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154

Liquefaction flow of submarine slopes under

partially undrained conditions: an effective stress
approach
Ehsanollah Atigh and Peter M. Byrne

Abstract: The stability of submarine slopes is commonly assessed based on undrained soil response. Liquefaction flow
may occur when pore-pressure rise in soil elements under constant shear stress causes a reduction in effective stresses.
Recent experimental studies have shown that a small net flow of water into an element results in additional pore-
pressure generation and further reduces its strength. As a result, soil elements can liquefy due to expansive volumetric
strains that cannot be predicted by undrained analysis. Submarine deposits of the Fraser River delta are known to con-
tain high concentrations of methane gas. Tidal variations can cause unequal pore-pressure generation with depth and
time in these soils. Such changes reduce the effective stresses during low tides and may induce liquefaction flow of
slopes due to partial drainage conditions. An effective stress approach based on an elastic–plastic stress–strain relation-
ship is presented to model liquefaction flow of sand. A fully coupled analysis is carried out to evaluate the behaviour
of both saturated and gassy deposits of loose Fraser River sand and Ottawa sand. Triggering of liquefaction resulting in
retrogressive flow slides is predicted for an unsaturated underwater slope similar to those observed near Sand Heads at
the front of the Fraser delta.

Key words: sand liquefaction, Fraser River delta, submarine slopes, flow slide, gassy sand, partial drainage.

Résumé : La stabilité des talus sous-marins est communément évaluée sur la base de la réponse non drainée du sol.
Un écoulement en liquéfaction peut se produire lorsque l’augmentation de la pression interstitielle dans les éléments de
sol sous une contrainte de cisaillement constante produit une réduction des contraintes effectives. Des études expéri-
mentales récentes ont montré qu’un petit réseau d’écoulement d’eau dans un élément résulte en une génération de pres-
sion interstitielle additionnelle et réduit davantage sa résistance. Comme résultat, des éléments de sol peuvent se
liquéfier à cause des déformations volumétriques en expansion qui ne peuvent pas être prédites par l’analyse non
drainée. On sait que les dépôts sous-marins du delta du Fraser contiennent de fortes concentrations de gaz méthane.
Des variations de marée peuvent causer une génération inégale des pressions interstitielles en fonction de la profondeur
et du temps. De tels changements réduisent les contraintes effectives durant les marées basses et peuvent induire un
écoulement par liquéfaction des talus à cause des conditions de drainage partiel. On présente une approche en con-
trainte effective basée sur une relation contrainte–déformation élasto–plastique pour modéliser l’écoulement par liqué-
faction du sable. Une analyse complètement couplée a été réalisée pour évaluer le comportement des dépôts saturés de
même que gazeux du sable meuble du fleuve Fraser et d’Ottawa. Le déclenchement de la liquéfaction résultant en cou-
lées rétrogressives est prédit pour un talus sous-marin non saturé similaire à ceux observés près de Sand Heads au
front du delta Fraser.

Mots clés : liquéfaction du sable, delta du fleuve Fraser, talus sous-marins, coulée, gassy sand, drainage partiel.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Atigh and Byrne 165

1. Introduction sediments (Chillarige et al. 1997a). In the Fraser River delta

Liquefaction flow of submarine slopes is a major concern
because of its frequent occurrence and its effect on the safe-
ty of coastal structures. Many liquefaction flow slides have
occurred in underwater slopes consisting of cohesionless
Received 14 January 2003. Accepted 21 August 2003.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
http://cgj.nrc.ca on 6 February 2004.
E. Atigh1 and P.M. Byrne. Department of Civil Engineering,
University of British Columbia, 2324 Main Mall, Vancouver,
BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: atigh@civil.ubc.ca).
on the west coast of Canada, five liquefaction flow slides
have been reported between 1970 and 1985 (McKenna et al.
1992). A liquefaction flow event occurred near Sand Heads
at the delta front in 1985 and resulted in the loss of at least
106 m3 of sediment (Christian et al. 1997). McKenna et al.
(1992) postulated that this event was related to rapid sedi-
mentation, the presence of interstitial gas, tidal currents,
waves, and seismic activities. Christian et al. (1997) reported
that the seabed at shallow depths is partially saturated, con-
taining a significant volume of methane gas, which affected
the pore-pressure response during tidal drawdown. A reduc-
tion in effective stress of up to 16.5 kPa was computed from
a measured excess head at a depth of 5 m below the seabed.
In addition, a 50 min time lag was observed between the

