An evaluation of the procedure and results of laboratory crushing in quality assessment of rock aggregate raw materials

isa nen M. Mertamo M. Ra Abstract Quality estimation of rock aggregate raw materials is often performed with mechanical tests on aggregates crushed with laboratory crushers. However, standardised mechanical tests are intended for testing products, not raw materials. Different laboratory crushers produce aggregates with varying shape properties [akiness index (FI), shape index and surface roughness], and this has a distinctive impact on the results from mechanical tests. Setting of crushers also plays an important role in laboratory crushing of aggregates and it should be adjusted according to required particle size. Four laboratory crushers and three apparati to measure resistance to wear by abrasion from a studded tyres test (AN test) from three laboratories were compared and studied. The AN test was carried out according to the EN standard and on bar-sieved samples in order to nd how FI or surface roughness affects the AN value. sume Lestimation de la qualite dun mate riau, Re a ` le laboration de granulats, est souvent destine tablie gra ce a ` des essais me caniques re alise s sur des e riaux obtenus a ` partir de concasseurs de mate caniques laboratoire. Cependant, les essais me s ont e te de nis pour tester les produits normalise labore s et non le mate riau brut. Diffe rents e concasseurs de laboratoire produisent des te s de forme variables granulats avec des proprie de (indice daplatissement, indice de forme, rugosite ` conse quence sur les re sultats surface) et ceci porte a caniques. Le re glage des concasseurs de des essais me galement un ro le important et doit laboratoire joue e requise. Les permettre dobtenir la granularite sultats issus de quatre concasseurs de laboratoire re `tres du type pneus cloute s et de trois abrasivime (essais AN) ont fait lobjet de comparaisons. Les te re alise s suivant la norme EN et sur essais AN ont e chantillons issus de cribles a ` barreaux an de des e vidence linuence de laplatissement et mettre en e de surface sur les valeurs dabrasivite de la rugosite AN. Keywords Aggregate Abrasion Crushing Jaw crusher Particle shape s Granulat Abrasion Concassage Mots cle ` ma choires Forme de particule Concasseur a

Introduction
Aggregates, crushed at the quarry with a multi-stage crushing plant, are products. EN testing standards are applied to products, not raw materials. However, the quality of the rock raw material from which the aggregate is produced is often established on aggregates that have been crushed with a laboratory crusher rather than a multi-stage crushing plant. Testing is performed according to EN standards, but laboratory crushers are not standardised and there are no ofcial instructions for laboratory crushing. In the present study, samples were processed according to CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) and Finnish national directions (PANK 1995). According to European standards (e.g. CEN 2001, EN pr13043), an aggregate producer needs to assess the nature of the raw material. For evaluation of conformity of aggregate products, the producer shall undertake initial type testing and factory production control. The rst step in this is detailed geological mapping of quarries followed by laboratory crushing as part of the initial type testing and quality estimation. The shape properties [surface roughness, FI (CEN 1997, EN 933-3) and shape index (CEN 1999a, EN 933-4)] of aggregates that have been crushed with a laboratory 33

Received: 22 February 2003 / Accepted: 31 October 2003 Published online: 27 February 2004 Springer-Verlag 2004
isa nen (&) M. Ra Department of Geology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.raisanen@helsinki.fi Fax: +358-9-19150826 M. Mertamo inen Ltd, P.O. Box 10, Lemminka 04361 Tuusula, Finland

