AMAUGER 2022 Archivage

Cavitation induced by acceleration and possible link to
brain concussion
Juliette Amauger
To cite this version:

Juliette Amauger. Cavitation induced by acceleration and possible link to brain concussion. Fluid
mechanics [physics.class-ph]. Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 2022. English. �NNT : 2022IPPAX068�.
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NNT : 2022IPPAX068
Cavitation induced by acceleration and

possible link to brain concussion
Thèse de doctorat de l’Institut Polytechnique de Paris
préparée à l’École polytechnique
École doctorale n◦ 626 de l’Institut Polytechnique de Paris (ED IP Paris)

Spécialité de doctorat : Mécanique des fluides et des solides, acoustique
Thèse présentée et soutenue à Palaiseau, le 07 octobre 2022, par
J ULIETTE A MAUGER
Composition du Jury :
Laurent Limat
Directeur de recherche, Paris Diderot (MSC) Président
Etienne Reyssat
Chargé de recherche, ESPCI (PMMH) Examinateur
Anne Le Goff
Professeure assistante, UTC (BMBI) Examinateur
Philippe Decq
Professeur des Universités, Hôpital Beaujon Examinateur
Stéphane Dorbolo
Senior research associate, Université de Liège (CESAM) Rapporteur
Benjamin Dollet
Chargé de recherche, Université de Grenoble (LIPhy) Rapporteur
Christophe Clanet
Directeur de recherche, École polytechnique (LadHyX) Directeur de thèse
Caroline Cohen
Professeure assistante, École polytechnique (LadHyX) Co-directrice de thèse
David Quéré
Directeur de recherche, ESPCI (PMMH) Invité
Lionel Brézéphin
Directeur de la performance, INSEP (Pôle Boxe) Invité
626
Résumé substantiel
Les commotions cérébrales sont devenues un risque majeur de la pratique sportive, en par-
ticulier à haut niveau, dans les sports de contacts tels que le rugby, le football américain ou
la boxe, ou lorsque les chutes sont possibles: cyclisme, équitation, surf... Le nombre crois-
sant de commotions a pour origine le fait que les sports deviennent de plus en plus violents
(athlètes plus rapides, plus lourds et masse musculaire plus importante) et des conséquences
dramatiques pour la santé des joueurs (troubles cognitifs, dépression, encéphalie chronique
traumatique...).
De nos jours, la plupart des diagnostiques sont basés sur des test psychotechniques et des
analyses de symptômes, les commotions n’étant pas détectables par imagerie médicale. Cela
fait de la détection et de la compréhension des commotions cérébrales un sujet très stimu-
lant pour les scientifiques depuis les années 60. Les premiers travaux de recherche portaient
sur l’élaboration de critères physiques de détections des commotions. L’accélération de la
tête au moment de l’impact est apparue très rapidement comme le facteur le plus influ-
ant sur l’occurrence des lésions. Au delà d’un seuil d’accélération critique, la probabilité
de commotion est supérieur à 50%. À la suite de ces études statistiques, la plupart des
travaux se sont orientées vers la recherche d’une origine physique des commotions cérébrales.
Plusieurs mécanismes ont été mis en exergue, mais à ce jour, aucun consensus n’est établi.
L’hypothèse privilégiée est l’apparition de bulles de cavitation (passage d’un état liquide à
un état gazeux dû à une chute de pression) dans le liquide cérébro-spinal (LCS) lors du choc.
L’objectif de cette thèse est l’etude des commotions cérébrales dans les sports de contact,
et le travail présenté s’appuie sur l’hypothèse de la cavitation comme origine des lésions. Le
manuscrit se divise en deux parties distinctes.
La première partie présente une étude expérimentale de la formation de bulles de cavita-
tion induites par accélération dans un système modèle représentant une tête humaine. La
boite crânienne est modélisée par une cuve remplie d’eau reproduisant le comportement du
LCS (propriétés rhéologiques similaires). Le contenant est fermé hermétiquement (pas de
présence d’air), mais autorise une variation de volume, pour rendre compte de la circulation
du LCS entre la boite crânienne et la moelle épinière. Cette cuve est placée sur une tour
d’impact, permettant de reproduire les signaux d’accélération des impacts (accélérations et
durées variables) intervenants pendant les rencontres sportives. La pression générée par un
impact à l’opposé du point d’impact dans la cuve entraı̂ne la création de bulles de cavitation.
Dans un premier temps, les bulles sont libres de croitre dans tout le volume de la cuve, don-
nant lieu à une croissance en 3D régie par l’équation de Rayleigh-Plesset. Cette étude nous
permet d’estimer l’énergie libérée par l’implosion des bulles de cavitation et leur potentiel
destructeur. La tendance identifiée correspond aux premiers modèles empiriques développés
dans les années 60, avec toutefois une surestimation de l’énergie libérée. Cette surestimation
peut s’expliquer par l’ensemble des hypothèses simplificatrices faites dans le modèle 3D. Le
LCS étant en réalité confiné entre la boite crânienne et le cerveau, sur une épaisseur de
l’ordre du millimètre, nous avons étudié la dynamique des bulles de cavitation en 2D (con-
finées entre deux surfaces) dans deux cas de figures : un confinement entre deux surfaces
rigides, et un confinement entre une surface rigide et un solide mou (module d’Young simi-
laire à la matière grise). Cette série d’éxperiences offre une nouvelle estimation du potentiel
destructeur des bulles de cavitation sur le cerveau, plus réaliste.
ii
La seconde partie de ce manuscrit se concentre sur les impacts reçus par les sportifs, et en
particulier les boxeurs, en situation de combat. Ce travail a été réalisé en collaboration avec
la Fédération Française de Boxe (FFB). Afin de quantifier la violence des coups reçus, nous
avons développé, en partenariat avec la start-up Phyling, un capteur intégré aux casques des
boxeurs. Ce capteur est un accéléromètre haute fréquence, sans fil, donnant pour chaque
coup reçu l’évolution temporelle de l’accélération de la tête au cours de l’impact. Contraire-
ment à d’autres capteurs commercialisés, notre accéléromètre est capable de transmettre les
données brutes avec une fréquence d’acquisition de 10 kHz et adaptée à l’étude. La nature
des signaux collectés est ensuite mise en regard d’un modèle mécanique de l’impact. Ce
modèle prend notamment en compte différentes caractéristiques propres aux athlètes et à
leur équipement, et prédit le signal d’accélération ressenti par la tête à chaque impact. Cha-
cun de ces paramètres est mesuré, et l’influence de ces derniers est analysée par le modèle.
Nous retrouvons ainsi des tendances théoriques, qui correspondent bien à l’intuition des
athlètes et des entraineurs, et nous fournissons un outil supplémentaire à la prévention des
commotion cérébrales.
iii
Summary
Concussions have become a major risk in sports, especially at high levels, in contact sports
such as rugby, American football or boxing, or when falls are possible: cycling, horse riding,
etc. such as rugby, American soccer or boxing, or when falls are possible: cycling, horse
riding, surfing... The increasing number of concussions is due to the fact that sports are
becoming more and more violent (faster, heavier athletes and greater muscle mass) and has
dramatic consequences for the health of the players (cognitive disorders, depression, chronic
traumatic encephalopathy, etc.).
Nowadays, most diagnoses are based on psycho-technical tests and symptom analysis, as
concussions are not detectable by medical imaging. This has made the detection and under-
standing of concussion a very challenging topic for scientists since the 1960s. Early research
focused on developing physical criteria for detecting concussions. The acceleration of the
head at the moment of impact very quickly appeared to be the most influential factor on
the occurrence of injuries. Beyond a critical acceleration threshold, the probability of con-
cussion is greater than 50%. Following these statistical studies, most of the work has been
directed towards the search for a physical origin of concussions. Several mechanisms have
been put forward, but to date, no consensus has been established. The preferred hypothesis
is the appearance of cavitation bubbles (passage from a liquid state to a gaseous state due
to a drop in pressure) in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) during the shock.
The objective of this thesis is the study of concussions in contact sports, and the work pre-
sented is based on the hypothesis of cavitation as the origin of the injuries. The manuscript
is divided into two distinct parts.
The first part presents an experimental study of acceleration-induced cavitation bubble for-
mation in a model system representing a human head. The skull is modeled by a tank
filled with water reproducing the behavior of the CSF (similar rheological properties). The
container is hermetically sealed (no air), but allows for a variation in volume, to account for
the circulation of the CSF between the skull and the spinal cord. This tank is placed on an
impact tower, allowing to reproduce the acceleration signals of the impacts (accelerations
and variable durations) intervening during sports meetings. The pressure generated by an
impact opposite the point of impact in the tank leads to the creation of cavitation bubbles.
At first, the bubbles are free to grow in the whole volume of the tank, giving rise to a 3D
growth governed by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation. This study allows us to estimate the
energy released by the implosion of cavitation bubbles and their destructive potential. The
trend identified corresponds to the first empirical models developed in the 60’s, but with
an overestimation of the energy released. This overestimation can be explained by the sim-
plifying assumptions made in the 3D model. As the LCS is actually confined between the
skull and the brain, on a thickness of the order of a millimeter, we studied the dynamics of
cavitation bubbles in 2D (confined between two surfaces) in two cases: confinement between
two rigid surfaces, and confinement between a rigid surface and a soft solid (Young’s mod-
ulus similar to gray matter). This series of experiments provides a new and more realistic
estimate of the destructive potential of cavitation bubbles on the brain.
The second part of this manuscript focuses on the impacts received by athletes, and in
particular boxers, in combat situations. This work has been done in collaboration with the
French Boxing Federation (FFB). In order to quantify the violence of the blows received,
we have developed, in partnership with the start-up company Phyling, a sensor integrated
iv
into the boxers’ helmets. This sensor is a wireless high frequency accelerometer, giving for
each blow received the temporal evolution of the acceleration of the head during the impact.
Unlike other sensors on the market, our accelerometer is able to transmit raw data with an
acquisition frequency of 10 kHz and adapted to the study. The nature of the collected signals
is then compared to a mechanical model of the impact. This model takes into account
various characteristics of the athletes and their equipment, and predicts the acceleration
signal felt by the head at each impact. Each of these parameters is measured, and their
influence is analyzed by the model. We thus find theoretical trends, which correspond well
to the intuition of athletes and coaches, and we provide an additional tool for concussion
prevention.
v
Contents
General introduction 1
Chapter 1 Concussion 3
1.1 A brief history of brain concussion in contact sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Experimental criteria for brain concussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Boxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Rugby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 American football . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Review of the physical models for brain concussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 A simplified view of the head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Models and mechanisms for mTBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 2 Cavitation 17
2.1 Cavitation in an accelerated container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Bubble growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Bubble collapse and damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
I Cavitation bubbles induced by acceleration in free and confined

conditions 27
Chapter 3 Cavitation in a closed container 29

3.1 Experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Influence of the impact time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Bubble dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 4 Cavitation bubbles in a confined environment 47

4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 Confinement height e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in the free and confined zone . . . . . . 51
4.3.1 Onset of cavitation bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.2 Growth of cavitation bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Bubble dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4.1 Measure of R∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4.2 Small acceleration regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4.3 Numerical resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 5 Cavitation in a soft confined space - Perspectives 63

5.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.1 Brain modulus and gel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.2 Bubble of controlled size generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Growth of a soft confined cavitation bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
vi
5.3 Volume of the bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
II Data collection in boxing 75
Chapter 6 Wireless accelerometer 77

6.1 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.1 Existing material - Hykso sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.2 Specification of requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Phyling wireless high-frequency accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.1 The sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.2 The acquisition rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2.3 User interface and data analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chapter 7 Modelling an impact on the head 85

7.1 A simple mechanical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.1.1 The model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.1.2 Measurement of the different parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.1.3 Validation of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2 Influence of the different parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Conclusion 107
Bibliography 113
vii
viii
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1
1
Concussion
In this chapter, we briefly explain what a brain concussion is, and to what extent it happens
in several spots such as boxing, rugby or American football. Then, we give a review of the
experimental criteria pre-existing in the literature, and the damaging mechanisms known to
this day.
Violent impact during a boxing fight, potentially leading to a brain concussion
Contents
1.1 A brief history of brain concussion in contact sports . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Experimental criteria for brain concussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Review of the physical models for brain concussion . . . . . . . . . 12
3
Chapter 1. Concussion
Traumatic brain injury is a head injury that causes damage to the brain. These injuries
can be mild, moderate, or severe, and concussions are a particular case of mild traumatic
brain injuries (mTBI). From a clinical point of view, a brain concussion can be described as
a “ short-term dysfunction of brain functions induced by sudden acceleration or deceleration
Chap. 1 of the cephalic extremity, in the absence of macro- or microscopic structural lesions ” ([1],
translated from french). A list of symptoms can be given, but they depend on each person:
nausea, vomiting, fatigue, irritability, balance disorders, seizures (in rare cases), disorien-
tation in time and space, amnesia, or fainting ([1], translated from french). In most cases,
those injuries cannot be seen with conventional medical imaging (MRI or CT scan).
Brain concussions are particularly prevalent in car accidents as head injuries account for
28% to 48% of total injuries (leading to hospitalization or death) in car crashes in the US,
between 1990 and 2009 [2]. Concussions also occur in contact sports such as American
football, boxing, or rugby. This thesis will focus on those occurrences.
1.1 A brief history of brain concussion in contact sports
As players become more and more muscly and powerful with the years, the number of mTBI
is increasing in contact sports. For example, during the 2012-2013 season of Top 14 (French
rugby national league) 53 brain concussion occurrences have been confirmed. However, dur-
ing the 2016-2017 season, this number almost doubled with 102 confirmed brain concussions.
The reason for this increase is twofold: these events are better identified, hence the concus-
sions are better diagnosed, and mainly the sports are becoming more violent. An increase in
body mass among players has been shown in American football and rugby leagues, leading
to increased energy for every frontal impact. The body mass of professional rugby players
from the top ten countries has increased by 5.2kg per decade between 1975 and 1999 [3] and
by 9.7% in total between 1991 and 2019 [4]. In the meantime, college American football
players were 25% heavier in 1989 than in 1963 [5].
In boxing, the added violence does not come from an increase in weight, but rather from
a change of rules. In 2013, the International Boxing Association (AIBA) waived the use of
headgear in Olympic men’s boxing competitions [6].
The symptoms of brain concussions listed at the beginning of this chapter indicate diffi-
culty in diagnosis. Not only the symptoms are person-dependent, but the players tend to
hide them from the medical team in most cases ([1], translated from french). However,
studies show that brain concussions have short- and long-time consequences, as a brain con-
cussion immediately decreases the player’s performance and the player’s health. Indeed, this
altered performance leads to an increased risk of injuries later in the match ([1], translated
from french).
The long-term consequences of mTBI are associated with a repetition of concussion. Players
who have been concussed in previous seasons show a prolonged recovery after a new concus-
sion [7]. After three or more concussions, the players demonstrate diminished brain capacity
such as reduced performance of visual-motor speed and processing speed [8]. Studies also
highlighted the link between repeated mTBI and the development of brain abnormalities
such as memory disturbances, behavioral and personality changes, parkinsonism, and speech
abnormalities [9], but also post-traumatic stress disorder and early death [10, 11, 12, 13].
The ultimate term for those abnormalities is known as Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
(CTE, Figure 1.1). In 2017, a study performed on former professional American football
players revealed that among 111 deceased former NFL (National Football League) players
4
1.2. Experimental criteria for brain concussions
who gave their bodies to science, 110 showed signs of mild to severe CTE [14]. Knowing
that about half those CTEs are symptomatic within 4 years of stopping play [9], and about
one-third could be symptomatic at the time of retirement, urges the sports federations to
invest in early diagnoses.
Chap. 1
Figure 1.1 – Illustration of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) on the humain brain. On
the left a normal human brain, on the right the brain of a person diagnosed with CTE.
As a reaction to those alarming numbers, the different sports federations implemented new
measures to ensure the safety of their players. International consortia have taken place to
establish new protocols during rugby games, summed up in the International Rugby Board
concussion guidelines. This new protocol states that a player suspected of being concussed
must be removed from the game, and go through a graduate return to play program. Such a
player must receive medical clearance before returning to play, and different return-to-play
programs must be adapted to different age categories [15]. In American football, rules are
modified frequently to avoid concussion occurrences [16, 17]. Those rules involve regulation
of helmets and protective pads, defensive moves directly to the opponent’s head, and medical
examination after suspicion of brain concussion. However, in boxing, no regulation changes
have been made to ensure the athletes’ safety.
1.2 Experimental criteria for brain concussions
The physical way to model an impact is a sudden acceleration (or deceleration) of the head.
The pioneering work on the effects of acceleration on the human body was done by Colonel
John Paul Stapp in the ’50s [18, 19, 20]. His research has shown that the maximum ac-
celeration a man can withstand is 46.2 g (with g the gravitational acceleration) and that
accelerations (and decelerations) of the body lead to variations of the intracranial pressure.
Following those findings, an experimental team at the Wayne State University studied the
effect of such a variation in the intracranial pressure, and the duration upon which it is
applied [21]. They completed this study with a series of experiments where human or animal
heads were subjected to various linear accelerations. For the higher acceleration values,
human cadavers and animals were impacted on hard surfaces. For the lower acceleration
values, volunteer subjects were submitted to head acceleration without impacts. For each
experiment, the team checked if the subject was concussed, and noted the value of the
acceleration sustained. These experiments suggest that high accelerations can be sustained
for short periods without any damage, while smaller accelerations could last longer without
harming the subject. They summarized the results of this study on a curve, called the
Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC, Figure 1.2), which exhibits a threshold line in a
5
diagram of peak acceleration as a function of the duration of the acceleration signal. Above
this line, the probability of being concussed is above 50%.
Chap. 1
Figure 1.2 – Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC) for linear acceleration applied on an human
head, taken from [22].
The WSTC has initiated several works that have subsequently been carried out, seeking to
define a damage index. Among these, Gadd [23] stated that using only the maximal value
and the duration of the acceleration did not account for the shape of the acceleration signal.
Two acceleration profiles of similar duration and peak values but one shaped like a triangle
and the other one shaped like a square should not damage the brain as much. To take that
into account, he proposed the following Severity Index (SI):
Z
SI = an dt (1.1)
with a the acceleration in g and n a weighting factor greater than 1.
For this Severity Index to be used, two values need to be set: the weighting factor, and
the value of the index above which an impact is harmful. To evaluate the weighting factor,
Gadd plotted the WSTC on a log-log scale and approximated it with a straight line (as the
SI would be a straight line on a log-log plot, Figure 1.3), giving n = 2.5. For the threshold
in SI, Gadd picked a value, SI = 1000, as the value not to be exceeded to avoid danger to
life, consistent with a few examples so far published. Nevertheless, this numerical value of
1000 can be adjusted to correspond to new data.
To account for the shape of the acceleration signal more accurately, the Severity Index was
turned into the Head Injury Criterion in 1971 [22], which can be expressed as:
Z 2.5
1
HIC = ∆t adt (1.2)
∆t
6
1.2. Experimental criteria for brain concussions
Chap. 1
Figure 1.3 – Log-log plot of WSTC and straight line approximation of its slope over time duration
range of automotive interior head impact, taken from [23].
with a the linear acceleration in g, and ∆t the duration of the shock.
However, this formulation of the criterion tends to overestimate the damages for accelera-
tions of relatively long duration. For example, an acceleration of 1g applied for 1000 seconds
gives a HIC value of 1000, even if an impact lasting 1000 seconds is not realistic. To get
around this problem, in 1985, a working group (WG-6) of the United States delegation on
the use of the HIC advised placing a limit on the HIC duration [24]. They found that,
according to the experimental data in their possession, no shock lasting more than 15ms
resulted in a concussion or a skull fracture. This led to a new formulation of the HIC,
called the HIC15 :
Z 2.5 !
1
HIC15 = max ∆t0 × adt (1.3)
∆t ∆t0
with a the linear acceleration in g, ∆t the duration of the shock, and ∆t = 15 ms.
In 1986, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHSTA) published an amend-
ment to the precedent ruling on “Occupant Crash Protection”, adopting “a maximum time
interval of 36 milliseconds for calculating the HIC values” [25], hence :
Z 2.5 !
1
HIC36 = max ∆t0 × adt (1.4)
∆t ∆t0
with a the linear acceleration in g, ∆t the duration of the shock, and ∆t0 = 36 ms.
To this day, no consensus has been found between the two formulations, but the HIC15
criterion seems to be the most frequently used. The threshold to consider for brain damage
7
is also subject to discussion. Correspondance can be established between HIC values and
the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS, a coding system created by the Association for the
Advancement of Automotive Medicine to describe the severity of injuries) [26, 27]:
Chap. 1 HIC AIS Head injury