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seabed pressure and the pore-pressure response at the 5 m
depth.
The behaviour of loose gassy sand has been investigated
in the laboratory in both monotonic and cyclic undrained
triaxial tests (Grozic 1999). The results show that the cyclic
resistance ratio (CRR) increases by two to three times as the
gas content increases (Grozic et al. 2000). Monotonic un-
drained triaxial test results have shown that a loose sample
of sand which exhibited a completely strain softening re-
sponse if saturated had a wide range of response, from strain
softening to strain hardening, depending on the degree of
saturation.
In situ test results including cone penetration resistance
showed that fresh deposits of Fraser River sand are very
loose and highly susceptible to liquefaction (Chillarige et al.
1997a). Chillarige et al. (1997b) used steady state concepts
together with contributions of different environmental pro-
cesses in triggering flow slides in loose gassy sediments to
explain the liquefaction phenomenon. They investigated pos-
sible triggering mechanisms and postulated that the combi-
nation of loose sediment, small amounts of gas, and low
tides contributes to the triggering of liquefaction flow in the
Fraser delta.
Vaid and Eliadorani (1998) carried out a comprehensive
experimental investigation into the potential of instability
and liquefaction of saturated Fraser River sand under various
drainage conditions. They have shown that partially drained
conditions that result in even very small expansive volumet-
ric strain could trigger liquefaction at a constant shear stress
which would not develop if conditions remained undrained.
Pore-pressure response below the seabed on gassy soil is
reduced during tidal variations due to the compressibility of
the pore fluid. In addition, unequal pore-pressure generation
with depth leads to inflow of water into some soil elements.
The reduced pore-pressure response at lower depths results
in a decrease in effective stresses during low tides.
A coupled stress-flow analysis is used to investigate this
phenomenon. In such an analysis, the volumetric strains are
controlled by the compressibility of the pore fluid and flow
of water through the soil elements. To predict the instability
and liquefaction flow, an effective stress approach based on
an elastic–plastic stress–strain model and considering the
gassy nature of the pore fluid was used. The model is cali-
brated against drained triaxial tests on saturated samples and
then used to predict saturated sand response for a wide range
of drainage conditions, including undrained and partially
drained triaxial paths. It is then used to predict the response
of gassy sand in undrained triaxial compression tests for a
wide range of saturation conditions. The predictions are
compared with element test results.
The measured data comprise of triaxial test results on
loose saturated sand from the Fraser River delta (Eliadorani
2000) and loose gassy Ottawa sand (Grozic et al. 1999). In
this way it is shown that the model can capture the behav-
iour of sand over a wide range of saturation and drainage
conditions. A coupled stress flow analysis is then carried out
on the delta profile, which is modelled as a collection of ele-
ments, and the effects of tidal variations on triggering lique-
faction in submarine slopes of the Fraser River delta are
evaluated.
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155
2. Instability and liquefaction flow of sand
Loose saturated granular materials show strain-softening
response under controlled monotonic strain conditions and
are susceptible to liquefaction. Such soils may become
unstable under controlled loading conditions as commonly
occur in the field, due to a reduction in effective stresses as-
sociated with pore-pressure rise.
Vaid and Eliadorani (1998) and Eliadorani (2000) investi-
gated the potential for instability under different drainage
conditions. They accomplished this by injecting or removing
small volumes of water from the sample as it was being
sheared and referred to this as a partially drained condition.
The results of partially drained tests on Fraser River sand in-
dicate a potential for triggering liquefaction at constant shear
stress. Small imposed expansive volumetric strains resulted
in effective stress reduction and flow of samples of sand
consolidated to an initial state of stress corresponding to
Rc = σ1′ / σ3′ = 2, as shown in Fig. 1a, where Rc is the effec-
tive stress ratio and σ1′ and σ3′ are the major and minor prin-
ciple compressive stresses. Vaid and Eliadorani defined this
condition as instability that occurs when a soil element sub-
jected to small effective stress perturbation cannot sustain
the current stress state and results in runaway deformation as
seen in Fig. 1b, or liquefaction flow.
In these tests, expansive volumetric strains (εv) were im-
posed by injection of water into the samples at a constant
rate dεv/dε1 = –0.4, where ε1 is the axial strain. The samples
were stable under the initial stress state. The stress paths
followed during injection indicate a reduction in effective
stresses at a constant shear stress. At each initial confining
stress, the stress changes leading to instability occurred with
little change in initial shear stress and void ratio and at very
small axial strains of the order of 0.1%. Positive pore
pressures continued to develop even beyond the phase-
transformation line from undrained tests. This occurs be-
cause the rate of imposed expansive volumetric strain is
greater than the minimum value of 0.1 observed in drained
tests (Vaid and Eliadorani 1998).
In the very loose submarine slopes of the Fraser delta, the
initial stress state may lie near the instability region in stress
space depending on the drainage conditions. Field measure-
ments of pore pressure during tidal variations indicate that
under falling tide levels a drop in effective stress can occur
as a result of the presence of gas in the pores. This could
trigger instability and liquefaction flow under constant shear
stress and could be responsible for the numerous slope fail-
ures that have occurred. This hypothesis is examined in the
numerical modelling procedure that follows.
3. Stress–strain model for sands
The constitutive model is based on the elastic–plastic
stress–strain model proposed by Byrne et al. (1995) and has
been further developed by Puebla (1999). The model has
been successfully used in analyzing the CANLEX liquefac-
tion embankments (Puebla et al. 1997) and predicting the
behaviour of Fraser River sand in partially drained triaxial
tests (Atigh and Byrne 2000). The response of gassy Ottawa
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156 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004

