc-
t c
respondents ' educational level and spouse 's educational level to
}ctcr-
mi ncthccxtcnt oIcducationa|homogamy (scc 1ab|c3. 3 l) .
Table 3.31
Educational
level
(spouse)
Relationship between Educational Level and Spouse 'S
Edu-
cational Level
Educational level (respondent)
r
ota I
Lowest Low Average High Highest
Lowest 21 1 8 3 2 1
6
6%
39. 6% 7. 7% 1 . 2% 1 . 0% 1 . 2%
Low 1 9 1 26 67 26 5
243
35. 8% 54. 1 % 27. 8% 1 3. 1 % 6. 2% 3
0
1 %
Average 8 52 87 64 1 4
225
. 1 5. 1 % 22. 3% 36. 1 % 32. 2% 1 7. 3% 2
1
-
9%
Hi gh 4 33 67 81 28
21 3
7. 5% 1 4. 2% 27. 8% 40. 7% 34. 6% 26.
4%
Hi ghest 4 1 7 26 33
81
1 . 9% 1 . 7% 7. 1 % 1 3. 1 % 40. 7% 1
0
0%
Total 53 233 241 1 99 81
:
1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1
00%
Kendal l ' s tau b . 45, p (one-tai l ed) < . 001
1hcgrcy shadcd cc||s i n1ab|c3. 3 l - vhi chho| dthchighcstpcrc-
ntagc
pcrco|umn - suggcstthat thcrc i s a positivcrc| ati onshi pbctvccn
(l
c or-
dina| variab|cs. thc hi ghcrthc rcspondcnts` cducationa| | cvc| , thc
l
gh
r
thc cducationa| | cvc| attai ncd by thci r spousc. 1hi s trcnd i s a|so
0c
-
atcd vi th a strong posi ti vc rc|ati onshi p (
c t
vcry sma| | (p < . O0| , i | i s cxtrcmc|y un| i |c|y | ha| | hi spositi vc rc
}
3t0n-
shi pdocsnotcx. s| s . u l ucpopu| a| . ou | u lc|cs| . ug| y, lucdatai n1ab|
,
3
3 l
vcrcco| | CclcJ. u | | | Nc| uc | . ous. u 2000,suggcsl . ug l ual cvcnnov
days
| |
(
I
,+omc
cJucati oua| |cv | sc us . . . po|| au| w | u c uos . upa pa|| uc| a p 1ev
uouca| | cJ educultnuul ltnlltl l.l :l ll l l i ' ).
I
.
I
.
7ns 1 1 p
Ou sccouut' X! I I I I J I I I | + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . I P) l l \ ' : i i i L ' ! H i y d 1 scusscd: l uc |c a| .
l l l l l | l (
|ao| c
ocl wccu rc.\'f ll ll/r l / / Y u t // / /O t ' i 't ' 1 1 1 1 1 l l l f '( l lll< ' c OSS scc
' ' 2)
hIl
Tabl e 3.32 tlOltOnSlitt /ul i i : t ii l.t lur OlttuOl l. :i 'tl nO lt i iii
Educati onal level
Lowest Low Hi h rota I
I ncome Less than 39 T1 75 38 260
3, 000 61 . 9% 38. 3% 27. 5% 1 5. 7% 7. 4% 27. 7%
3, 000- 22 1 1 1 1 06 86 21 346
5, 000 34. 9 42. 0% 38.8% 35. 5% 22. 1 % 36. 9%
More than 2 52 92 1 1 8 67 331
5, 000 3. 2% 1 9. 7% 33. 7% 48. 8% 70. 5% 35. 3%
Total
63 264 273 242 95 937
1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1 00% 1 00%
Kendal l ' s tau c - . 36, p (one-tai led) < . 001
Again,ccl | svi ththchighcstcol umnpcrccntagcsarchi gh| i ghtcdi n1ablc
3. 32. 1hcrc appcars to bc a positi vc rc|ationship bctvccn cducationa|
| cvc| and incomc. thc hi ghcr thc cducationa| | cvc| oIa rcspondcnt, thc
highcrhi sorhcrcarni ngs.1histcndcncyisa|sorcI|cctcdinKcnda|| ` s tau
c (bccauscoIthcrcctangul ar tab|c), vhichindicatcsastrongpositivcand
signicantrc|ationshi p( . 3, p(onc-tai l cd)< . 00 l) .
Spearman' s Rank Correlation
Bccauscordina|variab|csarcrankordcrcd,thcrc|ationshipbctvccnthcm
can al so bc cxprcsscd as thc di IIcrcncc in rankordcr, as argucd by psy-
cho| ogistChar|cs Spcarman ( I 3- l 45). SupposcIivcrcspondcnts cach
havc a di ||crcnt l cvc| oIcducation. Wc can assign rank scorcs to thcsc
indi vidua| s that corrcspond to thcir rcspcctivc ranking oIcducation. 1hc
rcspondcnt vho has thc |ovcst cducationa| lcvc| is assigncdthc scorc l ,
thc rcspondcntvi th thc sccond | ovcstcducationa| |cvc|rcccivcs scorc 2,
thc midd|c catcgory cqua|s scorc 3, thc sccondhighcst cducationa| |cvc|
cqua|s scorc 4, and thc rcspondcnt v| th thchighcstcducationa| l cvc| is
rankcd 5. Ncxt,incomci sramcd i nthc samcvay. Novsupposcthatthc
variablcs educational level and income arcpcrIcct|yrclatcd. Inthis cvcnt
thc ranking oI cducation pcrIcctly matchcs thc ranking oIincomc, and
Spcarman` s rank corrc|ation (oItcn i ndi catcd vith _) cqua|s l . Whcn
thcrc is no rc|ationship bctvccn cducation and incomc, ncithcris thcrc a
rc|ationshipbctvccn thc rank ordcroIcducation and incomc(rankcorrc-
l ation= 0). lina||y,vhcnapcrIcct|yncgativcrc|ationshipcxi stsbctvccn
cducational | cvc| and incomc, thc rank ordcr oIboth variab|cs pcrIcct|y
opposc cachothcr(rankcorrc| ati on - I ) . Tao| c3. 33 coul a. ns dctai | sIor
Spcarman` srank cor|clation.
Tahl t J.:\J .'j ii iii i i i
\ l. i i il |
/
\ i l ( l | ltOiitn_S.
resp. Education |
-
I ncome I ncome I ncome
A Lowest Lowest Hi gh 4 Hi ghest 5
B Low 2 Low 2 Lowest Hi gh 4
L Average 3 Average 3 Average 3 Average 3
D Hi gh 4 Hi gh 4 Hi ghest 5 Low 2
E Hi ghest 5 Hi ghest 5 Low 2 Lowest
Rank correlati on: 0 - 1
* r - Ranki ng of Educati on and I ncome
Spcarman`s rank corrcl ation i s cal cu|atcd using thc rank scorcs oItvo
ordina| variabl cs. 1o prcvcnt thccorrcl ationIromIa| li ngoutsidc oIt hc- |
andl rangc,rankscorcs arc rststandardizcdintoz-scorcs, c| i mina|ing
|hc i nucncc oIvariab|cs mcasurcd i n di IIcrcnt units. lor cxamp|c, . u
1ab| c 3. 33, thc variab|cs educational level and income arc di Hcu| t |o
comparc bccausc thc ranki ng i s mcasurcd i n di IIcrcnt uni ts ( l cvcl s vs.
incomccl asscs).Ancasy so| utionIor thi si ncomparabi l ity i st otrans|orm
thcm into z-scorcs (scc scction 2. 3 3) . Ncxt, Ior cachunit oIana|ysis(ol-
tcn rcspondcnts), thc tvo z-scorcs arc mu|tip| i cd and summcd across a| l
units t oa total. 1his tota| sumoImu|tip| i cd z-scorcs rcachcs a posi tivc
maximum i IbothrankordcrsmatchpcrIcct|y. Convcrsc|y, thc total sum
has a maximum ncgativc va|uc vhcn both rank ordcrs pcrIcct|y opposc
cach othcr. Hovcvcr, morc units rcsults i na highcrtotal sum. 1hcrcIorc,
thc tota| sum i s divi dcd by thc l o| a| numbcr o| units (n), rcsul ti ng i n a
valuc that alvays Ia| | s hcl wccu - | ( max. mum ncga|i vc association) auJ
+l (maximumposi tivcassoc. a| . ou i , wh. | c0 mcausuo associationat a| l .
