FURTHER STUDIESOF THE PROPERTIESOF LONDON CLAY*

by
W.H. WARD, B.Sc.(Eng.),A.M.I.C.E.,
S. G. SAMUELS,and MURIELE. BUTLER,BSc.

SYNOPSIS
A number of physical and mechanical properties
of the London Clay are given based on observations
made in several tunnel excavations, and from labora-
tory tests on specimens. These specimens have
been carefully prepared by hand trimming from
blocks of clay, which were extracted from tunnels
over a large area of the London Basin. Earlier
studies of some of these properties (Cooling and
Skempton, 1942; Bishop, 1947; Skempton and
Henkel, 1957) have been restricted to measurements
on samples obtained from boreholes or involving
tube-sampling operations.
Three important structural features are recognized
in the clay, namely, fissures, laminations, and
“backs”. The latter two features are rarely con-
sidered. The laminations render the clay ortho-
tropic with one axis of symmetry perpendicular to
the bedding and specimens have been orientated in
mechanical tests so as to demonstrate this feature.
The “backs” appear to be associated with minor
folding (or faulting) of the stratum, but their extent
and importance requires wider exploration.
Stress-strain characteristics of the block specimens
measured in undrained triaxial tests show that the
clay is stronger and less compressible than measure-
ments on borehole samples have suggested.
Measurements of the longitudinal wave velocity
on clay samples readily detect the direction of the
laminations, and attenuation of the ultrasonic signal
is indicative of the fissuring and particularly of
disturbances caused by sampling operations.
Consolidation and swelling characteristics were
measured in the oedometer and again showed
the orthotropic properties of the clay. The mea-
sured swelling pressures appear to provide an
approximate guide to the existing effective pressures
in the ground; these are also indicated by a distinct
change in the pressure-void ratio relationship.
11 est don& un certain nombre de proprietts phy-
siques et mecaniques de l’argile londonnienne bashes
sur des observations faites dans plusieurs fouilles
de tunnels, et d’experiences en laboratoires sur des
echantillons. Ces Bchantillons ont Bt6 soigneuse-
ment prepares par degrossissage a la main de blocs
d’argile qui furent extraits de tunnels sur une vaste
superficie du bassin de Londres. Des etudes
anterieures de quelques unes de ces proprietes
(Cooling et Skempton, 1942 ; Bishop, 1947 ; Skempton
et Henkel, 1957) ont et6 limitees a des mesures sur
des Cchantillons preleves au tours de forages ou
d’operations comprenant l’echantillonnage par tube
carottier.
Trois caracteristiques de structure importantes se
reconnaissent dans l’argile, a savoir: les fissures,
le feuilletage et les failles “backs”. Les deux
dernieres caracteristiques sont rarement prises en
consideration. Les feuihetages rendent l’argile or-
thotropique avec un axe de symetrie perpendiculaire
a la couche et au tours d’epreuves mecaniques on a
orient6 des Bchantillons de man&e a faire ressortir
cette caracteristique. Les failles “backs” semblent
&tre associees a de petites failles de la couche,
mais leur &endue et importance demande de plus
amples recherches.
Les caracteristiques de tension-deformation des
blocs-Cchantillons mesurees lors d’essais triaxiaux
drain& montrent que l’argile est solide et moins
compressible que des mesures faites sur dchantillons
de forage le sugerent.
Les mesures de la velocite d’ondulation longitudi-
nals sur des Cchantillons de&lent facilement la
direction des feuilletages, et l’attenuation du signal
ultrasonique indique des fissures et particulibrement
des remaniements causes par les operations d’echan-
tillonnage.
Des caracteristiques de consolidation et de gonfle-
ment sont mesurees & l’cedometre et de nouveau
font apparaitre les proprietes orthotropiques de
l’argile. Les pressions de gonflement semblent
donner un guide approximatif sur les pressions
existant effectivement dans le sol; celles-ci sont aussi
rev6lBes par un changement distinct de la relation du
rapport entre la pression et le vide.

INTRODUCTION
A study of the stresses and deformations in the linings of several tunnels built in the London
Clay has been made by the Building Research Station in recent years (Ward and Chaplin,
1%7).1 Concurrently the opportunity has been taken to make a closer examination of the
physical character of the London Clay throughout its thickness than is possible by borehole
exploration.
Large blocks of clay were carefully extracted as the tunnels were mined, and their mechani-
cal properties were measured in the laboratory. The programme of laboratory testing was
* Crown Copyright reserved
i See references on p. 58.
33
34 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

intended partly to provide information for interpreting the structural behaviour of the tunnel
linings and partly for general use in the design of heavy building foundations.
The tunnel exposures revealed some interesting structural features in the clay and quite
early in the programme of laboratory testing the Authors noted that the clay had distinctly
better qualities than they had been led to believe from the results of tests on samples taken
from boreholes in accordance with current practice.
In this Paper the Authors summarize what has been seen of the physical structure of the
London Clay in tunnel exposures, describe the method of obtaining specimens with a minimum
of disturbance, and present a synopsis of the laboratory test results. Finally comparisons
are made with test results obtained independently at several sites on borehole samples and with
tube samples taken by them at two sites, in an attempt to assess the nature and the degree of
disturbance associated with these methods of sampling.

THE SITES

Blocks of clay were extracted from tunnels in central and suburban areas of London at
depths below ground level varying from 55 to 160 ft. The locations of the sites are indicated
by letters on Fig. 1, under which are listed the necessary reference levels.
Sites L, K, G, and B are various points on the London Underground railway system,
sites H and 0 are parts of the Post Office railway system, and sites A, P, and T are parts of
the water supply tunnels of the Metropolitan Water Board. Observations on the tunnel
linings at sites K, G, and B were presented by Ward and Chaplin (1957), on the linings at sites
H and A by Cooling and Ward (1953), and at site A by Tattersall, Wakeling, and Ward (1955).
Systematic comparisons between the properties of clay samples extracted in sampling
tubes and as blocks were made at sites P and 0.
STRhTIGRAPHY

The plan of the sites in Fig. 1 shows the subterranean contours of the upper surface of the
Chalk which underlies the Eocene strata. The London Basin is not just a simple syncline
(Wooldridge, 1923). The Chalk surface contours, obtained from well records (Buchan, 1935),
are believed to represent Tertiary folding and show a number of minor folds in the London
Basin. There are also two known faults in the Basin and there may be others as yet unrecorded.
The strongest minor folding lies parallel to the axis of the main syncline, i.e. in a north-east
direction. The paucity of borings, especially in some parts, means that the abruptness of the
folding is invariably underestimated and that minor faults may not be recorded.
Fig. 2 gives sections through the strata and indicates the nature of the folding. The posi-
tions from which blocks of the London Clay were obtained are given on these sections. Most
horizons in the clay appear to be represented by these blocks.
The greatest present overburden on the London Clay stratum in the area is near site B
where there is a capping of Claygate and Bagshot Beds; near the River Thames and in Central
London there has been considerable erosion of the London Clay surface and more recent
deposition of river gravels.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE CLAY REVEALED IN TUNNELS