Fig. 1. Partially drained instability of loose Fraser River sand Fig. 2. Yield loci, plastic potentials, and plastic strain increment
(Vaid and Eliadorani 1998): (a) stress paths; (b) strain paths. Drc, vectors. ψ, dilation angle; εps , plastic shear strain.
relative density at consolidation; σ3c′ , minor principal stress at
consolidation.

Fig. 3. Hyperbolic relation between stress ratio and plastic shear

strain.

sand is also predicted by the model in a previous study by

Atigh and Byrne (2001).
The model is a variation of the standard FLAC Mohr–
Coulomb model in which the friction and dilation angles are np −1 2
varied with current stress ratio rather than strength, as  s′   η  
[2] G* = KGp   1 −  d  Rf 

assumed in the standard Mohr–Coulomb model. This will  PA    ηf  
result in plastic strain increments for all loading conditions
that involve an increase in stress ratio, as explained here. in which KGp is the plastic shear modulus number; np is the
The model is based on an incremental elastic–plastic plastic shear modulus exponent; ηf is the stress ratio at fail-
stress–strain relationship in which the yield loci are lines of ure, as shown in Fig. 3; Rf is the failure ratio ηf /ηult, in
constant stress ratio or developed friction angle. The flow which ηult is the ultimate stress ratio from the best-fit hyper-
rule relating the plastic strain increment directions is non- bola, as shown in Fig. 3; ηd is the developed stress ratio =
associated and leads to a plastic potential defined in terms of sin φd , in which φd is the developed friction angle; t is the
dilation angle ψ as shown in Fig. 2. Plastic shear strain is the shear stress = (σ1 – σ3)/2, in which σ1 and σ3 are the major
hardener that allows the yield locus to expand or the stress and minor principal stresses; s′ is the mean stress = (σ1′ +
ratio ηd = sin φd to increase, where φd is the developed fric- σ3′ )/2; and PA is the atmospheric pressure.
tion angle. The plastic shear strain increment ∆γ p for any in- The plastic volumetric strain increment ∆εpv is obtained
crease in stress ratio ∆η is shown in Fig. 3 and is obtained from the flow rule
from the normalized tangent plastic shear modulus G* as
follows: [3] ∆εpv = sinψ∆γ p

[1] ∆γ p = ∆η/ G * in which ∆γ p is given by eq. [1]; and ψ is the dilation angle,
which is related to the constant-volume friction angle φcv
where G* is given by and the developed friction angle φd by