:
So,thcranksco|csa|c ' |s| | |. . | . s | nu . u| o.-sco|cs (a proccsscal lcd
` standardizati on` ) auJ | | . ` s| . . . |o| : l v . a| ou o..comcs | hc uu. | o| mcas-
urcmcnt. 1hc|c |ol C, | . . . . . . . s | ' . . . | . s| . . . . | . . o' ucv . . . | | ouchaugco| I . u l hc
ranking ol va|. ao| ` .cs . . ' | s . . . . c ' . . . . . , . or i s | . . . J. . |J Jcv . al . ous . u l hc
ran|ing o| va| uo| y (
. . . . . . | ' . , \\ | | i ' | | i . | | . . l s . , . |. sc o| | sl au-
Ja|J Jcv. a| . ou . . . | . . l i u| . j i | | ' i l ' ' - l H | . ' vv ' ' . . . : |c| . |u o|. 5 sl au-
Ja|J Jcv. a| o. . s . . | ( . .
stratc, or i n-
stancc, thcavcragc vcight i ncrcasc Ior cvcry sing|c ummcrca
c m agc
ccn tv
i ntcrva| orrati o va|ia .s . . . | oc . u. . | yzcu us| uja | i ncarcorrc| al i oncoc| -
| ci cnt nov uovu : 1 s / ' . |/ / /
,,. I
O/t. //itt
t n}Jcictt/ ]t 1 11 1.1 :/11 l |: ilt/
Hei ght p (one-tai led)
--
Weight . 52 p < . 001
Rcca| | that variab|cs oItcn havc di |lcrcnt units oImcasurcmcnt. lor cx-
amp| c, thc variablcsbody weight andQCarc mcasurcd i nki lograms and
ycars, rcspcctivc|y. ln scction 2. 3. 3, vc dcmonstratcd that this prob|cm
can bc solvcd by transIormingthc mcasurcs i ntoz-scorcs. Likcvisc thc
original scorcs oIboth variab|cs uscd to ca|cu|atc Pcarson` s corrcltion
cocIIcicnt arcal so transIormcd i ntoz-scorcs. ov, pcr unitoIana| ysis,
thcsc z-scorcs on x and y arc mu| tipl icd and na|ly summcd across al |
tnits. 1his
.
total sumi spositivc vhcnt hcl i ncarassociation i sa| so posi-
t| vc, andvtccvcrsa. lurthcrmorc, ustas i nSpcarman` srank corrc| ation,
thctota|sumtcndsto bchighcrvhcnthctota|numbcroIobscrvcdunits
(oItcn rcspondcnts) i s hi ghcr. Divi di ng by thc tota| numbcr oIobscrva-
tions rcsul ts i n a corrc|ation that Ia| | s vithin thc rangc - l and 13 1 1hc
corrc| ationcoIci ct alvays | i csbctvccnthcsctvocxtrcmcsand cquals
O vhcnthcrc l S no | mcarassociation. 1his, hovcvcr, maynotmcanthat
thcrc i s no association bctvccn thc variab|cs, as non| incar association
maycxist(sccli gurc3. 34).
As vas mcntioncd bcIorc, thc scorcs on thc origina| variab|cs vcrc
IirsttransIormcdi ntoz-scorcs vi th thc standarddcviationas thciruni toI
mcasurcmcnt. 1hcrcIorc Pcarson` s corrc| ation cocIIicicnt i ndi catcs that
vhcn thc scorc on onc variablc (x) i ncrcascs by I standarddcviation thc
scorcon thcassociatcdvariab|c(y)vi | | i ncrcascbyanumbcroIstanaard
dcviations cqua| to r. In chaptcr 2, vc graphica||y dcmonstratcd a rc|a-
tion
90
85
80
....
U
75
C 70
"( 65
s 60
55
50
45
40
( )( )
()()
( )
(
()
C C ( )( ) ( )
C
C L
C
C
C
| | u . | :| . l
C |
C
C
j2]
C
C
C
j3|
8 g @, , - v -
m
_
!
!
1 50 1 55 1 60 1 65 1 70 1 75 1 80 1 85 1 90 1 95 200 205
Hei ght (i n centi meters)
Figure 3.37 The Relationship between Height (in centimeters) and Weight
(in kilograms) and 3 Lines Representing the Linear Tendency
1 1 0
---------------------
-
1 05
1 00
95
90
85
'
g 80
75
70
: 65
60
" Q 55
s 50
45
40
Diference (' error') between observed weight
and predi cted weight
1 5 kg
b coefi ci ent 1 5 l 20= .75
1 50 1 55 1 60 1 65 1 70 1 75 1 80 1 85 1 90 1 95 200 205
Hei ght ( i n centi meters)
Figure 3.38 Rc_rcxxiuu |iuc /tr::u/iur; /li: lucur Relationship
/c/ uc:u l /:i,j/|t nt. / |c i| /|i
| . . | | us| |a| v pt t qH l: .. 1\ ,. | . | . | . j| | | . . | u. . L\ X | vc .cspo. i Jcu| s
| o c| uc. w. | u . | | |. , . . s . . | . . . . t t ( l . 2 rro m | . gu|c 3. 37. Ouc |cspou|u|
u.
Bascd
on this tcchniquc, thc ' rca| ` a and o cqua| -50. 54 and . 3, rcspccti vc| y
(scc1ab|c3 . 4O) .
Table 3.40 Linear Relationship betweLn Height and Weight: Estimates
for a (constant) and b (b coefficient)
Dependent vari abl e (y):
Weight (in kil ograms)
Constant (a)
b coefficient for Height (i n cm) (b)
Esti mates
-50. 54
. 73
Si gnificance level (p)
(two-tai l ed)
< . 001
< . 001
l n1ah| c3 . 4O,tvo-tai | cdp-va| ucsarcrcportcdIorthcconstant(a)andthc
h cocIIci cnt (b) Ior height. 1hctcstIor thc intcrccpt (H,. a O) i s not
rc|cvantasitrc|atcstonon-cxistingrcspondcnts(hcight -O). Thcp-va|uc
lorthcheight h cocIIcicnti suscdtotcstvhcthcritsval ucdi IIcrs si gni -
cant|y Irom O i n thc population
+
Bccauscp i smuch sma| | cr than 0 vc
cansaIcl yrc cctthcnul | hypothcsisandacccptthca|tcrnativchypothcsis,
Ior it i svcry | ikc|y that hody hci ght andbodyvcightarcpositivc|y and
| i ncar|yrc|atcdi nthcpopulation. !otcthatthc SPSS gcncratcdp-va|ucs
in 1ah|c 3. 4Oarctvo-tai| cdand nccd to bc di vi dcdby2 hccauscthc a|-
tcrnativc hypothcsis is dircctional . Hovcvcr, i n this casc this docs not
makcanydi IIcrcncctothchypothcsistcstsinccp i sa|rcadyvcry|ov.