135-519 1 Headache or diziness
520-899 2 Unconscious less than 1 h; linear fracture
900-1254 3 Unconscious 1 - 6 h; depressed fracture
1255-1574 4 Unconscious 6 - 24 h; open fracture
1575-1859 5 Unconscious more than 24 h; large hematoma
1860 6 Non-survivable
Table 1.1 – Correspondance between HIC and AIS classification, adapted from [26].
Although these criteria are frequently used, some limitations can be identified. First, they
are all based on the same set of data, acquired in the ’60s with different experimental setups.
Some experiments were made by impacting live animal heads (with different anatomical
specificities), some with human cadavers, and some with live subjects but without impact.
In some experiments the acceleration was measured directly on the head of the impacting
subject, for some others, the acceleration of the impacting vehicle was recorded.
Moreover, all the criteria only account for the linear acceleration of the head. However,
studies showed that the angular acceleration of the head can account for as much damage
as the linear acceleration during an impact [28, 29].
In 1985, Newmann was the first to introduce a criterion accounting for both the linear
and angular velocity of the head. Based on impact experiments made on cadavers [30], live
monkey [31] and live piglets [32]. This new criterion is called the Generalized Acceleration
Model for Brain Injury Threshold (GAMBIT, G):
am αm
G= + (1.5)
250 10000
with am the peak linear acceleration in g and αm the peak angular acceleration in rad/s2
(computed from the linear acceleration components). The injury threshold is fixed at G = 1.
Later on, Newmann corrected this formula and stated that the threshold is given by:
r
am 2 αm 2
G= + >1 (1.6)
250 25000
In 2000, Newmann gave a last criteria for brain injury, called the Head Impact Power (HIP)
[33, 34, 35]. For this one, Newmann suggested that the mechanism
P leadingPto brain damage
was the power resulting from the impact on the head, P = mi vi × ai + µi ωi × αi , with
mi and µi the mass and mass moments of inertia in the three linear and angular directions,
vi and ai the linear velocity andR accelerationRand ωi and αi the rotational velocity and
acceleration. Replacing vi with ai dt, ωi with αi dt, and mi and µi with their appropriate
values, we get this formula for the HIP:
Z Z Z
HIP = 4.5ax ax dt + 4.5ay ay dt + 4.5az az dt+
Z Z Z (1.7)
0.016αx αx dt + 0.024αy αy dt + 0.022αz αz dt
8
1.3. Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports
Based on 12 shocks that occurred during American football matches, Newmann’s team
recreated the impacts on dummies, computed the HIP for all 24 heads during the impacts,
and noted the occurrence of brain concussion (Figure 1.4), giving a threshold for brain
concussion (50% probability of concussion) at HIP = 12.8kW.
Chap. 1
Figure 1.4 – Probability of concussion as a function of the Head Impact Power, taken from [33].
One can conclude from this section that a large variety of brain damage criteria have been
given over the years, showing that a real understanding of concussion mechanisms is still
missing. Nevertheless, the information that appears crucial to the detection of brain concus-
sion is the acceleration signal of the head during the impact, or at least the two parameters:
the peak acceleration (a) and the impact duration (τ ).
1.3 Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports
In this section, we will review the work done on the measurement of the acceleration of the
head in three particular contact sports: boxing, rugby, and American football.
1.3.1 Boxing
Walilko et al. [36] measured the kinetics of a dummy head receiving punches from seven
Olympic boxers. These boxers represented four different weight classes and were asked to
throw their strongest punches. For each boxer, three punches were selected, and both the
linear and angular acceleration of the dummy head were recorded. Upon 18 selected punches,
the linear acceleration ranged from amin = 33 g to amax = 78 g, the angular acceleration
ranged from αmin = 1182 rad/s2 to αmax = 8298 rad/s2 , and the impact duration ranged
from τmin = 9 ms to τmax = 15 ms.
One could see a limitation to this study: the acceleration felt by the dummy head strongly
depends on its characteristics, in particular its mass and the neck strength. The neck
strength was the same for every experiment and was based on the average neck strength
of a male adult. However, boxers are trained to strengthen their neck and may have mo-
ments of de-concentration during the fight (usually after a strong impact). This leads to a
9
variation of the neck strength around the average value. Therefore, the measured maximal
acceleration could be underestimated compared to the actual values.
Chap. 1 Cournoyer et al. [37] were able to recreate real-life impacts on a lab dummy, based on video
analysis. They studied the video feed of boxing matches, and extracted impact events, im-
pact locations, and impact velocities for a variety of punches, involving boxers from different
weight classes. For each punch, the striking mass and the compliance were deduced from
the literature (adapted to each weight class), and the punch was recreated thanks to a glove
mounted on a bench. From the recreated punch, they measured the kinetics of the dummy
head with 6-axis accelerometers (as they were unable to measure the kinetics of the boxer’s
head during the real impact). The mean values for the recreated punches leading the a
loss of consciousness in real life were a = 123.3 g and α = 11280 rad/s2 . For the analysed
punches that did not provoke a loss of consciousness, the mean values were a = 68.6 g and
α = 6145.5 rad/s2 . However, this study does not give the values of the impact durations.
The same limitation regarding neck strength can be attributed to this study.
To our knowledge, no direct measurement of head kinetics in boxing has been reported.
However, these studies give valuable information about the range of acceleration sustained
by the boxers during a fight.
1.3.2 Rugby
Figure 1.5 – Location of impacts for one player, during a single match. Blue, 10-30g, orange, 40-60
g, and red, ≥70 g, taken from [38].
In 2015, a study [38] measured all the head impacts sustained by 38 amateur rugby union
players during 19 matches using an instrumented mouthguard. Using this 6-axis accelerom-
eter acquiring at 1000 Hz, they were able to evaluate, for each impact, the linear acceleration
10
1.3. Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports
of the head, the rotational acceleration, the impact duration, and the impact location (Fig-
ure 1.5).
During the whole match season, they measured 20687 impacts above 10g of linear accelera-
tion, resulting in a mean 95±133 impacts to the head per player, per match. These impacts
Chap. 1
had a mean linear acceleration of 22.2 ± 16.2 g and a mean rotational acceleration of 3902.9
± 3948.8 rad/s2 . The data reported in Figure 1.6 (per player position) gives a mean impact
duration of 11.8 ms. These values of the acceleration and impact time could appear safe
(below the WSTC threshold line), but it should be remembered that it is the peak value of
the acceleration that is used for the WSTC, whereas the average acceleration is given here.
Figure 1.6 – Head impacts above 10 g per player position over a match season in amateur Rugby
Union, taken from [38].
Over the season, two concussions were diagnosed. The impact data obtained from these
two concussion events were 94.8 g and 5319.8 rad/s2 , and 54.9 g and 99356.2 rad/s2 . No
information on the impact duration for these two events is given, but with τ ∼ 10 ms (order
of magnitude of the impact time measured during these experiments), both these impacts
are above the WSTC.
One could argue that the sampling rate of the instrumented mouthguard is too low to have
an accurate measure of the peak acceleration and the acceleration duration, as they acquire
data at 1000 Hz. For a 10 ms impact duration, it gives a 10-points data curve that might
underestimate the peak acceleration value.
1.3.3 American football
A lot of work has been done on the evaluation of the head kinetics during impacts in
American football. In this section, we will focus on the work done by Pellman et al. [39],
and Broglio et al. [40, 41, 42] since it allows us to place quantitative sport impact data on
the WSTC.
In 2003, Pellman et al. [39] published a study aiming to analyze 182 head impacts during
NFL games, between 1996 and 2001. For every head impact, they recovered the video feed
of two different cameras and were able to compute the position and velocity of both players’
heads right before the impact. Some of these impacts were then reconstructed on a crash test
11
dummy in the lab (similar to the study on boxing [37]) and the acceleration of the dummies’
head was measured. A total of 31 head impacts were reconstructed, 25 of them led to a
diagnosed brain concussion. For each impact, the peak linear and angular acceleration are
given, as well as the values of the SI and HIC indexes. Using these indexes we computed
Chap. 1 the impact duration for each impact. For the concussed players, the peak head acceleration
averaged 98 ± 28 g, for an average impact duration of 15 ms.
Between 2009 and 2011, Broglio et al. [40, 41, 42] published the results of a study involving
American football helmets, equipped with 6 single-axis accelerometers sampling at 1000Hz.
This acquiring device is known as the Head Impact Telemetry System (HITS). They provided
this helmet to 95 players during a 4 seasons period and were able to collect the kinetics data
of 102238 head impacts. For a lineman, for instance, the average rotational acceleration was
1572.9 ± 1045.7 rad/s2 and the average linear acceleration was 24.4 ± 13.5 g, which gave
a cumulative acceleration upon a year of 21435.9 g. A total of 13 cases of concussion were
recorded.
The detailed cases of head impacts from these two articles can be superimposed with the
Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC) (Figure 1.7), showing the relevance of such a criterion
with recent data.
350
WSTC
Concussion
300
No concussion
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Figure 1.7 – Wayne State Tolerance Curve (WSTC) for linear acceleration applied on an human
head. Superimposed to this curve are data from American football shocks (dots form [39]; squares
from [42]).
1.4 Review of the physical models for brain concussion
1.4.1 A simplified view of the head
An MRI of a head is shown in figure 1.8. A simplified view of the head can be given as
follow: the brain is contained in the skull, but not free to move as it’s linked to the skull by
12
1.4. Review of the physical models for brain concussion
Chap. 1
(a)
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(b)
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Figure 1.8 – (a) MRI of a human head in the sagittal plane. (b) Schematic representation of a
human head in the saggital plane. In black, he skull, in grey, the brain, in blue, the CSF.
two membranes called the meninges. In between the brain and the skull, lies the Cerebro
Spinal Fluid (CSF), which is also present in various cavities of the brain, and flows in and
out of the head through the spinal cord.
1.4.2 Models and mechanisms for mTBI
Various models for brain damage have been proposed over the years, and no consensus has
been reached yet. Scientists still disagree on the main cause of a brain concussion, is it linear
acceleration or rotational acceleration? It is most likely a combination of both, involving
several mechanisms listed below.
Figure 1.9 – Scale of maximum shear-strain (distortion) in arbitrary units of shear. The units
differ in the three diagrams. Taken from [43].
• Tissue deformation (strain) Holbourn stated in 1949 [43] that concussions were pri-
marily related to large shear-strain induced by the motion of the CSF and brain with
respect to the skull. To illustrate his point, he placed a paraffin-wax skull, filled with
a 5% gelatin brain, on a circular polariscope. After inducing large rotational accelera-
tion to his system, he was able to see the deformation of the gelatin structure (Figure
1.9). This link between strain and mTBI is supported by Post et al. [44] and Meany
& Smith [45], although the relationship between brain motion and strain has not been
fully established.
13
• Striking and bouncing of the brain on the skull Due to the relative motion of the
brain and skull, striking and bouncing can happen and damage the brain [46].
• Gradient of pressure in the cerebrospinal fluid An impact on a closed container,

Chap. 1 filled with liquid is known to provoke a pressure increase at the coup location (where
the impact happened), and a pressure decrease at the contrecoup location (opposite
to where the contact happened) [47]. This gradient of pressure is mostly associated
with linear acceleration and can have two distinct effects:
· Shear strain Gurdjian and Lisner predicted in 1944 [48] a deformation of brain
tissues induced by a gradient of pressure consecutive to an impact. They placed
strain gauge and pressure sensors in a dog’s head while impacting its skull, and
measured such deformation.
· Cavitation bubbles in the CSF The decrease of pressure in the contrecoup area
leads to the formation of cavitation bubbles in the cerebrospinal fluid [49]. The
collapse of such bubbles is known for its dangerousness in several domains of fluid
dynamics and has been linked to damage to the brain [50].
In this thesis, we will focus on this last damaging mechanism, the creation and collapse of
cavitation bubbles in the CSF, and build a model experiment to understand its damaging
potential. This experiment will allow us to build a model and give a criterion for a more
realistic (closer to the head) system, accounting for the influence of the impact duration.
14
1.4. Review of the physical models for brain concussion
Take home message of Chapter 1
1. Brain concussions are increasingly common in sports. They have short and
long-term medical consequences and must be addressed.
2. Acceleration of the head a and impact duration τ are the key parameters
to predict the occurrence of concussions.
3. The collapse of cavitation bubbles in the CSF is a mechanism that could

potentially explain the link between head impacts and brain damage.
15
16
2
Cavitation
In this chapter we introduce the phenomenon of cavitation, first as a general concept and then
in the particular case of an accelerated container. The onset, the growth and the collapse of
such cavitation bubbles are investigated.
1 cm
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0 ms 0.6 ms 1.2 ms 1.8 ms
2.4 ms 3 ms 6.65 ms
Chronophotography of a cavitation event in a glass container partially filled with water. At t=0 the
top of the flask is hit with a rubber mallet. Cavitation bubbles appear at the bottom of the flask, they
grow and as they collapse they shatter the glass container.
Contents
2.1 Cavitation in an accelerated container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Bubble growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Bubble collapse and damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
17
Chapter 2. Cavitation
Cavitation was first investigated for its tendency to produce sound. First a source of ques-
tioning for the sounds emitted in a kettle as it comes to boil [51], it soon became a problem
for underwater ship propellers [52] (Figure 2.1).
Chap. 2
Figure 2.1 – Cavitation in the tip vortices of a ship propeller, taken from [53]
p, u
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p , u+
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Figure 2.2 – A venturi nozzle, taken from [54]. Assuming a a steady, incompressible, single-phase
flow allows the use of Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline, the one in green for example.
To understand the onset of cavitation bubbles, let’s take the example of a Venturi nozzle.
In case of a steady, incompressible, single-phase flow, this Venturi flow is described by
Bernoulli’s equation [54]
1 2
ρu + p = constant along a streamline (2.1)
2
with u the velocity, ρ the density, and p the pressure in the fluid. Due to mass conservation,
the maximum velocity of the fluid is reached at the throat of the venturi (where the tube’s
section is the smallest). This is where the pressure is minimal according to Bernoulli. If
the velocity is high enough, the pressure drops below the vapor pressure pv and cavitation
bubbles form.
To describe this cavitation onset, a dimensionless number is frequently used, the cavitation
number σ:
18
2.1. Cavitation in an accelerated container
p0 − pv
σ= 1 2
, (2.2)
2 ρu0
with u0 and p0 the upstream velocity and pressure, ρ the density, and pv the vapour pressure.
If σ is sufficiently small (σ 1) cavitation will occur. Inversely, if σ 1 cavitation should
not be observed [55]. This cavitation number describes well the appearance of cavitation
bubbles in a liquid where different flow velocities appear. However, it fails to describe the
Chap. 2
onset of cavitation bubbles in a liquid accelerated over a short period of time [56].
2.1 Cavitation in an accelerated container
As cavitation onset in an accelerated container cannot be described using the conventional

cavitation number, Truscott’s team [56] proposed a new formulation for the cavitation num-
ber. The experimental setup is the following: a container filled with water, up to a height
h, is suddenly accelerated by striking the top with a rubber mallet (Figure 2.3).
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3 – (a) Schematic representation of the experimental setup. The top of the tube, filled
with distilled water, up to a height h, is impacted with a rubber mallet. The acceleration of the
tube is measured with an accelerometer fixed at the bottom of the tube, and the onset of cavitation
bubbles is detected with a high-speed camera. (b) Apparition, growth, and collapse of cavitation
bubbles in the tube. The collapse of the bubbles shatters the bottom of the tube, taken from [56].
Under the assumption that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible and neglecting the hy-
drostatic pressure, the Navier-Stokes equation reads:
∂u 1
= − ∇p (2.3)
∂t ρ
with ∂u
∂t the acceleration, ρ the density of the fluid, and p the pressure.
Integrating 2.3 along the centerline of the tube, from the free surface to the bottom, we get:
19
pr − pb = ρah (2.4)
with pr and pb the pressure of reference at the free surface and the bottom of the tube, a
the acceleration, and h the height of the fluid column.
The pressure at the surface pr is fixed to patm by the free surface condition, and cavitation
is likely to happen if pb < pv , pv being the vapor pressure. Thus, a new cavitation number
Chap. 2 is established:
pr − pv
Ca = (2.5)
ρah
If Ca < 1 cavitation is likely to happen, but if Ca > 1 cavitation is not likely to happen.
The results of a series of experiments are given in Figure 2.4: Pan et al. [56] accelerated
containers filled with liquid and noted the occurrence of cavitation bubbles. Varying the
peak acceleration, the fluid height, the reference pressure pr , and the density, they were able
to confirm that the cavitation number Ca is a good indicator for cavitation occurrence in
an accelerated container.
One can consider the case of a human head, filled with water at atmospheric pressure,
to estimate the threshold acceleration to make the fluid cavitate. We take h = 20 cm, ρ =
998 kg/m3 , p0 = 1.013 hPa and pv = 3.2 kPa. Cavitation bubbles appear (Ca > 1) for a
threshold acceleration acav ∼ 50.9 g. As seen previously, this order of magnitude is reached
on sports fields.
2.2 Bubble growth
The growth and collapse of a vapor cavity in an infinite fluid was first modeled by Rayleigh
[51] and put into its most famous formalism by Plesset [57]. The details for this calculation
can be found in [55].
Let us consider a small spherical bubble right after nucleation happened (Figure 2.5(a)) of
radius R(t). At a distance r of the bubble center, the velocity of the fluid is u(r, t) and
the pressure is p(t). The flow is considered irrotational, incompressible, and with spherical
symmetry. These hypotheses give a condition for the velocity potential ψ:

1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ
∇ψ = 2 r =0 (2.6)
r ∂r ∂r
Hence, one can define u the radial velocity of the fluid:
c(t)
u= (2.7)
r2
∂ψ
with c(t) a function of time only as u = ∂r .
20
2.2. Bubble growth
Chap. 2
Figure 2.4 – Phase diagram for the cavitation onset by acceleration in the [(pr − pv )/ρgh, a/g]
plane (A) for various fluid types, container diameters (D), pressures (pr ), and fluid depths (h). Open
markers are used when cavitation is detected and filled markers in the absence of cavitation detection.
Lines represent the theoretical separation based on Ca = 1. Close-up view (B) of concentrated data
points in the region where the reference pressure was varied (red-squared region in A). Close-up view
(C) of collapsed data points in the region where the fluid type was varied (blue-squared region in
A), taken from [56].
The condition of impermeability at the gas/liquid interface (r = R) ensures that u(R, t) =

Ṙ ∀ t, with Ṙ the growing rate of the bubble, hence:
R2 Ṙ
ur (r, t) = (2.8)
r2
R2 Ṙ
ψ(r, t) = − (2.9)
r
The fluid flow is governed by Navier-Stokes equation which, when projected on the radial
direction, reads:

∂u ∂u ∂p 1 ∂ 2 (ru) 2u
ρ + ρu =− +µ − 2 (2.10)
∂t ∂r ∂r r ∂r2 r
21
Chap. 2
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.5 – (a) Schematic of a spherical bubble in a spherically symmetric environment. The
bubble has a radius R(t) and an inner pressure pb . The particle of fluid at distance r from the center
of the bubble has a purely radial velocity u(r, t). The pressure of the fluid far from the bubble is
p∞ , taken from [55]. (b) A comparison of the integration of the Rayleigh-Plesset equation with the
measured values of a cavitation bubble, taken from [57].
with µ the viscosity of the fluid. Substituting u with its expression (2.8), we find that the
viscous term cancels, and we get:
R2 R̈ + 2RṘ 2R4 Ṙ2 ∂p

ρ 2
− ρ 5
=− (2.11)
r r ∂r
Integrating between r = R(t) where p = p(R) and r → ∞ where p = p(t), we obtain:
3
ρRR̈ + ρṘ2 = p(R) − p(t) (2.12)
2
The pressure of the fluid at the interface is given by the continuity of normal stress across
the bubble’s interface:
2γ Ṙ
p(R) = pb − − 4µ (2.13)
R R
with γ the surface tension and pb the pressure inside the bubble, considered uniform. From
this follows:
3 4ν Ṙ 2γ pb − p(t)
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + + = (2.14)
2 R ρR ρ
where ν = µ/ρ is the cinematic viscosity of the fluid.