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[4] sin ψ = (sinφcv − sin φd ) α
in which α = 2 for φd < φcv and α = 0.5 for φd > φcv, where α
is the dilatancy factor.
The anisotropic sand response is simulated by making the
plastic shear modulus number KGp a function of the direction
ασ of the major principal compressive stress σ1′ and the ver-
tical axis. For 0° ≤ ασ ≤ 45°, KGp is given by
[5] KGp = (KGp ) 0[ F − ( F − 1) cos 2α σ ]
where (KGp ) 0 is the plastic modulus number corresponding to
ασ = 0°; and F is the factor of anisotropic plastic response,
less than unity. For 45° ≤ ασ ≤ 90°, KGp is given by
[6] KGp = (KGp ) 0 F
The elastic response is assumed to be incremental linear
and isotropic and is specified by two elastic parameters, the
elastic shear modulus Ge and Poisson’s ratio ν. Ge is stress-
level dependent as follows:
ne
 s′ 
[7] G e = KGe PA  
 PA 
where KGe is an elastic shear modulus number, and ne is the
elastic shear modulus exponent.
The total response is the sum of elastic and plastic compo-
nents:
[8] {∆σ′} = [D′]{∆ε}
where {∆σ′} is the effective stress increment vector; [D′] is
the constitutive model matrix in terms of effective stresses;
and {∆ε} is the vector of total strain increments, plastic and
elastic.
4. Effective stresses in gassy soil
Effective stress in saturated soil can be written in incre-
mental form (Terzaghi and Peck 1948) as
[9] ∆σ′ = ∆σ − ∆uw
where ∆σ′ is the effective stress increment, ∆σ is the total
stress increment, and ∆uw is the pore fluid pressure incre-
ment.
In the field, pore-pressure changes are caused by (i) seep-
age through soils, and (ii) volume changes and (or) applied
loads. Darcy’s law governs flow of water through saturated
soil. In an undrained state, pore water pressure responses
due to volume changes are obtained from a volumetric con-
straint ∆εv caused by fluid stiffness as follows:
[10] ∆uw = (Bw / n) ∆εv
where Bw is the water bulk modulus, n is the porosity of the
soil skeleton, ∆εv is the volumetric strain increment of the
soil element, and (Bw / n) represents an equivalent fluid stiff-
ness.
The mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soil is directly
affected by changes in pore gas and pore water pressures
(Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993). Pore gas pressure and vol-
ume change respond in accordance with Boyle’s law, and
Henry’s law governs dissolving of free gas into the water.
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157
According to Boyle’s law,
[11] ∆ugνg = 0
where ∆ug is the absolute gas pressure = ug + PA, in which
ug is the gas pressure relative to atmospheric pressure; and vg
is the gas volume. From eq. [11],
[12] Bg = 1/ C g = ug
where C g is the compressibility of gas, and Bg is the stiff-
ness of gas.
For a gas–water mix, the compressibility and stiffness of
the mix are defined as
1 1 − Sr
[13] C gw = +
Bw ug + PA
where Sr is the degree of saturation. The first term on the
right side of eq. [13] represents the compressibility of the
water, and the second term is the compressibility of gas. The
compressibility of the gas–water mixture is mostly con-
trolled by gas compressibility, since water is very stiff com-
pared with gas (Bw = 2 × 106 kPa). Hence the bulk modulus
of a gas–water mixture can be approximated by
ug + PA
[14] Bgw = < Bw
1 − Sr
Equations [13] and [14] assume that no gas dissolution
into water occurs as the gas pressure changes. If there is
enough time for dissolution to occur, the effect can be con-
sidered through Henry’s law. Considering Henry’s law will
change Sr to (Sr + hSr) in eq. [14], in which h = ±0.02 for an
air–water mixture, where h is Henry’s volumetric coefficient
of solubility. The effect of Henry’s law is very small and is
not considered in this study.
Bishop (1959, 1961) proposed a modified expression for
the effective stress (σ′) in an unsaturated soil as follows:
[15] σ′ = (σ − ug ) + χ(ug − uw)
where χ can be evaluated from tests results and varies from
1 for saturated soil to 0 for dry soil. The value of χ also de-
pends on wetting history, loading path, soil type, internal
structure of the soil, and specimen size.
In Terzaghi’s effective stress equation for a saturated soil,
pore pressure and total stress are boundary conditions,
whereas in unsaturated soil the pore water pressure causes a
local action at particle level. The main limitation on Bi-
shop’s equation, however, is in mixing boundary conditions
in a soil particle, pore pressure, and total stresses, with the
local actions caused by local unsaturated soil conditions.
Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993) introduced various state vari-
ables, such as (ua – uw) and (σ – ua) in which ua is the pore
air pressure, to describe the unsaturated soil conditions and
overcome the limitations of Bishop’s equation.
According to Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993), for degrees
of saturation between 80% and 100%, air bubbles are of a
spherical form in an occluded zone within the pore fluid.
They suggest that pore gas and pore water pressures may be
assumed equal in an occluded zone. Hence the same defini-
tion of effective stress (stated in eq. [9]) for saturated soil
can be used for gassy soil (eq. [15]), and Fredlund’s stress
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158 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004

state leads to Terzaghi’s definition of effective stresses for Fig. 4. Model calibration drained triaxial compression tests on
saturations in excess of 80%. Using Bgw in eq. [10] will Fraser River sand: (a) stress–strain; (b) volumetric strains
allow gas pressure changes and gas volume changes to be (Eliadorani 2000). P ′, consolidation pressure.
predicted. During undrained loading the gas–water com-
pressibility varies in accordance with gas pressure variations
and the changes in degree of saturation. The high compress-
ibility of the gas–water mixture will result in a different
response in terms of pore pressure and effective stress com-
pared with saturated soil, as discussed later in the paper.