In the course of the tunnel studies carried out by the Authors, intermittent visual observa-
tions were made of clay exposures as the mining proceeded and discussions took place with
some of the miners on the various features of the clay, which they know well and describe in
their own language.
There appear to be three important structural features in the clay; two of them are rarely
considered by soil mechanics workers.
First, the clay is always laminated; Cooling and Skempton (1942) noticed that the clay at
Waterloo Bridge was slightly laminated and Bishop (1947) recognized a tendency in this re-
spect at Walton. The laminations are sometimes obvious to the eye, particularly when there
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 35

__---
c/---
_-

Fig. 1. Site plan of London with Chalk surface contours showing minor folds in the
London Clay, and line of sections

Site / Ground surface Depth of sample:

~ level O.D.: (ft) (ft)
I-
H + 75 100
A + 41 90
L + 45
K (1 and 2) + 13. + 11 64, ;:
G -t 64 84
23 (1, 2, and 3) +349 about 100
1129 160
: + 85 55
T -+--30 137

are thin silty partings; more often the laminations will be seen only if the clay is torn apart and
closely scrutinized. Usually the laminations are horizontal for all practical purposes, but at
site P on the south side of a synclinal fold the laminations dipped about 20” to the north.
Secondly, the clay is fissured in varying degrees. This feature is rather well known in
London Clay (Cooling and Skempton, 1942) and seems to be a characteristic of most sediments
containing some clay minerals.
The third type of structural weakness in the clay it is proposed to call “backs “---a miner’s
term-and these are readily confused with the fissures. It seems, in fact, that the miner
frequently uses the term to describe both the fissures and this third type of weakness. The
“backs” appear to be tectonic in origin; sometimes they appear as a fairly obvious fault with a
plane surface at least covering the extent of a tunnel face, but more frequently they are
3*+
36 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS. AND M. E. BUTLER

“I
x _._._._+
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 37

rather like fissures and form a series of intersecting curved surfaces. The scale of the surface
is, however, much larger than the fissures.
The miner is troubled with “very backy” ground, because the overbreak can be consider-
able and he cannot dig the clay to close limits. There is also a risk of large lumps of clay
being shed from the roof of the tunnel and causing injuries. The backs may present landslip
hazards in large excavations. Sometimes they have a wet shiny surface due to a soft thin
film of clay and sometimes they are slickensided, but in other places they show no lustre.
The former is called a “greasy back” by the miner and it seems in this case that the movement
has been sufficient to cause an opening and consequently a local swelling of the clay.
At present, evidence for the extent of these features is quite limited, but they are mentioned
in some detail since a wider search is necessary to reveal their importance. The first occasion
when features of this nature were recognized was at site A (Ashford Common) (Tattersall,
Wakeling, and Ward, 1955) where plane greasy backs were met on three occasions extending
right across the tunnel face. They dipped westwards at about 80” to the tunnel axis and there
may have been more of these backs which were passed unnoticed.
The second occasion was at site P where overbreakage on an unprecedented scale was
encountered; it was sufficient to prevent the use of the jacked-in-place type of precast concrete
lining and necessitated the use of the much more expensive bolted segments. Here the backs
amounted to large-scale shattering of the clay, large lumps of quite unmanageable size came
away from the face and the overbreakage was as much as 2 ft in depth.
It was noticed that the line of this tunnel at site P ran parallel and close to one of the minor
short folds in the London Clay shown by the contours in Fig. 1, and it was suggested that there
was likely to be a relation between the fold and the shattering. On this basis it was expected
that the shattering would cease beyond the north-east, south-west limits of the fold. The
forecast proved to be correct and the limits of the shattered zone are shown in relation to the
fold in Fig. 1. Boring records are rather sparse in this area and it is quite possible that this
fold is, in reality, much more abrupt than the contours suggest and that there may be some
faulting. The 20” dip in the laminations at one end of the shattered zone, and almost level
bedding at the other end, rather suggests faulting in the neighbourhood.
Similar shattering, but not quite so bad, was encountered at site T and in the Hammersmith
area. At these places the tunnel crosses obliquely another minor fold revealed by the Chalk
surface contours, see Fig. 1. The laminations at these sites were almost horizontal.
There is another fold in the vicinity of site G. Here the tunnel excavation afforded little
opportunity to seek out large-scale features as it was very limited in extent, and, although
the clay was more highly fissured here than at any other site, it was small-scale fissuring which
could not be described as backs. It is, of course, possible that tectonic movement does no
more than accentuate the degree of fissuring in some cases.
It will be seen later that the orthotropic* nature of the clay, which comes from its laminated
structure, and also to some extent the inherent fissuring, are readily revealed in the mechanical
tests. These two features are also partly responsible for the amount of disturbance caused
in sampling. However, the backs are not revealed in laboratory tests, because their scale is
too large compared with the sample size, and for this reason more extensive visual evidence of
their existence is important.

METHODS OF SAMPLING AND PREPARATION OF BLOCK SPECIMENS

It is not possible to extract a piece of clay from the ground without disturbing its properties;
the greater the depth of extraction the greater is the disturbance likely to become. The
removal of the sample inevitably involves a change in the state of stress and the sample is
* An orthotropic material is one which has different properties in three directions at right angles to each
other. An orthotropic material with one axis of symmetry (see p. 56) has one set of properties in the direc-
tion of the axis and another set of properties in all directions at right angles to that axis.
38 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

subjected to a shear strain. Additional disturbance can be kept to a minimum if the method
of extraction and the preparation of the final test specimen amounts to careful removal of the
unwanted clay from around the specimen without the imposition of large additional shearing
forces. The Authors have attempted to approach this ideal as far as possible by extracting
clay in the form of large blocks and preparing the test specimens by hand trimming from the
blocks.
The blocks were taken from tunnel faces which were steadily advancing. To extract
the blocks the tunnelling was interrupted and the upper part of the face was dug back with
pneumatic spades to form a horizontal ledge across the face about 18 in. deep. The ends of the
ledge were freed and then a spade was driven in behind the centre of the ledge until a large
block of clay came forward into the tunnel. The vertical direction was marked on all blocks
and the slope of the laminations noted before they were removed, except in the earlier work at
sites H and A. While the blocks were being removed a molten mixture of petroleum jelly and
paraffin wax was prepared and the blocks were coated with it with little delay before they were
removed from the tunnel. They were very carefully packed and transported to the laboratory.
Sometimes in the short interval between extracting the block from the face and coating it
with wax it was noticed that the laminations had opened up slightly of their own accord.
At the laboratory the blocks were given at least two additional thick coatings of the wax
mixture, and placed over trays of water in wooden boxes in a room kept at constant temperature
and almost 100% humidity until required for testing purposes.
Test specimens were carefully prepared from the blocks using a Swedish log saw and shaving
knives. First, the blocks were sawn up into smaller reactangular prisms. Then a prism
was trimmed to fit loosely inside a cylindrical tube which enabled the ends of the prism to be
trimmed accurately parallel to each other with a sharp metal blade. The prism was then
mounted in a rotary soil trimmer (Casagrande and Shannon, 1948) and converted to a cylindri-
cal prism by gradually shaving away the surplus material with a sharp blade. The specimen
was finally shortened to the required length by trimming down the ends, using the ends of
another cylindrical tube as guides for the trimming blade. The specimens were 1 it_in. dia. and 34
in. long for triaxial compression tests, and 3 in. dia. and 2 in. long for the consolidation tests.
In the latter case the final shaving of clay was taken off the cylindrical surface as the specimen
was pushed into the confining ring of the consolidation apparatus.
In preparing the cylindrical specimens particular attention was paid to the direction of the
laminations and, in general, the laminations were arranged to be either parallel or at right
angles to the cylindrical axis. Since the laminations in situ were mainly horizontal, a test
specimen is described here as being a vertical one (V) where its cylindrical axis and the direction
of the major principal stress is normal to the plane of the laminations; a horizontal specimen
(H) has the cylindrical axis and the major principal stress parallel to the plane of the laminations.
A few specimens were tested in the triaxial machine so that the rupture surfaces were approxi-
mately parallel to the planes of the laminations; the specimens are described as diagonal (D)
ones. In the earlier work at sites H and A (Ashford Common) no account was taken of the
laminations and these specimens are described as (R)random.
During preparation of the test specimens from the bIocks every effort was made to prevent
evaporation. Temporary re-waxing was carried out at every stage and the specimens were
covered with damp rags whenever waxing was inconvenient. The soft plastic wax mixture was
found to be very satisfactory compared with ordinary paraffin wax or other brittle waxes and
no sign of the coating cracking in storage was noticed.
It is difficult to check directly that the blocks had not lost water, because the variations
in water content within any one block were found to be about 2%. This variation may be
compared with the variation of 4% which Cooling and Skempton (1942) reported within a
distance of 2 in. in borehole samples at Waterloo Bridge and also with measurements on a
large number of samples obtained from a series of fifteen horizontal borings at approximately
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 39
the same level at Ashford Common. Here a variation of 2% was found within a distance of
i in., 4% within 6 ft, and no greater variation within a distance of 50 ft.
The checks made on water content changes do not suggest any loss of water during storage
or during sample preparation. The swelling pressure measurements referred to later appear
to substantiate this point.