Under the hypothesis that the transformation is isothermal, and that there is no mass
transfer of gas from or to the liquid, the pressure inside the bubble can itself be expressed
as [55]:
3
2γ R0
pb = p0 + (2.15)
R0 R
22
2.3. Bubble collapse and damage
where R0 is the initial radius of the bubble. This leads to the well-known Rayleigh-Plesset
equation:

2γ R0 3
3 4ν Ṙ 2γ p0 + R0 R − p(t)
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + + = (2.16)
2 R ρR ρ
When Plesset [57] confronted this model to experimental results, he found a fairly good
agreement (Figure 2.5(b)). Chap. 2
2.3 Bubble collapse and damage
Cavitation has long been known for its damaging potential, first, on ship propellers [58] and
hydraulic machinery [53], it was later investigated over a great range of materials. Figure
2.6(a) shows the effect of cavitation bubbles on aluminium, while Figure 2.6(b) show a
similar pattern on carbon steel.
1
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3
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4
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<latexit
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.6 – (a) Damage caused by cavitation bubbles on an aluminium boat propeller after 3.5
hours in a cavitation tunnel, taken from [58]. (b) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of a
plain carbon steel sample damages by cavitation. The sample is placed in a water tank at the exit of
a nozzle. The pictures are chronologically numbered from 1 to 4, 1 was taken before the experiment,
2 after 5 minutes, 3 after 15 minutes and 4 after 45 minutes. Taken from [59].
The damaging potential of cavitation was also shown in Pan et al. [56] experiments (Figure
2.3). A container partially filled with water is hit with a soft hammer. Cavitation bubbles
appear at the bottom of the container, they grow to a maximum radius and as they collapse,
they shatter the container.
Two main reasons have been put forward for this destructing behavior, the emission of a
shock wave [60, 61, 62] and the formation of a high-velocity liquid jet [63, 64]. Although the
contribution of both mechanisms is still unclear [65], in both scenarii, the energy realized
by the bubble is focalized in a small region, which undergoes huge stress/strain.
• Emission of a shock wave
23
The collapse of a cavitation bubble happens over a very short period of time, of the order of
milliseconds [59], even microseconds (Figure 2.5(b)). During this short period, the pressure
inside the bubble undergoes a huge increase, leading to a shock wave in the liquid right after
the impact. Tomita and Shima [62] built a series of experiments to visualize and measure
this impulsive pressure generation. Cavitation bubbles are created in a cavitation chamber,
and a transducer, able to measure pressure up to 25 MPa, was placed near the bubble nu-
cleation site, at a variable distance L. An example of the pressure peak recorded is given in
Figure 2.7(a). The visualization of the shock wave is made using schlieren photographs, for
Chap. 2 different values of L and Rmax the maximum radius of the bubble (Figure 2.7(b)).
(a)
(b)
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Figure 2.7 – (a) Shlieren photographs of the shock wave emitted after the collapse of a cavitation
bubble. The top series of picture was taken for a bubble far from a solid boundary (L/Rmax → ∞),
and the bottom series was taken for a bubble close to a solid boundary (L/Rmax = 2.8). The pictures
are chronologically numbered from 1 to 7, the frame interval is 2 µs. (b) Pressure history recorded
by a transducer after a cavitation bubble collapse for Rmax = 3.5 mm and L/Rmax = 0.29. The
peak pressure reaches 20.5 MPa, the total duration of the pressure impulse is less than 10 µs. Both
parts of the figure were taken from [62].
At a distance L of the bubble, the pressure of the shock wave Pp has been shown to scale
as [55]:
Rmax
Pp ≈ 100P∞ (2.17)
L
where Rmax is the maximum radius of the bubble. For example, if P∞ ≈ 1 bar this implies
a substantial pulse of 100 bar at distance of one maximum bubble radius away (at L =
Rmax ).
• Formation of a high-velocity liquid jet
When collapsing near a solid boundary, cavitation bubbles generate a high-velocity liquid
jet oriented towards the wall (Figure 2.8). The formation of this jet is due to the symmetry
breaking that happens during the collapse. Due to the presence of the wall in a close
neighborhood, the fluid around the bubble slows down the gas-liquid boundary motion. As
a result, the side of the bubble away from the wall collapses faster than the side close to the
wall, creating a jet that penetrates the bubble and ends up hitting the wall at high velocity.
The velocity of the liquid jet UJ has been shown to scale as [55]
24
2.3. Bubble collapse and damage
Chap. 2
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.8 – (a) Comparison of experimentally determined bubble shapes (open circles) on collapse
of a spherical bubble near a plane solid wall with theoretical curves taken from [66] (solid curves).
The framing rate is 300000 frames/s, the maximum bubble radius Rmax = 2.6 mm, the distance of
the bubble centre from the wall L = 3.9 mm and L/Rmax = 1.5. (b) Dynamics of a laser-produced
spherical bubble near a solid boundary. The framing rate is 75,000 frames/s, the maximum bubble
radius Rmax = 2.0 mm, the distance of the bubble centre from the boundary L = 4.9 mm and the
size of the individual frames is 7.2 x 4.6 mm. Both parts of the figure were taken from [64].
1
∆p 2
UJ = ξ (2.18)
ρ
where ξ is a constant, depending on the ratio L/Rmax between the distance to the wall and
the maximum radius of the bubble, ∆p is the difference between the pressure that would
keep the bubble stable at its initial radius and the actual pressure at the time of the collapse,
and ρ is the density of the fluid. This jet velocity was measured by Lauterborn and Bolle in
1975 [64], and was estimated to be around 120 m/s for a framing rate of 250,000 frames/s
and a value L/Rmax = 3.08. In more recent studies, the jet velocity was estimated to go as
high as a few thousands of m/s [67].
25
1. Cavitation arises in the area opposite the point of impact, called the contre-
coup area.
2. The bubble dynamics is governed by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation.
3. The collapse of cavitation bubbles involves two distinct mechanisms: the

creation of a shock wave, and the formation of a high-velocity liquid jet. Both
mechanisms are damaging to the surrounding objects.
26
PART I
CAVITATION BUBBLES
INDUCED BY ACCELERATION
IN FREE AND CONFINED
CONDITIONS
27
3
Cavitation in a closed container
In Chapter 2 we have seen that cavitation bubbles can nucleate in an accelerated container,
partially filled with water (with a free surface). We can then easily imagine how this can be
applied to head injuries and concussions, except for one thing: there is no free surface in
the head.
In the following chapter, we will show the first step towards an experiment mimicking a head
injury: cavitation in a close container, completely filled with water.
Life of a cavitation bubble. From an initial radius R0 , to a maximum radius Rmax , to a cloud of
micro-bubbles.
Contents
3.1 Experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Influence of the impact time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Bubble dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential . . . . . . 40
This work has been done with Christophe Clanet and Caroline Cohen. All the experiments
and modelling where conducted with Thibault Guillet.
29
Chapter 3. Cavitation in a closed container
The experiments performed by Pan et al. detailed in Chapter 2 were a first step in the study
of cavitation bubbles applied to concussions, but we wanted to perform a model experiment
closer to reality. For this, we had to study cavitation bubbles in a closed container, without
a free surface. Indeed, the cranial cavity is entirely filled by the brain and the CSF.
Thus, we reproduced the experiments proposed by Pan et al. in two different configurations:
a glass balloon is filled with water, at first partially (with a free surface), and then com-
pletely (without a free surface). The balloon was then impacted with a mallet. In the case
of the partially filled balloon, when it is impacted hard enough, it breaks at the opposite
side of the impact point, indicating the creation and implosion of cavitation bubbles. In
the case of the fully filled balloon, no matter how hard we hit the glass balloon, we never
managed to break it. No cavitation bubbles were formed in the absence of a free surface.
However, these early experiments fail to take into account an important behavior of the
Chap. 3 CSF: it circulates between the skull and the spinal cord. The skull is therefore a variable
volume container.
To take this behavior into account, we performed the following experiment: we again filled
a glass balloon completely with water, but this time we sealed it with an elastic membrane.
Thus, the volume of the container is variable, but the water cannot escape. We then hit
the balloon with the mallet and found that if we hit it hard enough, it would break at the
opposite side of the impact point, as when a free surface is present, witnessing the creation
of cavitation bubbles.
In this chapter, we detail the development of an experiment of cavitation induced by accel-

eration of a closed container, without a free surface and sealed by an elastic membrane. We
then give a model to describe the growth of such bubbles and study their ability to cause
concussions if they were to form in the CSF.
3.1 Experimental set-up
The experimental set-up used to study cavitation bubbles in a closed container is depicted
in Figure 3.1. An acrylic container with a square base of 5 cm × 5 cm and a length L is
completely filled with water. This water tank, drawn in the right panel of Figure 3.1, is
hermetically sealed with a membrane located at its bottom. The bending stiffness K of the
membrane can be tuned from 1 to 109 N/m. In this chapter, the flexible membrane will
refer to a membrane with K ≈ 1 N/m while a rigid membrane will refer to a membrane with
K ≈ 109 N/m.
This container is then clamped on a 3 meters high falling tower. After a free fall from a
height H, the container impacts a damper, granting it an upward acceleration U̇ (t). Both the
falling height and the damper properties can be tuned in order the change the characteristics
of the impact (Figure 3.2(b)). A high-speed camera, fixed on top of the tower, records the
cavitation events happening in the contre-coup region (the top of the container) at a speed
varying from 10,000 fps to 20,000 fps. A high-frequency 1-axis accelerometer is attached
to the top of the water tank, it is synchronized with the camera and records at 10 kHz
(Figure 3.2(a)). A high-frequency pressure sensor can be mounted at the top of the tank
and synchronized with the camera.
30
3.1. Experimental set-up
z 3
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4
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<latexit
1
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<latexit
L
g
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Chap. 3
2
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<latexit
Figure 3.1 – Schematic representation of the experimental set-up used to study the dynamics of
cavitation bubbles in a closed container. An acrylic container (1, shown in the right panel) is filled
with water and hermetically closed with a membrane. This container is fixed on a falling tower, at
a variable height H, guided in free fall on each side. After the free fall, the tank impacts a damper
(2), which shape, size, and composition can be tuned to change the characteristics of the impact.
A high-speed camera (3) records the apparition of cavitation bubbles in the contre-coup region at a
speed of 10,000 fps to 20,000 fps. A high-frequency accelerometer (4) is attached to the top of the
tank and records the upward acceleration of the tank, following the impact, at a 10 kHz frequency.
A high-frequency pressure sensor (5) can be added to the set-up to monitor the pressure of the water
in the contre-coup region.
350
120 a
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<latexit
300
100
250
80 200
60 ⌧
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<latexit
150
40 100
50
20
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5
0.005 10
0.01 15
0.015 20
0.02 25
0.025
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.2 – (a) Typical acceleration signal recorded with the high-frequency accelerometer attached
to the water tank. We extract the two main parameters of our experiment from this signal: the
maximum acceleration a and the impact duration τ . In this thesis, τ is defined as the full width
at half the maximum of the acceleration signal. (b) Characteristic (a,τ ) curves for the dampers we
manufactured. Every damper has a range of acceleration and impact time accessible. Increasing the
thickness of the damper decreases a while increasing τ .
31
3.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area
During a shock on a container filled with water, the pressure in the liquid increases near the
impact location, and decreases in the contre-coup area: we note p(t) = pr − δp(t), where pr
is the initial pressure in the fluid at the top of the tank and δp(t) the pressure drop we wish
to determine. For an open container (with a free surface), the initial pressure is imposed
at the air-liquid interface such that pr = P0 , with P0 the atmospheric pressure, and δp is
given by Bernoulli’s equation (see 2.1): δp(t) = ρU̇ (t)L, where U̇ (t) is the acceleration of
the container and L the height of the liquid column. For a closed container, however, there
is no reference pressure pr .
Chap. 3 0.6 0.6 1.4

⇢aL
0.5
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pm 0.5 1.2
0.4 0.4
1
Flexible
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0.8
0.3 0.3
0.6
0.2 0.2
0.4 Rigid
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0.1 0.1
0.2
0 0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 0.5 1 1.5
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.3 – (a) Synchronised measurement of the pressure variation δp(t) and the acceleration
U̇ (t) plotted as ρU̇ (t)L where L is the liquid column height. The agreement between the pressure
variation and ρU̇ (t)L is quasi perfect for the whole duration of the impact. (b) Relationship between
the maximum pressure variation δpm in the contre-coup region and the acceleration factor ρaL,
where a is the maximum acceleration of the container during the impact. In dark blue, the case
of the flexible membrane, and in green the case of the rigid membrane. The equation of the blue
dashed line is δpm = ρaL, while the equation of the green dashed line is δpm = 21 ρaL.
A synchronised measurement of the pressure variation δp(t) in the contre-coup region, and
the acceleration U̇ (t) (Figure 3.3(a)) shows a great correspondence between δp(t) and the
acceleration factor ρU̇ (t)L at any time during the impact. Varying the maximum accel-
eration of the impact a (Figure 3.3(b)) shows a linear relationship between the maximum
pressure variation δpm and a, over a large range of acceleration. For the flexible membrane
case, we retrieve the behaviour of an open container where δpm = 0.955ρaL ± 0.031ρaL.
However, for the rigid membrane, the maximum variation of pressure is smaller and reads
δpm = 0.536ρaL ± 0.009ρaL.
These values can be theoretically explained using Bernoulli’s theorem under the same as-
sumptions used to derive equations (2.3) and (2.4). Along a vertical axis z in the container,
Bernoulli’s theorem reads,
ρU̇ (t)z + p = constant (3.1)
For the flexible membrane case, the pressure is fixed at the bottom of the container, through
the mechanical equilibrium of the membrane. If the membrane is at rest before the impact
32
3.2. Pressure drop in the contre-coup area
(no initial deformation), the reference pressure is pr = P0 at the bottom of the container,
hence δpm = ρaL. For the rigid membrane case, the problem is fully anti-symmetric with
respect to the middle of the container. If the pressure is increased by a value δp at the
bottom of the tank, it is decreased by the same value at the top. Hence, δpm = 21 ρaL.
These two model lines are represented alongside the measured values in Figure 3.3(b).
The flexibility of the membrane sealing the container appears to fix the value of the pressure
in the contre-coup region during the impact. However, the onset of cavitation bubbles in
a closed container does not seem to be governed solely by the value of the pressure in this
contre-coup zone.
We conducted two experiments, with roughly the same impact (i.e. the same acceleration Chap. 3
signal), one with the flexible membrane, and one with the rigid membrane (Figure (3.4)).
The maximum acceleration for these impacts were 127.78 g for the flexible membrane and
129.96 g for the rigid membrane, and the impact durations were respectively 7.01 ms and
7.08 ms. In the container sealed with a rigid membrane (top series of photos in Figure 3.4),
bubbles appear after 3.1 ms, they barely grow, and by 5.6 ms only a dozen of bubbles are
in the container. These bubbles remain small (Rmax ≤ 0.3 mm) and disappear quickly. For
the flexible membrane case, on the other hand, dozens of bubbles appear in the contre-coup
region after 3.1 ms. They grow, and by 8.6 ms they form a half a cm thick layer of bubbles.
The difference between the two experiments is the deformation of the membrane. For the
rigid case, there is no deformation, but for the flexible case, the membrane deforms ex-
tensively during the impact, as depicted on the bottom panel of Figure 3.4. When the
deformation of the membrane is not significant, the volume of the container remains con-
stant. However, water being incompressible, a fixed volume of the container leaves no room
for cavitation bubbles to grow. When the flexible membrane deforms, the cavitation bubbles
can push the liquid around and grow with almost zero constraints (as in the case of a free
surface).
The same thing happens in the skull. Indeed, the volume of the cranial cavity is itself vari-
able and seems to be related to the intracranial pressure (Figure 3.5(a)). In 2018 Unnerbäck
et al. [68] conducted synchronized measurements of the intracranial pressure ICP and the
intracranial volume variation ∆ICV . Over 1 second, the intracranial pressure oscillates five
times before reaching its equilibrium value. The maximum variation is 7 mmHg (9.3 10−3
bar). The intracranial volume varies by about 0.75mL, for a mean total intracranial volume
of 36.9 mL [69]. These variations are mainly due to the blood flow in the cranial cavity.
The maximum pressure variation is plotted against the maximum volume variation in Figure
3.5(b) showing a quasi-linear trend. We conducted the same experiment on our container
with different membranes (varying the membrane flexibility): we manually varied the tank’s
total volume by deforming the membrane. The corresponding pressure variation was de-
duced from the radius variation of a reference bubble contained in the tank. In Figure 3.5(b)
our measurements are superimposed to Unnerbäck’s experiments for one specific membrane,
showing a good agreement. Hence, we can design a membrane in the lab able to mimic the
relationship between the pressure and the volume of CSF in the cranial cavity. This mem-
brane will be used in all the following experiments of this thesis.
33
Rigid
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Chap. 3
Flexible
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1 cm
0
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<latexit
3.1
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5.6
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8.6
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t (ms)
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Figure 3.4 – Chronophotographies of cavitation onset for two impacts of similar acceleration and
duration, in two containers sealed differently. The top series of photos depicts the cavitation bubbles
appearing in a container sealed with a rigid membrane while the lower series comprises a container
closed by a flexible membrane. For each series, the moment of maximum cavitation is framed in
red, and a zoomed photo of the corresponding cavitation bubbles is shown in the dark blue panel.
For both containers, the last photo (without a timestamp) shows the fluid after the collapse of the
bubbles. On the bottom series of photos, the deformation of the flexible membrane can be observed
(on the bottom right side of the container).
3.3 Influence of the impact time
In this section, we aim to study the influence of the impact parameters on bubble dynamics.
As shown previously, when the container is sealed with a flexible membrane, the relation-
ship between the acceleration and the pressure in the contre-coup region established for a
container with a free surface still stands (see 3.2). As a consequence, the onset of cavitation
bubbles can still be predicted with the cavitation number Ca (Eq. (2.5)). However, this
cavitation number only accounts for one parameter of the impact, the maximum accelera-
tion a, ignoring the influence of the impact duration τ .
Using the experimental set-up described earlier in this chapter, and the container with a
flexible membrane, we conducted the following experiment: the container, filled with de-
gassed water, impacts the damper causing an impact of peak acceleration a and duration
τ . After this first impact the tank is emptied and filled again, the damper is replaced with
a stiffer one, the falling height is changed, and we subject it to a second impact with the
same a but a different impact duration τ 0 (Figure 3.7(a)). The first impact is referred to as
a long impact in the following, the latter as a short impact.
Before each impact, we introduce a bubble of radius R0 = 1.28 ± 0.1 mm in the contre-
34
3.3. Influence of the impact time
16 0.8
1.8
15 0.7
1.6
14 0.6
1.4
13 0.5
1.2
12 0.4
1
11 0.3
0.8
10 0.2
0.6
Model experiment
9 0.1
0.4 Unnerbäck 2017
8 0
0 200 400 600 800 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
(a)
(b)
Chap. 3
Figure 3.5 – (a) Measurements of the intracranial pressure ICP (in blue) and the variation of
the intracranial volume ∆ICV (in green) throughout 1 s. The pressure was measured thanks to a
catheter inserted in the cranial cavity through a burr hole and compared to the atmospheric pressure.
The volume variation was computed using MRI images, adapted from [68]. (b) Variation of pressure
as a function of the variation of volume for both our experimental container (in dark red) and the
human cranial cavity (in dark blue, taken from [68]). In our model experiment, the variation of
volume was determined by measuring the deformation of the membrane sealing the container. The
variation of pressure was measured by analyzing the radius of a reference bubble inside the tank. In
Unnerbäck’s experiments, ∆p is called ICP .
a = 78g
<latexit sha1_base64="52YKucxdx7KR3GV37u6LdrrMWI0=">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</latexit>
R
<latexit sha1_base64="barsPdrXIczIaNc+uqpQzbR883U=">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</latexit>
<latexit
Rmax
<latexit sha1_base64="Ur+c4mjkK4S6EScNi6/dSulF0uM=">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</latexit>
⌧ = 9.5 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="5oPrWBs046cN1kCynhEwbj3rZKY=">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</latexit>
t=0
<latexit sha1_base64="AU+YrrVfUYEOYD5RojmYebMHeVo=">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</latexit>
t = 11.3 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="5vJHsd7wgJqSxP/WZ+0tQa0IU2c=">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</latexit>
t = 16.8 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="7fkjPHR8iYjlun9H3fw4YV0b25c=">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</latexit>
t = 18.2 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="5cLIsJpGO5jBOOBuOkkcBIGmhHo=">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</latexit>
a = 78g
<latexit sha1_base64="/GrNOYHdfxxRtSBMgqf0WbC8Zgg=">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</latexit>
⌧ 0 = 1.5 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="fRk2Vd8ApkukMn8VXG+k2f++MGs=">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</latexit>
t=0
t = 1.2 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="+T+pcXpVvv1owhcZCJFV2754al0=">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</latexit>
t = 1.7 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="FbO1v1FPpjd72z8AvZ2ms6ZZB3Y=">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</latexit>
t = 2.9 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="vLaxtlvs4oglo5ZIHD88bhwENac=">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</latexit>
Figure 3.6 – Chronophotographies of cavitation bubble growth upon impacts of characteristics (a

= 78 g, τ = 9.5 ms) for the top panel, and (a = 78 g, τ = 1.5 ms) for the bottom panel. Upon
impact, both bubbles grow but have a different dynamics. The top bubble’s radius starts showing
a significant increase after 11.3 ms, reaches its maxim value Rmax after 16.8 ms and the bubbles
collapses after 18.2 ms. For the bottom panel the dynamics is much faster, the bubble’s radius starts
increasing after 1.2 ms, the maximum radius Rmax is reached after 1.7 ms and the bubbles collapses
after 2.9 ms. Moreover the maximum radii are very different although the initial radii are almost
identical (R0 = 1.28 ± 0.1 mm). The color of the images have been inverted for more clarity.
35
8
80
7
70
6
60
50 5
40
⌧0
<latexit sha1_base64="XYN6xKPGhcO4h1Ej41DQt3ImsHo=">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</latexit>
30
⌧
<latexit sha1_base64="/NG2xOK1Fd1YLRJ1kJKhkxGdtZg=">AAACyXicjVHLTsJAFD3UF+ILdemmEUxckYESYEl0Y+IGE3kkQExbBqyUtrZTIxJX/oBb/THjH+hfeGcsiS6ITtP2zrnnnJl7rxW4TiQYe09pS8srq2vp9czG5tb2TnZ3rxX5cWjzpu27ftixzIi7jsebwhEu7wQhNyeWy9vW+FTm23c8jBzfuxTTgPcn5shzho5tCoJa+Z4w4/xVNscKzDBYpaazQrFcKRuMglLFKFererHA1MohWQ0/+4YeBvBhI8YEHB4ExS5MRPR0UQRDQFgfM8JCihyV53hEhrQxsTgxTELH9B3RrpugHu2lZ6TUNp3i0huSUscRaXzihRTL03SVj5WzRBd5z5SnvNuU/lbiNSFU4JrQv3Rz5n91shaBIWqqBodqChQiq7MTl1h1Rd5c/1GVIIeAMBkPKB9SbCvlvM+60kSqdtlbU+U/FFOicm8n3Bif8pY04PkU9cVBq1Qo0vgvSrn6STLqNA5wiGOaZxV1nKGBJnnf4BkveNXOtVvtXnv4pmqpRLOPX0t7+gI+rJFm</latexit>
<latexit
3
20
2
10
1
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20
(a) (b)
Chap. 3 <latexit sha1_base64="HdFcz6VifcAouGJRJLusjSMN5sQ=">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</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="EzPJMG3pifmmRt47+1U2NXDzB28=">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</latexit>
Figure 3.7 – (a) Acceleration signal of two impacts with identical peak acceleration a = 78g, but
different impact durations. For the dark red impact, τ = 9.5 ms, and for the dark blue impact τ 0
= 1.5 ms. To increase the impact time while keeping a constant peak acceleration, we change the
falling height of the container and change the damper shape and stiffness. (b) Dynamics of cavitation
bubbles with the same initial radius R0 = 1.28 ± 0.1 mm, subjected two impacts with identical peak
acceleration a = 78g but different impact durations τ = 9.5 ms for the blue data set, and τ 0 = 1.5
ms for the red one. The radius of the bubbles were measured using a high-speed video of the bubble
growth recording at 10,000 frames/s.
coup region using a syringe, allowing us to control the location and initial conditions of the
bubble’s growth. The bubble dynamics is monitored with a high speed camera, filming the
contre-coup region at 10,000 frames/s (Figure 3.6). We measure the bubble’s radius over the
impact duration using ImageJ from the videos. The corresponding evolution of the radius is
plotted in Figure 3.7(b). From the bubbles’ radii, we notice that the dynamics are different.
The bubble submitted to the short impact takes 1.7 ms to reach a maximum radius of 3
mm. For the bubble submitted to the long impact, the maximum radius is much bigger
(Rmax = 7.5 mm), and the bubble’s growth is longer.
Thus, the dynamics of cavitation bubbles is not only acceleration-dependent but also de-
pends on the duration of the impact.
3.4 Bubble dynamics
3.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset equation
Using the pressure recorded experimentally, we numerically solve the Rayleigh-Plesset (RP)
equation:

2γ R0 3
3 4ν Ṙ 2γ p0 + R0 R − p(t)
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + + = (3.2)
2 R ρR ρ
for which the only input is p(t).