Rcgrcssioncstimatcs aandh a|| ovIorthcca| cu|ationoIprcdictcd(or
cstimatcd) vcights Ior a|| hcightsbctvccn | 5O and2O5 ccntimctcrs. lor
cxamp| c, apcrsonmcasuring l ?? ccnti mctcrs hasancstimatcdvcightoI
?. ? ki | ograms (-5O. 54+ l ?? * . 13) . 1hcrc vi | | hc Icv, iIany, rcspon-
dcnts vho arc l ?? ccntimctcrs tal l and vcigh cxact|y ?8. ? ki | ograms,
hccausc thc | i ncar rcgrcssion | i nc on|y |c| ! cc| s | uc ovc|a | | | cJcncy and
lilltlronn. 1 i 1 | l |
'
ohs|va| . ousw. | | JLv t l l l' l l l l l l l | | t L | . u.. 1u| | |.. vc|y |g| ss. oucqua-
| . ou | a|cs| uc for1 1 1 : y . | ' hx ' L ( whc|c L s|auJs | o|cr|orordcviation).
l u | uc soc. a| sc. cucs, t i t .: goa| is lypica| | y toshovthcovcral | l i ncartcn-
dcucy |al hc| | hau p|ov. J. ug cxact prcdictions. Hovcvcr, iIthc cxp|ana-
|ory povcr oIa modc| is a| so important, thc explained variance is uscd.
ln a prcvious scction, vc prcscntcdthcvarianccoIa variah|c as thc sur-
IaccoIasquarc(scc |i gurc2. 2O). Thc importantqucstionishovmuch oI
this surIacc (thcvariancc i n y) can bc cxp|aincd using rcgrcssion ana|y-
sis? 1hc cxplaincdvariancc oIy i sthcsurIacc oIthc squarc that i s ' cov-
crcd` (cxp| ai ncd)hyx, di vidcdbythctotalsurIaccoIthcsquarc(sccli g-
urc 3. 4| ). 1hc outcomc is a|vays a numbcr bctvccn O and l . | Ithc
covcrcdsurIacc isO,thcnthccxpl aincdvariancci sO. IIthcvho|c surIacc
oIy is covcrcd(cxp| aincd)hyx,thcrcsu|ti s | (or | OO ) . I nthi scasc,a| |
ohscrvcd scorcs oIy arc locatcd cxact|y onthc rcgrcssion l inc and thc
l incarrc|ationshipi spcrIcct(anda|| c-O),scc |i gurc3. 4 | . In ourcxam-
p| c, body height cxplains . 32 (32) oI thc variancc in body weight.
Whcthcr thc cxpl aincd variancc is suIcicnt|y hi gh dcpcnds ou |hc |c-
scarch qucstion. As a gcncra| asscssmcn| oI|ody wcigh| oascJ ou hoJy
hci ght,thisrcgrcssionmodc| i snota oaJ . us | |u mcu| , hu| l i1r ucJ. c. | pu
poscsi tvoul dbcinadcquatc
mvcrsity. D
md | | | < 1 1
.
I
,
. -
,
.
' -
, l l l ,I I Vl' l l l Cl j l l<l I -
1 1 1 1
l i es d i d dccn. :asc i n l l 1 : i l P' I I I HI , : dt l iou h : 1 st at i s t i cal ! st i s r qui n
.
:d ! 'or a
l l H l rC dcl 'i n i t i v ' ; I I I SW r ( SC ' i 'url l i cr bel ow) .
The advant age or t he odds rat i o is t hat rel at i ve di l lcrcnces arc ex-
pressed i ndependent l y oi ' the margi nal s. ! di sadvant age i s that no max i -
mum val ue exi st s, so when the rel at i onshi p i s negat i ve, the odds rat i o i s
b<ween I and ncgati vc i nI1ni ty. | Ithc associ ati on is posi t i ve, t he odds
rat i o i s bctvccn l and positivc innity. As a rcsu| t, thc odds rat i o i ncl i
cates thcdirection oIt hcrc|ationship,butnot thcstrength o|t he rel at i on
shi p. |urthcrmorc,thcoddsratioi salvaysca|cu| atcdbascdon the counts
i n |our i nncr cclls oIa contingcncy tab| c. I n a tab|c vi th t wo rows and
two co| umns, on| y onc oddsratio canbc ca| cu| atcd. However, i n l arger
t ab|cs morc odds rat io` s can bc ca| cu|atcd, vhich can be t roubl esome
vhcn no clcar distinction can bc madc bctvccn more and l ess rel evant
oddsrati os.
Hovcvcr,thcoddsrati oi soncoIthe few measur<s or asso i at i on t l i : 1 1
is inscnsiti vct othcmargina| di stri but i ols, whi ch mak s i t hi ghl y s 1 1 i l i ! hlv
t odcscribcshiIsi ni ncqua| i ty, for examp| e. i\l so, i n 1 1 1 ' "ni i l ' : I I Sl' l l ' I H I `
t he odds ratio i s oItcn uscd in epi dcmi ol ogi cl l r s arrl l . . . 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 l " 1 d
hi gh| yskcvcdvariablcssuchas mort al i t y rat s.
To tcst thc null hypothCsi s that t h<
.
: odds r: I I I o npi l l i ' i I | 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1'1"' . . .
li on), a c
!
|robab|y not ' lncomc is primari | ydctcrmi ncdbyonc` s own cduca| ion. as
cmploycrs vi l l inquirc about thc cducationa| l cvcl oIthc appl i cau|, and
uotaboutthatoIhi sorhcrIathcr. I nTab| c3. 44,thcobscrvcdrc|at| oush| p
.s probab|y duc to thc Iactthat father `s educational level is positi vc| yas-
sociatcdvithbotheducational /eve! andincome oIhi schi l d(rcn).
Nov, |ct us assumc |hat i ncomc i s rca| | y dctcrmi ncd by onc` s owu
cducationa| achicvcmcu| sauJ uo| oyhi sorhcr|athcr` scducational | cvc|
Whcn this is actua| | y | .uc, | uc.c cauuo| oc auy rc| al | onship hctwccu | hc
| i | hcr` scducationa| | cvc| . . . | u| s s . . ` s | ucomc, amougsouS vhoa| | sha|c
| 'c SOC cducu| i oua| | cv. | . | | . csc |.spouJcu| s uavc pc|| u|mcd s. m| | ar| y
auJarc |cva|JcJ w. | ' a l . | . . i . . . . . . c , i rcspcL| i vt (o . uJcpcuJcu| ) o|
| uc. | |a|hc|s` ac'. cvc . . . . . | s | | . . . Jc . . s |s| c| . . . T. . o| c :1 . 45 | u| |cspou-
dcu| s vho a | | | . . . vc .. | w . J. . . | | . i . i | kV1 | . . ( . | . o| i . . uJ |tspouJcu| s
wuo a | | uavc . . | . | J . . ' . i . | | c. | ( | v . . | . . | | i T| . c J . | |cuccs . u
pc|ccu| a cs | J i . . i . | ' i i l 1 . . . . . vv . . | . | | . . J . . | o . c| s. u | | i cau|
T'. s mc. . . s | | +| VY | . . \ . . . 1 | . . , ' .
|
. . J. . . | ' c| . . ca| . ou. d | cvc| ,
| 'c|c | s us. . | | | . . . i 1 . o l t l 1 1 1 t 1 1 | + | . . | | . | . . | . | . .
.
x s| s oc' w.
c. .
1 \ 111
| | | | a|` s cJuc. | | o. | . | | |vc . . . J ' | . c . | | . . | | . c o| u. s . | | . . | . . j l i l l ' l l' hy co. | -
| |m| ug | uc . .|a l k1 1 ' ' . . | . , | | . a ' |c| . . ' . ous u| p ocwc c | . | . . | ' c ' s cJuca-
| | oua| ' cvc| auJ |cspouJ. | ` s | | . . o. . |c | suo| causa ' .