1,ABORATORY TESTS AND PROCEDURES

The principal tests made are given below:-

(u) Natural water content, liquid and plastic limits, and bulk density.
(b) Velocity of longitudinal waves.
For this purpose (Jones and Gatfield, 1955) ultrasonic pulses are generated electronically
at a piezo-electric transducer placed at one end of the specimen and the time delay in the
signals received by another transducer at the other end is measured by reference to a time
base on a cathode ray tube. The wave velocity is defined as the shortest distance between
the transducers divided by the transmission time; the direct path may be shorter than the
signal path according to the degree of opening of the fissures and laminations, and their
geometry.

(c) Undrained triaxial compression tests.

In these tests the specimens were subjected to confining pressures corresponding to approxi-
mate estimates of the effective overburden pressure. In view of the work on tunnel linings
interest centred particularly on the deformation characteristics at small strains. Hence,
apart from the samples from sites A and H, cycles of increasing and decreasing deviator
stresses up to about one to two-fifths of the ultimate strength were applied to the block
specimens before proceeding to failure (see Table I).
Generally the deviator stresses were applied at a constant rate of strain of about 0.2%
per minute and the strain in the specimen was recorded on a dial gauge reading to lo-4 in.
During the loading and unloading cycles the deviator stresses were recorded at intervals of
about O.O15o/ostrain.

(d) One-dimensional consolidation tests.

The Casagrande type of oedometer was used to study the consolidation and swelling
characteristics of the clay.
The procedure used to estimate the swelling pressure merits description. In a prelimin-
ary test the specimen was mounted without the presence of water and a pressure was
applied which was judged to be somewhat smaller than the swelling pressure. Water was
then brought into contact with the specimen and the pressure increased rapidly until neither
swelling nor consolidation occurred. In subsequent tests the pressure applied initially
was slightly less than the value indicated by the preliminary measurement of the swelling
pressure and, after water had been admitted to the specimen, the pressure was raised rapidly
to its critical value, so as to reduce to a minimum the amount of swelling involved in the
measurement procedure.
The subsequent loading procedures took one of the three following forms:-
(i) Decremental unloading from the swelling pressure to a very small value.
(ii) As (i), and followed by incremental loading to pressures in excess of the swelling
pressure, and a final decremental unloading to a very small value.
(iii) Incremental loading from the swelling pressure to a much higher value followed by
decremental unloading to a very small value.
40 IV. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

RESULTS OF TESTS ON BLOCK SPECIlMENS

The mean values of the laboratory test results on the block specimens from all sites are
given in Tables I and 2. Only the number of specimens are given in these Tables. Later in
this Paper, in Tables 4 and 5, and in Figs 9, 10, and 11, the Authors indicate the scatter of the
results for sites P, 0, and L and these may be regarded as typical of the scatter of results from
the other sites.
Necessary explanations and special features of the Tables 1 and 2 are mentioned in the
following subsections which discuss the test results in more detail.

(i) Water content and Atterberg limits

From Tables 1 and 2 it is seen that the liquid limits of the London Clay (excluding the
Basement Bed) over a wide area lie within the range of about 60 to 80 and the plastic limit
within the range of about 21 to 32. The water content is generally slightly below the plastic
limit, which in relation to the present overburden confirms the well-known fact that the clay is
highly overconsolidated. The variations in water content and the limits within the bounds
of one block indicate local variations in the composition of the material.

(ii) Longitudinal wave velocity

This measurement is very simple and can be made in a few minutes. It proves to be very
useful in detecting the presence of laminations as well as unseen air-filled fractures which may
be caused by poor sampling techniques. There is little attenuation of the signal in block
specimens and the velocity can be measured within j, 0.3% ; the transmitted signal becomes
less well defined as fissuring increases and the
disturbances and fractures caused by the tube
sampling method (see p. 49) may prevent any
measurable transmission of the signal.
It will be seen from Table 1 that the longi-
tudinal wave velocity parallel to the laminations
(H specimens) is significantly greater than the
velocity in the orthogonal direction (V specimens) ;

the velocity ratio a is 1.05 & 0.01.