DOI 10.1007/s10064-003-0218-1

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 isa nen M. Mertamo M. Ra

crusher are usually not specied. In order to be able to test and describe aggregates more extensively, the shape properties of aggregates tested should be established, because mechanical tests do not describe rock behaviour unambiguously. These factors cause variation and uncertainty in the results of mechanical tests. In Finland, the quality of asphalt aggregates is established with the AN test (CEN 1998b, EN 1097-9), the result of which depends partly on the shape properties of the aggregates tested. According to Vuorinen (1999), the correlation between the AN test and the Micro-Deval test (CEN 1996, EN 1097-1) ranges from 0.87 to 0.99, depending on the rock type. Both tests are for the determination of resistance to wear. In the present study, results were obtained from three laboratory crushers, a small industrial crusher and the resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres test mills (AN test). The aim was to compare the mechanical and shape properties of aggregates produced with different laboratory crushers. When blasting rock, both the explosive charge and the diameter/spacing of the blast holes are crucial parameters in how the rock breaks and how the quality of the rock changes (e.g. Chi et al. 1996). The aim is to use an explosive charge which produces fragments that t into the pre-crusher (the maximum fragment size is often 600 mm). Jern (2001) concluded that rock needs to be broken in such a way that production is effective and good quality aggregates with different grain size distributions are produced. If the rock is over-blasted, the amount of nes may increase due to blast-induced micro-cracks (Jern 2001). Rock sampling for laboratory crushing and testing is often performed with one or two blast holes near a cliff edge. Jern (2001) states that the damage zone of blast holes can be 23 m for some rock types and hence it is crucial to consider how samples are taken. In the present study, test material with no blast hole remnants was collected below a quarry wall. Lizotte and Scoble (1994) report that geological properties have an inuence on blasting and rock disintegration, but detailed knowledge of geological properties is limited. The prevailing geology is too often ignored when blasting is planned. The texture, mineralogy and joints or microcracks of the rock play a major role in how the rock breaks during the blasting and crushing. Jokinen (1990) states that decreasing the amount of explosives used for blasting reduces the amount of micro-cracks, especially with coarse-grained rocks. However, in the blasting and crushing some rock types sustain more stress than other rock types without suffering internal damage. The study reported here was performed on a granite aggregate having excellent mechanical properties. According to Briggs and Bearman (1996), the geometry of the crushing surfaces and the shape of the aggregates control their stress eld. Evertsson (2000) states that material crushing consists of several breakage events/ mechanisms, which also depend on the rock material. (1991) states that geological properties of rock Heikkila aggregates have an effect on how aggregate particles are fractured in the crushing process and that the loading geometry and shape of particles play a major role in the 34

crushing. Various types of laboratory crushers with different crushing parts and in different running states are used for various rock types in order to predict the mechanical characteristics of industrially produced aggregates.

Materials and methods

The mechanical tests and laboratory crushing were per inen Ltd laboratory (laboratory 1, formed at the Lemminka crusher 1) by Matti Mertamo, at the Lohja Rudus Oy Ab isa nen and laboratory (laboratory 2, crusher 2) by Mika Ra Akseli Torppa, and at the Finnish Road Enterprise laboratory (laboratory 3, crushers 3 and 4) by Mika Stendahl isa nen. and Mika Ra Source of test material quarry is located in southern Finland, about Koskenkyla 70 km east of Helsinki. The bedrock at the quarry belongs to the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian schist belt (e.g. kitie et al. Korsman and Koistinen 1998). According to Ma (1994), the quarry area consists of hypabyssal granite in the southern part, quartz-feldspatic schists in the centre and felsic and mac metavolcanic rocks in the north. The present study is based on the hypabyssal granite. Petrography and mechanical/physical properties The present study was performed on ne-grained micrographic granite. According to Finnish asphalt specications (PANK 2000), the rock aggregate tested is high quality material. It has good resistance to fragmentation and to scratching caused by the studded tyres used in Finland during wintertime. The AN test values were 4.67 and the Los Angeles test value was 13 (CEN 1998a, EN 1097-2). The rock tested is a macroscopically homogenous, negrained and almost massive granite containing quartz (36%), plagioclase (30%), K-feldspar (24%), biotite (5%), hornblende (3%), chlorite (1%) and epidote + opaque minerals (1%). The modal composition of the rock was determined by a point counting method (1,000 evenly distributed points/thin section). The feldspars are moderately altered (seritised and saussuritised); the plagioclase more strongly than the K-feldspar (Fig. 1a). The average grain size of the rock is 0.11 mm and there is an intense micrographic intergrowth texture between the quartz and plagioclase (Fig. 1b). The high quality mechanical properties are due to the evenly distributed dark minerals, the ne grain size, massive texture, intergrowth texture, complex grain boundaries, appropriate modal composition, alteration and lack of micro-cracks. Alteration may have a positive effect on the strength of the rock, because microcrystalline secondary alteration minerals have grown over the cleavage of feldspars and minor micro-cracks. Alteration minerals can also make the grain boundaries more sutured/complex. If the growth of secondary minerals passes through minerals that are in contact with each other, it may increase the cohesion between the mineral grains.