5. Numerical analyses
Numerical analysis of a stress deformation problem re-
quires that equilibrium and compatibility be satisfied for the
boundary conditions using an appropriate stress–strain mo-
del. Finite element and finite difference methods are com-
monly used for these purposes. In this study the analyses
were carried out using version 4.0 of the computer code
FLAC (Cundall 2000). FLAC uses a finite difference method
and satisfies dynamic equilibrium using a step-by-step ex-
plicit time domain procedure.
The soil is divided into a finite mesh composed of quadri-
lateral elements. Even though the program is used to find a
static solution to a problem, the dynamic equations of mo-
tion are included in the formulation. One advantage of this
approach is that the solution is stable even when the problem
is not statically stable and allows failure modes to be exam-
ined. The program allows users to implement their own con-
stitutive model. The stress–strain model described in Sect. 3
has been implemented in FLAC and is used in this study.
The model is first calibrated against drained triaxial test
results on loose Fraser River sand, and then it is used to pre-
dict the sand response in undrained and partially drained and 400 kPa, are presented in Table 1. The predicted and
triaxial tests. The predicted response is compared with the measured shear stress shown in Fig. 4a and the volumetric
test results in each case. The gassy fluid response is captured strain εv shown in Fig. 4b are in reasonable agreement for
using Bgw, which is a function of the degree of saturation Sr the stress range.
and gas pressure ug, both of which vary during loading cy- To simulate the element response in undrained and par-
cles according to element volumetric strains. The model is tially drained saturated states, the appropriate volumetric
then applied to the triaxial test results from loose gassy Ot- strain is applied by constraining the boundaries of the ele-
tawa sand to verify its ability in predicting gassy soil behav- ment. When analyzing an undrained state, the volumetric
iour. The element response of gassy Fraser River sand is strain increment ratio dεv/dε1 is held equal to zero, whereas
predicted by the model, which is then used in the coupled for a controlled flow test the ratio is specified to match the
stress flow analysis of a submarine slope. value in the test to be simulated. The predicted responses so
obtained are compared with the test results for undrained
6. Model calibration and verification (dεv/dε1 = 0) and inflow (dεv/dε1 = –1) states in terms of
stress–strain, volumetric strains, and stress paths in Fig. 5.
6.1. Saturated sand response The undrained test is strain hardening, the inflow test is
Shear behaviour of Fraser River sand has been modelled highly strain softening, and the predicted response is in good
in a previous study (Atigh and Byrne 2000) for drained, agreement with the measurements.
undrained, and partially drained conditions based on the In the field, elements may undergo a range of conditions
comprehensive laboratory test results of Eliadorani (2000). from undrained to inflow to outflow and fully drained. The
These tests were performed on water-pluviated samples, predicted shear and volumetric response of loose Fraser
which are considered to be representative of natural field River sand for this range are compared with the test results
placement. in Fig. 6. Figure 6a shows the responses for drained and out-
In the present study the flow rule used in the model is flow tests are strongly strain hardening, the undrained test is
modified by a factor α in eq. [4] to capture the high contrac- slightly strain hardening, and the inflow test is highly strain
tive response of loose sand at low shear stress ratio levels. softening. The predicted results are generally in good agree-
The model is calibrated against drained triaxial compression ment with the measurements except for the outflow test with
tests for different confining pressures as shown in Fig. 4. dεv / dε1 = +0.4, which shows a slightly stiffer response than
The model parameters, used to fit the stress–strain and the measurement at higher stress levels. Expansive volumet-
volume-change response for confining pressures of 50, 200, ric strains due to inflow of water can also result in instability