(V
The theory of the transmission of longitudinal
waves in elastic solids shows that the Young’s
modulus is proportional to the square of the wave
velocity. In Fig. 3(a) the Young’s modulus
obtained from the reloading cycle in compression
tests is plotted against the square of the wave
velocity, the direction of measurement in relation
to the direction of the laminations being distingu-
ished by the symbols (H) and (V). The values
plotted are the means of all measurements at each
site. The results suggests a general correlation
exists and that when the modulus becomes zero the
velocity reduces to a value corresponding to the
velocity of sound in water. * The scatter of the
measurements could be accounted for by our arbi-
Fig. 3. Correlation between the suuare
- of the wave velocity and (o) Yokg’s trary definition of the Young’s modulus and by a
modulus and (b) shear strength number of factors, such as the varying minera
PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 41
 Table 2
Summary of consolidation and swelling data for block specimens
- ? _____
w 1 PL m, : 6 c. Percentage swelling at
_I sq. ft/ _A- pressures of
tonslsq. ft ton sq. ft/yr
2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1
tons pe:r sq. ft
T
L
-- T’
H
12
10
23
25
126
127
2.68
2.68
4.0
3.3
3.1
0.0036
0.0021
4.4
20.4
3.4
6.4
0.29
0.15
0.64
0.33
0.98
0.51
1.45
0.74
1.78
0.90
I I -_ -_ ._ ---
K k’ 131 2.68 3.7 0.0027 3.3 2.7 0.22 0.54 037 1.45 1.85
3.8
(Site 1) I H : 131 2.68 3.2 0.0017 6.6 6.4 0.09 0.23 0.42 0.92 1.52
-/- I I_ j-
G V 28 128 2.74 - 4.7 0.0039 2.4 1.9 1.07 2.07 3.14 4.52 5.57
43 2.5
H 28 128 2.75 3.8 0.0029 7,l 3.4 0.23 o+so 1.81 3.45 4.95
I It -. -_ --
I-
4 25 129 2.72 0.0038 4.4 2.4 0.50 1.39 2.31 3.53 4.44
5.8 4.5
(SiE 3) I ii , 4 25 129 2.72 0.0030 8.5 5.1 0.20 0.58 1.20 2.24 3.16
’ -- _I_ -..
22 2.68 - 8.8 0~0010 7.2 0.94 1.45 1.91 2.54 3.02
3.9 4.5
22 2.69 8.8 0.0006 18.4 0.33 0.49 0.74 0.83 0.97
-- ._ -._ _-
25 30 127 2.68 3.0 0~0030 3.1 2.9 0.35 0.96 1.57 2.13 2.45
24 29 127 2.70 - 2.9 0.0031 7.4 7.6 0.13 0.37 0.61 0.93 1.13
3.1 1.6
22 25 128 2.67 2.0 0.0047 8.5 8.2 0.32 0.66 1.10 1.40
22 24 128 2.68 1.9 0.0040 29.6 13.8 0” 0.18 0.35 0.62 0.77
-- _---~ _‘_
2 31 128 2.74 6.9 0.0022 2.9 2.0 0.69 1.12 1.54 2.09 2.51
T / ; 7.7 -
2 32 128 2.73 6.5 0.0009 19.0 0.26 0.38 0.48 0.59 0.68
I I I

P, = estimate of overburden pressure based on total bulk density.

P, = estimate of overburden pressure assuming full submergence.
p0 = estimated effective overburden pressure.
P,,,, = measured swelling pressure.
The compressibility (m.) quoted is applicable to a range of pressure P,, to (f’,, + 1) ton/sq. ft (a typical increment). Similarly, the values of
C, and c, are applicable to the pressure range P,, to (P,w & 1) ton/sq. ft.
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 43

composition, the nature and spacing of the laminations and perhaps by minor degrees of calcite
cementation: none of these possible variables have been studied.
The mean shear strengths of the V and H specimens from the various sites are plotted
against the square of the wave velocity in Fig. 3(b). The wave velocity may be indicative
of the strength of the intact clay itself but not of the strength of the specimen with its fissures
and laminations, and this may explain the rather poor correlation obtained.

(iii) Stress-strain characteristics in undrained triaxial compression tests

In Fig. 4(a) a typical stress-strain curve for a block specimen from site P is shown. This
curve illustrates the type of loading and unloading cycles employed and the significant strain
differences which exist between the first and subsequent loading cycles. The early portion
of the first loading cycle shows a rapid stiffening which may be attributed partly to bedding
down of the ends of the test specimen but certainly also to a closing up of open laminations and

a
n

20 ..-/

IO
.-_
t
_,..r._ STRAIN O/o

Fig. 4. Typical stress-strain curves for block specimens, and tube samples, showing
loading and unloading cycles and the disturbing effect of tube sampling
4’+
44 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

fissures. Even the latter portion of the first loading curve does not appear to be as representa-
tive of the in-situ conditions as the subsequent loading and unloading curves but must be
considered to have been influenced by the operation of extraction from the ground. This
point will be substantiated later when comparisons are made between tube samples and block
specimens.
Any method of specifying a Young’s modulus for London Clay can be only an arbitrary one
and must be related to the stresses or strains in the practical problem at hand. In Table 1
three values of Young’s modulus are quoted, and these are average values for the first loading,
reloading and unloading cycles employed. For the purpose of interpreting the modulus
from the first loading curve a corrected origin has been found by extrapolation, as indicated
in Fig. 4(b) ; the flattened portion of the curve has been discarded.
At every site the moduli in the horizontal direction are greater than in the vertical direction,
a result which is to be expected in a laminated material. The mean ratios of the moduli in the
orthogonal directions from all sites are given in Table 3 below.

Table 3

Young’s modulus ratio

Site First loading Reloading Unloading

L 1.7 1.6 1.7

Kl 1.9 1.8 1.8
K2 2.0 1.9 2.0
G 1.1 1.8 1.4
B 1 and 3 1.9 I.9 2.0
B2 1.6 1.4
1.2 1.3 t ::
1.4 1.5 1.5

It is of interest to note the large increase in the modulus ratio at site G between the first
loading and the reloading cycles. This could be associated with the highly fissured nature of the
clay dominating the lamination effects when the clay is first loaded.
The mean shear strength, c (equal to one half the maximum deviator stress), and the strains
at failure are given in Table 1. Except for the very fissured clay at site G, the shear strength
is greater when the major principal stress acts in the horizontal direction and the mean ratio

of the strengths 0 is about 1.3 & 0.1. Again the exceptionally fissured nature of the clay
(cv)
at site G could account for the strength of the specimens being almost equal in the two
directions.
The failure strains vary from 1.3 to 4.4% and on the whole are larger for the vertical
specimens than the horizontal ones, which is in line with the moduli. However, at sites G
and 0 the failure strains in the two orthogonal directions are nearly equal; at the first of these
sites the result is evidently associated with the high degree of fissuring, but at the other site
the reason is not clear though the ratios of the moduli, as mentioned above, are smaller.
In Figs 5(a) and 5(b) the Young’s moduli are plotted against the shear strengths; all values
are means from the various sites, the upper diagram (a) shows the reloading moduli and the
lower diagram (b) shows the first loading moduli. The directions in which the major principal
stresses are applied are indicated by the following symbols: H horizontal, V vertical, R random,
and D diagonal. The points ringed with a line of dots on the reloading plot (a) represent
sites where the clay is more highly fissured. The other points marked with “T” on these
plots, and the straight line within the rectangle near the origin, will be discussed later.
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 45

The angle czbetween the rupture surface and the plane normal to the direction of the major
principal stress was measured on every specimen and the mean values for the various sites are
given in Table 1. Very frequently the rupture surfaces were curved sigmoidally, the angle a
being greater at the cylindrical boundary and less across the centre of the specimen; the
measured angle represents an average value across the surface. The mean values vary from
50” to 60” and the direction of the major principal stress relative to the laminations does not
appear to have any significant effect. The grand average angle is 56”, which agrees with
the value Bishop (1947) obtained in borehole samples at Walton.