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Evaluation of laboratory crushing in assessment of rock aggregate

Fig. 1 Petrographical properties. a Alteration of feldspars. b Micrographic texture. Q=quartz, Pl=plagioclase

Fig. 2 Jaw crushers. a, b Crusher 1 at laboratory 1, smooth jaws. c Crusher 2 outside laboratory 2. d Sigmoid v-shaped jaws. e Crusher 3 at laboratory 3. e Crusher 4 at laboratory 3

Crushing Four different jaw crushers were used to crush fragments of rock in order to obtain a 11.216 mm fraction for the AN test (Fig. 2). Table 1 gives the properties of the jaw crushers tested. The reason for the capacity estimation is to emphasise that the crushers tested are different in size. During the crushing, the particle size of the material is reduced due to compression and shear forces as the material ows through the crushing plates. The crusher

can be classied according to its capacity and the fragment size of the input material. Crushing was carried out in two stages; the second stage by choke feeding the crusher. According to Briggs and Evertsson (1998) choke feeding causes a multi-point loading stress eld on aggregate particles which results in cracks that are located within the edges of the original particles. As a consequence the size reduction ratio is not too high and the shape improves. 35

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Table 1 The characteristics of the jaw crushers

Laboratory/ crusher 1/1 2/2 2/2a 3/3 3/4

Crusher

Fragment size (cm)

Jaw type

Close-side Capacity setting/length estimation of stroke (mm) (kg/h) 15/2 13/2 17/10 22/10 14/12 8/2 200 20,000 1,000 200

Fritsch 101010 Pulverisette 1 Lokomo 50/835 202030 KHD Industri- 201010 eanlagen AG, No. 9 Retsch BB3 151010

Smooth Sigmoid (V-shape) Sigmoid (V-shape) Sigmoid (V-shape)

Worn jaw surfaces in the crusher

Setting/close-side setting (minimum distance between the crushing plates), length of stroke (distance between the maximum and minimum distances of the crushing surfaces) and speed are the most important characteristics of 1991). If the setting of compressive crushers (Heikkila crushing plates is just above the required maximum fraction, shape properties will improve and micro-cracks are effectively eliminated from the crushed aggregates. The amount of micro-cracks was not studied in this test. At laboratory 1, the setting was reduced from 15 to 13 mm between stages 1 and 2. The crusher at laboratory 2 is a small transportable industrial model on wheels and the jaws were reversed during the runs for this study. With worn jaw ends (indicated by a in Tables 1, 2 and 4) the crusher had a wider setting (22 mm compared to 17 mm). At laboratory 3, crushing stages 1 and 2 were performed with separate laboratory crushers. The primary crusher can crush larger fragments of rock and the fragment size of the feed has an effect on the reduction ratio. Sieving and sample reduction Samples were reduced according to CEN (1999b, EN 932-2) and sieved according to CEN (1998c, EN 933-1). Sieving lasted 10 min: samples were sieved for the rst 5 min by hand and then for 5 min with a sieving machine. When raw materials are tested in a comparison test, any heterogeneities, such as weathering surfaces, need to be removed from the sample and the homogeneity state of the sample should be recorded. The purpose was to homogenise the sample in order to be able to compare different laboratories and to concentrate the study on a single variable at one time. Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres, Nordic test Tests for the resistance to wear from studded tyres, e.g. the Micro Deval test (CEN 1996, EN 1097-1), measure the ability of aggregate to tolerate abrasive wear. They were developed to test products (quality classication for resistance to wear), but can be used for raw material evaluation too. According to Vuorinen (1999), the correlation between these two test methods is 0.870.99, depending on the rock type. The mass of test specimen is (1,000qs)/2.665 g, where qs=particle density. The test specimen (65% 11.2/14 mm and 35% 14/16 mm fractions) is placed in a steel mill with 2 l of water and 7,00010 g of