We then compare this numerical resolution to experimental results (Figure 3.8(a)): for
various acceleration signals, the radius of the cavitation bubble is measured using high-
speed camera images. The results of the numerical simulations are found to fit well the
36
3.4. Bubble dynamics
dynamics of the bubbles.

It is interesting to note that, even though the equation is based on the assumption of a
spherical bubble, its resolution is accurate in describing the asymmetrical collapse of the
bubble.
8 8
105
2.5
7 7
2
6 6
1.5
5 5 1
0 10
4 4
3 3
2 2
Chap. 3
1 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.8 – (a) Time evolution of the bubble radius R(t). Blue data are for a shock with peak
acceleration a = 77 g and timespan τ = 4.9 ms. Red: a = 69 g and τ = 5.4 ms. Green: a =
82 g and τ = 5.4 ms. Solid lines are numerical solutions of Rayleigh-Plesset equation with the
experimentally measured pressure, dots are experimentally measured radii. (b) Time evolution of
the bubble radius for a shock with peak acceleration a = 77 g and τ = 4.9 ms. Solid line is the
resolution of the Rayleigh-Plesset equation using the experimentally measured pressure. Dashed line
is the resolution using a triangular pressure with peak value ρaL and timespan τ . The comparison
between the measured pressure and the triangular one is shown in the embedded figure.
Although the fit between the experimental data and the numerical simulations is satisfac-
tory for the entire duration of the bubble growth, one stage of the growth is of particular
interest: the maximum bubble radius. Indeed, this maximum radius can be linked to the
energy released by the bubble when collapsing as it will be further detailed in Section 3.5.
Thus, we focused on the value of the maximum radius of a cavitation bubble as a function
of the sole parameters (a, τ ). To do so, we model the time evolution of the pressure as a
triangular signal of peak value ρaL and timespan τ . The comparison between the pressure
signal and the triangular model signal is shown in the embedded figure in Figure 3.8(b).
We numerically solve the Rayleigh-Plesset equation using both the measured pressure and
the triangular pressure, both radii evolutions are depicted in Figure 3.8(b). We find a good
agreement between the two radii evolutions and the experimentally measured bubble radius,
especially for the maximum radius Rmax .
From that, we numerically solve the Rayleigh-Plesset equation for an extensive range of
triangular pressure signals, varying both a and τ , and extract the maximum radius of the
cavitation bubble (Figure 3.9).
The colormap of maximum radius (Figure 3.9) confirms that the maximum radius Rmax is
monotonously increasing with the peak acceleration a and the timespan τ . It also highlights
two different regimes for the bubble growth: a low acceleration regime (a < 60 g) where the
increase of Rmax with τ is very weak and a high acceleration regime (a > 90 g) where Rmax
significantly increases as τ is increased: for a = 200 g, Rmax grows from 5 mm at τ = 0.5
ms to 2.5 cm at τ = 2 ms. These two regimes will be investigated in greater details in the
next sections.
37
Chap. 3
Figure 3.9 – Colormap of the maximum radius of the bubble Rmax as a function of the sole
parameters (a, τ ). The Rayleigh-Plesset equation is solved for an extensive range of triangular
pressure signals of peak value ρaL and timespan τ . The peak acceleration is ranging from 0 to 200 g
while τ varies from 0 to 10 ms. The initial radius of the bubble is 1.4 mm and the bubble is located
in the contre-coup region.
3.4.1.1 Low acceleration regime
In this regime, the acceleration is smaller than 60 g, hence the pressure in the container is
greater than the vapour pressure ( pv = 2300 Pa, p0 − ρaL ≈ 5990 Pa). Consequently, the
pressure in the tank changes at a rate lower than the characteristic time it takes for the
bubble to grow. We can consider that the bubble is always in a quasi-static equilibrium
with the surrounding liquid pb = p + 2γR . When R < 1 mm, it simplifies as:
pb = p = p0 − ρU̇ (t)L (3.3)
where p0 is the initial water pressure in the tank, and U̇ (t) its acceleration.
Considering the transformation isothermal, we can write:
4
pb (R) πR3
= 34 03 (3.4)
pb (R0 ) 3 πR
where R0 is the initial radius of the bubble.

Injecting Eq. (3.3) into Eq. (3.4), we get:
1
th p0 3
Rmax ≈ R0 (3.5)
p0 − ρaL
38
where a is the peak acceleration of the impact.

th
The theoretical Rmax is compared to the numerically computed maximum radius of the
bubble Rmax , and the ratio Rmax /Rmaxth is plotted in Figure 3.10(a). We note that all the
curves tend to collapse into a straight line of value 1, showing that we have quite correctly
described the mechanism of this regime. The model differs slightly from the flat line for
very short timespan (τ < 1 ms), and when the peak acceleration reaches the limits of the
regime (a ∼ 60g). Both the theoretical and computed values of the maximum radius align
with the experimentally measured values.
1.5 18
16
14
1 12
10
Chap. 3
8
0.5 6
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.10 – Comparison between the theoretical, modelled and experimental maximum bubble
th
radius in different acceleration regimes. (a) Low acceleration regime: Ratio Rmax /Rmax as a function
of the timespan τ for several values of the peak acceleration a (from a = 1 g in blue to a = 60 g in
red). Black dots are experimentally measured Rmax for a ranging from 1 g to 60 g, and τ varying
from 2 ms to 16 ms. (b) High acceleration regime: Maximum radius Rmax compared to its theoretical
th
value Rmax . Solid lines correspond to numerical simulation for acceleration ranging from a = 101 g
(in blue) to a = 230 g (in red). The black dots are experimental data points.
3.4.1.2 High acceleration regime
In this regime, the effect of surface tension and viscosity are negligible when compared to
the inertial effects. The equivalent Reynolds number is Re = aτνL ≈ 109 1, and the Weber
ρ(aτ )2 R
number W e = γ ≈ 1013 1. The Rayleigh-Plesset equation (Eq. 2.16) becomes:
3 ∆p
RR̈ + Ṙ2 = (3.6)
2 ρ
Multiplying Eq. (3.6) by ṘR2 , we get:
d(ρR3 Ṙ2 )
= ∆pṘR2 (3.7)
dt
To simplify the calculation, we assume the shock to be a crenel of value a and duration τ ,
which yields to a pressure p which is constant by part. Moreover, the pressure inside the
2γ
R0 3
bubble is pb = pv + (p0 + R 0
) R assuming an isothermal transformation, with pv the
vapor pressure. In the high-acceleration regime, R R0 which leads to pb ≈ pv . Hence,
39
the pressure variation ∆p is also constant by part. We integrate Eq. (3.7) between t = 0
and t = τ , and get:
s
2∆p
R(τ ) = R0 + τ (3.8)
3ρ
In a second phase, the pressure drops back to p0 pv , and Eq. (3.6) simplifies to:
3 p0
RR̈ + Ṙ2 = (3.9)
2 ρ
Chap. 3
Multiplying Eq. (3.9) by ṘR2 again, and integrating between t = τ and t = t(Rmax ) (where
Ṙ(Rmax ) = 0) gives:
s !3 s !3
3 2∆p 3ρ 2∆p 2∆p
Rmax = R0 + τ + R0 + τ (3.10)
3ρ 2p0 3ρ 3ρ
With pv = ρav L, we have ∆p = ρ(av − a)L, which ultimately yields to:
1 5
th 3ρ 3 2(a − av )L 6
Rmax ≈ R0 + τ (3.11)
2p0 3
th against the numerically computed value R

In Figure 3.10(b) we plotted Rmax max for different
values of the peak acceleration a and find a fair correlation. All the data collapse on a straight
line of slope 1/2, which can be understood when plotting also the numerical solutions of the
Rayleigh-Plesset equation, assuming a triangular peak of acceleration instead of a crenel:
the solutions are then found to fit well the data, suggesting that the numerical coefficient
in the law depends on the shape chosen for the temporal evolution of the acceleration.
3.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential
The damaging potential of a cavitation bubble can be evaluated with the energy released
by the bubble during the collapse. As discussed in Section 2.3, this energy can be released
through the emission of a shock wave [60, 61, 62] or the formation of a high-velocity liquid
jet [63, 64], and scales as [70]:
Eb = ∆p × Vmax (3.12)
where ∆p = p0 − ρaL and Vmax is the maximum volume of the bubble.

Our first objective in this section will be to assess the maximum volume of the bubble.
40
3.5. Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential
In a large volume of fluid, a cavitation bubble would be spherical. In our experimental

setup, an initial bubble is generated in the contre-coup region, forcing the bubble to grow
against the acrylic lid of the container. To assess the volume of the bubble, we added a
camera to our experimental device. This camera gives a side view of our tank, synchronized
with the camera that records the top view and the acquisition of pressure and acceleration.
The growth of a cavitation bubble, seen both from above and from the side is shown in
Figure 3.11.
5 mm
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Top view
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5 mm
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Chap. 3
Side view
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t=0
<latexit sha1_base64="HsNk6x1JMERxR/9qj9dqXjgk4Hg=">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</latexit>
t = 2.9 ms
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t = 4.4 ms
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t = 6.2 ms
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t = 8 ms
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Figure 3.11 – Synchronised top and side view of the growth of a cavitation bubble, both cameras
record at 10,000 fps. The bubble starts with an initial radius of R0 = 0.8 mm, after 6.2 ms it reaches
its maximum radius Rmax = 5.5 mm and collapses. From the side view, we see that the bubble,
initially quasi hemispherical, keeps a round shape until t = 6.2 ms, where its maximum height hmax =
2.5 mm is reached, before finally collapsing. Both the bubble radius R and the bubble height h reach
their maximum at the same time. The reflection of the bubble shows on the acrylic cover. The peak
acceleration of the impact is a = 60.8 g and the timespan τ = 6 ms.
These combined views reveal that even though the bubble was initially quasi-spherical, it
diverges from this shape and becomes flatter, taking the shape of a hemispherical cap. The
height of the bubble grows while the radius of the bubble increases and both maximum
radius and height are reached at the same time. It is also the time of maximum volume for
the bubble (Figure 3.12(a)).
To evaluate the maximum volume of the bubbles, we investigated the dynamic contact angle
of the bubble on the acrylic lid. During the rapid expansion period of the bubble, the growth
rate of the bubble can be considered constant (red dashed line in Figure 3.12(a)), and we
measure that the dynamic contact angle is constant as well (Figure 3.12(b)): it averages at
θ ∼ 56◦ .
For a spherical cap of base radius R and height h (Figure 3.13(a)), the contact angle is such
that:

π 2Rh
θ = − arccos (3.13)
2 R + h2
2
One solution to Eq. (3.13) for θ = 56◦ is a linear relationship between h and R, h = αR,
with α = 0.53. The maximum height of the cavitation bubbles hmax as a function of their
maximum radius Rmax is plotted in Figure (Figure 3.13(b)), alongside a line of slope 0.53.
The experimental points roughly follow this linear prediction, allowing us to say that hmax
scales as half of Rmax .
As a consequence, the maximum bubble’s radius reads:
1 2
13π 3
Vmax = πhmax 3Rmax + h2max = R . (3.14)
6 48 max
41
6 90
Bubble height
Bubble radius 80
5
70
4 60
50
3
40
2 30
20
1
10
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Chap. 3 (a)
(b)
Figure 3.12 – (a) Time evolution of the radius and the height of a cavitation bubble. After 3 ms,
the bubble expands rapidly before reaching a maximum radius and height and collapsing. During
the rapid expansion phase, we can approximate the growth of the bubble linearly with time (dashed
line). (b) Dynamic contact angles of cavitation bubbles, measured during the rapid expansion phase,
for 7 different experiments. The angle of contact averages at 56◦ .
3
h
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✓
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R
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0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.13 – (a) Side view of a cavitation bubble of base radius R, height h and contact angle θ.
(b) Maximum height of the cavitation bubbles hmax as a function of their maximum radius Rmax .
The slope of the solid red line is 0.53.
Hence, we can deduce that:
3
Eb ∼ ρaLRmax (3.15)
From here, we computed the energy released by a cavitation bubble following a triangular
acceleration signal of peak acceleration a et timespan τ (similar to Figure 3.8(c)), for the
parameters of the human head (size and equivalent membrane elasticity). We then plotted
the iso-energy curves in a (a, τ ) diagram for two values of the energy, Eb = 1 J and Eb = 3.5
J , shown in Figure (3.14). Both these curves seem to capture well the behavior of the
WSTC: an approximately constant acceleration threshold for impacts lasting more than 2
ms, which dramatically increases for shorter impacts. For small values of τ (τ < 3 ms) they
predict smaller threshold values for the peak acceleration than the WSTC, and for larger
42
values of τ , they reach a plateau value of 70 g, slightly above Wayne’s predictions.
The chosen energy values can themselves be rationalized: this energy is released in a volume
Ω smaller than a cubic millimeter, whether it is set by the high-velocity jet radius or the
pressure wave emission. This corresponds to a local increase of pressure p ≈ E/Ω higher
than 10 MPa, which is large enough to damage the brain tissues [71]. It is even large enough
to damage the skull itself [72].
400
350
Chap. 3
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Figure 3.14 – Iso-energy curves in the (a, τ ) diagram compared to the Wayne State Tolerance
Curve (WSTC). The energy released by the bubbles is computed using Eq. (3.15). The energy for
the blue curve is 1 J, while the energy for the red curve is 3.5 J. Both curves capture the behaviour
of the WSTC both small and high impact durations τ .
In the vicinity of the threshold, we stay in the large acceleration regime (with a > av ), and
always have Rmax R0 . Hence, Eq. (3.11) simplifies to:
1
th ρ 3 5
Rmax ∼ (aL) 6 τ (3.16)
p0
Substituting this into Eq. (3.15), we can express a new severity criterion for a brain con-
cussion, solely based on the onset of cavitation bubbles in the CSF:
7
ED ∼ a 2 τ 3 (3.17)
where ED is the threshold energy able to damage the brain. This yields a threshold accel-
6
eration for the damages aD ∼ ED /τ 7 . The characteristic component -(6/7) is close to that
of the WSTC, which is found to scale as τ α with α = −0.92 ± 0.03. This suggests that a
43
scenario solely based on cavitation in the CSF seems to grasp most of the brain concussion
tolerance curve characteristics. Only the value of the energy needed to fit the WSTC with
iso-energy curves can be debated: if 1 J is enough to damage the skull, we are far above
the brain concussion limit. This suggests that our model experiment can be modified to get
even closer to the skull-CSF-brain system.
Chap. 3
44
1. Cavitation onset in a sealed container requires a variable volume, that we

mimic by closing the container with a flexible membrane.
2. Duration of impact and acceleration are both determining parameters for

the growth of a cavitation bubble.
3. The energy released by a cavitation bubble when it collapses scales as the

3
product of the pressure times the volume variation which turns into E ∼ ρaLRmax .
4. Damages caused by cavitation bubbles display a threshold curve close to

the WSTC.
45
46
4
Cavitation bubbles in a confined
environment
The experiments carried out in chapter 3 seem to show that cavitation bubbles have a de-
structive potential that could cause a concussion, if they were to form in the cerebrospinal
fluid. The challenge of this chapter will be to create an experimental device closer to the
geometry of the skull and to evaluate the energy released by cavitation bubbles in such a
geometry.
Life of a 2D cavitation bubble. The bubble is confined between an acrylic rod, and the acrylic lid of the
container. From an initial radius R0 , the bubble reaches a maximum radius Rmax before collapsing
to a cloud of micro-bubbles.
Contents
4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in the free and confined zone 51
4.4 Bubble dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential . . . . . . 59
This work has been done with Caroline Cohen.
47
Chapter 4. Cavitation bubbles in a confined environment
The onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in the CSF seem to be a good candidate for
explaining brain concussions. However, as shown in Chapter 3, our first model experiment
overestimated the energy released by such bubbles, and need adjustments. Going back to
the brain-CSF-skull system, we realized that the experimental device could be modified to
get closer to reality. In chapter 1, an MRI picture of a sagittal section of the cranium is
given (Figure 1.8). In this image, we can see that, in the skull, the brain is surrounded by
a layer of CSF of about 1 mm in size. Thus, if cavitation bubbles were to form in the CSF,
they would be confined within a given fluid thickness.
In this chapter, we perform experiments of cavitation bubbles, induced by acceleration of a
closed container, and confined between two rigid surfaces. First, we describe the experimen-
tal setup, we verify that this experiment remains comparable to an impact during sports
practice, then we develop a model for these confined cavitation bubbles, to finally predict
the energy released during their implosion.
4.1 Experimental setup