(iv) Consolidation-spelling charncteristics

A summary of the mean values of the consolidation and swelling data from oedometer
tests is given in Table 2.
The swelling pressures vary from about 2 to 9 tons/sq. ft, the values in the horizontal direc-
tion being in general slightly less than in the vertical direction. At many of the sites it was
not possible to obtain even a rough idea of the water
pressure distribution in the ground. The Authors have
therefore quoted in the Table the possible limits of the
effective overburden pressure, $Q and p,. At sites K and
B some measurements of the water pressures had been
made and likely values of the effective overburden
pressure (9,) are given. The technique of measuring
swelling pressures in the oedometer is a difficult one and it
gives some confidence to the method to note that the
values of the swelling pressures all lie within the possible
limits.
The percentage swelling or expansion, as the pressure
is reduced, is also tabulated. The expansion is always
less in the horizontal direction (along the laminations)
and in some cases is less than a half the value in the
vertical direction.
For the pressure ranges quoted in Table 2 the coeffici-
ent of swelling (cJ is always greater in the horizontal
direction than the vertical one. It varies from about
2 to 8 sq. ft/year vertically and from about 3 to 18 sq.
ft/year in the horizontal direction. The coefficients of
consolidation are greater than the coefficients of swelling,
particularly in the horizontal direction.
The mean values of oedometer compressibilities (m,)
vary from about 0.0006 to 0.005 sq. ft/ton and in

Fig. 6(a) a plot of iv (the modulus of compressibility) is Fig. 5. Correlation between

Young’s modulus and shear
strength ; (a) for reloading and
made against the mean shear strength c. The two chain- (b) for initial loading
dotted lines on this Figure are previously published corre-
lations for the London Clay (Skempton and Henkel,1957). The values for specimens from the
1
sites with the more fissured clay lie about the line ;v = 100~ which has been suggested as a cor-

relation for samples obtained from borings. Most of the other block specimens from the sites
46 w. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

1
where the clays are less fissured lie closer to the line ;V = 75c, which was suggested for the

borehole samples from Waterloo Bridge where special attention was given to borehole sampling
operations. The Authors suggest, therefore, that this plot again demonstrates the influence
of the fissures as a factor in lowering the shear strength of the specimens as tested; it also seems

that the relation ifl = 75c is more representative of the in-situ clay, though the true relation

may not be linear.

In Fig. 6(b) GV is plotted against the Young’s modulus E.

with the reloading modulus. The correlation of iti with E is better than with c because the

fissures interfere mainly with the shear strength.

There are several features of the void ratio-effective pressure curves obtained from the
oedometer tests to which attention should be drawn. A larger number of these tests were made
on the clay from site L than from the other sites and in some tests the effective pressure was
increased to nearly 60 tons/sq. ft. Typical void ratio-pressure curves for a horizontal (H)
and a vertical (I’) sample from site L are given in Fig. 7.
The first feature of interest is the
distinct change in curvature of the re-
consolidation curve which occurs in the
vicinity of the swelling pressure. This
approximate coincidence was also noted
for specimens from other sites, and it
would be very interesting to know
whether a similar result is obtained in
other overconsolidated clays. Some
form of stress memory seems to be
involved, but no physical explanation
can be suggested at present.
The second point of interest is the
magnitude of the pre-compression press-
ure as determined by the method sug-
gested by Casagrande (1936). The
shape of the reconsolidation curves
are such that the method only leads to
very approximate results, particularly
in the case of the curves for H samples.
The magnitude of the pre-compression
pressure certainly appears to be greater
than 20 tons/sq. ft as Cooling and
Skempton (1942) suggested, and it may
be appreciably greater. It may be
possible to establish the value more pre-
cisely by loading to much greater inten-
sities, but there is no convincing
Fig. 6. Correlation between modulus of compress- evidence to suggest that the method
ibility and (a) shear strength and (b) Young’s works with highly overconsolidated
modulus clays.
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 47
Another feature of interest is the rather rapid decrease in the consolidation coefficient (cV)
with increasing effective pressure for the horizontal samples. Fig. 8 demonstrates this varia-
tion and shows also how the coefficients in the two directions are distinctly different but tend
to become equal when the pressure is high. When the pressure is applied in the direction of
the laminations (H specimens) the value of cu must be determined largely by the high permea-
bility along the laminations and the large reduction in cfl with increasing pressure could be
associated with a closing of the laminations. On the other hand in the vertical specimens
the drainage path lies across the laminations and their closure can only influence cVto a small
extent.
The laminations should clearly be considered in making estimates of the rate of settlement
of structures on London Clay. Evidently the drainage will tend to be directed horizontally

1 i iiiiiltl

Fig. 7. Typical void ratio-pressure curves for horizontal and

vertical specimens from site L.

0 Rloaded fromc. zero press

. Stmight loding from 5wdlii

V : vertical specimens (6 No.)

H : horizontal specimens (6 No.)

Fig. 8. Variation of the consolidation coefficients with effective

pressure for H and V specimens from site L
48 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

rather than vertically and the rate of settlement will be faster than the normal methods of
analysis suggest. As indicated above, the usual oedometer measurement on a borehole sample
(major principal stress acting normal to the bedding) attempts to restrict horizontal drainage
through the laminations and is clearly not an appropriate test procedure. On the other hand
the present method of estimating the amoz& of settlement is likely to be in error only to the
extent by which the orthotropy changes the stress distribution. A consolidation test in
which drainage is free to take place along the laminations is clearly desirable, for example,
vertical loading with lateral drainage, but the best method of determining the settlement
parameters may have to await a theory which evaluates the orthotropy in respect of both
drainage and stress distribution.

EFFECTS OF SAMPLING METHODS Or\‘SOME SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

One important practical aspect of the present work is that it may be used to give a relative
measure of the amount of disturbance and weakening caused by normal sampling methods.
The Authors’ methods of extracting and preparing specimens for laboratory testing have
been described and for the present purpose such specimens are referred to as “block specimens”.
They have been subjected to some unknown degree of disturbance and weakening, which is
generally recognized as being small.
The Authors in their work have also extracted l$-in.-dia. samples directly from the invert
of the tunnels at sites P and 0 and these are referred to as “tube samples”.
Routine testing of London Clay is normally carried out on samples obtained in the following
manner. A steel sampling tube about 4 in. dia. (British Standard Code of Practice, 1957)
is driven in at the bottom of a borehole, then, in the laboratory, samples are extracted along-
side each other from the 4-in-dia. core by means of l&-in.-dia. tubes. The technique of extrac-
tion and the number of samples extracted at one level varies. Hence these samples have been
subjected at least twice to the action of driving or pushing-in of sampling tubes before they are
ready for testing. For the present purpose these test pieces are called “borehole samples”
and the Authors have available independent test results on such samples at sites B, K, and O,*
taken prior to their work.
Comparisons have been restricted to tests on samples 14 in. dia. Differences have been
noted between some characteristics of tube and borehole samples of different sizes and it is
possible that other differences exist between the properties of samples and the large masses
of clay influenced by building operations; these problems, important as they may be, are not
considered in the Paper.