OIcou|sc, l u. s Jocs | . o| | | . c. | . . ' ua| | uc cJucal . oua' |vc o| | uc | i l hc|
- or morcgcuc|a ' | y l uc p. |c. . ' s Jocsuo| p' aya ro| cal a | ' . lvculoday i t
i s casicrto obtain a h | guc| cJu a| | oua | |vc| vhcn your parcnts arc al so
high| y cducatcd. Thc|c| o|c, . ' . s o| iu sa. J that on| y an indirect causa|
rc|ationship cxists hclwccu luc cJuca' | oua' l cvc| oIthc parcnts and thc
incomcoIthcirchi|d(rcn).
Table 3.45 The Relationship between athcr Education and Respon
lc' s o|
1wo p|cd| clo| ( x ) vanao' cs v| l | hc uscd to i | | ustratc thcsc mo
.
.
rmorc
casc o|mtcrprctali ou, hul l hcsamcappl i csIormodcl svi th thrcc |
p|cJ. c|o|variab| cs
Mediation
tcncra| | y, i n a mu|tivariatc modcl onc or morc contro| variablc
-
(nota-
.
) k
I d
.
. d I
.
t
0
that a
| | ou. z arc ta cn mto account. n a me tatwn mo e i I S assumc
l h h b| ( 11 d
the mc
changc H thc x vanab c causcs ac angc H t c zvana c ca c .
d/o/c/), vhi |c z in turn causcs a changc in thc y variablc. lurthcr|
orc,
| l
| s assumcd that thc original (bivari atc) rclationship bctvccn x a''
d
.
| s
.
) d
f
1 v d| ||c|
|cduccdtoarc|ationship(notati on. xy. z that ocsnotstg cant
111
d
.
3 o d
.
d I d h
wc t| | s-
'no el. I n act H sccti 0n . a mc at0n mo c vas usc v cn .
h
.
b h ` d d th
, mc o|
cusscd thc rc|at| 0ns ip ctvccn a at cr s c ucati on an c H
n | ucs
h| s oIIspring. It tumcd outthat thc dircct causa| i nucncc bctvc.
i
lvo variablcsvas abscnt aIcr takingintoaccountrespondents ' o
r1
ec I~
l
. .
1 bl
(ha | ' uc
cational level (scc Tablc 3. 45). lurt+crmorc, tt I S qu| tc p ausi c .
cducational lcvc|oIthcIathcr(part|y)dctcrmincsthc cducationa|
| cvc| o|
u. s chi |drcn, and that thc cducationa| | cvc| oIthc chi l drcn cous
ucu' |
,
h l I 1
k h
Ial hc| s
( partly) ctcrmmcs t ctr mcomc. t +i s !S truc, vc ov ow
cducational | cvc| positivcl y i nucnccs hi s chi | d` s incomc. high'
r cJu
catcdIathcrs onavcragc havcthcirchi | drcn rcach hi ghcrcducatio''
a| '
| | 1 1 d l d
s Ccu-
u . ghcr| cvc| oIc uca|. ou | s sl cas c|w| l 1 1 1 g 1 y c ucaC parcn
_
. .
1
_n | o| a
c|a ' ' y, a mcdiation moJc| sc|v.s . . s 1 u| c|p|c' a' | ouor cxp anati
.
| l
1 1
b d |rccl l y
|c| a|ionship hc|wccu ' wo v. | |. o|s v. c\ | u . | . a y sccm l o c
causal |yrclatcd.
x y (.e|a|. oc 1 1 1 p xy / ( l ) , x I y ( r t | u| .ou |i. pxy.z= o
)
(xy. z= |e|at.oo 111p xy W| i | I ' | . |l i 1 | l l t l t l . l . . | . . ' Z n non .qu.|.caot)
I
cxacp| e. P n 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l | ' | | . | . t | . | . - ' i . ' :|
s. ucoc
e
Fi gurc J. 4(, l l lr "f l l '" t l! , , , , fl , , d \ t , t, / "' " ' ' '"l ' " " 'l , ; t.; , t ll l lf /e
1 1 11 1 ( l i i i pl i l l ' l
Spu ri m1 sncss
^ s| a| | s| . c. . | o | a| . | s| i . ' | v . . . . . . . . ^ . . . o y va|. ao| c. n. . y . o| | c o. |cc| | y
o| . uo| |cc| | y causa | | y . . ' . | .o a| . d ' 'l l cucc| wucuc|| u | s . s | uc casc, a
| | musl hc p| aus | o|| u. . | | | . .7. v. . . . a|| | s i . s( a |c l hccausa | ' . c| o|| u|both
x auo y ( scc |. gu|c J .7 ) ; . . uo | i . ' . |c| a| . oush| pshould |ccomc i nsi g-
u i l caul orshou| dcuau co. +| | o . wu . cou| |o| | . ugIor(z) variablcs. |or
cxamp| c, a h. va| | a| c pos . | | vc |c| . . | | o . su . p cx . sl s bctvccn thc variablcs
church attendance aud /odl l l 'ci,l)JI : ou avc|agc, church attcndccs vcigh
morcthan non-attcndccs | | owcvc|, | | | s ua|d to i maginc that church at-
l cudaucc rcal l ymakcs pcoplc ga| u wc. ghl . | l . s morc pl ausibl c that this
rcl ati onship i s spuri ous anda t h| |d ovc|| oo|cd oromi ttcdvariablc dctcr-
mincs both church attcndancc and vc. ght. This ` l urki ng` or ' conIound-
ing` vari abl c is age: ol dcr pcopl c al l cud church morc Ircqucntly than
youngcrpcoplc and ol dcrpcopl chavc typi cal ly puton somc vcightdur-
| ugthcir l i Ic coursc. Indccd, iIthi s is corrcct, thc ori ginalrcl ati onshipbc-
tvccn church attcndancc and vcight vi l l bccomc non-signi Icant, aIIcr
control l i ng Ior agc. 1his is i ndccd thc casc and age is sai d to ' cxpl ain
avay`thcpuzzl i ngrcl ationshipbctvccnchurchattcndanccandvcight.
An cxamplc vhcrc a third variabl c reverses thc ori gi nal rcl ati onship
( alsoknovnasSimpson 's paradox) i sIound inmcdical scicnccs. |nhos-
p| | a| s thcrc i s a positivc rclationship bctvccn the level ofexpertise and
ortalit rates. |ortunatcl y, thi sal armingrclationship is spuriousasscri-
ous| y i l l paticnts typi cal ly rcccivc hi ghl yproIcssional hclp but al so havc
| owc| chanccs oIsurvi val comparcdto thosc not scriously i l l . Thc seri
OII.\1ess ofa patient 's illness must bc takcn into account (or control l cd
| | whcuIairlycomparinghospital s. AItcrcontrol l i ngIorthcscriousncss
( ) r | uc i l l ncssthc origi nal rclationship isrcvcrscd. hi ghcrlcvcl soIcxpcr-
| sc a|c assoc. a| cd vith lovcrmortal i ty ratcs. 1his makcs scnsc - vhcn
p. . | . cu| s rcccivc hi ghcr standards oIproIcssi onal carc, thcir chanccs oI
suv| va | arc hi ghcr comparcd to paticnts rccciving l ovcrl cvcl s oIcarc.