15 mm steel balls and the mill rotated for 5,400 (903 rpm) revolutions. The small sample size emphasises the importance of representative sampling. The result of the test is the Nordic abrasion value (AN); an average of two runs calculated from the equation: AN = 100(mi m2 )/mi where mi is the original mass of the test specimen m2 is the mass after the test (>2 mm fraction) repeatability (r)=0.13 AN)0.17 reproducibility (R)=0.14 AN+0.27. In the present study, the test for resistance to wear from studded tyres was performed according to the EN standard (CEN 1998b, EN 1097-9) and Finnish national direction (PANK 1995, PANK-2207). The latter is intended for testing raw materials and is run using a bar-sieved sample. An 11.212.5 mm fraction is sieved with an 8 mm bar-sieve and a 12.516 mm fraction with a 10 mm bar-sieve. In the bar-sieved samples, aky particles were sieved out in order to obtain a sample with a homogenous FI, which eliminates one source of error. The AN test results are therefore based on the mechanical properties of the material and are not affected to a great extent by the FI. The purpose was also to separate particles (aky) that were crushed only once and therefore possibly contained more micro-cracks than the twice-crushed aggregates. Flakiness index (FI) When a bulk sample is reduced into laboratory samples and test specimens, there is a risk that at shaped particles are segregated. If these particles are separated on the bottom of the sample dish, the FI of the sample might not be representative and thus give rise to errors in the mechanical test results. FI (CEN 1997, EN 933-3) was also measured from the specimens for the AN test (Table 3). The 11.214 mm fraction of the AN test was separated with a 12.5 mm sieve and then sieved with a 6.3 mm bar-sieve; the 12.516 mm fraction was sieved with an 8 mm bar-sieve. The FI is the transmission % of aky particles in weight % (the shape which particles are broken into during the crushing process). The particle is either aky or not, so the degree of akiness is not described. According to (CEN 1997, EN 933-3), 2.6 kg is the minimum quantity required for FI determination from a <16-mm fraction. The FI can be used as a quality control method for sample preparation. Representativeness and comparability of test

36

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specimens can be partly secured by measuring the FI directly after the crushing and by measuring the FI from the AN test specimen. One sieve size is 10 mm (CEN 1997, EN 933-3), so the FI from the AN test specimen (minimum particle size 11.2 mm) is somewhat lower than if measured after crushing.

the lower part of the required fraction size; for example, a 1416 mm fraction can contain more material close to 14 mm than to 16 mm. This can elevate the values of the AN test because there will be more wearing surfaces. Crusher 4 has a setting of 8 mm. The v-shape of the sigmoid jaws is very deep, hence the diameter of the open space between the crushing ridges is 14 mm with close-side setting (when the minimum distance of jaws is 8 mm). This enables particles that are close to 16 mm to Results pass through the crushing plates with open-side setting (close-side setting+length of stroke). However, their After the rst crushing stage, it can be seen from Table 2 surfaces are smoothened effectively. that crusher 2 (with worn jaws, setting 22 mm) produces aggregates with the lowest FI and at the second stage crusher 4 lowers the FI the most. If the crushing at laboTable 3 ratory 3 was performed only with crusher 3, the FI might to wear by abrasion from studded tyres test (AN) are also be very high. The improvement of the shape proper- Resistance averages from two test specimens (TS). Flakiness index measured ties of aggregates that have been crushed with crushers 1 from the test specimen (FI/TS), not determined (), average 5.5, and 4 may be due to, for example, the low capacity, or a standard deviation 0.9 tight setting with high quality aggregates and/or length of TS FI/TS AN wearing process. Test results can vary a great deal with Laboratory where various rock types. crushed/tested As the FI was measured after both crushing stages 4.9 5.0 (Table 2), the test specimen can include aggregate particles 1/1 4.7 which have gone through one or two crushing stages. The 5.3 5.3 5 aky shaped particles can go through the crushing plates 1/2 5.3 6 without being crushed. 2/2 7 7.0 16 The geometry of the crushing chamber is one of the 7.0 14 6.1 6.3 7 1991). The space 2/3 important crushing parameters (Heikkila 6.9 7 between the crushing plates inuences the capacity. The 3/1 4.6 4.6 7 longer the particles are abraded in the crusher, the 4.6 6 smoother their surfaces will be. Therefore, the condition of 3/2 4.9 4.9 6 5.0 5 the jaws can either improve or worsen the shape properties 5.2 5.2 4 of particles. If v-shape sigmoid jaws are worn, the setting 3/3 5.2 5 can be wider and this enlarges the capacity and worsens the shape properties. However, if the setting is the same, worn v-shape sigmoid jaws behave like smooth jaws. This may lower the capacity and a grinding effect can smooth Table 4 the roughness of particles more efciently compared with The AN test values (PANK-2207). Sieved with bar-sieves, average 5.0, unworn jaws. standard deviation 0.5 The setting varied a great deal among the crushers tested, which made it more difcult to control or compare the Laboratory where TS AN/PANK crushing procedures. The setting should be just above the crushed/tested required fraction size for the mechanical test involved. If 4.8 4.8 the setting is below the required particle size, the particles 1/1 4.8 obtained are somewhat tabular, elongated and aky. On 1/2 4.9 4.9 the other hand, the particle size distribution is weighted on 4.8
2a/1
a