(a) Sites P and 0

At sites P and 0 a number of tube samples were taken vertically from the invert of the
tunnels in positions very close to where blocks of clay were also taken. The sampling tubes
were made of brass about lO$ in. long, l+ in. internal diameter and & in. wall thickness. At
site P the sampling tubes had no internal or external clearances behind the cutting nose; the
tubes were driven-in with a 7-lb. sledge hammer. At site 0 similar sampling tubes were used,
but some had inside clearances behind the nose of about l”//oand 3% of the diameter; the
inside lip of the cutting nose was about 0.1 in. long. Some of the tubes were jacked in and
others driven in with a hammer.
The recovery of samples with tubes having inside clearances was not good, particularly
when the inside clearance was 3%, and they cannot be recommended for practical work in
London Clay.
Each tube sample was carefully waxed and packed for transport to the laboratory.
Whenever possible two test specimens were prepared from each tube sample and these were
* The results of tests on borehole samples at this site, and the differences between their strength and the
strength of the block specimens were kindly drawn to our attention by Mr E. W. Cuthbert.
 PROPERTIES OFLONDON CLAY 49

carefully inspected on ejection from their tubes. At site 0 all the samples were cracked
along the laminations irrespective of the method of inserting the tube in the ground, but com-
plete breaks across the samples were confined to the tubes with inside clearances. At site I-‘,
where the clay is much stronger and not so fissured as at site 0, the tube samples showed less
opening of the laminations, but, as mentioned above, only tubes with zero inside clearance
were used at this site.
The action of tube sampling in opening laminations and fissures at site 0 was demonstrated
by the attenuation of ultrasonic signals. Good signals were transmitted through all but
one in twenty-six specimens prepared by hand trimming from blocks. The cause of the one
weak signal was shown in a compression test to be caused by a fissure which led to an incipient
failure. On the other hand, out of eighteen tube samples on which measurements were made
at the same site only six samples transmitted reasonable signals, in five samples the signal
was weak, and in the remaining seven samples no signal could be measured.
The stress-strain curves from undrained triaxial compression tests on all the vertical block
specimens and tube samples from site I’ are shown in Fig. 9 and the mean values and ranges
of all the measured properties are given in the Table 4. Corresponding data for site 0 are
given in Fig. 10 and Table 5. In both of these Figures the cyclic loading loops have been
omitted for the sake of clarity.
It will be noted that the mean shear strength of the block specimens of clay at site I’ is
about three times the strength at site 0, yet at both sites the mean strength of the tube samples

8
20 ’
AXIAL STRAIN _-O/o

Fig. 9. Stress-strain curves for vertical block specimens and tube samples from site P
(o,=llO lb/i&.)
 Table 4
Comparigons between the properties of block specimens and tube samples from site P
_
Type No. w LL PL Wave Young’s modulus: E tons/sq. ft Strain to
of of velocity : failure : d:g-
sample tests ftisec Initial Reloading Unloading (“,d reeS
loading
-___ _____ __~
I-__-
Blocks 13 22.2 & 0.8* 73 30 128 5,860 2,700 & 440 3,700 _I: 6X 3,800 9.93 :’ 1.69 1.5 3s
2 l-24 is-75 17-32 127-130 5,720-6,07( l,SOO-3,100 2,400-4,600 3,000-4,500 6.62-12.76 0.8-2.0 SO-6S

Tubes
Bottom 4 21 64t 25 580 1,760 1,970 741 4.0 59
20-2 1 470-740 I ,680-l ,830 1,900-2,040 %.77-7.58 3.2-4.7 55-60

Top 31 20 790 1,780 2,120 6.10 3.2 54

54%1,080 I 1,260~2,290 1,5SU-”-. 650 4.90-7.06 2.3-4.0 SO-57
._
.l’otes: 1. Throughout this investigation a deviator stress of about 70 lb/sq. in \vas applied in obtaining the values of Young’s: modulus quoted
2. Both mean values and range of values are given in the Table.
* Standard deviaton.
t Average of two tests only, which were made on oven-dried material.
 Table 5
Comparisons between the properties of block specimens, tube samples, and borehole samples from site 0
-3
-
Typo w PL Y: Wave Young’s modulus: E tons/sq. ft r Strain to CI:
of lb/w. ft velocity : tons:sq. ft failure: deg-
sample ft/sec Initial Reloading Unloading (%) rees
loading
-__ _
Blocks l-
24.0 & 1.2 74 29 126 5,550 670 _C 120 940 * 1.50 1,200 3.23 * 069 2-8
22-26 64-85 I:24-34 125-128 i,270-5,68C 470-870 730-l ,200 800-I ,800 1.56-4.27 1.7-3.6

Tubes
;0 inszde clearance)
Bottom 70 28 126 5,260 410 770 950 2.22 2,7
Top I ;t - 124 5,460 310 550 620 1.83 4.0
1l.i i% Inside clearance 1
Bottom 25 74 27 126 5,420 410 690 830 2.51 ! 3.4
Top 24 75* 28* 123 5,490 200 500 630 1 +Jo 4.4
:A Iv&de cleara~zce)
Bottom 25 75 25 123 - 170 470 1SO 5.3
I
Top 24 123 5,340 280 590 2.15 5.2
(Over-all mean)
24 / 24.2 & 1.0 330 * 140 630 A 200
<
2.09 j, 0.40
(Over-all ranges)
Bottom 13 23-27 66-80 ?4-33 122-127 ;,260-5,490 140-710 410-1,200 490-l ,620 1.75-2.78 l&5.7
Top 11 22-26 - - 119-126 i,330-5,580 120-460 430-720 430-830 1.44-2.64 2.6-7.5

Borehole
Samples
‘d;$yI:”
71 25 126 - - 1.51 -
22-27 123-128 0.45-2.38
52-61 16 26 81 27 124 - 2.12 -
25-2s 80-83 !5-29 123-125 1.46-2.83
Mean and deaiation
23 1 25.9 + 1.5 1.93 * 0.59
i i i
Notes: Throughout this investigation a deviator stress of about 23 lb/sq. in. was applied in obtaining the values of Young’s modulus quoted.
* One test only.
4OJ7 70-o &a
52 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

is less than 70% of the block specimen strength. At both sites the effect of tube sampling
on the Young’s modulus is very noticeable, and the strain to failure is increased by the sampling
operation, particularly at site P.
The effect of the tube-sampling operation on the early part of the stress-strain curve and
on the loading and unloading loops is well shown in Fig. 4 by typical pairs of curves from sites
P and 0, diagrams (a) and (c) relating to block specimens and diagrams (b) and (d) to tube
samples. It will be noticed that the Young’s moduli of the tube samples are very much smaller
than the moduli of the block specimens, particularly during the first loading cycle. This
result is generally true and may be demonstrated by comparisons between the mean ratio of
the first and reloading moduli for the vertical block and the tube specimen from both sites
P and 0, which are given in Table 6 below. In other words sampling disturbances to the
material affect the slope of the first loading curve more than the reloading curve. Referring
to the Tables 4 and 5 it will be seen that the reloading modulus of the tube samples never
attains the value associated with the block samples. For this reason and on account of the
data in Table 6, the Authors consider that the slope of the reloading curve of the block specimen
is more nearly representative of the in-situ conditions.