Chap. 4
In this chapter, the experimental set-up remains quasi-unchanged as compared to Chapter
3, except for the container. The falling tower and the damper are the same, the acquisition
system is identical, as the high-speed camera. As for the container, we changed it to study
the onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in a confined space (Figure 4.1). A screen-light
has also been added below the container, allowing an automated detection of the bubbles.
Free zone
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Confined zone
Confined zone
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Free zone
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(a)
(b)
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Figure 4.1 – (a) Top, (b) isometric, and (c) sectional view of the container generated with the 3D
software Fusion 360. The container is made of transparent acrylic, with a height L = 20 cm and
a square base of dimension 8 cm × 8 cm. An acrylic cylinder of radius r = 15 mm is screwed in
the middle of the container, its height being slightly below the tank’s length, and tunable. The rod
creates a confined zone in the middle of the container and a free zone all around it. The thank is
closed with an acrylic lid, screwed on top of it. A flexible membrane is placed at the bottom of the
tank to keep the variable volume requirement. A high-frequency pressure sensor can be placed on
top of the lid, or the side of the container.
The cerebro-spinal fluid is confined between the skull and the brain, and although the thick-
ness of this fluid layer is variable, it is approximately 1 mm. If we were to build a 1 mm
thick container, and knowing that the pressure and the acceleration scale as p − p0 = ρaL,
the container would need to reach a = 10, 000g for the pressure to reach the vapor pres-
sure. This is not a range of acceleration we can access in the lab. As a consequence, we
48
4.1. Experimental setup
chose to use a tall container (L = 20 cm), with a confined zone inside. We screwed an
acrylic rod, of tunable length, in the middle of the container (black cylinder in Figure 4.1(a)
and (b)). This creates a layer of thickness e between the rod and the lid, and e can be
varied between 0.5 mm and 1 cm. All around the cylinder (referred to as the free zone in
the following), the water is unperturbed and behaves similarly to the previous experiment
(Chapter 3), and we make the assumption that the pressure in the confined zone is trans-
mitted form the free zone at the same height. Two bubbles, of equal initial radius, are
deposited in the tank before each experiment, one in the free zone and one in the confined
zone. The tank is then sealed underwater (in a larger tank) to avoid any unsolicited bubbles.
4.1.1 Confinement height e
Due to the violence of the impacts imposed on the tank and despite our efforts in the
conception, some parts of the tank can be deformed. Considering the volume of the tank,
these deformations are negligible, except in the confined area. We have therefore verified Chap. 4
that the height of the confinement e remains constant during an impact.
0.7
e
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0.6
0.5
R
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sha1_base64="ssesJBoHDxUcvJvklX5bS1osUOQ=">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</latexit>
Rref
0.4
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sha1_base64="IGQSX4scdbhV1vhjARfBo2mHJp4=">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</latexit>
0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(a)
(b)
(c)
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Figure 4.2 – (a) Schematic representation of the side view of the control drop of water in the
confined space. After the water in the tank has been emptied, a drop of colored water of volume V0
is introduced into the confined area. (b) Top view of the tank during the measurement of e. The
radius of the colored bubble R is monitored, as well as the radius of a reference circle on the tank
V0
lid. The conservation of volume of the colored drop states that at every stage of the impact e = πR 2.
(c) Confinement height e as a function of time during an impact, computed from the radius of the
control drop.
To do that, we empty the tank and introduce a drop of colored water of volume V0 into
the confined area. Thanks to the high-speed camera placed above the impact tower, the
radius R of this drop is measured (Figure 4.2(b)) while the tank is subjected to different
impacts. By conservation of the volume V0 , at any moment of the impact, the height of
the confinement can then be calculated knowing R(t) and the initial volume of the drop,
V0
e = πR 2 . Another error can come from the fact that the plane of observation changes during
the impact as the damper deforms. To correct that, an element of fixed size Rref is also
placed on the lid of the tank, which allows us to correct the error in the measurement of the
radius due to the exit of the drop from the focal plane. The value of e for a test impact is
plotted in Figure 4.2(c). This height can be considered constant during the whole impact
period.
49
4.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area
The pressure gradient is set by the height of the liquid column p = p0 − ρaL, with ρ the
density of the fluid, a the acceleration of the tank and L the length of the liquid column
(see 3.2). To validate that the pressures in the free zone and the confined zone are equal, a
pressure sensor was mounted at the center of the tank’s lid (above the confining cylinder),
and the maximum variation of pressure δpm was measured for a wide range of acceleration,
with and without the cylinder in the tank. The relationship between δpm and ρaL remains
the same in the free zone and the confined zone (Figure 4.3(a)).
10 4 104
15
No confining rod
Confining rod
15
10
10
Chap. 4
5
5
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
4
10 104
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.3 – (a) Relationship between the maximum pressure variation δpm in the contre-coup
region and the acceleration factor ρaL, where a is the maximum acceleration of the container during
the impact. The blue data corresponds to the pressure in the contrecoup region, with the confining
rod, i.e. in a confined space. The red data is the pressure measurement for the contre-coup region
without the confining cylinder, i.e. in free space, and the dotted line is of slope 1. (b) Relationship
between δpm and ρaL for a pressure sensor placed on the side of the tank. The colored dots depict
several series of experiments, between which the tank was opened, emptied, refilled, and closed again.
The dotted lines are the linear fit of the experimental data. The green open dots correspond to the
pressure prediction obtained from the resolution of the Rayleigh-Plesset equation and comparison
with the free bubble radius.
To keep a clean top view of the tank, and to avoid any deformation of the lid during the im-
pact due to the weight of the pressure sensor, the sensor was moved to the side of the tank.
Upon a series of experiments (Figure 4.3(b)), we observed that the relationship between
δpm and ρaL remained linear for each experiment, but the slope of the line was slightly
varying from one experiment to another. We have now δpm = αρaL, with α ≤ 1. This
can be explained by the following: in this new container, there are two different openings,
the membrane at the bottom and the top lid. Despite our efforts to make the experiment
reproducible, depending on how tight the lid is closed between two experiments can change
the pressure-acceleration relationship.
Keeping the pressure sensor on the container and measuring the pressure for each experiment
is not possible here, because the container is sealed underwater, in a larger container. As a
consequence, we decided to use the cavitation bubble of the free zone as a passive pressure
sensor. We know from Chapter 3 that, in the free zone, for a given initial radius R0 , the
dynamics of a cavitation bubble is precisely described by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation, in
50
4.3. Onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in the free and confined zone
our case:

2γ R0 3
3 4ν Ṙ 2γ p0 + R0 R − αρa(t)L
RR̈ + Ṙ2 + + = (4.1)
2 R ρR ρ
From that, an optimization algorithm between the experimental data of the bubble radius
and the numerical resolution of RP provides us with a unique value for α. Hence, for each
experiment, the free cavitation bubble provides us with the value of the pressure inside the
tank. Some of the calculated values of δpm are plotted against ρaL in Figure 4.3(b) (Green
open dots), they match correctly the measurements done with the pressure sensor.
4.3 Onset and growth of cavitation bubbles in the free and

confined zone
Chap. 4
4.3.1 Onset of cavitation bubbles
The onset of cavitation bubbles was investigated in both free and confined regions. The
container, filled with water, was submitted to a wide range of impacts. For each impact,
we prepare the tank such that no initial bubble was present, and we record the acceleration
signal as well as a high-speed video of the contrecoup region. From each video (Figure 4.4),
we could deduce if cavitation bubbles had formed, and if so, in which area of the tank. The
thickness of the confined area e varied from 0.5 mm to 1 mm.
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.4 – (a) Top view of the container during the cavitation onset experiment. The tank is
filled with water and without any initial bubble. Cavitation bubbles appear both in the free and
confined zone. The radius of the confining cylinder is r = 30 mm. (b) (a, τ ) diagram of the cavitation
onset experiments. In green, experiments where cavitation onset was observed. Red: no cavitation
onset observed. Black open dots: uncertainty, either a bubble was already inside the tank before the
experiment or the cavitation bubbles created were too small to be seen.
Over the 11 impacts where cavitation occurred, bubbles were created in both zones, except
for one experiment where bubbles appeared only in the free area. From that, we can deduce
that the cavitation threshold is the same for the confined bubbles and the free bubbles.
51
In Figure 4.4(b), we recover the behavior described in Chapter 3: at a fixed acceleration, an

increase of the impact duration τ favors the appearance of cavitation bubbles. Conversely,
at a fixed τ , an increase of a encourages the formation of bubbles.
4.3.2 Growth of cavitation bubbles
Free
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Confined
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Chap. 4 t=0
t = 7.36 ms
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t = 8.8 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="rOxp8SlCUAkusyzNIDcWWE/s89I=">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</latexit>
t = 9.52 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="AL/Bbzjm68U5oNn124EQL9DShcg=">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</latexit>
t = 10.9 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="i6YZIeUOlOFtJcUzgIOKEgYGJrk=">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</latexit>
t = 12.3 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="OZLFkiY+YaKnZ+gp+qBzE+oDmIg=">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</latexit>
Figure 4.5 – Snapshots sequences of cavitation bubble growth upon impacts of characteristics (a =
69 g, τ = 6.7 ms), in the free region (top panel) and the confined region with e = 1.1 mm (bottom
panel). Both bubbles have an initial radius R0 = 0.96 mm. The first stages of growth are identical
for the two bubbles, until t = 7.36 ms, then the free bubble reaches its maximum radius at t = 9.52
ms. The confined bubble grows until t = 10.9 ms, where it reaches its own maximum radius, before
collapsing.
To control both the initial radius of the bubbles, as well as their location, we inject into the
tank with a syringe, before each impact, two bubbles of radius R0 , one in each zone. Upon
impact, both bubbles grow (Figure 4.5), in a similar fashion first, until they reach a radius
f
of 4mm, then the free bubble slows its growth until it reaches its maximum radius Rmax .
While the free bubble collapses, the confined bubble continues its growth until a maximum
c
radius Rmax , and finally collapses too.
The time evolution of the bubbles radii are plotted in Figure 4.6(a). As we have seen in
Figure 4.5, the confined bubble reaches a larger maximum radius, and has a longer lifetime,
despite having the same initial radius as the free bubble.
We conducted the same experiment several times, while changing the impact parameters
(a, τ ) and the confined height e, and reported the ratio of maximum radius Rmax to initial
radius R0 as a function of the peak acceleration a in Figure 4.6(b). First, we see the
apparition of two regimes: a low acceleration regime where the experimental points align
and weakly depend on a, and a high acceleration regime where the points are scattered.
c
In the high acceleration regime, a slight increase in a leads to a big increase in Rmax /R0c .
Moreover, this ratio does not appear to depend on the confined height e.
When the confinement height is increased to an even larger value, e = 10 mm, the bub-
ble in the confined area behaves exactly like the one in the free area (Figure 4.7(a)), as
expected. When departing from the same initial radius, both bubbles grow at the same
rate, reach the same maximum radius, and collapse at the same time. For this value of
e, the bubble does not feel the confinement. The ratio of maximum radius Rmax to initial
radius R0 is plotted in Figure 4.7(b), alongside a line of slope 1 on which the data is aligning.
For values of e between 10 mm and 2 mm, the dynamics of the cavitation bubbles is expected
to be a combination of free and confined dynamics and is complicated to predict.
52
8 25
c
7 Rmax <latexit sha1_base64="52cDGlNg91IBEEWPPSW4VZ1JzpM=">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</latexit>
20
6 f
Rmax
<latexit sha1_base64="TsCc4liofccTFy5K4Ud0twd50bA=">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</latexit>
5 15
4
3 10
2
5
1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 20 30 40 50 60 70
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.6 – (a) Time evolution of the bubbles radii Rc (t) and Rf (t). Blue data are for the free
bubble and red data are for the confined bubble. Both bubbles have the same initial radius R0 =
f c
0.9 mm, but reach two distinct maximum radii Rmax and Rmax . The end of the bubbles collapse is
difficult to identify due to the apparition of microbubbles, and non-spherical shapes disturbing the Chap. 4
detection algorithm. (b) Ratio of the maximum confined bubble radius to the initial confined bubble
c
radius Rmax /R0c , as a function of the peak acceleration a. The different dot colors correspond to
different confining height e. The red data is for e = 1.1mm. Blue: e = 0.9 mm. Green: e = 0.6
mm. For small qpeak acceleration (a < 50g), the experimental data follow the model line of equation
c p0
Rmax /R0c = P0 −ρaL . For larger values of a, the experimental values are dispersing. The large
error bars on the plot are mainly due to uncertainty on the initial radius.
4 14
3.5 12
3
10
2.5
8
2
6
1.5
4
1
0.5 2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.7 – (a) Time evolution of the bubbles radii Rc (t) and Rf (t). Blue data are for the free
bubble and red data are for the confined bubble. Both bubbles have the same initial radius R0 = 0.6
f c
mm, and the same maximum radii Rmax = Rmax . The end of the bubbles collapse is not precisely
identified due to the apparition of microbubbles, and non-spherical shapes disturbing the detection
algorithm. (b) Ratio of the maximum confined bubble radius to the initial confined bubble radius,
as a function of the same ratio for the free bubble. The black dashed line is a guide for the eye of
slope 1. The large error bars on the plot are mainly due to uncertainty on the initial radius.
4.4 Bubble dynamics
In a confined space, the Rayleigh-Plesset equation, as we have seen it in Chapter 2, can no

longer be used to model the dynamics of the bubbles. We have to define a new velocity
53
potential and derive the equation again.
Let us consider the flow around the bubble irrotational and incompressible, but this time
the symmetry of the problem is cylindrical. The potential of velocity of the fluid must then
meet the following condition:

1 ∂ ∂ψ
∇ψ = r =0 (4.2)
r ∂r ∂r
Hence,
c(t)
u= (4.3)
r2
with u the radial velocity of the fluid and c(t) a function of time only.
Chap. 4
The condition of impermeability at the gas/liquid interface (r = R) ensure that u(R, t) = Ṙ,
with Ṙ the growing rate of the bubble, hence:
RṘ
ur (r, t) = (4.4)
r
r
ψ(r, t) = RṘ ln (4.5)
R∞
with R∞ the distance at which the fluid is no longer disturbed by the growth of the bubble.
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem between r = R and r → ∞, where p = p(t), yields:
∂ψ u2 (r = R) p(R) p(t)
+ + = (4.6)
∂t r=R 2 ρ ρ
Injecting Eq. (4.5) and (4.4) into Eq. (4.6) yields:

R 1 p(t) − p(R)
ln (Ṙ2 + RR̈) + Ṙ2 = (4.7)
R∞ 2 ρ
The pressure of the fluid at the interface is given by the continuity of normal stress across
the bubble’s interface:
γ Ṙ
p(R) = pb + − 2µ (4.8)
R R
with γ the surface tension and pb the pressure inside the bubble, considered uniform. From
this follows:
54

R 1 2ν Ṙ γ p(t) − pb
ln (Ṙ2 + RR̈) + Ṙ2 + − = (4.9)
R∞ 2 R ρR ρ
where ν = µ/ρ is the cinematic viscosity of the fluid.

Under the hypothesis that the transformation is isothermal, and that there is no mass
transfer of gas from or to the liquid, the pressure inside the bubble can itself be expressed
as:
2
γ R0
pb = p0 + (4.10)
R0 R
From this, we derive the equation for the radius of a confined cavitation bubble:
Chap. 4

γ R0 2
R 1 2ν Ṙ γ p(t) − p0 + R0 R
ln (Ṙ2 + RR̈) + Ṙ2 + − = (4.11)
R∞ 2 R ρR ρ
In the following, this equation will be referred to as the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation. As it

was intuited by the experiments, with this model the dynamics of cavitation bubbles does
not depend on the value of the confinement height e.
4.4.1 Measure of R∞
Solving the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation requires the measurement of R∞ , the distance at

which the fluid is no longer disturbed by the growth of the bubble. The experimental set-up
used to measure R∞ is depicted in Figure 4.8. An air bubble is inflated in the confined zone,
thanks to a syringe connected to a hole in the tank’s lid. The confined zone is sprinkled
with small beads to track the fluid flow around the air bubble during its growth. The tank
is kept upside down to let tracking bubbles sediment in the region of interest. A camera,
placed under the tank, records the displacement of the tracking beads.
The maximum radius of the air bubble Rmax and the growth rate of the bubble are var-
ied over a series of experiments. For each experiment, we draw a Temporal Colour Code
(ImageJ) with the images recorded (Figure 4.9(a)). The particles displaced by the bubble
growth draw a line of color, while the undisplaced bubbles remain white. From these Tem-
poral Colour Codes, we measured the distance between the farthest displaced particle and
the center of the bubble, dmax , and plotted it against the maximum radius of the bubble
Rmax (Figure 4.9(b)) and the bubble’s growth rate (Figure 4.9(c)).
In Figure 4.9 (b) and (c), we see that dmax weakly depends on Rmax and the growth rate.
The distance dmax caps around 15 mm, which is the radius of the confining cylinder. More-
over, Figure 4.9(a) shows that only the particles in the confined area are moved, while those
in the free area remain immobile during the growth and decay of the bubble. We can deduce
from these experiments that R∞ is equal to the radius of the confining cylinder, here R∞
= 15 mm.
55
2
<latexit sha1_base64="zFjJkHAS/SlcnY8qtoVjrevhoI8=">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</latexit>
<latexit
t=0
1
<latexit sha1_base64="XPupLPfcVGDyo5uXnY6ujO9GvVU=">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</latexit>
<latexit
t = tmax
3
<latexit sha1_base64="IQQ0Gs3jUtXre5JG9xHUM7BF6qQ=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="tCrE086W7uR006dZ+hsPUxMefBs=">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</latexit>
<latexit
R1
<latexit sha1_base64="PVJwB0yrqJ70vFrXjuBs63qRPIE=">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</latexit>
Chap. 4
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.8 – (a) Schematic representation of the experimental set-up used to measure R∞ . Tracking
beads (1, in dark green) are introduced in the tank, that we put upside down to prevent the beads
from sediment out of the region of interest. A hole is pierced in the tank lid, and an air bubble
is inflated in the confined region with a syringe (2). A camera (3) records the displacement of the
tracking beads at 500 fps. (b) Schematic representation of a bottom view of the (upside down) tank,
before the inflation of the air bubble (t = 0), and when the artificial bubble’s radius is maximum (t
= tmax ). Using a temporal color code (superposition of the images from the video, with the color
varying with time, from green to red), the displaced particles will draw a line on the picture, while
the ones that remained undisplaced appear as green dots. The frontier between the displaced and
undisplaced particles gives the value of R∞ .
The main drawback of the experiment is the small values of accessible growth rates. Never-
theless, the same experiment was conducted on our experimental set-up, with a real cavita-
tion bubble, to check that we measured the same value for R∞ in a non-quasistatic regime.
To do so, we inserted an initial bubble in the confined area, alongside tracking particles.
The contre-coup region was illuminated using a laser sheet, fixed on the falling part of the
tower, to facilitate the tracking of the beads. Due to the difficulty of focusing the high-speed
camera on the laser sheet, and the appearance of undesirable cavitation bubbles, a limited
number of experiments are exploitable. As for the previous experiment, a temporal color
coding was used to analyze these experiments, an example of which is shown in Figure 4.10.
In the confined area (circled in white) the tracking particles display a colored line, meaning
that they were displaced by the growing bubble. Inversely, in the free zone around the
confining cylinder, the particles stayed still during the growth, meaning that the fluid was
unperturbed. This experiment confirms that, in our experimental set-up, R∞ = 15 mm.
With the value of R∞ , we are now able to solve the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation numerically,
and in the small acceleration regime, analytically.
56
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.9 – (a) Temporal color code (ImageJ) of the inflation and deflation of an air bubble in the
confined region of the tank. Each image of the recording is overlaid with a different color for each.
If a particle moves from one image to another, a colored line is created. On the other hand, all the
elements of the image that have remained stationary keep their initial colors. The temporal color
code goes from blue for the first images, to green and finally red. The colored area in the middle of
the confined zone is the air bubble. The tracking particles close to the bubble have been displaced,
while the particles further away have not moved. (b) Distance between the farthest displaced particle
Chap. 4
and the center of the bubble dmax as a function of the maximum radius of the bubble Rmax . (c)
Distance between the farthest displaced particle and the center of the bubble dmax as a function of
the growth rate of the bubble.
4.4.2 Small acceleration regime
In this regime, the acceleration is smaller than 50 g, hence the pressure in the container is
always greater than the vapour pressure ( pv = 2300 Pa, p0 −ρaL ≈ 22145 Pa). Consequently,
the pressure in the tank changes at a rate lower than the characteristic time it takes for
the bubble to grow. We can consider that the bubble is always in a quasi-static equilibrium
with the surrounding liquid pb = p + 2γR . When R is small enough, it simplifies as:
pb = p = p0 − ρU̇ L (4.12)
where p0 is the initial water pressure in the tank, and U̇ its acceleration.
Considering the transformation isothermal, we can write:
pb (R) πR02 e
= (4.13)
pb (R0 ) πR2 e

Injecting Eq. (4.12) into Eq. (4.13), we get:
1
th p0 2
Rmax ≈ R0 (4.14)
p0 − ρaL
where a is the peak acceleration of the impact.

c,th
The ratio Rmax /R0c is plotted in Figure 4.6(b) (black dashed line) alongside experimental
data points. The experimental data points align on the model curve for acceleration smaller
57
t=0
t = 6.6 ms
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t = 8.2 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="PiGPSrKnV+3dwMgdNtylUeBrybQ=">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</latexit>
t = 9.8 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="O3KdcsXF98+QAbfG69gfLL0LRtE=">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</latexit>
Chap. 4
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.10 – (a) Time evolution of a confined cavitation bubble surrounded by tracking particles,
in a laser sheet. The image colors are reversed for clarity, the tracking particles appear as black
dots. The bubble is encircled by a red circle, the confining cylinder is encircled by a black dashed
circle. (b) Temporal color code (ImageJ) of the growth of a cavitation bubble in the confined zone
of the tank. A colored line (from blue to red) is the representation of a particle that was displaced
by the growing bubble, while undisplaced particles appear as colored dots. The confining cylinder is
encircled by a white dashed circle. A color bar, from the blue for the first frame to red for the last
frame is displayed above the figure.
than 50 g. For greater values of a, the experimental data does not seem to align on any
model curve, which suggests that the impact time τ will influence the maximum radius as
well.
4.4.3 Numerical resolution
Using the acceleration recorded experimentally, we extrapolate the pressure in the container,
and we solve the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation. A few examples of bubble dynamics are
shown in Figure 4.11(a) and are found to be well fitted by the numerical solutions. The
resolutions for the confined and free bubbles are done simultaneously, with the same pressure
signal.
In the same fashion as in Chapter 3 on free bubbles, we are interested in the maximum
c
radius of confined bubbles Rmax as a function of the couple of parameters (a, τ ). To do
so, we model the pressure signal as a triangular signal of peak value ρaL and timespan τ .
From that, we numerically solve the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation for an extensive range of
triangular pressure signals, varying both a and τ , and extract the maximum radius of the
confined cavitation bubble (Figure 4.11(b)).
The colormap of maximum radius (Figure 4.11(b)) is very similar to the one of the free
58
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.11 – (a) Time evolution of the confined and free bubbles radii Rc (t) and Rf (t). Blue
data is for a = 69 g and τ = 6.7 ms. Red: a = 79 g and τ = 5.7 ms. Green: a = 81 g and τ =
5.6 ms. Solid lines are numerical solutions of 2D RP equation with the experimentally measured
acceleration, round markers are experimentally measured radii for the confined bubbles. Dashed lines Chap. 4
are numerical solutions of RP equation with the experimentally measured acceleration, triangular
markers are experimentally measured radii for the free bubbles. (b) Colormap of the maximum
c
radius of the confined bubble Rmax as a function of the sole parameters (a, τ ). The Rayleigh-Plesset
equation is solved for an extensive range of triangular pressure signals of peak value ρaL and timespan
τ . The initial radius of the bubble is 10−3 mm and the bubble is located in the confined region.
bubble. One difference is the largest value for the maximum radius: for the confined bub-
ble, the maximum radius does not exceed 15 mm, which is the value of R∞ . In Eq. (4.11),
we see that R∞ acts as a cut-off value for R.
4.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential
For the confined cavitation bubbles, the energy released by the bubble still scales as the
product of the pressure variation times the maximum volume of the bubble:
Eb = ∆p × Vmax (4.15)
where ∆p = p0 − ρaL and Vmax is the maximum volume of the bubble.