5.0 5.6 5.6 5.7 4.3 4.6 4.8

2 /2 Table 2 The akiness index (FI) after the rst and the second crushing stages 2/2 Crusher 1 1 2a 2a 3 4
a

FI 29 11 24 15 38 11

Crushing stage 1 2 1 2 1 2

2a/3 3/1 3/2 3/3

a

5.2 4.9 5.6 5.6 5.4 5.8 5.9 5.5 4.4 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.8 4.7

Worn jaw surfaces in the crusher

Worn jaw surfaces in the crusher

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 isa nen M. Mertamo M. Ra

The lowest AN test values were recorded at laboratory 1 (Tables 3 and 4) where the drum of the AN test apparatus was new. The results may be explained by the fact that a new drum is smoothest and therefore causes least wear on aggregates. Table 4 gives the AN test values from the bar-sieved samples. These results are affected mainly by the roughness of particle surfaces and, possibly, micro-cracks. The jaws were reversed in crusher 2, so the setting changed from 22 mm to 17 mm. The crusher with a 17 mm setting produced aggregates with lower AN test values compared with that with a 22 mm setting. The lowest AN test values were recorded from aggregates that were crushed with crusher 4, which smoothens the uneven surfaces of the aggregate particles. The highest AN test values were from aggregates crushed with crusher 2. The AN test values from 1/1 and 3/3 are both 4.8. This is because the AN test values are lowest from the laboratory 1 apparatus and crusher 4 produces aggregates with the least uneven surfaces. The shape properties [both larger scale akiness and shape index (not determined in the present study) and smaller scale surface roughness] of aggregates have an effect on the AN test value. To measure the particle surface roughness, image analysis (e.g. Fernlund 1998) or laser techniques (Tolppanen et al. 2002) have been used. FI correlated positively with the AN test, but the correlation coefcient is dependent on the rock type and its texture.

expectations of the quality of the aggregates or can lead to abandoning a proposed quarry area. The reason for this is the classifying system for aggregates in Finland, which is based on classes with specic limits; linear quality denitions of aggregates would partly help to solve the problem. Because of class limits, too high quality expectations of aggregates may arise and testing may be performed in order to obtain a result under the class limit, when the mechanical properties of the aggregates are close to a class limit. quarry, nal crushing and shape At Koskenkyla improvement is performed with a vertical shaft impactor, which helps to obtain homogenous products (shape and mechanical properties). The average AN test values for granite products from this quarry are close to the values obtained with crusher 2. Correlation between laboratory and industrial multi-stage crushing plants cannot be made, because, for example, there are numerous variations/combinations for industrial plants. Different types of laboratory crushers have different types of crushing parts and have various running states and settings. It is important that the setting is above the required particle size of a particular mechanical test. Jaw crushers are used generally as pre-crushers and cone crushers are commonly used in later stages of crushing. In order to simulate the production crushing, cone crushers are perhaps more suitable for laboratory crushing than jaw crushers. The purpose of this study was not to establish the best crusher type for laboratory crushing, however, but to show the importance of the procedure of non-standardised laboratory crushing. Different rock types, the setting Discussion and conclusions and running state of crushing parts and crushers, cone It is possible to use a bar-sieved sample in raw material crushers compared to jaw crushers and surface roughness evaluation. The FI of the AN test sample can be adjusted to of the particles, should be studied in detail. 0 or to a value that can be achieved in actual aggregate production. The standard deviation of the AN test for Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Veli Suominen different crushers is lower with bar-sieved samples than (Geological Survey of Finland), Akseli Torppa, and Paula Koswith normally sieved samples. The results of the bar-sieved unen (University of Helsinki) for constructive consultation. We rvenpa a of Lohja Rudus Oy Ab, Lars also wish to thank Hanna Ja samples give a minimum AN test value. n of Lemminka inen Ltd, Heli Randell and Mika Stendahl Forste The FI determined from the AN test specimens can act as a from the Finnish Road Enterprise for valuable consultations and quality control between test specimens and its effect on providing laboratory facilities and to Anthony Meadows for mechanical properties of aggregates on each rock type can language revision. The Graduate School in Rock Engineering and be used in quality evaluation. Mechanically/geologically Foundation for Research of Natural Resources in Finland gave the different rock types behave differently in the fragmenta- nancial support. tion process; the results of this test emphasise the importance of considering the laboratory crushing, shape properties of the aggregates and sample preparation in the References evaluation of rock raw materials. A low powered laboratory crusher with a small setting cannot crush high quality rock aggregate materials in the Briggs CA, Bearman RA (1996) An investigation of rock breakage and damage in comminution equipment. Miner Eng 9:489497 same manner as industrial crushing plants. As a result, Briggs C, Evertsson CM (1998) Shape potential of rock. Miner Eng laboratory crushers often provide aggregates with too 11:125132 good shape properties. If the quality of rock raw materials Chi G, Fuerstenau MC, Bradt RC, Ghosh A (1996) Improved is evaluated using tests that are designated only for comminution efciency through controlled blasting during products, the shape properties of the aggregates have to be mining. International J Min Process 47:93101 considered. It is essential that the tester is aware that the CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1996) EN 1097-1, shape properties of aggregates can vary signicantly Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Part 1: Determination of the recistance to wear (Micro-Deval), depending on the crusher and that this causes unreliability Brussels, 10 pp in the test results. This may give rise to optimistic