Table 6
Mean ratios of first loading to reloading
Young’s moduli

Site P Site 0
I
Block Block ( Tube
/
0.73 0.71 0.52

No significant differences in the stress-strain characteristics were found between samples

obtained in tubes hammered or jacked into the ground; thus no attempt has been made to
separate the results in Table 6. The addition of an inside clearance to the tube (see
Table 5) does not appear to reduce the disturbance to the samples, indeed some of the tube
samples with a 3% release are noticeably inferior.
The results of two independent sets of tests on borehole samples from site 0 are given
at the foot of Table 5. The first set of tests were made on two 4&-in-dia. cores taken from
different boreholes at depths of 52 and 55 ft. In the second set two cores of 4 in. dia. were
taken in each of two boreholes at depths ranging from 52 to 61 ft. All the Authors’ tests were
made on specimens taken from a depth of 55 ft. Unfortunately, some differences in water
contents exist between these samples and those taken independently. Such differences may,
to some extent, be attributed to varying composition of the clay but other factors, mentioned
later (see p. 55) should be considered. Nevertheless if the borehole samples given in Table
5 are considered as a whole, a reasonable comparison is obtained from which it will be seen
that the average shear strength from these independent tests is about the same as the average
strength of the tube samples taken in the tunnel, and only about 60% of the average strength
of the block specimens.

(b) Sites K and B

Independent borehole samples were taken and undrained compression tests were made
on I$-in-dia. samples at sites K and B prior to the Authors’ work. These borehole samples
were extracted very close to where the block specimens were taken subsequently. The results
of the tests on the borehole samples and block specimens are summarized in Table 7. The
Table suggests that the strength of the borehole samples are about one-half the value of the
block specimens.
54 W. H. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

(c) Site L

The effect of a single-tube sampling operation was simulated in the laboratory on a block
of clay from site L. The block was carefully trimmed down to fit inside a 4-in.-dia. tube.
One l&-in.-dia. brass sampling tube ($6 in. wall thickness and no internal or external releases)
was then pushed axially into the clay by means of a jack. The I&in.-dia. specimen, with its
laminations horizontal, was then tested in the triaxial machine in exactly the same way as the
group of specimens prepared from the blocks by hand trimming.
The stress-strain curves of all the specimens tested at site L are shown in Fig. 11. For the
sake of clarity the cyclic loading loops have been omitted. It will be noted that the curves
for the vertical and horizontal samples fall into two distinct groups and that the effect of the

Table 7
Comparison between shear strengths of borehole samples and block specimens at sites K and B

Borehole samples Block specimens (mean values and ranges)

-
z& CT.. w CB.
Ratio 2
-_____.
lh/saq3.
in. ton/sq. ft Ib/sTf.
in. tons/sq. ft CB
-_
site Ill :
22 10 3.12
23 30 1.62
23 60 2.04 20.9 + 0.6 50 5.76 + 0.64 47 ‘I/
0
(20-22) (4.85-6.57)
20 1.48
21 :: 2.31
20 60 3.47
I-
Site h'2:
25 10 1.27
26 30 1.66
24 60 1.78 21.9 i 0.6 50 4.18 * 0.65 437;
(21-23) (2.70-4.79)

Site B:
24-30 - 1.03-l .29 23.4 + 0.9 50 2.35 * 0.41
(22-26) (1.51-3.27)
1 i L -
(The ratio 2 is based on the largest measured values of cT and these values are underlined)

tube sampling is chiefly to decrease the slope of the stress-strain curve and to increase the strain
to failure. The effect on strength is fairly small. More tests are necessary to determine
whether this result is representative of the effect of sampling by this method.

(d) Paddington, Victoria, and South Bank

Some approximate comparisons may be made between the Authors’ results and the data
collected on borehole samples by Skempton and Henkel (1957) at Paddington, Victoria, and
South Bank. There is difficulty in making a close comparison because a boring gives a depth
variation at one place while the present data comes from a number of selected levels over a
wide area, and the general composition and loading history of the London Clay may vary from
place to place.
For example, the test results on borehole samples between 50 and 100 ft below the surface
may be selected and compared with the block specimens from sites L, K, G, and 0, which
cover very roughly the same area and lie within the same limits of depth. The average
shear strength of the borehole samples proves to be about 55% of the block specimens and
the average oedometer compressibility of the borehole samples about 16% greater than the
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 55
block specimens. However, the block samples are, on average, about 24% drier and have a
liquid limit 4% lower than the borehole samples. The difference in the plastic limits is not
significant.
Such differences might be associated with different techniques used in the determinations
of water content and Atterberg limits. It might also be argued that either the block specimens
had dried out or the clay was drier in certain areas, or the borehole samples had become
wetter. As mentioned earlier, checks on the block specimens do not suggest drying out. On
the other hand, some of the boring records at these sites, and at the sites mentioned earlier,
suggest occasionally that the borehole sample picks up water; a high water content associated
with a low strength is recorded at one level for no apparent natural reason. There is a good
chance for a sample to absorb water when it is taken by driving a pistonless sampler into a
wet borehole, particularly if the action of sampling tends to open the laminations and fissures.
If the block specimens have dried out, or the borehole samples have become wetter, a
more logical comparison might be made by selecting from the Paddington, Victoria, and South
Bank borings only those tests on samples with water contents in the same range as the
Authors’ specimens, namely the range 23-25%. The average index properties are then
W = 24.1, LL = 71, PL = 23 for the borehole samples and W = 23.2, LL = 73, and
PL = 26 for the block specimens. Now, the slightly higher water content is associated with
a lower liquid limit and the average shear strength of the borehole samples is about two-thirds
the strength of the block specimens. This result is similar to those obtained with tube and
borehole samples at sites 0 and P and suggests that some reduction in strength is caused by
mechanical disturbance in borehole sampling.
Readers may now refer back to Fig. 5 where the shear strength is plotted against (a) the re-
loading modulus and, (b) the initial Young’s modulus. The rectangle and the diagonal line
near the origin of Fig. 5(b) represent respectively the range and the correlation of the variables
obtained from the borehole samples by Skempton and Henkel (1957), see their Fig. 7. The
differences between the limits of the correlations of the borehole samples and the block speci-
mens in Fig. 5(b) are large. They arise partly from the mechanical disturbances caused by
borehole sampling, which reduces both the modulus and the strength, and partly from
apparent or real differences in water content. The net result of all these effects is to push
all the values for the borehole samples towards the origin. This is illustrated, for example,
in Fig. 5(a) and (b) by the displacement of the block specimen values at sites P and 0 to the
points marked T-the values for the tube samples at these sites. The values for the stronger
clays are displaced more than the weaker ones chiefly on account of the very large reduction
in the Young’s modulus.
Figs 5(a) and 6(a) suggest that the relations between the shear strength and the moduli
are not linear.