Tu| s |s cspcci al l y so vhcn paticnts arc scriously i l l , an additi on that rc-
| a| cs|omodcrati onori ntcractionandis di scusscdIrthcronpagc I Oo.
x -y (relati onshi p xy7 0) , x /
z
y (relati onshi p xy. z = ns)
(xy. z = relati onshi p xy whi l e taking i nto account z, ns = nonsi gnificant)
Exampl e:
y
Age
Church attendance Weight
Fi gure 3.47 SJJI IrioJJsness: Theordicol Modi '/ our l l:nJJiiricol Example
Pa rt i al Mlc l i al i ou I l ' nr l i al Spuri ousmss
|a|c| y oocs ' u | | nco. . . | . o . l ' u | | spu|. ousucss occu| . u | hc soc. a| sc| -
uccs. /| | c|cou| |o| | . up ' : ouco|mo|c7 va|. ah| cs, l hcoriginal rclation-
su | p |s o| cu |coucco ou| |cma| us s| gu | |cau| . Thcrc|orc, mcdiation or
spu|| ousucss | s ou| y pa|l . a| . Dcpcud| ug ou thc assumcd causal dircction
oc| wccu x aud 7 l hccausa| modc| i scithcr parti al mcdiati on(vhcn x is
| uccausal lactor | o|Z (x - z) ) orpartial spuriousncss(vhcnz - x). |or
cxamp| c, thc rclationshi p bctvccn a father 's education and his child's
ed1 1cation i sa parti al mcdiation (or chain) modcl , cvcn vhcncontrol l i ng
|o|father 's income, part oIthcoriginal posi tivc (+) rclati onshi prcmains
( scc |igurc 3. 4o, uppcr pancl ). Thc rclationshi p bctvccn educational
level and traditional attitudes (conscrvatism) is onc oIpartial spurious-
ucss. Ancr control l i ng Ior birth cohort, a partial rclationship bctvccn
cduca|iona| lcvclandconscrvatismrcmains(sccligurc3 4o, lovcrpancl ) .
Partial Mediation
x - y (relati onshi p xy 7 0),
I
- z - _(relati onshi p xy.z < xy)
(xy.z = relationshi p xy while taking into account z)
cxacp' e.
Father's education - Father's income -Chi ld' s education
Partial Spuriousness
x - y (relati onshi p xy 7 0) , A /
z
y (relati onshi p xy.z < xy)
Exampl e: co
ort
Educational level conservatism
Figure 3.48 Partial Mediation I Partial Spuriousness: Theoretical Mo
dels and Examples
Suppression
'uppression occu|s w| . . .| . . s| |. uj| | . o|| | . c|c| a| | oush . pbctvccnx andy
increases a|c|ouco. . . . o. . 7 v. . . . ||s. . |. . . . . | uoco ( scc |i gurc 3 4) An
. usl|uc|| vc cxaup|c . . +. . . | ' . . . ' . . | . o . s| . p |c| wccu | hcva|. ah| cs age
( x aud bodl' l l 'l 'i.t :l11 (v i t . . . . v . . . . , . . . s o| ow o| dc| | hcy put on
wc. ghl . Yc| , | | . | o . | . v ' . v . . . . . . | . | . | . o. . . | . . |. . wc . . o.!:e aud weiht is
su|p|| s. up| w. . . | . . . . . ' 'l I . . . 1 1 1 . . . . | . . o.. .c vo. . y oosc|va| | ous | hat
: : -- ( : :
pcop|ovc l | y. | . . o| . . ' . . . . . . I I IL y wc|c . . . . ' . . . I Wl ' l i l l l ' r I I H' .p' a
ual . ou |o| | u. s wca| c' . . | . o. . s' op ' . cs . . t he < I S S UI I l pl i ol l | | . . . | . . ' ' . . ' po. . -
dcnts arc cqua | . u a ' | o| u` . . . . o | . . . . | aspcc| s. | | owcvc|, o. . uvnl ooked
aspcct | s thc var| ah| e hod1 ' /ic,! )lt ! | . . Wcs| c|u couul |. cs, you1 1 er pcop' c
arcgcncrally ta| |crt hauo' oc|p op|. 1u . smay bc duc l ocuaugcs . uJ. cl,
| i vi ng standards, and mcJ. ca ' ca|c ou|| ug chi | dhood. Bccausc thcsc
changcs takc p| acc ovcr t . mc. J. || cu| |ir|h cohorts vitncsscd di IIcrcnt
circumstanccs (i . c. , youngcr coho|| s g|cw up dur|ng conditions that Ia-
vorcdgrovth). This intcrcst|ng |ac| . s| hc suhj cctoImuchsocial scicncc
rcscarch and i s callcd a cohort-effect. So, in a bi variatc analysis oIthc
rclationshipbctvccnage andbody weight, pcop| cvhoarcyoungandtall
arccrroncouslycomparcdtothoscvhoarco| dcrandshortcr.Ductothcir
hcight, ta||cr pcop|c arc hcavicr than shortcr pcoplc. As a conscqucncc,
thc Iactthatyoungpcop|ctypicallyvcigh |css than oldcrpcop|c (anag-
ing cIIcct) is obscurcdorsuppressed to a ccrta| n dcgrcc by thcsc hcight
di IIcrcnccs(cohortcIIcct). Stati sti ca| | y, itisthcrcIorcmorcappropriatcto
comparc youngcrando| dcrpcoplc vhoarccqual i nhcight. Statistically,
thi scomparison is possib|c by taking into accountthc (supprcssor)vari-
ablc body height (scc ligurc 3 . 4). AItcrcontrollingIor bodyhcight,thc
positivcrc| ationshipbctvccnagcandbodyvcighti sstrongcr.
-
x --y (relationshi p xy or ns ), x -- z --y (relati onshi p xy. z - or +)
I
+/ - +
(xy.z = relationshi p xy whi l e taki ng i nto account z, ns = nonsi gnificant)
Exampl e:
+
Age --Body Hei ght __Body Wei ght
.
+
Addit| ona| | y, |ntcraction modc| s auJ uou ' . uca c' al . ousu | ps
can a| so hc aua' y..J
1o . ' ' usl |a|cl uc ve|sa| . | . ly o| mu| | . p| c |cg|css. ou
aua| ysi s, a . . | | | | ovs v' . c ' . | l | i r . |rv. . | s. . . | . i r r l r r H r r . . . j c' . -
gi ous oc| i d s cxp| . i . .` d v | ' . :r . . . . . . . ' . |or x- v: r ri abl s.
Modeling I nterval and Ral i o Pndi dor Va.iables
To cxp|ain traditional reltt; io11s /)( '/icfi ( vhi ch is a sum oIvc variab|cs
cach mcasuring an aspcc| or t rad i l o. a ' |c| . g. ous bcl icIs), tvo ratio vari-
ablcsarc rc|cvant. education and age ( bot h mcasurcd in ycars). 1hc tvo
a|tcnativc hypothcscs statc | ua| | hc morc ycars oI cducation and thc
youngcr thc rcspondcnt, thc wca|c| |c|i gious bc|icIs vi l | bc. 1hcsc hy-
pothcscsarcconrmcdaItcrca| cul al i ug |carson` scorrc|ationcocIcicnts
bctvccn education and religious bLliLf\ . and bctvccn age and religious
belief (r cquals-. l 5 and . 22rcspccti vc| y, scc Tab|c 3. 5 l ). Hovcvcr,this
conIrmation is at thc bivariatc |cvc|, so thc qucstion rcmains as to
vhcthcrboth i ndi cators pcrsist in a mul tivariatc modc| . Morc prcciscly,
vcvi|!tcstamodcli nvhichpartia|mcdiationi ssuspcctcd(z= education):
Age -- Education --- Rel i gi ous Bel iefs
l n addition, thc cIIcct oI education on religious belief coul d bc (par-
ti a| l y)spurious, bccausc age dctcrmincs both cducationandrcl igious bc-
l i cIs, So, vcsimultancous|ytcsta sccond modclvhichisparti a| spurious
(z= age):
.
/
Age
Education
Rel i gi ous Bel iefs
Thcoutcomcsarcshovn in 1ab| c3. 5 l .