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Table 1. Model parameters used in the analyses.
Model parameter
Elastic shear modulus number, K Ge
Elastic shear modulus exponent, ne
Elastic Poisson’s ratio, ν
Plastic shear modulus number, K Gp
Plastic shear modulus exponent, np
Peak friction angle, φf (°)
Constant-volume friction angle, φcv (°)
Failure ratio, Rf
Factor of anisotropy, F
Fig. 5. Predictions of element undrained and partially drained
triaxial test of loose Fraser River sand (Eliadorani 2000):
(a) stress–strain; (b) volumetric strains; and (c) stress paths.
and liquefaction of dense samples of sand. This has been
shown by the laboratory test results of Eliadorani (2000) and
was predicted by the model in a previous study (Atigh and
Byrne 2000). Note that the shear response is not bounded by
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Fraser River sand Ottawa sand
200 150
0.50 0.50
0.125 0.125
200 150
0.50 0.25
35.5 32.5
33.0 32.0
0.97 1.00
0.333 0.333
traditional drained and undrained states as shown in Fig. 6b.
The inflow conditions can lead to an extremely strain soften-
ing response, which is more critical than the undrained state
of loading.
The laboratory tests of Eliadorani (2000) show that the
shear response of sand is highly dependent on drainage state.
The applied volumetric strains in the skeleton caused by im-
posing inflow of water resulted in liquefaction flow of sand.
The numerical model presented has been shown to capture
liquefaction response, and in particular the instability caused
by inflow of water.
6.2. Unsaturated sand response
Grozic (1999) reported drained and undrained triaxial
compression tests on saturated and gassy samples of Ottawa
sand. Moist-tamped samples were used in these tests, result-
ing in very loose sand having void ratios higher than the
maximum void ratio obtained from the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard D2049. Void ratios
of the tested samples were in the range of 0.7–1.0. Carbon
dioxide was used as pore gas in the gassy samples because it
is readily available, noncorrosive, and nonflammable. The
details of the laboratory program are presented in Grozic et
al. (1999). The behaviour of gassy Ottawa sand obtained
from a series of these tests at different saturations is shown
in Fig. 7. These tests were selected because they seem to be
representative of gassy sand response and the samples have
similar void ratio and confining pressure prior to shearing.
Model properties were selected to give a best fit to the dry
or drained triaxial compression test shown as Sr = 0% in
Fig. 7. The calibrated model was then applied to predict the
undrained compression tests of saturated and gassy samples
of Ottawa sand, and the results were compared with the
measured response. Predicted stress–strain response and
stress paths are in good agreement with test results
(Figs. 7a–7c). As seen in Fig. 7b, only the measured data for
dry or drained tests are compared with the predictions. The
measured volumetric strains of gassy samples are often not
conclusive due to the difficulties in measuring the void ratios
of samples during these tests. Pore-pressure measurements
are also not available for gassy samples, and only predicted
pore pressures are presented in Fig. 7d. The pore-pressure
responses increase dramatically as the degree of saturation
increases. This is as expected and is due to the higher com-
pressibility of the gas–water mixture as saturation decreases.
The model parameters for both Ottawa sand and loose
Fraser River sand are shown in Table 1, which also shows
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160
Fig. 6. Loose Fraser River sand undrained and partially undrained responses: (a) stress–strain response; (b) stress paths.
that the soil parameters used are not greatly different for the
two sands. Since no laboratory tests on gassy Fraser River
sand are available, only the model predictions are presented
for Fraser River sand. Predicted undrained stress–strain re-
sponse and stress paths for various degrees of saturation are
shown in Fig. 8. As expected, the stress–strain response
(Fig. 8a) and stress paths (Fig. 8b) are bounded by un-
drained and drained responses. The validity of the model in
predicting the undrained response of gassy sand has previ-
ously been verified from comparison with test results from
gassy Ottawa sand shown in Fig. 7.
The numerical analyses of the test results indicate that the
skeleton and the volumetric constraints applied to the skele-
ton control the response of sand. The volumetric constraint
is largely dependent on the stiffness and flow of the pore
fluid. An undrained loading of a gassy sample results in con-
tractive volumetric strains, which is similar to outflow states
in a partially undrained test, whereas an undrained unloading
of a gassy sample results in expansive volumetric strains,
which is similar to an inflow state in a partially undrained
test. Hence unsaturated undrained sand behaves in a manner
similar to that of a saturated partially drained sample in
which the volumetric strains are the result of gas volume
changes.
7. Analysis of submarine flow slides
Analyses of submarine flow movements in the Fraser
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Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
delta are carried out here in coupled stress flow mode using
the constitutive model and soil parameters for Fraser River
sand described previously. The pore-pressure response dur-
ing tidal changes is first investigated by performing one-
dimensional (1D) analysis and is compared with the field
measurements. The same procedure is applied to a two-
dimensional (2D) model of a typical underwater slope of the
Fraser delta. The purpose of 2D analysis was to simulate the
potential for liquefaction flow under falling tides for an un-
derwater gassy slope. The analysis procedures and results
are presented in the following sections.
7.1. Soil profile used in analyses
The Fraser River delta descends into the Strait of Georgia
at slope angles in excess of 15° at the 10 m isobath and to
less than 1° at the base of the slope. Soil profiles near Sand
Heads show very loose silty sand to sandy silt with some oc-
casional clayey silt to a depth of 30 m (Christian et al.
1997). A rapid sedimentation rate (McKenna et al. 1992) re-
sults in sand layers that are deposited in a very loose state.
Based on standard cone penetration test (SCPT) investiga-
tions, sand and silt deposits at Sand Heads are considerably
looser than those elsewhere along the delta front (Chillarige
et al. 1997b).
Christian et al. (1997) have reported evidence of free
methane gas in the order of several percent to a depth of
30 m at Sand Heads. They suggest a degree of saturation of
97%, on average, for these deposits.
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Atigh and Byrne 161