The difference between a free and a confined cavitation bubble is the maximum volume.
For the confined bubble, the volume calculation is easier as its height remains constant, and
imposed by the confinement size e, Vmax = πR2 e, which yields:
2
Eb = πρaLeRmax (4.16)
From here, we computed the energy released by a confined cavitation bubble following a
triangular acceleration signal of peak value a and timespan τ , for the human head.
59
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Chap. 4 0 5 10 15
Figure 4.12 – Iso-energy curves in the (a, τ ) diagram compared to the Wayne State Tolerance
Curve (WSTC). The energy released by the bubbles is computed using Eq.(4.16). The energy for
the blue curve is 3 mJ, while the energy for the red curve is 25 mJ.
The shape of the iso-energy curves (Figure 4.12) seems again to capture the behavior of the
WSTC: at small impact duration τ the threshold in acceleration is very large, and increases
as τ decreases. For larger values of τ , the curves reach a plateau value, similar to the WSTC.
However, compared to the free bubble experiment, the iso-energy curve is not as close to
the WSTC. At small timespan τ , our model predicts a threshold at lower values of a, while
for larger values of τ , the plateau value is higher than the one predicted by the WSTC.
On the other hand, the value of the energies chosen to draw the iso-energy curves is closer
to reality. Indeed, the damage caused by the cavitation bubble will be localized in a vol-
ume smaller than a cubic millimeter. For an energy of 25 mJ, the local overpressure is
p ≈ E/Ω = 25 MPa. However, an overpressure >10 MPa applied on a rat brain results
in cerebral contusional hemorrhage, while a smaller overpressure (1 MPa) results in mild
morphological changes [71].
The assumptions made in this model are probably too far from reality, in particular the
constant height of the bubble. Thus, it would seem that the iso-energy curve describing the
damage caused by cavitation bubbles in the CSF is halfway between those proposed in the
free and confined cases.
60
1. Cavitation onset threshold is the same for a confined and a free bubble.
2. Confined bubble radius is larger than the free bubble radius for the same
impact, is governed by the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation, and does not depend on
the confinement height e.
3. The energy released by the bubbles when it collapses scales as

2
E = πρaLeRmax
4. The damages caused by confined cavitation bubbles display a threshold

curve close to the WSTC, of energy value close to the one needed to damage a rat
brain.
61
62
5
Cavitation in a soft confined
space - Perspectives
In Chapter 4, we saw that the cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) is confined (approximately 1 mm
thick) between the skull and the brain. However, we had so far neglected one important
parameter: the brain is a soft solid. Hence, if cavitation bubbles develop in the CSF, they
would be confined between a soft, deformable solid, and a rigid plate.
Life of a soft confined cavitation bubble. The bubble is sandwiched between a gel, and the acrylic
lid of the container. From an initial radius R0 , the bubble reaches a maximum radius Rmax before
collapsing to a cloud of micro-bubbles.
Contents
5.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 Growth of a soft confined cavitation bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 Volume of the bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
This work has been done with Caroline Cohen. The bubble generator was entirely designed
by Caroline Frot.
63
Chapter 5. Cavitation in a soft confined space - Perspectives
Taking into account the confinement of the cavitation bubbles introduces a new bubble
dynamics, modeled by the 2D Rayleigh-Plesset equation. This new dynamics enables to
grasp the level of energy likely to damage the outer layers of the brain. However, the model
could be further refined by taking into account the physical properties of the solid confining
the bubble: the skull is a rigid surface, but the brain is soft and deformable. In this chapter,
we will explore the growth of cavitation bubbles confined between a rigid and a soft surface.
After an experimental observation of the growth of these bubbles, we will discuss what
should be done to fully model this growth and deduce the energy released by the bubbles.
5.1 Experimental setup
In this Chapter, the tank is identical to the tank used in Chapter 4, only the surface of the
confining cylinder is modified. On the top of the confining cylinder of diameter 30 mm, a
hole of depth 25 mm and diameter 26 mm is pierced and filled with a gel (highlighted in
red in Figure 5.1). The height of the confining cylinder can be adjusted from 0.5 mm to 1.5
mm.
Chap. 5
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.1 – (a) Side and (b) top view of the tank. In the confining cylinder, a hole is pierced and
filled with gel (in light red).
5.1.1 Brain modulus and gel
The gel was chosen transparent in order to shed light and visualize through it, and with a
modulus as close as possible to the brain modulus. Assessing the brain modulus is however
not easy owing to the brain complex structure. Indeed, the brain can be subdivided into
various regions: the cortex, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the cerebellum [73]. Even
within the cerebral cortex itself, it is common to distinguish the white matter - which is
very soft - from the grey matter - which is stiffer [74]. The different parts of the brain are
shown in Figure 5.2.
In addition, the measured modulus value is highly dependent on the measurement conditions.
Indeed, the results obtained differ when the measurement is performed in vivo or in vitro
since the physical properties of the brain begin to change six hours after death [75].
For in vitro measurements, the values obtained depend on the storage conditions of the
64
Cortex Grey matter

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Thalamus
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Hypothalamus
Cerebellum White matter
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(a)
(b)
Figure 5.2 – (a) Sagittal section of a brain. The cortex is shown in white, the thalamus and the
hypothalamus in light red, and the cerebellum in dark blue. (b) Frontal section of a brain. The gray
matter is shown in gray, the white matter in white.
brain material before the experiment. Concerning in vivo measurements, the results seem
to depend on the measurement method [73]: a measurement made by volume-controlled
cavity expansion (VCCE) gives a modulus almost one order of magnitude lower than a
measurement made by needle-induced cavitation rheology (NICR). Chap. 5
For our experiments, we referred to in-vivo measurements of the cerebral cortex gray matter.
Despite the disparity of the values of the brain modulus, the values found in the literature
are around 4 ± 2 kPa [74, 73].
The gel used in our confining cylinder is a silicone-based elastomer DOWSILTM Q3-6575
Gel (Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI, USA), with a Bloom number equal to 70 g.
This number corresponds to the weight in grams needed by a plunger of diameter of 0.5
inches to depress the surface of a 6.67% gelatin solution, kept for 17-18 hours at 10◦ C prior
to being tested, by 4 mm without breaking it. In terms of elastic modulus, this corresponds
to E = 6.6 ± 0.5 kPa, according to Pensalfini et al [76].
5.1.2 Bubble of controlled size generation
In the previous Chapter, most of the measurement errors were due to the challenge of
generating initial bubbles of identical size, and the difficulty of measuring the initial radii
accurately.
To produce a bubble of controlled size, we made use of microfluidics and reproduced the
device first introduced by Dangla et al. [77]. This device consists of an inlet channel
of rectangular cross-section, leading to a wide reservoir whose top and bottom walls are
inclined at an angle α (Figure 5.3). Initially, the reservoir is filled with water, and air is
injected into the reservoir through the inlet channel (Figure 5.4). The bubbles form at the
nozzle, where the inlet channel meets the reservoir, due to the Laplace pressure jump at
this location. The confinement gradient in the reservoir is also responsible for the bubbles
moving away from the nozzle as soon as they are generated.
The microfluidics device is linked to two syringe pumps, one delivering air and one deliv-
ering water, controlled by a Raspberry computer. The radius of the generated bubbles is
independent of the flow rate of each pump, and is empirically given by [77]:
65
Figure 5.3 – 3-D representation of the microfluidics channel generating the bubbles. A zoomed
view of the water inlet channel and the inclined walls of the reservoir is shown. Water enters the
Chap. 5 device through the first opening (on the left) and fills the whole reservoir. Air is injected into the
second opening, and enters the reservoir after crossing the tilted entrance. Due to Laplace pressure
effects, air bubbles of constant radii form in the reservoir. The dimensions of the inlet channel, w
and h0 , and the inclination angle of the upper wall α set the radius of the bubbles created.

w √ h0
R0 = 0.44 1 + 2.2 tan α √ (5.1)
h0 tan α
where α is the angle between the top and bottom walls of the reservoir, and h0 and w the
height and width of the inlet channel (Figure 5.3).
Water
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Air
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↵
<latexit sha1_base64="EC5bQxLm4t4LX2lLdDYBHgli4YU=">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</latexit>
<latexit
Bubble
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Bubble
h0
<latexit sha1_base64="rGoN5g/FIgVkpYDsZagtL6r84+s=">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</latexit>
Figure 5.4 – Section view of the microfluidics device. Water enters the first inlet, and fills the
whole reservoir. In the same time, air enters the second inlet, and reaches the nozzle, where the air
bubbles are formed.
Our microfluidics bubble generator was designed with α = 0.1 rad, h0 = 90 µm, and w =
150 µm, which yields to an initial bubble radius R0 = 0.27 mm.
A camera was also added to the impact tower to photograph the bubbles prior to each im-
pact, with a high resolution: when the initial bubbles previously occupied a few pixels on the
high-speed camera image, they now occupy more than a hundred on these photos. Hence,
66
Figure 5.5 – High resolution picture of the initial bubbles, circled in blue. On the left, the initial
bubble in the soft confined zone, on the right the free bubble. The confining cylinder is outlined
with a red dashed line.
the control in the initial radius of the cavitation bubble, coupled with a high-resolution cam-
era, altogether, reduced the uncertainty in our measurement, as compared to the previous
experiments.
1 3
2.5
0.8
2
0.6
1.5
Chap. 5
0.4
1
0.2
0.5
0 0
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.6 – (a) Radius of the initial bubbles R0 for both the free and confined bubbles. Before
each experiment, we take a high resolution photography of the initial bubbles. Using imageJ we
measure their radii, with an error bar of 2 pixels. (b) Difference in percentage between the free and
confined radii for each experiment.
In Figure 5.6(a), we plot the radii of the initial bubbles for each experiment. The initial
radii vary from 0.33 mm to 0.47 mm, despite the microfluidics device radius estimation R0
= 0.27 mm. This difference can be ascribed to the fact that we produce air bubbles in water
rather than water drops in oil or vice versa as in Dangla et al. [77]. The coalescence of
bubbles at the outlet of the device can cause the creation of larger bubbles. Indeed, the
coalescence of two bubbles before they could leave the device creates a bubble of radius R0
= 0.34 mm, and the coalescence of 5 bubbles creates a bubble of radius R0 = 0.46 mm,
which is close to the values we measure.
Most importantly, for each experiment, the initial free bubble and the initial confined bubble
are of identical size, to compare their maximum radii. In Figure 5.6(b), we have plotted
the percentage difference between the radius of the free initial bubble and the radius of the
confined initial bubble. We can see that this error never exceeds 2%.
67
5.2 Growth of a soft confined cavitation bubble
5 mm
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Free
<latexit sha1_base64="uRl7gN16aTStwV13TcC+gTjWah4=">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</latexit>
5 mm
Soft
<latexit sha1_base64="uBaZhZlz5ZKbTBFeEKspFTGQfAo=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="cxPcmhxAz/IYyjlNohkM0cHwb6Q=">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</latexit>
confined
<latexit sha1_base64="jHzcGfJBoMs46f6kSo5buBtow4U=">AAACy3icjVHLSsNAFD3GV31XXboJFsFVmRZLdVd040aoYLWgIsl0qsE0CclE0OrSH3Cr/yX+gf6FZ8YUdCE6ITNnzj3nzty5fhIGmRbibcwZn5icmi7NzM7NLywulZdXjrM4T6XqyDiM067vZSoMItXRgQ5VN0mVN/BDdeJf75n4yY1KsyCOjvRtos4H3mUU9APpaVJdGUd9OnsX5YqoNhpiR2y7oipqW83mFgHXRr3p1qrCjgqK0Y7LrzhDDzEkcgygEEETh/CQ8TtFDQIJuXMMyaVEgY0rPGCW3pwqRYVH9przJXenBRtxb3Jm1i15Ssg/pdPFBj0xdSmxOc218dxmNuxvuYc2p7nbLVe/yDUgq3FF9i/fSPlfn6lFo49tW0PAmhLLmOpkkSW3r2Ju7n6rSjNDQs7gHuMpsbTO0Tu71pPZ2s3bejb+bpWGNXtZaHN8mFuywaMuur+D43q1xq4f1iut3aLVJaxhHZvsZxMt7KONju3jE57x4hw4mXPn3H9JnbHCs4ofw3n8BNdakts=</latexit>
t=0
t = 2.8 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="70t926l/D29VlOe+bljOPhOrIDo=">AAACzXicjVHLSsNAFD2Nr1pfVZdugkVwFZJu7EYounFnBfvAWiRJp3VoXmQmQqm69Qfc6m+Jf6B/4Z0xBbWITkhy5tx7zsy910sCLqRtvxaMufmFxaXicmlldW19o7y51RJxlvqs6cdBnHY8V7CAR6wpuQxYJ0mZG3oBa3ujYxVv37BU8Dg6l+OE9UJ3GPEB911J1IU0D82qVTNDcVWu2JatlzkLnBxUkK9GXH7BJfqI4SNDCIYIknAAF4KeLhzYSIjrYUJcSojrOMMdSqTNKItRhkvsiL5D2nVzNqK98hRa7dMpAb0pKU3skSamvJSwOs3U8Uw7K/Y374n2VHcb09/LvUJiJa6J/Us3zfyvTtUiMUBN18CppkQzqjo/d8l0V9TNzS9VSXJIiFO4T/GUsK+V0z6bWiN07aq3ro6/6UzFqr2f52Z4V7ekATs/xzkLWlXLsS3nrFqpH+WjLmIHu9ineR6gjhM00CTvCI94wrNxamTGrXH/mWoUcs02vi3j4QOxxJHm</latexit>
t = 4 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="N4SIZqpulajFz6Mwuor2nhHfbWs=">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</latexit>
t = 6.4 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="iAFlEzOfhDqBVDmro8M955Fhtdw=">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</latexit>
t = 10.4 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="TObUTfpjHRyo+U8OdzlLsLOqqgM=">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</latexit>
Figure 5.7 – Snapshots sequences of cavitation bubble growths upon impacts of characteristics
(a = 86 g, τ = 5.3 ms), in the free region (top panel) and the soft confined region with e = 1.1
mm (bottom panel). Both bubbles have an initial radius R0 = 0.42 mm. From the first stage of
the growth, the free bubble is slightly bigger than the soft confined bubble. They both reach their
maximum radius at t = 6.4 ms.
Chap. 5
10 1.4
1.2
8
1
6
0.8
4
0.6
2
0.4
0 0.2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.8 – (a) Time evolution of the bubbles radii Rf (t) and Rc (t). Blue data are for the free
bubble and red data are for the confined bubble. Both bubbles have the same initial radius R0 = 0.42
f c
mm, but reach two distinct maximum radii Rmax and Rmax . (b) Distance between the top of the gel
and the tank lid ∆, in the case where a cavitation bubble grows and collapses in the confined space
(dark blue) and in the case where there is no bubble (green). ∆ is measured with the high-speed
camera images taken from the side of the tank, during the bubble growth.
The growth of free and soft confined cavitation bubbles, during the same impact, is shown
in Figure 5.7. Initially, the two bubbles are of identical size, R0 = 0.42 mm, but from the
beginning of the growth, the free bubble is slightly larger than the confined bubble. Both
f
bubbles reach their maximum radius at the same time (Figure 5.7), Rmax = 9.45 mm and
c
Rmax = 8.87 mm.
The temporal evolutions of the radii of the bubbles are shown in Figure 5.8, where we can
see that, at all time, the radius of the confined bubble is indeed smaller than that of the
free bubble, and seems to start decreasing later than the radius of the free bubble.
68
5.2. Growth of a soft confined cavitation bubble
From Chapter 4, we saw that a bubble confined between two rigid surfaces had a larger
maximum radius than a free bubble. Hence, a soft confined bubble has a smaller maximum
radius than a ”rigid” confined bubble: this means that the gel is slowing the bubble’s growth,
limiting its maximum radius value.
t=0
t = 2 ms
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t = 2.8 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="70t926l/D29VlOe+bljOPhOrIDo=">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</latexit>
t = 3.4 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="8+9gdbMoDUpTd8D5zfdp8vSctZ0=">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</latexit>
t = 4.7 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="4F5PZx9FL5oyDaRarKofM931Zbw=">AAACzXicjVHLSsNAFD2Nr1pfVZduBovgKiRFqBuh6MadFewDa5EkndbQvMhMhFJ16w+41d8S/0D/wjtjBLWITkhy5tx7zsy9100CX0jLeikYM7Nz8wvFxdLS8srqWnl9oyXiLPV404uDOO24juCBH/Gm9GXAO0nKndANeNsdHal4+5qnwo+jMzlOeC90hpE/8D1HEnUu2QHbM2ssFJflimVaerFpYOeggnw14vIzLtBHDA8ZQnBEkIQDOBD0dGHDQkJcDxPiUkK+jnPcokTajLI4ZTjEjug7pF03ZyPaK0+h1R6dEtCbkpJhhzQx5aWE1WlMxzPtrNjfvCfaU91tTH839wqJlbgi9i/dZ+Z/daoWiQH2dQ0+1ZRoRlXn5S6Z7oq6OftSlSSHhDiF+xRPCXta+dlnpjVC16566+j4q85UrNp7eW6GN3VLGrD9c5zToFU1bcu0T6uV+mE+6iK2sI1dmmcNdRyjgSZ5R3jAI56MEyMzboy7j1SjkGs28W0Z9++0K5Hn</latexit>
t = 7 ms
<latexit sha1_base64="mv8F+6EGvdD9dTZQZeuZtBQjFgU=">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</latexit>
Figure 5.9 – Chronophotography of the growth of a soft confined cavitation bubble, seen from
the side. At t=0 the initial bubble is quasi-spherical with R0 = 0.42 mm, but during the impact
it flattens. The reflection of the confining cylinder appears on the acrylic cover. The high-speed
camera record the growth of the bubble at 10,000 fps.
Chap. 5
A side view of the bubble growth is shown in Figure 5.9. The initial bubble is quasi-spherical,
with a radius R0 = 0.42 mm, and it flattens upon impact. During the growth of the bubble,
the gel deforms: the center deepens because of the growth of the bubble, and by conservation
of volume, the edges move closer to the lid. This deformation of the gel explains why the
soft confined bubble is smaller than in the rigid case: part of the energy is devoted to the
deformation of the gel. A schematic representation of the bubble growing between the tank
lid and the gel is given in Figure 5.10.
Acrylic lid
<latexit sha1_base64="Y7DG5VA2FZa+cwKYQmMe7ovrwjw=">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</latexit>
Bubble
<latexit sha1_base64="0mVYHDcpepS298J3Gb6a0xtmvN0=">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</latexit>
Gel
<latexit sha1_base64="o5rXc/Cz3UqYg8eLmIwN+sJKeOQ=">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</latexit>
Confining cylinder
<latexit sha1_base64="P/pAIIe/Wfdh9/cItP05OMahHEA=">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</latexit>
Figure 5.10 – Schematic representation of a cavitation bubble confined between the lid of the tank
and the gel of the confining cylinder, seen from the side. During the growth, the bubble deforms the
gel in the center. By filming from the side of the tank, we see the edge of the gel approaching the
lid during growth. The distance between the top of the gel and the lid is noted ∆.
69
The minimal distance between the gel and the tank lid ∆ is measured using the high-speed
images recorded from the side of the tank. We conducted two experiments for which the
impact characteristics were similar (a = 61.1 g, τ = 5.98 ms, and a = 60.3 g, τ = 5.9 ms),
but for one of the two experiments, an initial bubble was placed in the confined area while
for the second no bubble was present during the impact.
The deformation of the gel for both experiments is compared in Figure 5.8(b). When a
bubble is present, ∆ starts at 1.1 mm and decreases as the bubble grows, until reaching a
minimum ∆min = 0.3 mm. When there is no bubble in the confined space, the deformation
∆ reaches a higher minimum value, ∆min = 0.81 mm. Hence, we can deduce that, while
some part of the deformation of the gel is due to the impact, most of it is due to the bubble
growing.
5.3 Volume of the bubble
As for the previous chapters, the energy released by the bubble will be linked to its volume.
Due to the difficulty the measure the exact volume of the bubble (owing to the bubble’s
complex geometry), we propose a way to calculate the volume of the bubble from the key
features we understood from the experimental study.
Chap. 5 We consider the bubble to be a flattened ellipsoid of semi-axes R in the x et z directions,
and h/2 in the y-direction, R and h being the radius and height of the bubble and z the
direction transverse to the plane (Figure 5.11).
2 Tank lid
y
<latexit sha1_base64="boTVLPPOWA+oMWZN+iwhjhKMhGo=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="Hl/41jogf4/y3ZRkoKMdQemg//M=">AAACy3icjVHLSsNAFD2Nr1pfVZdugkVwVZJudFl040ao0BfUIsl0WodOHiQToVaX/oBb/S/xD/QvvDOmoBbRCUnOnHvOnbn3+rEUqXKc14K1sLi0vFJcLa2tb2xulbd32mmUJYy3WCSjpOt7KZci5C0llOTdOOFe4Eve8cenOt654UkqorCpJjHvB94oFEPBPEVUt+mFY1uKwVW54lQds+x54Oaggnw1ovILLjFABIYMAThCKMISHlJ6enDhICaujylxCSFh4hz3KJE3IxUnhUfsmL4j2vVyNqS9zpkaN6NTJL0JOW0ckCciXUJYn2abeGYya/a33FOTU99tQn8/zxUQq3BN7F++mfK/Pl2LwhDHpgZBNcWG0dWxPEtmuqJvbn+pSlGGmDiNBxRPCDPjnPXZNp7U1K5765n4m1FqVu9Zrs3wrm9JA3Z/jnMetGtV16m6F7VK/SQfdRF72MchzfMIdZyhgZaZ4yOe8GydW6l1a919Sq1C7tnFt2U9fABE9JIw</latexit>
y
?
<latexit sha1_base64="M7Ih8OUYPeQHE7I80N2AKrtk9gM=">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</latexit>
1
?
y
0 Bubble
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z x
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<latexit
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0
h R
2
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<latexit
-1
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<latexit
-2
Rm <latexit sha1_base64="CnQuZHXHws2locBkxC/ECUQH8B8=">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</latexit>
-3
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Figure 5.11 – Schematic cross-section of the gel deformed by bubble growth.
The deformation of the gel can then be modeled as follows: in the center, the bubble pushes
the gel by a volume equal to half the volume of the bubble. By conservation of the gel
volume, a pellet is created at the periphery of the gel, which is modeled by a torus of half
ellipsoidal section. The half-axes of this ellipsoid are 12 (Rm −R) along the x axis and ∆0 −∆
along the y axis, and the radius of the torus is 12 (Rm + R), with Rm the radius of the gel
cylinder, R the radius of the bubble, ∆ the distance between the top of the pellet and the
lid, and ∆0 the distance between the top of the pellet and the lid (Figure 5.11).
The volume conservation of the gel implies that:
70
5.4. Perspectives
2 h 1
V = V0 − πR2 × + π 2 × (Rm − R) (Rm + R) × (∆0 − ∆) = V0 (5.2)
3 2 4
with V the volume of the gel and V0 its initial volume.
From Eq. (5.2), we can deduce the height of the bubble:
h 2 − R2
3π Rm
= × (∆0 − ∆) (5.3)
2 8 R2
and the volume of the bubble:
c π2 2