Table 3. 51 Results from Multiple Regression Analysis, y Religious Be
liefs, xl= Education (in years) and x2= Age (in years)
Rel igious Pearson's b coefficient
bel iefs (y) coefi cient
Constant
-. 02
Education (x1 ) -. 1 5 -. 06
Age (x2) .22 . 02
standard
error
' 1 6
. 01
. 002
beta p
-. 1 1
.20
(two-tai led)
. 896
<. 001
<. 001
Thc intcrccpt i n th| s modc| cqua | s -. 02. Thi s however has uo mcaui ng,
bccausc it rcprcscuts thc avc|agc |c| i gi ous hcl i l' rs I ( J r peopl e aged 0 and
vi th 0 yca|s o r cdueat i on va ' ues l h; r l l . . o| .s. . . . ' . . u. . | . . set ' Thc
l l i l "l "l l l l . r l : : r r dl : 1 l lt .: |
b coc m: c cu| | . utic . t / i t t . s , 0i . . . . | i r r creast. or I yc; r r sassoc i : r l .:d wi l h
a . 0I decrease or t /ti t i t\ 111 '/iej\ . | u add i t i on, religio11s helieji i ncrease
by . 02 |or every ; r dd i l i or r : r l yt: : l l or age. To dcl crmi nc |hc cxl cnt t hat t hi s
agc-cl Jcc| is cxp' a . i cJ by cduca|i on. |hc hcl a cocffici cu| ( p) is rc| cvanl
1h| scoc|| ci cnl cau hc i n|c|p|ctcd thc samc vay as Pcarson` s corrc| a| . on
( /). Hcrc, p indi catcs thc changc in rcl igiousbc| | cIs in standard dcvi atious
whcn thc scorc on agc/cducation shiIts l standard dcviati on. Thc di llcr-
cncc bctvccn r and p i sthat thc | attcr cxprcsscs thc rc| ationship (or cI-
Icct) aItcr considcring onc or morc contro| variablcs. A comparison oI/
vith p shovs that thc cIIcct oIcducation dccrcascd most (Irom -. l 5 to
-. l l ) . So, onc third oI thc origina| rc|ationship bctvccn cducation and
rcl igious bc|icIs (= -. l 5, scc 1ab|c 3. 5 l ) is cxp|aincd by agc. ln othcr
vords, a partial spurious rc|ationship cxists bctvccn cducation and rc| i -
gious bclicIs. Thi s is bccausc, on avcragc, o| dcr rcspondcnts havc |css
ycars oIschool i ngcomparcdto youngcr rcspondcnts (Pcarson` scorrc| a-
tionbctvccnage and education = -. | ) . 1his corrclation is not thc rcsu| |
oIanagingproccss, butrcIcctscohortdiIIcrcnccs(o|dcrrcspondcntsarc
Iromo|dcrbirthcohortsvhovitncsscd|csscducati onalopportunitics).
Thc bcta cocHcicnt is mcasurcd in standard dcviations bccausc i l i s
thcrcsu| toIaz-transIormation(scc scction2. 3. 3) , mcaningthatbcta cau
bc uscd:o mcasurc thcrcl ativcstrcngth oIthccIIccts i nthcmodc| . |c-
causcoIthis,it canbc statcd thatthccIIcctoIagc is abouttviccass|roug
as thccIIcctoIcducation(. 2O/ -. | | ). !otc that thc strcngth oIthc cduca-
tioncIIcct, cxprcsscdas thc b cocIcicnt, is about3 timcs largcr thau |uc
cIIcctoIagc (-. Oo/ . O2) . Hovcvcr,thi si sdcpcndcntonthcmcasurcmcn|
units oIthc variabl cseducation and age. Whcncducation is mcasurcd | n
months(i nstcadoIycars),thcb cocIh cicntbccomcs-. OO5 (-. Oo/ l 2) .
lurthcrmorc, Tab| c 3. 5 l shovs that thc rcsu|ting b and bcta coc|| -
cicnts di Ilcr si gni cant|y Irom zcro, at thc . 05 si gni Icancc l cvcl A| -
though thc hypothcscs associatcd vi th both vari ab| cs arc dircctiona|, vc
can do vithoutdividingthc reo|tcd p-va| ucs |y |vo, bccausc thcsc va| -
ucsarc a|rcadyvcry sma| | | u ot her vords, vccau |cccl Ho v| th |cga|ds
to cducation and agc as it is hi gh ' y uu| . |c| y | ua | | uc o cocIcicnts (and
conscqucntlythcbct a coc | | i er r l s ) qu. . | 0 . u| ' . popul at i on.
Modeling Ordi nal and `uuI uJ l ' nt l i dt H Vll l i ahks
A| | prcdi ct ls ( x v. . . ' 1 . i . + ' ' ' l' ' ' "'. r i H r . . . | vs s . . . . s. oc mcasu.cd a|
| cast a| t hc u| . v. . ' I . , | l l 1 1 \\ ' ' , . , , r l .
.
'
. ' ' . | i '
. . . . ' uJc nom ua| and
ordi nal vari : r hks " 1\ l ' l l l r . ' ' . . . | . . . | . l l r r 1 , \\ t l r r , l r r s\ hi v: r r i : r l e regres
si ou aua|ysi s wr l l r l l r 1 Y | , . ' 1 t l r ' l ' ' "' /t , /1 ' /1 . . | ' . o.
|
a|. | . vari ab| c
and sex as l l r 1 | 0 | J l l |
I
" ' J . \ ' . r o. . ' . | . . . o. . s v. . |. . . o|,
wu. cuuas i nll: rv; t l cl t ; t i ; J t' l ' l t Si t t ( SL'l' 'l' l i on ' . 2 i . M: 1 k:- . J I J ' J l tdnl ( ) : 1 1 HI
l craks uavccooc I . ' I ' l l . | v!. | j ' s.a l ( H rel . g. ot t s l wl t l' l . . . OX l 'or
mcn and . I 0 l or women. So. 01 1 av r: t e, women uav l l gi l l l y | |ougc.
rc| igious bc| i cls. l l can be demonl ral ed l i l at l uc .cg.css. ou | uc |uus oc-
tvccnthcsc tvo averagcs. As .| was ment i oned ca|| i cr, luc b coefl i ci cnt
(b)cqua|sthcchangciny assoc. alcJ wi l h a | -u u . l changci u x. Fo| l oving
thi s|ogic,b indicatcs thcchangc . u .c|i gi ous oc| icIsvhcna ma|crcspon-
dcnt (O) is comparcd to a lcma| c rcspoudcut (l ). ThcrcIorc, b cqua|s
( . lO - -. O)/ l - . l . Thus, thc b cocu ci cnl cqualsthcmean dif ference
bctvccn mcn and vomcn. Rcca| l tha| an intcrccpt (a) is thc mcan prc-
dictcd scorc vhcn al! xvariablcs - O. |n | hi scasc,thcintcrccptcqualsthc
mcan Ior mcn (-. O) as thcy scorc O onL. Thc mcaning oIa and b arc
summarizcd in|igurc3 . 52.
. 1 0
-. 08 (=a)
- - - - - -
- - - - -
a ~
- -
-r
0 1
-
& &
- -
& &
-
& & &
-
& & & &
( . 1 0 - - . 08) l 1 = . 1 8 (= b)
codi ng: 0 = male, 1 = female
Figure 3. 52 Meaning ofb coefficient in dichotomous (dummy) variables
Tabl e 3. 53 shovs rcsul ts Irom a rcgrcssion ana| ysi s in vhich religious
he/iefs is thc dcpcndcntvariab|candsex is thc prcdictor(Oma| cs, mcan
sco|c on y = -. O and l-Icma|cs, mcan scorc on y - . | O). Thc intcrccpt
( a auJl hcb cocIcicnt(b) cqua|thcval ucsinIi gurc3. 52.