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CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1997) EN 933-3, Tests for general properties of aggregates. Part 3: Determination of particle shape. Flakiness index, Brussels, 7 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1998a) EN 10972, Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Part 2: Methods for the determination of resistance to fragmentation, Brussels, 22 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1998b) EN 10979, Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Part 9: Determination of the resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres, Brussels, 7 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1998c) EN 933-1, Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Part 1: Determination of particle size distribution. Sieving method, Brussels, 7 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1999a) EN 933-4, Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Part 4: Determination of particle shapeShape index, Brussels, 10 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (1999b) EN 932-2, Tests for general properties of aggregates. Part 2: Methods for reducing laboratory samples, Brussels, 16 pp CEN, European Committee for Standardisation (2001) EN pr13043, Aggregates for bituminous mixtures and surface treatments for roads, airelds and other trafcked areas, Brussels, 40 pp Evertsson CM (2000) Cone crusher performance. Ph.D. Thesis, teborg. Chalmers University of Technology, Go Fernlund JMR (1998) The effect of particle form on sieve analysis: a test by image analysis. Eng Geol 50:111124 P (1991) Improving the quality of crushed rock aggreHeikkila gate. Acta Polytech Scand 96:169

Jern M (2001) Determination of the damaged zone in quarries, related to aggregate production. Bull Eng Geol Environ 60(2):157166 Jokinen J (1990) Mikrorakoilu kalliomurskeessa [In Finnish, Microcracks in pavement aggregate, English summary]. Unpublished Lis. Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, Materials Science and Rock Engineering, pp 88 n yleispiirteet. Korsman K, Koistinen T (1998) Suomen kalliopera [In Finnish, The general features of Finnish bedrock]. In Leh mo O (eds) Suomen kalliopera , Suomen tinen M, Nurmi P, Ra geologinen seura, pp 375 Lizotte YC, Scoble MJ (1994) Geological control over blast fragmentation. Can Min Metall Bull 87(983):5771 kitie H, Ha rma P, Lappalainen K (1994) Geology and strength Ma properties of high-quality precambrian crushed rock aggregate: quarry, Finland. In Oliviera R, an example from the Koskenkyla Rodrigues LF, Coelho AG, Cunha AP (eds) Proceedings Seventh International Congress International Association of Engineering Geology, Lisboa, Portugal, pp 31933200 PANK (Finnish Pavement Technology Advisory Council) (1995) PANK-2207 Kiviainekset, kuulamyllykoe, raaka-ainetesti [In Finnish, Aggregates, the resistance to wear from studded tyres test, raw material test], 4 pp PANK (Finnish Pavement Technology Advisory Council) (2000) Finnish Asphalt Specications. ISBN 951-97197-6-8, pp 74 Tolppanen P, Stephansson O, Stenlid L (2002) 3-D degradation analysis of railroad ballast. Bull Eng Geol Environ 61:3542 Vuorinen J (1999) Kuulamylly-ja Micro-Deval-kokeiden tulosten vastaavuus. [In Finnish, The correlation between studded tyre 30:27 test and Micro-Deval tests]. Tielaitoksen selvityksia

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