Fig. 7. Simulation of element test results of behaviour of loose Ottawa sand for different degrees of saturation: (a) stress–strain;
(b) volumetric strains; (c) stress paths; and (d) pore pressure.

Fig. 8. Predictions of behaviour of loose gassy Fraser River sand
in undrained triaxial compression tests: (a) stress–strain;
(b) stress paths.
A degree of saturation in the range of 90%–100% is con-
sidered in the analysis. The pore fluid stiffness of the gassy
soil is obtained using eq. [14] and varies according to gas
pressure and degree of saturation. The permeability of the
gassy sand (Kg) also varies with saturation and is consider-
ably lower for an unsaturated soil, as suggested by Fredlund
and Rahardjo (1993) and given by
[16] Kg = k100(Sr)δ
where k100 is the permeability of saturated sand, and 3 < δ <
6, where δ is a partial saturation exponent.
Values of δ equal to 4, 5, and 6 are considered in the anal-
yses. The stress–strain properties of the loose Fraser River
sand used in the analysis are shown in Table 1 and were
obtained from element response in drained triaxial compres-
sion.

7.2. One-dimensional analysis

The intent of this study was to capture the characteristics
of the gassy soil behaviour in terms of stress–strain and pore
pressure during tidal variations using a simple coupled
stress–flow analysis. A 30 m vertical column of soil below
10 m of water under tidal variations was analyzed and the
predicted pore-pressure response at depth compared with
field measurements. Field measurements of pore-pressure re-
sponse at a depth of 5 m below the seabed were obtained
over a period of 1 month (Christian et al. 1997). The pore-
pressure measurements for one tidal cycle on 25 January

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162 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004

Fig. 9. Predicted pore-pressure response for one cycle of 1.6 m Fig. 10. Parameter variations during two cycles of normal tide
tide measured on 25 January 1995 at a depth of 5 m. obtained from 1D analysis (Sri = 91%, ki = 10–6 m/s, δ = 4):
(a) saturation; (b) volumetric strain. Sri, initial saturation; ki, ini-
tial permeability.

1995 are shown in Fig. 9 as the dotted line. The predicted

pore pressure during one tidal cycle at a depth of 5 m for
various degrees of saturation is also shown in Fig. 9. As the
degree of saturation decreases, the pore-pressure response at
this depth decreases compared with seabed pressure. The
predicted pattern shows an attenuated pore pressure and a
time lag relative to seabed pressure changes. Gas compress-
ibility causes expansive volumetric strains to develop during
falling tides, and hence the reduction in pore pressure (∆u)
does not follow the total seabed pressure change (∆σ).
The best agreement with measurements occurs for Sr =
91%, k100 = 10–6 m/s, and δ = 4. Changes in the degree of
saturation Sr and volumetric strain εv for two tidal cycles are
shown in Fig. 10. The degree of saturation varies slightly Fig. 11. Predicted pore-pressure response at a depth of 5 m for
during tidal variations. A maximum volumetric strain of 1D and 2D analyses.
about 0.06% is predicted for this initial degree of saturation,
and the gas water stiffness is about 3 MPa, which is consid-
erably lower than the stiffness of water.