Tabl e 3.53 Results from Simple Regression Analysis, y = Religious Be
liefs, x=Sex (O=Male, /=Female
Rel i gi ous bel i efs (y) b coeffi ci ent standard error beta p (two-tai l ed)
Constant (a) -. 08 . 03 . 022
Sex (b) . 1 8 . 05 . 09 < . 001
Whcn additional prcdictors arc inc| udcd in thc rcgrcssion modc| thc i n-
tcrprctati on oIthc intcrccpt vi | | changc. | t thcn .c|c|s | o |hc mcan prc-
dictcdscorcvhcnall predictors cqual 0. 1hc . ul c.p|c|at . ouor l hco cocI-
ci cnt Ior sex sti | l | uJ| calcs | uc mcau d i l 'll:n.: nc hcl wcen meu and
WOi l l el l , hut l l i i l t nw . t i i J ' t l . t k t l l ) t l l l c or 1 1 1 on .: cont rol var i ; t hk i nt o : t c
count . | o. . us| . . | . . _ l i l c v: l l t : t hl l 'ducutiou cou l d be added l o t i le n 1 odel
becauc i t may cxpl : t i | | wi l y men and women d i fl cr i n |c| | g. ous bcl i d- ;.
Ou avc|agc, woui c. . obt a i n sl . gul | y | owc. cJucal . oua| | cvc| s l uau mcu
( scc 1ao| c 3. 43 and a | owcr cduca|ion is associatcd w. | h sl |ougc. |c| . -
gious bc| icIs (scc 1ah| c 3. 5 l). This rcsu|ts in thc lo| l oving mcdiation
modc| . Sex - Education - Religious Beliefs.
Tabl e 3.54 Results from Multiple Regression, y=Religious Beliefs ,
xl=Sex (0= Male, 1= Female) and x2= Education (in years)
Rel i gi ous bel i efs (y) b coeffi ci ent standard error beta
Constant (a)
Sex
Education ( i n years)
. 66
. 1 5
-. 07
. 1 3
. 05
. 01
. 08
-. 1 4
p (two-tai l ed)
<. 001
.002
<. 001
Tab| c3. 54 shovsthatthcbcocIcicnt(andbcta)Iorsex hardl ydccrcascs
comparcd to thosc in Tab|c 3. 53. So, cvcn aItcr contro| |i ng Ior educa
| iona|di IIcrcnccsbctvccn mcn and vomcn,vomcnon avcragcsti | | havc
signicant|y strongcr rc| igious bcl i cIs comparcd to mcn. ThcrcIorc, i | . s
un| ikc| y that vomcn havc strongcr rc| igious bclicIs, because thcy havc
|ovcr l cvc| soIcducationthcnmcnon avcragc. So, vc sti l | do not|uow
why vomcnhavc strongcrrc| i gious bcl icIs comparcd to mcn. Onccou| U
addothcrxvariab|cstotrytocxpl ai nthi srcmarkab| cdi IIcrcncc.
A val i dob cctionagainstthc usc oIthc variablc education in years is
|hat it mcasurcs somcthi ng di IIcrcnt than thc highcst comp| ctcd level o|
cducation. |orcxamp| c, in thc!cthcrlands,pcopl cvithSccondary Voca-
tiona| Schoo| and pcopl c vith A | cvc|s typica|| yvcnt to schoo| Ior | hc
samc numbcr oIycars. Sti l | , it is thcorctica| l y pl ausi b| c that thc |a|tcr
havc vcakcrrc| igious bc| i cls compa.cd to thc |ormcr. ThcrcIorc, cduca-
|i onmcasurcdi nycars may oca poo. i nsl .umcn| . On |hcothcrhand, |hc
variablc educational level . s o.o. ua| Whcu wc l|cal |his variab|c as au
intcrval variabl c, wcmus| assu 1 1 1 l h: t t | uc exacl di l 'l crcnces (o| intcrva| s)
bctvccn subscqucn| cal cgor i s ( i . . , kvel s ) < t re | uc samc auJ |uowu. l u
| hc data sct each educ< l l i ol l : t l |vc i s nH kd I po. u | u . guc| l hau | hc p|c-
ccding ( |ovc| l evel . Thi s l l t t p l ws l l t : l l l ' ! l l t t ' al i ol l : t l l evel . uc.cascs al a
constan| |acl o. | I ) | | | I l l , Ol l kl , l l ' i l l l ' l t l : t l y '\l ool ( 1 ) , |owc. Voca-
| . oua| Schoo| ( } _ l . t l \\1\' t . l' ! l l l t dl t t y '. l 1 1 11 1 l | \ ) '. . o a| a.y Voca| . ona |
Scuoo| ( 4, I l . evl ' l :: ( i , . . . . ' t I I Y I , . . l | . j ) l wt | | i ) , Ti l e order . s . ndi s-
pul ao|c( cv |y Sl l hl'I J I I I ' I t l lt v . l 1 l t q l n 1 ) I t i l l | ' . . .l l l t s l : t l l l 1 ; 1 ct or ( I ) . s.
| | 4
Jtudd | hC v i i | . i |h : lui / iiucl l: i l l t | ht | | i t|l V | | l i u| d|
l
n | l . i l h
uSSum| l tu>, u | l > l x dl l c: i l l < l l l n l hv l > h. i vt l t|C l |cul td n> -t i | i l t v. il |
abl cs. J|CSC vu|l ul| c> ui dl ti tl tl | | t i i - v| l h >ct|C> 0 . i i i d I . i i i t l . i | . t n l hd
dummy 1artable\ ( duui l ny l | i l l i t | | i c. | | | l l | tl ` SulSl l l u | c ) . l l i dul i i | i
variablc elementary \tliuul | i i t l | i dt > u | | l ud| vl duul S vl | h cl cucul u|
school as thcir h| |CSl l cvc| tl ti i i | t| cd cducull Un (thcy u|c ctdCd l ).
Rcspondcnts vho Ctml C| Cd h l hC| cducu| | t|u| | cvc|s scorc O. Dummy
variablcsarccrcatcd loru l l t| hc|( 5 ) cducul l tuu| l cvcl si nthcsamcvay.
I ntui ti vcl y, onc mi ght CxCc| | |u| a | | > l x dumm variab| cs shoul dbc
addcdtothcrcgrcssi onmodcl . | | tvcvci, lt| mul |CmuIiCurcasonson|y5
dummy vari ab|cs can bc uscd. Jt uudC|S| u|d v|, vc vi l | rcturn to thc
variab|c sex oncc morc. Instcad o|u>| uy | |l S di chotomous vari abl c, vc
cou| dusc tvo dummyvari abl cs. male ( 0 - |Cmul 0, I - Malc)and female
(O - Mal c, l - lcmalc). Hovcvcr, UCtuuSC ||C arc cxact|y oppositc to
cach othcr, Pcarson` s corrclation cocIci cnt is cxact|y - l . Wi thout addi-
tiona|mcasurcs,iti snotpossib|ctoaddvariablcsthatcorrc|atc 1 (or +l )
to arcgrcssi onmodc| . lortunatcl y, thisi s notncccssary hcrc bccauscthc
b cocIli ci cnt Ior sex i ndi catcs thc mcan di lIcrcncc bctvccn mcn and
vomcn (. l , scc 1ab|c 3. 53). 1hi s oIcoursc is al so thc di IIcrcncc bc-
tvccnvomcnandmcn- vc usthavctoaddaminussigntothcbcocI-
ci cnt.Hcncc, cithcrthcdummyvari abl cMale orthcvariab|cFemale can
bcinc|udcd,butnotbothbccauscthcyarcpcrIcctlycorrc|atcd.