Vbubble = Rm − R2 × (∆0 − ∆) (5.4)
2
Plugging numbers in equation 5.4, we can deduce that the maximum volume of the bubble
c
shown in Figure 5.7 (top view) and Figure 5.9 (side view) is Vmax = 5.7 × 10−7 m3 . As a
f
comparison, the volume of the free bubble, generated during the same experiment is Vmax
= 1.1 × 10−6 m3 . Chap. 5
Going back to Chapter 4, one of the experiments we performed resulted in a maximum free
radius of 9.42 mm (identical to the experiments shown in Figure 5.8), and a maximum rigid
confined radius of 11.5 mm (for a confinement height of 1 mm). This allows us to compare
f
the maximum volume of the bubbles in the three situation: the free bubble Vmax , the rigid
c,r c,s
confined bubble Vmax and the soft confined bubble Vmax :
c,r
Vmax = 1.3 × 10−7 m3 < Vmax
c
= 5.7 × 10−7 m3 < Vmax
f
= 1.1 × 10−6 m3
Thus, at equal pressure variation, the energy released by a soft confined cavitation bubble is
comprised between the energy released by a free bubble and the energy released by a rigid
confined bubble.
5.4 Perspectives
The aim of this chapter was initially to draw a WSTC-like curve to predict the energy re-
leased by the soft confined cavitation bubbles. We have exhibited the scaling for the bubble
volume and energy released during the cavitation process. It would be relevant to explore
experimentally the influence of the bubble’s maximum radius R, or the initial confinement
size ∆0 to verify the proposed scaling. This is experimentally challenging since the defor-
mation of the gel is hard to visualize and measure. One of the approaches we explored was
to measure the deformation of the gel by pattern deformation analysis. A grid, made with
very thin transparent wire, was placed in the gel, a few microns below the surface (Figure
5.12). As the gel deforms under the impulse of the bubble growth, the grid pattern changes
the nodes of the grid move closer together in the areas where the gel is compressed while
the nodes move away in the areas where the gel is stretched. Unfortunately, the resolution
71
of our fast camera was limiting for this experiment, and we were not able to measure the
displacement of the grid nodes.
Some improvements could be made to the experimental protocol, such as the staining of the
gel to increase the accuracy of the measurement of ∆.
Figure 5.12 – Picture of the soft confining cylinder, seen from above. A grid is placed a few microns
under the surface of the gel in order to visualize the deformation of the gel during the bubble growth.
Chap. 5 In parallel, a model of cavitation bubble growth confined between a rigid and a deformable
surface, including the visco-elastic dissipation, could be added to the experiments, to predict
the energy released by the bubbles as a function of a and τ . A good starting point would
be the review article on cavitation in soft and biological matter by Dollet et al. [78].
Increasing the gel softness is expected to increase (∆0 − ∆) for a similar impact, hence
increasing the bubble’s radius. Indeed, a softer gel would be more easily deformed by the
bubble.
72
5.4. Perspectives
1. Soft confined bubble radius is smaller than the free bubble radius for the
same impact.
2. Soft confined bubble height depend on the impact, and the radius of the
bubble.
3. The confining gel is deformed partly by the inertia of the impact, but mostly
by the bubble growth.
73
74
PART II
DATA COLLECTION IN
BOXING
75
6
Wireless accelerometer
Alongside the experimental work we have been doing in the laboratory, it soon became clear
to us that it would be interesting to compare our results with real match situations. For this,
we collaborated with a start-up, Phyling, to develop an accelerometer, similar to those we
use in the laboratory, but suitable for use in a boxing ring.
Picture of the accelerometer developped with the star-up Phyling, and used by the FFB (French
Federation of Boxing). Photo taken by Alexandre Karamanoukian.
Contents
6.1 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.2 Phyling wireless high-frequency accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
This work has been done with Lionel Brézéphin and with Romain Labbé and Jean-Philippe
Boucher during our collaboration with their start-up Phyling.
77
Chapter 6. Wireless accelerometer
6.1 Statement of the problem
After having worked for some time on concussion models, and the hypothesis of cavitation
bubbles in the cerebral spinal fluid, we undertook to carry out measurements with real
athletes, and to confront them with our experimental data. The goal being here to measure
a and τ .
First, we studied the sensors already used by the athletes, to try to extract the data that
interested us.
Then, we used the same sensors as in the lab on the boxing ring. However, this solution
was not viable, for reasons that we will see in the following.
Finally, we seeked to develop sensors adapted to the practice of boxing, which could provide
information on the risks of concussions.
6.1.1 Existing material - Hykso sensor
When we started working with the FFB (French Boxing Federation), one sensor used by the
boxers was the Hykso sensor. This sensor, which is placed in the gloves and fixed with the
bandage, is supposed to detect the blows and give the type (strait, that includes jabs and
crosses, and power, that includes hooks and uppercuts), the average speed and the intensity.
The sensor records at a frequency of 1,000 Hz.
Chap. 6
Figure 6.1 – Picture of the Hykso sensors, taken from the website www.hykso.com
Even though none of these information seem related to our model of cavitation in the cerebro-
spinal fluid, the punch velocity is still a valuable data, and the intensity of the punch could
give interesting information. As a consequence, we conducted several experiments to test
these sensors in the lab.
At first, a novice boxer, equipped with the sensors, was instructed to punch a load cell
mounted on a wall. In a second time, the same novice boxer was equipped with the Hykso
sensors and a high-frequency accelerometer (recording at 10,000 Hz), and was instructed to
punch a target.
The intensity measured by the Hykso sensor during these experiments is plotted in Figure
6.2: there seems to be no correlation between the values of peak acceleration, peak force
and intensity. Throughout our experiments, the intensity took only 5 distinct values, al-
though the force at impact was multiplied by 4, and the impact acceleration multiplied by
4. This means that the intensity measured by the Hykso sensor will not give us access to
any quantity of interest.
A last experiment was performed with the Hykso sensors: the novice boxer was instructed
to punch a target while being recorded by a high-speed camera (at 1,000 fps). An analysis
of the high-speed camera recordings give the velocity of the fist before the impact, while the
load cell give the force signal during the impact.
78
6.1. Statement of the problem
4 4
3.5 3.5
3 3
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 20 40 60 80 100
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.2 – (a) Intensity measured by the Hykso sensor as a function of the peak force measured
by the load cell. (b) Intensity measured by the Hykso sensor as a function of the peak acceleration
measured by the load cell. Comparison between the velocity calculated by the Hykso sensor and the
velocity measured with the high-speed recordings of the punches. The green dashed line has a slope
of 1.
The comparison between the speed given by the sensor and the one we measure is given
in Figure 6.3. The relationship between the two speeds seems linear, however the value
given by the Hykso sensor is always underestimated. This might be due to the insufficient
recording frequency, as explained in the next Subsection.
6 Chap. 6
0
0 2 4 6 8
Figure 6.3 – Comparison between the velocity calculated by the Hykso sensor and the velocity
measured with the high-speed recordings of the punches. The green dashed line has a slope of 1.
As a conclusion, the Hykso sensor was unable to provide us with valuable information.
6.1.2 Specification of requirements
To be able to have quantitative measures of a and τ during a boxing match, we need to

have the same specifications as our lab accelerometer. One of the most important feature
is the recording frequency: the time-span of an impact is between 4 ms and 16 ms. For
the signal to be sufficiently resolved, a frequency of at least 10 kHz is required. A lower
79
acquisition frequency would distort the measurements: an example of an acceleration signal,

recorded at 10 kHz, and plotted at 10 kHz, 1 kHz and 100 Hz is shown in Figure 6.4. While
de time-span remains approximately the same, the peak acceleration is 101.6g (1 kHz) on
the green signal and 92.9 g on the blue signal (100 Hz), while its accurate value is 114.4g.
We believe this insufficient recording frequency to be the main source of inaccuracy in most
existing sport sensors (Hykso sensors presented above, instrumented mouthgards (1.3.2)).
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 6.4 – Acceleration signal, recorded in the lab, and plotted at 10 kHz, in red, and 1 kHz, in
green.
This accelerometer should also be wireless, small and easy to use and not dangerous for
Chap. 6 athletes. Thus, it can be used autonomously by athletes.
6.2 Phyling wireless high-frequency accelerometer
6.2.1 The sensor
The sensor is made as follows: a 3-axis digital accelerometer (Figure 6.5(a)) is mounted on
a printed circuit board (PCB), with an integrated acquisition system.
The PCB is housed in an aluminium case (Figure 6.5(b)), of size 55 x 22 x 7.6 mm, along
with a battery with an autonomy of 10h. The sensor is then fixed on the boxer’s head gear.
The data recorded by the sensor can be retrieved in two different ways: the acceleration
signals of up to six different sensors can be sent in real time to a computer or a tablet.
Or, alternatively, once the acquisition is completed, the entire data can be recovered on
a micro-SD card integrated into the sensor. The user interface and data analysis will be
detailed in Subsection 6.2.3.
6.2.2 The acquisition rate
The reason why most on-board measurement systems used in sports do not acquire at more
than 1,000 Hz is the amount of information to be recorded. The acquisition system, what-
ever it is, records a packet of data at a fixed time interval. While this data packet is being
recorded, no data can be collected. By wanting to record too much data, at 10,000 Hz for
example, we lose a part of these data.
80
6.2. Phyling wireless high-frequency accelerometer
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1 cm
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(b)
Figure 6.5 – (a) Digital 3-axis accelerometer soldered to the PCB of the Phyling sensor. (b) 3-D
view of the Phyling sensor.
The solution that has been found for the impact sensor is as follows: as long as the athlete
does not suffer an impact to the head, the acceleration does not need to be recorded. But
as soon as an impact is received, it is recorded at high frequency. Therefore, an impact
detection algorithm was developed. The sensor records each impact at 10,000 Hz, and does
not record what happens between impacts.
To verify the accuracy of the detection algorithm, we tested the wireless accelerometer
on the drop tower (used for the cavitation experiments in Part I), and compared the im-
pacts recorded by the accelerometer Phyling with those recorded by our wired accelerometer,
connected to the acquisition system, recording at 10,000 Hz (Figure 6.6).
Chap. 6
60 60
50 50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
0 10
-10 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(a)
(b) <latexit sha1_base64="EzPJMG3pifmmRt47+1U2NXDzB28=">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</latexit>
Figure 6.6 – (a) Acceleration signals recorded by the Phyling accelerometer, in green, and the
wired accelerometer, in dark blue. The detection threshold was set to 12g, and above this value all
the peaks were detected. (b) Zoom of the acceleration signals on one particular peak. The signal
from the wireless accelerometer, in green, matches perfectly the signal from the wired accelerometer,
in dark blue.
Both the recorded acceleration signals are shown in Figure 6.6(a): above a set threshold
value of 12g, the wireless accelerometer recorded all the acceleration peaks. Figure 6.6(b)
shows that for every recorded peak, the Phyling acceleration signal matches perfectly the
wired acceleration signal.
81
6.2.3 User interface and data analysis
The start-up Phyling has developed a web application to visualize the data live. Each sensor
is connected by Bluetooth to a central wireless unit, placed at the edge of the ring. This
unit can receive data from up to 6 sensors at the same time. Once connected in Wifi to a
computer or a tablet, this unit transmits in real time all the data collected. Personalized
indicators can be added to the interface: for boxing we can think of the number of impacts
received, or the cumulative acceleration sustained.
Additionally to the real time visualisation of the acceleration signals, the acceleration signal
can be retrieved from a micro-SD card. For each training session, a personalized analysis is
also provided: a data analysis program extracts for each impact the maximum acceleration
a and the duration of the impact τ . Each impact is then plotted on a (a, τ ) diagram (Figure
6.7 (a)) along with the WSTC and several HIC threshold curves (see 1.2).
Round 1
<latexit sha1_base64="EZns7C3Cx7bOTAe8EtW0c87dPtc=">AAACynicjVHLTsMwEJyGVymvAkcuERUSpyrpBY4VXDhwKIg+pFKhxHWL1TSOHAepqrjxA1zhwxB/AH/B2qQSUCFwlGQ8O7P27oZJJFLtea8FZ2FxaXmluFpaW9/Y3Cpv77RSmSnGm0xGUnXCIOWRiHlTCx3xTqJ4MA4j3g5HpybevuMqFTK+0pOE98bBMBYDwQJNVPtSZnHf9W/KFa/q2eXOAz8HFeSrIcsvuEYfEgwZxuCIoQlHCJDS04UPDwlxPUyJU4SEjXPco0TejFScFAGxI/oOadfN2Zj2Jmdq3YxOiehV5HRxQB5JOkXYnObaeGYzG/a33FOb09xtQv8wzzUmVuOW2L98M+V/faYWjQGObQ2CakosY6pjeZbMdsXc3P1SlaYMCXEG9ymuCDPrnPXZtZ7U1m56G9j4m1Ua1uxZrs3wbm5JA/Z/jnMetGpV36v6F7VK/SQfdRF72MchzfMIdZyhgaat8hFPeHbOHeVMnOmn1Cnknl18W87DB8vikZg=</latexit>
Round 2
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Round 3
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a (g) <latexit sha1_base64="Xal0hBoxna+8ZoCeRrKHXZ6s2BQ=">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</latexit>
⌧ (ms)
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⌧ (ms)
⌧ (ms)
(a)
6
Chap.
Cumulative acceleration (g)
Number of impacts
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Round
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Round
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(b)
(c)
Figure 6.7 – (a) (a, τ ) diagrams for three boxing rounds. For each round the impacts measured by
the wireless accelerometer are plotted along with the WSTC and several values of the HIC (lowest
dashed line if for HIC = 20, upper dashed line is for HIC = 100). The impacts are colored according
to their chronological order in the round. The blows received at the beginning of the round are blue,
while the blows received at the end of the round are in yellow. (b) Number of impacts for each round.
Impacts are classified as follows: HIC < 20 is Medium, 20 < HIC < 100 is Strong, HIC > 100
but below the WSTC is Severe, above the WSTC is Critical. (c) Cumulative acceleration received
for each round.
This analysis of the blows suffered allows for the monitoring of the training of athletes
in several ways. An athlete who receives multiple blows above the Wayne Curve may be
taken care of by a medical team immediately. In addition, Lionel Brézéphin (FFB, French
Federation of Boxing) has implemented the use of sensors as indicators of training load: if
the cumulative acceleration over a full week is too high, the boxers’ workouts can be adjusted.
82
6.2. Phyling wireless high-frequency accelerometer
This sensor, co-developed with the start-up Phyling, is already used by the athletes of the
French Boxing Federation, and could lead to a safer practice of boxing.
Chap. 6
83
1. The recording rate of sensors is very important for impact analysis. It must
be at least equal to 10,000 Hz.
2. Impact analysis allows for a quicker reaction in case of a suspected brain

concussion.
3. Cumulative acceleration helps to adjust the training load of athletes.
84
7
Modelling an impact on the head
The intensity of an impact to the head depends on many parameters: the speed of the fist
before the impact, the concentration of the person who undergoes the impact, the presence of
gloves and a helmet... To understand the influence of these parameters on the two parameters
that seem to determine the occurrence of a concussion, a and τ , we have established a simple
mechanical model describing the impact of a fist to the head.
Impact of a gloved hand on a head, during a boxing game.
Contents
7.1 A simple mechanical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2 Influence of the different parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
This work has been done with Benjamin Lallemand, André Renom, Christophe Clanet and
Caroline Cohen.
85
Chapter 7. Modelling an impact on the head
After developing the wireless accelerometer, in collaboration with Phyling, we set out to
understand the measurements we get from it: what is the link between the energy a boxer
put in its blow, and the impact felt by its opponent? An example of impact measured on
the head of a boxer is given in Figure 7.1. This acceleration signal has a maximum value
a, and a time-span τ . Since each blow has different values for a and τ , we asked ourselves:
what are the parameters that influence a and τ , and to what extent?
40
a
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<latexit
30
20
⌧
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<latexit
10
-10
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 7.1 – Acceleration signal of the head of a boxer following an impact. The peak value is a =
33.4 g and the impact time is τ = 6.92 ms.
Chap. 7 To answer these questions, we will first of all return to the modalities of this sport, given
by the official regulations of AIBA [79].
According to the Olympic regulations, a boxing match is divided into three rounds of 3
minutes each. During these rounds, the merits of each boxer are evaluated by 5 judges
spread around the ring. These merits are:
– Number of quality blows on the target area
– Domination by technical and tactical superiority
– Competitiveness
At the end of each round, each judge gives a score of 10 to the boxer he considers the winner
and a score between 7 and 9 to his opponent. If one of the boxers is knocked out during
the round, his opponent automatically receives a score of 10. The matches are organized
by weight categories, which are detailed in the following table (Figure 7.2). Only boxers
belonging to the same weight category can compete.
During the matches, each boxer must be equipped with a pair of gloves, made of padding
(hard foam) wrapped in leather. The weight of the gloves is dictated by the weight category
of the athletes: for men, the Flyweight, Featherweight, and Lightweight categories must
86
7.1. A simple mechanical model
1
Olympic - Elite and Youth Men Olympic - Elite and Youth Women
Weight category Over (kg) To (kg) Weight category Over (kg) To (kg)
Flyweight 48 52 Flyweight 48 51
Featherweight 52 57 Lightweight 54 57
Lightweight 57 63 Light Welterweight 57 60
Welterweight 63 69 Welterweight 64 69
Middleweight 69 75 Middleweight 69 75
Light Heavyweight 75 81
Heavyweight 81 91
Super Heavyweight 91 -
Figure 7.2 – Weight categories in Olympic boxing.
fight with 10 oz gloves, while the Welterweight, Middleweight, Light Heavyweight, Heavy-
weight, and Super Heavyweight categories must fight with 12 oz gloves. For women, 10 oz
gloves are required for all weight categories.
Underneath these gloves, the athlete’s hands must be protected by a professional hand wrap,
consisting of gauze, gauze bandage, and zinc oxide tape. The application of the gauze ban-
dage and tape is left up to the boxer, as long as there is no tape on his/her knuckles.
The helmets are made in the same way as the gloves: a foam covered with leather. They
are forbidden in competition for men, and mandatory for women.
The modalities of combat during training are however different. Boxers are free to do as
they wish, but generally, they use heavier gloves (12 oz or even 14 oz), they wear a helmet,
and the professional hand wraps are replaced by bandages, thinner but easier to put on. In
addition to sparring, athletes can also hit on punching bags filled with either water or foam
(similar to the material that makes up the gloves and helmet).
In the chapter, we established an impact model, applied to boxing, involving both the
characteristics of the athletes and their equipment that we described above. We then studied
the influence of these different parameters on the characteristics (a, τ ) of the impact felt Chap. 7
by the opponent. More specifically, we wondered which of these parameters (involving the
boxer’s weight or its material) could have an impact on the occurrence of a brain concussion.
7.1 A simple mechanical model
7.1.1 The model
An impact in boxing can be described as a sequence of events: a boxer contracts his muscles
to move his fist, covered with a glove and of mass mf , at speed vf . The fist of this boxer will
then impact the head of his opponent, of mass mh , by deforming and moving the opponent’s
head. To counter this impact, the opponent contracts his neck muscles. The hand and glove
are modeled as a mass-spring-damper system of mass mf , stiffness constant kf , and damping
constant βf . The head is also represented as a mass-spring-damper system of parameters
mh , kh and βh (Figure 7.3(b)).
The initial length of the {fist + glove} system is L0f , and its position at time t is noted xf (t).
Similarly, the initial length of the head system is L0h , and its position is xh (t). After the
impact, the dynamics of these two systems is given by two coupled differential equations:
87
xf xh 0
x
βf βh
mf vf mh
kf kh
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.3 – (a) Photography of a boxer’s hand impacting his opponent’s head during an Olympic
fight. (b) Schematic representation of the mechanical model describing the impact. A mass-spring-
damper system, modelling the hand and glove, impacts another mass-spring-damper system, repre-
senting the head, at t = 0.
mf x¨f = kf (L0f − (xf − xh )) − βf (x˙f − x˙h ) (7.1)

mh x¨h = kh (L0h − xh ) − βh x˙h − kf (L0f − (xf − xh )) + βf (x˙f − x˙h ) (7.2)
where x¨f and x˙f are the second and first derivative of xf with respect to time.
7.1.2 Measurement of the different parameters
7.1.2.1 Fist parameters