7.3. Two-dimensional analysis

Analysis was performed on a 20° slope consisting of loose
gassy Fraser River sand to investigate possible liquefaction
flow slide potential under tidal variations. The sea level is
assumed to be 10 m above the crest of the slope and is var-
ied sinusoidally with time. A single tidal cycle is applied to
the slope surface, and analysis was performed in large-strain
mode; coordinates of the nodes are updated during the anal-
yses. The soil layer to a depth of 2 m was assumed to be sat-
urated. Below 2 m the soil is unsaturated and the initial
degree of saturation is considered constant for the whole
depth. During tidal variations the pore fluid compressibility
and permeability of the soil vary in accordance with the
changes in the degree of saturation caused by volumetric The analysis was then carried out for the maximum possi-
strains, as described in previous sections. ble tide (amplitude of 2.5 m and period of 16 h) for various
The 2D analysis was first performed for the normal tide degrees of saturation. Liquefaction flow is predicted during a
used in the 1D analysis and the pore-pressure response with falling tide for a degree of saturation of approximately 95%
depth compared with measurements for level ground. The and permeability of the soil of about 10–6 m/s. The deformed
results are shown in Fig. 11 and agree well with both the 1D mesh after triggering of liquefaction is shown in Fig. 12b.
analysis and the measurements. The initial slope and sea Loose gassy sand liquefies at a depth of about 6–8 m, result-
level conditions are shown in Fig. 12a. The slope is stable ing in flow of the whole layer toward the toe of the slope.
under normal tide conditions for a degree of saturation Displacement vectors in Fig. 12c show the direction of
greater than 90%. movement after liquefaction. Maximum horizontal displace-

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Atigh and Byrne
Fig. 12. Submarine slope under maximum tide of 2.5 m: (a) grid used in analysis; (b) deformed mesh during low tide; (c) displace-
ment vectors; (d) horizontal displacement contours (in m).
ment of 12.5 m is predicted near the toe area, reducing to
2.5 m toward the crest of the slope as shown in Fig. 12c.
The liquefaction flow was predicted at low tide, at which the
maximum decrease in effective stress occurred.
Stress paths at different levels below the seabed are shown
in Fig. 13 for the 20° slope angle. As the stress paths ap-
proach the phase-transformation line (PT) liquefaction is
triggered and there are significant decreases in shear stress
and strain (Fig. 13b). Positive pore pressures are predicted to
develop due to expansive volumetric strains. This indicates
that a partial drainage condition is occurring and the soil
elements experience expansive volumetric strain ratios
(dεv / dε1 = –0.08) as shown in Fig. 13b. This is comparable
to dεv / dε1 = –0.1 observed at the instant of liquefaction
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163
from the partially drained tests of Eliadorani (2000) and is
the reason for predicted runaway deformations.
Predicted stress paths followed by runaway strains indi-
cate that liquefaction flow of the gassy sediment to a depth
of 8 m during tidal variations could occur for loose Fraser
delta sand at this 20° slope angle during tidal variations.
This mechanism leads to a retrogressive flow slide toward
the shore that stabilizes as it approaches the denser sand lay-
ers.
8. Conclusions
The behaviour of submarine slopes in the Fraser River
delta during tidal variations is examined using a numerical
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164
Fig. 13. Two-dimensional (2D) analysis: (a) stress paths leading
to liquefaction following one tidal cycle; (b) and (c) axial and
volumetric strains. D, dimensional.
modelling effective stress approach. The results show that
because of the presence of gas in the pores, the tidal changes
cause a reduced pore-pressure response, which in turn
causes a reduction in effective stress that can lead to lique-
faction flow for sloping seabed conditions. The predictions
are verified by stress paths followed during liquefaction
from partially drained tests and field measurements of pore-
pressure response and observed liquefaction flow slides in
the Fraser delta. The model properties used in the analyses
were chosen to capture the drained triaxial compression ele-
ment test response. The model ability in predicting saturated
soil response under various drainage conditions is verified
by triaxial compression test results on Fraser River sand.
The element response of gassy sand in undrained triaxial
compression for both Fraser River sand and Ottawa sand
was then predicted and shown to be in good agreement with
laboratory test results of gassy Ottawa sand over a range of
gas saturation. This serves to validate the sand model used in
the analysis for gassy soil conditions. The analysis was then
applied to Fraser delta slopes. Both 1D and 2D conditions
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Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 41, 2004
were analyzed. The predicted pattern of pore-pressure
response including time-lag effects agrees well with field
measurements for a moderate tidal range. The permeability
and gas saturation were varied in the model within the ex-
pected range to obtain this agreement. A tidal range corre-
sponding to the maximum expected value was applied and a
slope failure was predicted. It is shown that a small amount
of expansive volumetric strain due to gas compressibility
can cause unequal pore-pressure generation with depth.
Instability due to inflow has been observed in the labora-
tory during partially drained tests. Since the analysis also
predicted instability due to inflow, it is likely that flow lique-
faction failure in 1985 during low tides near Sand Heads in
the Fraser delta was a result of this phenomenon. Predicted
failure patterns suggest a retrogressive flow slide starting
from the toe of the slope and moving towards the shore.
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