^ov backto our six cducational | cvcl s. lach dummy variablc is pcr-
Icctly corrcl atcd to thc combination oIthc vc othcrdummy vari ablcs.
+:
1hi s poscs no prob|cm vc dummy variab|cs arc addcd and consc-
qucntly thc vc rcsu| ti ng U cocIcicnts rcprcscnt mcan di IIcrcnccs Irom
thcsi xth (cxc|udcd)dummyvariab|c. Thisal so ho| ds vhcnothcrprcdic-
torvariablcsarcaddcdto thcmodc|- onlythcmcan di IIcrcnccsarcnov
contro| | cd Ior othcr variabl cs. 1hc omi ttcd dummy variablc i s ca|l cd thc
reference category. Ccncra| | y, a rcIcrcncccatcgory is choscnthatcorrcs-
ponds to thc di rcction i nthc altcmativc hypothcsi s. lnthis casc, elemen
tary school i sa good rcIcrcncc bccausc vcthcorcti cal |y cxpcct rcl igious
bcl i cIstogctvcakcrascducationa| l cvc| sri sc.
1ab| c3. 55shovsthatvhcncducationa|| cvc| sarci nc|udcdasdummy
variab| cs(i nstcad oIycars oIcducation), vomcn arc sti| l morc rc| i gious
than mcn. 1hc di IIcrcncc ( . l ) i s comparablc to thc di IIcrcncc in 1abl c
3. 54(. l 5). So, analyzi ngcducationa| | cvcl s instcad oIycars oIcducation
docs not changc our conc| usi on that mcn arc l css rcl i gi ous than vomcn
cvcnvhcn accountingIor cducati onal di fIcrCncCS. Ju|| C 3. 55 a|so shovs
that a|| cducational lcvc|s d| IIC| S| ul | 1cuul l ( a . 05 ) |Jtm |CStudCnls
vith clcmcntary schtt| uS | |Cl | | | yhC>| | cvcl tl ttu| tl cd Cducul | Uu.
1hi sal so |0| dS It| Ct| C v| | | l tvc| vt u| | t| i ul t di i t. i | | ti i , l't . i l | St | |C
. u| ciu| l vc hyt| h >i > i > di ittl l ti | u| ( l hc h l y|ci | hc cdut. | | | tu. d | cvc| , l hc
vcukci iCl l yl tu>|t| | l 's ) . l hC uS>tcl u| Cd ( . 057 ) ucCd> |t lc dl v | dcd |y 2
JhC l ulC|cC| (. 24) | > | hC |Cdl c|Cd mCu| tu |Cll y| tu> lC| | cl S | u uul c>
( >ct|C 0 tu sex) v|t |uvC c| cmcntary schoo| i ng( Sct|C O tu a| | 5 dumuy
vari ab| cs)asthci rh i ghcst l cvc| oIcducati on. Thi s typc ol |CStudcul i s
rcprcscntcd i nthc samp|c, thcrcIorc, thcintcrccptandthcuSStc| ulCd | cS|
astovhcthcri t di IIcrsIromOcanbci ntcrprctcdmcani ngIul | y.
Table 3. 55 Results from Multiple Regression Anal|sis, |-tlttuit\ l|t-
liefi, x variables: Sex (0= Male, 1 = cmulc/ uuu 5 .u/t:u-
tional Levels (Elementar School is cJcrcurt Iultiu/'I
Rel i gi ous bel iefs (y) b coeficient standard error beta j ( l wo I ; i | | i < I )
Constant (a) . 24 . 08 ( )( ) ! )
Sex . 1 6 . 0" UH ll |
Lower vocati onal school -. 1 7 . 09 | I| I U' l
Lower secondary school -. 26 . l
_
I I 1 1 1 1 I
Secondary school -44 ) ! , | 1 l | 1 11 1 1
0 levels -. 75 l | ' l | | | | |
A leves and more -. 48 || l I l l 1 11 1 1
Additi onal | y, Tabl c 3. 55 >uyyc>| > l l . i l | t i| i t l i i | \ i | | i l \ i i l l i dM
schoo| i ng,havcVCukC| |C| l y| tu> | l i l s | l i . i i i | l i i .t tv i | l i l 1 1 i i o i l | nH
schoo| i ng(mcan di IIcrcncc. -. 2(> . l I 01 ) ) l 1 1 |i | V 1 , , l | i i 1 1 1 1 | | |
Icrcncc i s signicant, thc eleme11/t n: 1 ' \/iil d| i i i | | i i \ \ . i i i . i l l i t dd d ' "
thcrcgrcssi on modcl , vhi l c | |C lui |t i i c/i / / . / / Y t /i l di i i i i i i i \ i i l d + l
i srcmovcdandnovscrvcsuS | |c |c l c i | it l ' : l t q, l l ! y |' t I ` l o ld1 I ! |
Table 3.56 Results from Multiple t(tt\\ti| .| / / i l i '\\
c . gu|c
( cuJcu| vanao' c auJ | uc Jc(cuJcul vanao| c | s /J()( /l ' O; ':
1 - - -l . . . | . . | c
3. 49) l uc wc| gul o| youugc| pcop| c . s sys| cma| . ca' | .
. 1 . 1 .
'
, gc . s
( ovc|a ' | pos. | | vc c||o|)hccauscyoungcrpcop| ca|c la| | c| uuJ
1
'
| pcopc
mcausl uat thc va|ucsoIthc crrors arc positivc|yco||c| a( ou av
( \ , | ic cou-
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Table 3.57 Univariate tests
............--.---.-
, . . | .
di chotomous nomi nal ordi nal
'-
Test for
proportion
Recede as Recede as di chotomous . . . .
|os|1 01
di chotomous vari ables test for proporlio,
1 1 1 10 1 1 1
variabl es assume interval level i nsle<
l)
r |
test for proportion of ordi nal l-test for mea
| 1 I\
Table 3.5X l I OIiOlt
Dependent
| nUCCnOCnlvtt DI C ( x)
variable (y)
|Ou| | i | ordi nal i |' l.Va/. | | | O
l-test
nomi nal
Cramer' s V
(ml t i | mi AI ) I gi tic regression anal ysi s *
X2-test
I
Kendal l ' s tau-b and c
ordi nal Cramer' s V
Spearman' s rank correlation (rs)
ordi nal regression anal ysi s *
Pai red samples t-test
Odds ratio (for di choto-
Two sampl es t-test
interval and Analysis of vari ance l
mous vari abl es)
ratio
Bonferroni-test
Spearman' s rank corr. (rs)
Li near regression analysis
Pearson' s correl ation (r),
( predi ctor as dummy vari ables)
Li near regression anal ysi s
Table 3.59 Multivariate tests
Dependent
variable (y)
nomi nal
ordi nal
i nterval and
ratio
nomi nal
I ndependent variable (x)
ordi nal i nterval/ratio
X2-test
Cramer's V
(multi nomial ) logistic regression anal ysis *
X2-test
I
Kendal l ' s tau b and c
Cramer's V Spearman' s rank correlation (rs)
Ordi nal regression anal ysi s *
Multi pl e l i near regressi on anal ysi s
(nomi nal and ordi nal predictors as dummy variabl es)
* see http://www. ru. nl/mt/statistics/home
Concluding remarks on Statistical Tools
Wccndcdthsbookvith1ablcs3. 5 - 3 . 5. I nthcscsummarytablcsvc
prcscntcommonstatistica| tcsts uscdi nthc soc|a| sc|cnccs. Hovcvcr thc
di si p| | ncoIstat|
.
st|csi svcrymuchal | vc andmorcadvanccdanalyscarc
ava|
. .i pl i ( ) l l
62, 65
n, 50
75, 1 25
73-77, 1 1 8
74-76
1 6, 20,4(1 , 5 I
2:,4(1 , 50