COSCLUSIONS

In recent years the nature of disturbances caused by sampling of the so-called “sensitive”
clays has become appreciated; an effort has been made to improve the methods of sampling
and to measure the in-situ strength of these normally consolidated sediments. The disturb-
ances cause a temporary breakdown or a permanent rearrangement of the micro-structure of
the clayey particles.
On the other hand no special attention has been given to sampling stiff overconsolidated
clays and no assessment made of the disturbances caused by routine sampling methods, except
when the Authors first noticed the problem at Ashford Common (Tattersall, Wakeling, and
Ward, 1955). It is evident from the Authors’ present study that these clays are sensitive to
disturbances caused by sampling, but sensitive in quite a different sense to that considered by
Skempton and Northey (1952), who described London Clay as insensitive.
56 W. II. WARD, S. G. SAMUELS, AND M. E. BUTLER

The results of the systematic comparisons between block specimens and tube samples at
sites P and 0 show that the action of tube sampling reduces both the shear strength and the
Young’s modulus. Where an excavation gives access to the ground it is clearly much more
satisfactory to take block specimens rather than tube samples for testing purposes.
In other comparisons use has been made of borehole samples which have been taken quite
independently and for purposes quite unconnected with the extraction of block specimens.
The two sets of borehole samples at site 0 indicate, at least at this site, that this method of
sampling underestimates the block specimen strength by an amount not widely different from
that indicated by the tube samples.
At the other sites, K, B, Paddington, Victoria, and South Bank, the shear strength of the
borehole samples is also less than the tests on block specimens suggest. In every case, how-
ever, there are also some differences in water content and it is difficult to establish whether
these differences are real or accidentally caused by differences in techniques. Direct checks
on the water content of block specimens in storage do not show drying, but this is not conclu-
sive evidence that no drying has occurred because natural variations in water content are
comparatively large. There are, on the other hand, good opportunities for samples taken in
wet boreholes to absorb water and most of the borehole records suggest that this has occurred
in some samples. It appears therefore that borehole samples are likely to suffer not only a
mechanical disturbance, but possibly also a weakening caused by the absorption of water.
The mechanical disturbance has a dominating effect on the Young’s modulus, a smaller effect
on the shear strength and, apparently, only a small effect on the oedometer compressibility.
More comparisons are desirable, especially to check directly the effects on compressibility.
Tentatively the Authors regard the disturbances caused by the extraction and sampling
of London Clay as a break-up of the macrostructure and a bulking of the material brought
about by shearing forces. Even when a block is carefully taken from the ground by hand
the laminations and fissures open visibly of their own accord and the material behaves like an
assemblage of clay pieces somewhat weakly bonded together. The operation of tube sampling
weakens the bonds even further and with some borehole samples (e.g. at Ashford Common) it
has been possible to shake the “core ” out of the tube as loose pieces of clay. The laminations
give the assemblage an orthotropic property with an axis of symmetry normal to their bedding,
and the dominant effect of a sampling disturbance is to open the laminations and to decrease
the modulus when a uniaxial compressive stress acts normal to the bedding.
The fissures, in general, crisscross the laminations, but they may occur much less fre-
quently than the laminae. It is only when the clay is very highly fissured that opening of
the fissures dominates the lamination effects. In this case the moduli both parallel and normal
to the laminations may be reduced appreciably by tube sampling.
The effects of sampling disturbances on the shear strength are rather different. In most
of the present tests the major principal stress has been applied either normal or parallel to the
laminations and the rupture surface has cut across the laminations. Consequently an opening
of the laminations is unlikely to have a marked effect on the strength. However, a distur-
bance to the fissures, particularly when they coincide with a rupture surface, is likely to cause a
noticeable reduction in strength. Hence, it should not be expected, in general, that sampling
disturbances would have such a large effect on shearing resistance as on the Young’s modulus
in the vertical direction. Detailed quantitative measurements of the attenuation of ultrasonic
signals may be of value in making a quick assessment of the degree of mechanical disturbance
in a sample.
When a sample of clay is placed in the triaxial testing machine the application of a con-
fining pressure, of a magnitude approximately equal to the overburden pressure,* does little
to close up any openings in the laminations because of their orthotropic nature, but the addition
* A limited number of tests at higher confining pressures suggest that the Young’s modulus increases
to a small extent with confining pressure.
 PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY 57
of even a small deviator stress seems to have a marked temporary effect, particularly in a
vertical sample. The improvement in the Young’s modulus between the initial loading and
the reloading cycles in Fig. 4 is an illustration of the closing of the laminations; it cannot be
entirely bedding at the ends of the samples and of the piston on the sample cap because these
effects are equally possible in block specimens and borehole or tube samples. In view of the
tendency to build higher and heavier structures, and make deeper and larger excavations in
London, it is important to ensure that the most realistic values of the strength and deformation
properties of the London Clay are used in design. It is desirable therefore, whenever deep
excavations and large constructions provide the opportunity, to extract block specimens for
test and to make observations of the mechanical properties of the clay on as large a scale as
possible. This would lead to a better interpretation of borehole data.
The differences noted between block specimens and samples extracted from boreholes
and in tubes from excavations cover a limited range in strength and the Authors have only
been concerned with the London Clay between limits of 50 and 160 ft in depth. At shallower
depths where the clay is softer the disturbances caused by borehole and tube sampling
methods are likely to be less important ; on the other hand at greater depths and in stronger
clays, for example in the mottled Reading Clay, the Authors are aware that the disturbances
are greater.
The following properties of the London Clay at depths ranging from about 50 to 160 ft below
the surface have been established from the Authors’ tests:-
(1) It is laminated and fissured material with orthotropic properties symmetrical about
an axis normal to the laminations. It contains backs which appear to be associated with
minor folds.
(2) Normal sampling techniques cause disturbances which amount to an opening-up of the
laminations and fissures and possibly an increase in water content in some cases. Previous
studies have, therefore, tended to underestimate its strength and particularly its Young’s
modulus.
(3) When deviator stresses are applied normal to the laminations the range of values of
some of its properties determined on block specimens at depths between about 50 and 160 ft
are :
(a) Shear strength 2.2-10.0 tonsjsq. ft
(b) Young’s modulus (initial) 470-2,700 tons/sq. ft
Young’s modulus (reloading) 770-3,700 tons/sq. ft

(c) Modulus of compressibility - m uniaxial strain 200-1,000 tons/sq. ft

(i.) .
(d) Oedometer consolidation coefficient 2.4-9.8 sq. ft/yr
(e) Longitudinal wave velocity 5,330-5,860 ft/sec
(4) In the orthogonal direction a11the above properties have greater vaIues. When loads
are applied or removed from the ground these orthotropic properties influence both the
stress and the strain distribution; the general result being to increase the stresses in the hori-
zontal direction and the strains in the vertical direction, and vice veysa, relative to the iso-
tropic condition. These effects are of practical interest and have been noted in tunnelling
operations.
(5) The swelling pressure measured normal to the laminations gives a reasonable estimate
of the present effective overburden pressure and its value coincides approximately with a
significant change in curvature of the void ratio-pressure curve. In carrying out consolidation
tests for practical purposes the technique of loading or unloading from the swelling pressure
appears to be very satisfactory.
58 WARD, SAMUELS, AND BUTLER: PROPERTIES OF LONDON CLAY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The opportunities for sampling the London Clay and the results of independent tests on
borehole samples were given to the Authors by a large number of tunnel engineers who helped
in every possible way; these included the staffs of the following organizations and firms:
Chief Civil Engineer’s Department of London Transport; Sir William Halcrow & Partners;
Mott, Hay and Anderson; Balfour, Beatty & Co. Ltd; John Mowlem & Co. Ltd; Mitchell
Bros. Ltd, and Kinnear, Moodie & Co. Ltd. The facilities they provided and the help they
gave is gratefully acknowledged.
Dr L. F. Cooling gave the Authors much guidance, and both he and Dr A. W. Bishop
have made valuable comments and suggestions on the Paper.
The work forms a part of the research programme of the Building Research Board of the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and is published by permission of the
Director of Building Research.

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