Chap. 7
The parameters of the model, mh , kh , βh , mf , kf , βf and vf , were either measured with an
experiment in the lab, or taken from the bibliography. First, we address the parameters of
the system {fist + glove}, which we will call the fist parameters. In the second stage, we
focus on the head system parameters, which we call the head parameters.
Measurement of kf
The stiffness constant of the {fist + glove} system was measured with a press. In our model,
the glove is a layer of foam, and the hand is considered rigid (its deformation is negligible
compared to the glove’s). So we opened a boxing glove, extracted the layer of foam, and
palmed it in a press. The press is a force sensor, which presses on the foam in a quasi-
static way. The value of the displacement and the force is recorded every 0.25 seconds. We
repeated the experiment three times, for different displacement velocities (0.05 m/s, 0.83
m/s and 3.33 m/s), and plotted the force as a function of the displacement in Figure 7.4.
The first part of the graph (displacement < 2 mm) corresponds to a flattening of the foam
layer (inside the glove the foam is slightly curved, for a piece a foam of about 5 cm and a
curvature of 10 cm to 15 cm, the height due to the curvature is around 2mm to 3 mm), and
should not be considered in this measurement. For displacement values greater than 2 mm,
the force-displacement relationship is considered linear, allowing us to plot a linear fit. The
slope of the linear fit directly gives the value of kf , here kf = 2.4 104 N/m.
88
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8
10 -3
Figure 7.4 – Press measurement of a boxing glove. The force is plotted as a function of the
displacement of the sensor. The three colored lines correspond to different displacement velocities
(Blue data: v = 3.33 m/s. Red data: v = 0.83 m/s. Green data: v = 0.05 m/s). The black dotted
line is a linear feat of slope 2.4 104 N/m.
Determination of βf
(1)
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H0
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Chap. 7
H(t)
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(2)
<latexit sha1_base64="EKJHfonXKJGTD6GDjCimonXDIlc=">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</latexit>
t
<latexit sha1_base64="M0g8czJLCrQCCMkCIygtj9wNS1Q=">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</latexit>
<latexit
fall
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impact bounce
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<latexit sha1_base64="8EXcySVmnbtzsCBmS6ySNaYYCIU=">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</latexit>
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.5 – (a) Schematic representation and (b) time-lapse of the experiment used to determine
the value of βf : a weighted glove (1), in free fall, impacts a load cell (2). (c) Spatio-temporal diagram
of the fall of the weighted boxing glove alongside the red dashed line on subfigure (b). Before the
impact, the size of the glove is H0 , but during the impact, due to the deformation of the foam layer,
the size of the glove H(t) varies. Time is increasing from left to right.
The determination of the coefficient βf could not be done with the press experiment, as the
89
deformation of the glove must not be quasistatic for βf to play a role, and the press velocity
is limited to a few meters per second. As a consequence, we built a simple experiment to
measure βf : a boxing glove, weighted with a 1.3 kg steel sphere, is dropped in free fall until
it impacts a load cell (Figure 7.6(b)). The fall and the impact of the glove are filmed by a
high-speed camera at 1,000 fps (Figure 7.5).
Using the video recorded by the high-speed camera, we plot a spatio-temporal diagram
of the glove during the fall and the impact (Figure 7.5(c)): a vertical line, aligned with the
glove and the loading cell, is drawn on the images (red dashed line in Figure 7.5(b)). The
fraction of every image corresponding to this line is then placed side by side, giving an evo-
lution of the position H(t) and deformation of the glove during the impact, δ = H0 − H(t).
The experimental measurements of δ are then fitted with a sum of sines, which once derived
with respect to time gives access to the deformation rate δ̇ (Figure 7.6(a)).
The force measured by the loading cell during the impact (Figure 7.6(b)) is then Flc =
mg g + kf δ − βf δ̇, where mg is the mass of the weighted glove. For four different experi-
ments, the value of βf was adjusted so that the peak value of the measured force F equals
the peak value of Flc . The corresponding value of βf for those experiment was found to be
βf = 113 ± 8 kg.s−1 .
400
0.03 3
2 300
0.02
1
200
0
0.01
100
-1
0 -2 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Chap. 7
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.6 – (a) Deformation of the glove during the impact δ, and rate of deformation δ̇. For
the deformation δ, the dark blue dots correspond to experimental measurements, the green line is
a sinusoidal fit. The rate of deformation δ̇ is the derivative of the sinusoidal fit of δ. (b) Force
measured by the load cell during the impact.
Determination of mf
The measurement of the effective mass of Olympic boxers’ punches was done by Walilko et
al. [36]. The team equipped seven Olympic boxers with accelerometers in the palm of their
hand and asked them to throw their best punch in an impact dummy. The dummy, in the
shape of a head, had a boxing helmet mounted on and measured the force applied during
the whole impact.
For each impact, the peak value of the force and acceleration are extracted from the signals.
From these two peak values, they define an effective fist mass such that F = mf × a, where
a is the peak acceleration and F is the peak force.
The effective mass of the punch depends of the weight category. For a flyweight, the average
effective mass was mf = 2.31 kg, for a light welterweight mf = 2.70 kg and for a super
heavyweight mf = 4.97 kg.
90
Measurement of vf
The fist velocity of boxers was directly measured using high-speed recordings of punches in
punching bags. Two boxers participated in this series of measurements: Hugo Grau and
Victorien Monny. We asked them to perform their best move in punching bags and recorded
them at 10,000 fps (Figure 7.7(a) and (b)). A spatio-temporal diagram was then drawn,
taken along a straight line following the trajectory of the punch (red dashed line in Figure
7.7(b)).
(2)
(1)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.7 – (a) Schematic representation and (b) picture of the experimental set-up used to
measure the fist velocity of boxers during a punch: a boxer (1) punches a punching bag (2) (The
boxer punching the bag is Hugo Grau).
The slope of the spatio-temporal diagram gave us, for every punch, the velocity of the Chap. 7
boxer’s fist right before the impact. The impact velocities ranged from 5.9 m/s to 15.7 m/s.
7.1.2.2 Head parameters
The determination of the head parameters proved to be more difficult to perform with
laboratory experiments, this is why we have referred to the bibliography for an estimation
of these parameters.
Determination of kh
The determination of kh was based on the work done by Olivier et al. [80], who measured
the neck musculature of 189 senior South African rugby union players. The head of the
players was submitted to a constant velocity flexion and extension, while the torque and
the power generated by their neck muscles were recorded. For the front row players, for
example, the power generated at 0.2 seconds during an extension average at 237 W. For a
constant velocity of 30◦ /s and a neck length of 10 cm, the equivalent force is around 1850
N. For a displacement of 17 mm (during the 0.2 s), the stiffness constant is estimated to be
around kh ≈ 1.6 ×105 N.m−1 .
91
Values of mh and βh
The mass of the head and neck of a boxer will be calculated using Winter’s anthropological
table [81]: for an adult, the mass of the head and neck represents on average 8.1% of the
total body weight. For a flyweight (49 kg < M < 51 kg), this corresponds to mh ≈ 4 kg,
while for a super heavyweight (M > 91 kg) we get mh ≈ 7 kg. In the literature, mh is
generally considered to be between 5 kg and 7 kg for an adult male [36, 82].
We found no reference of a damping parameter for the head in the literature, in the following,
we will consider βh = 0 as a first approximation.
7.1.3 Validation of the model
The validation of the model was done with an intermediate experiment, illustrated in Figure
7.8. A novice boxer, equipped with a boxing glove, punches a load cell mounted on a wall.
The glove used in this experiment is similar to the gloves used during professional boxing
training and is equipped with a high-frequency accelerometer. A high-speed camera records
the impact, seen from the side, at 10,000 fps. The camera, the accelerometer, and the
load cell are synchronized and record at the same frequency. An example of the force
and acceleration signals is plotted in Figure 7.9(a). The glove parameters presented in
the previous subsection (kf and βf ) will be used in this subsection too. However, the
boxer-specific parameters, such as vf and mf , will be measured again and the head-related
parameters should not be considered in this section since the gloved hand hits a load cell.
(2)
(3)
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Chap. 7
(1)
Figure 7.8 – Schematic representation of the experimental set-up used to validate the impact model.
A gloved hand (1), equipped with a high-frequency accelerometer (2) impacts a load cell mounted on
a wall (3). A high-speed camera records the impact, seen from the side, at 10,000 fps. The load cell
and the accelerometer record the impacting force and acceleration at 10,000 Hz and are synchronized
with the camera.
Determination of mf
The fist effective punch mass of our novice boxer was determined in the same fashion as
Walilko et al. [36]. The peak value of the force and acceleration was noted for each experi-
ment, and the fist effective mass was defined such that F = mf × a.
92
1500
50
600
40
1000
30 400
20
200
10 500
0 0
-10
0
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 50 100 150 200
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.9 – (a) Synchronized force and acceleration measurement during a punch on a load cell.
The peak value of each signal is extracted for every punch. (b) Peak force as a function of the peak
acceleration recorded for every impact of the gloved hand on the load cell. The red line is a linear
function of slope 0.73, the green line has a slope of 1.75.
From Figure 7.9(b), we deduce that the fist mass ranges from 0.73 kg to 1.75 kg for our
novice boxer.
Determination of vf
t
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<latexit
Chap. 7
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.10 – (a) Image of the gloved hand punching the load cell, extracted from the high-speed
camera. (b) Spatio-temporal diagram of the fist impacting the load cell, taken alongside the red
dashed line represented in (a). Time is increasing from top to bottom. The slope of the spatio-
temporal diagram, highlighted in green, shows the velocity of the fist prior to impact.
The impact velocity vf is determined using the high-speed video. In each video, we use the
images that precede the impact, and we make a spatio-temporal diagram along a straight
line that passes through the glove and the load cell (red dashed line in Figure 7.10(a)). An
example of such a diagram is shown in Figure 7.10(b), the impact velocity is then given by
the slope of the upper part of the diagram, highlighted in green.
Force measured by the load cell
From the model established in 7.1, the force measured by the load cell is F = kh (L0h − xh ) −
βh x˙h . For this experiment, the parameters associated with the load cell mounted on the
93
wall are unknown: mh and βh are used as fitting parameters, and kh is arbitrarily fixed at
kh = 1.5 × 106 N.m−1 (while the wall moves due to the impact, the rigidity of the wall is
large compared to the rigidity of the human head) to fit the experimental data.
Five examples of the comparison between the measured force (green line) and the model
(dashed line) are shown in Figure 7.11. The numeric parameters (mf , kf , βf , vf , mh , kh
and βh ) used to fit the model to the experiment are shown in the sixth panel. We observe
that for every force signal, the values of mh and βh vary weakly (35 < mh < 60 and 900
< βh < 1000). The model and the experiments are in very good agreement, whether for the
maximum value of the force, the time-span τ , or the general aspect of the signal.
We consider that this model captures the dynamics of an impact in a satisfactory way. In
the following, we will use this model to evaluate the acceleration undergone by the head of
k (L0 −x )−β x˙
a boxer, defined as A = h h mhf h h . The parameters (mf , kf , βf , vf , mh , kh and βh )
used in the following are those measured and determined in the Subsection 7.1.2.
7.2 Influence of the different parameters
This section will review the influence of different parameters on the resultant head acceler-
ation A after an impact.
Figure 7.12 shows the synchronized plot of a boxer’s head acceleration signal and its oppo-
nent’s fist position. Right after contact is established (t > 0 ) the position of the first boxer’s
fist xf starts decreasing. This decrease is due to both the deformation of the glove and the
displacement of the hand. In the meantime, its opponent’s head is accelerated. Starting at
0, the acceleration A rises to a peak value a before decreasing again.
The minimal value of the fist’s position is materialized by the green dotted line in Figure
7.12. Since the system {hand + glove} and the head are not attached, after the position
of the fist reaches its minimal value, the fist no longer interacts with the opponent’s head.
As a consequence, the head’s acceleration signal should not be considered after the time
Chap. 7 of minimal value of the fist position. However, in some cases, the fist position reaches a
minimum before we can define the time-span of the acceleration signal (Figure 7.12(b)). In
these cases, we extend the acceleration signal by continuity to be able to define τ .
Presence of a helmet
As mentioned in Chapter 1, in 2013, the International Boxing Association (AIBA) waived

the use of helmets in Olympic men’s boxing competitions [6].
However, the helmets are still used during the training of the French athletes at INSEP. In
our model, the presence of a helmet translates as follows: a second layer of foam, identical
to that of the glove, is added between the fist and the head at the moment of impact. Since
these foams are identical, their stiffness and damping constants are the same, and this is
modeled by two identical foam thicknesses in series. We then have an equivalent stiffness
constant kfeq = kf /2 and an equivalent damping constant βfeq = 2 × βf .
The acceleration signal of the head after an impact with and without a helmet is plotted in
Figure 7.13. Except for kf and βf , the parameters for both impacts are the same. For the
impact with the helmet, the peak acceleration is a = 80.6 g, and the time-span is τ = 14.3
ms. For the punch without the helmet, a = 86.9 g and τ = 16.3 ms.
The presence of a helmet decreases both the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
Thus, as expected, the helmet protects well against a possible concussion, even if it is not
appreciated by boxers.
94
7.2. Influence of the different parameters
1200
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1000
600 800
600
400
400
200
200
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
1200
1000 600
800
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0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
1200
1000 1
800 Parameters List

(kg.s 1) kf (N.m 1) (kg.s 1 ) kh (N.m 1 ) mf (kg) mh (kg) vf (m.s 1)
f h
950 1 60 5.2
900 1.4 40 5.2
600
120 2.4e5 1000
1000
1.5e6 1.3
1.1
40
60
5.5
3.9
Chap. 7
900 1.45 35 5.3
400
200
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Figure 7.11 – Comparison between the force of the impact measured by the load cell (green line),
and the force predicted by the model (dark blue dashed line). The numeric parameters used in
the model are shown in the last subfigure. The yellow dot is the peak value, and the orange line
materializes the time-span τ .
The head stiffness kh
In our model, the head stiffness kh corresponds to the strengthening of the neck muscles
at the moment of impact. It is observed that, if the boxer expects to receive a blow, his
neck will be very strengthened, giving a high value of kh . On the other hand, if the punch
95
0.6 70 0.6
80
60
60 0.55 50
0.55
40
40
0.5 30
20
20
0.5
0 0.45 10
0
-20
0.4 -10 0.45
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.12 – Acceleration felt by the head of a boxer after an impact A (in dark blue), and position
of its opponent’s fist xf (in red). On the blue curve, the yellow dot shows the maximum value of the
acceleration a, while the orange line materializes the time-span τ . The green dashed line materializes
the minimum value of the deformation xf , that can happen after (a) or before (b) the time span is
defined.
100
80
60
40
Chap. 7
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Figure 7.13 – Acceleration signal of the head of a boxer with (dark blue) and without (red) a
helmet. The values of the other parameters are kh = 3 105 N/m, mf = 4 kg, mh = 7 kg and vf =
15 m/s.
is received by surprise, the neck muscles will be more relaxed, giving a lower value of kh .
Specific training of the neck muscles can also increase its stiffness, and thus a large variety
of kh values are accessible.
To evaluate the influence of the neck stiffness, we ran the mechanical model for various values
of kh , ranging from 9×104 N/m to 106 N/m, with and without a helmet, and measured the
values of a and τ .
• With a helmet
The influence of the head stiffness, for a boxer wearing a helmet, on both a and τ is plotted
in Figure 7.14(b): increasing the head stiffness increases the peak acceleration a, while it
96
25 95
90
20
85
80
15
75
70
10
65
5 60
0 2 4 6 8 10
10 5
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.14 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer, wearing a helmet, during an
impact, for varying values of kh (from kh = 9 × 104 N/m in red to kh = 9 × 105 N/m in dark blue).
The values of the other parameters are kf = 1.1 104 N/m, βf = 250 kg.s−1 , mf = 4 kg, mh = 7 kg
and vf = 12 m/s. (b) Influence of the head stiffness on the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
The black dashed line is a power law that the timespan is following, with equation τ ∼ 4696 kh−0.46 .
decreases the time-span τ , following a power law. At the beginning, the increase (or de-
crease for τ ) rate is high: going from kh = 105 N/m to kh = 2 × 105 N/m causes the peak
acceleration a to increase by 10 g. For higher values of kh , the rate of evolution is lower:
going from kh = 7 × 105 N/m to kh = 8 × 105 N/m only increases a by 1 g. As the evolution
of a and τ with kh are contradictory, we can’t assert now that the strengthening of the neck
is beneficial or not.
• Without a helmet
100 25 95
Chap. 7
90
80
20
85
60
80
40 15
75
20
70
10
0 65
-20 5 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6 8 10
5
10
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.15 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer, without a helmet, during an
impact, for varying values of kh (from kh = 9 × 104 N/m in red to kh = 9 × 105 N/m in dark blue).
The values of the other parameters are kf = 2.2×104 N/m, βf = 120 kg.s−1 , mf = 4 kg, mh = 7 kg
and vf = 12 m/s. (b) Influence of the head stiffness on the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
The black dashed line is a power law that the timespan is following, with equation τ ∼ 1413 kh−0.36 .
In Figure 7.15, we can see that the influence of kh on a and τ differs from the case where
the boxer wears a helmet. Indeed, when the boxer fights without a helmet, the peak accel-
97
eration peaks at kh = 2.8 × 105 N/m before decreasing again as kh increases. However, the
variations of a are small: the maximum variation of the peak acceleration is about 10 g,
which is lower than the influence of the other parameters studied in this model. The impact
time is not globally influenced by the presence of a helmet.
The effect of neck stiffness on a punch and its influence on a plausible brain concussion
is shown in Figure 7.16. An impact is initially placed on the WSTC, meaning that its
potentiality to cause a brain concussion is not certain. We then increase and decrease the
value of kh and visualize if the blow moves to the safe zone of the WSTC (below the black
line) or in the dangerous zone (above the black line).
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.16 – Detailed influence of the neck stiffness on a given impact. A specific impact (yellow
and black triangle), initially on the WSTC is subjected to different values of kh , ranging from 105
N/m to 106 N/m for a boxer with (a) or without (b) a helmet. The values of the other parameters
are kf = 1.1×104 N/m, βf = 250 kg.s−1 , mf = 4 kg, mh = 7 kg and vf = 11 m/s for (a) and kf =
2.2×104 N/m, βf = 120 kg.s−1 , mf = 4 kg, mh = 7 kg and vf = 11.7 m/s for (b).
Chap. 7
• With a helmet
Figure 7.16(a) shows that, with a helmet, the impact stays around the WSTC line for a
large range of kh values (1.4×105 N/m < kh < 6.7×105 N/m). The blow eventually reaches
the safe zone for large values of kh (kh > 105 N/m). This tells us that, when a boxer is
wearing a helmet during a training session, only a hard strengthening of his neck muscle
could get him out of a potential concussion.
• Without a helmet
Without a helmet, the effect of the neck stiffness is more significant (Figure 7.16(b)). From
a blow on the WSTC line, increasing kh immediately gets the impact in the safe zone,
while decreasing kh rises the impact above the frontier line. This means that during official
matches, when the athletes don’t wear a helmet, the strengthening of their neck is of the
utmost importance as it can protect them from a concussion.
The effective mass of the fist mf
The effective mass of the fist is a function of two distinct parameters: the weight category
of the boxer (as shown in the Subsubsection 7.1.2.1) and the proportion of the boxer’s body
98
engaged in the punch, usually associated to a high velocity. A low value of mf represents a
punch for which the boxer involves only his arm, it will be called a light punch. A blow for
which mf is high corresponds to a blow where the whole body is involved, it is a heavy blow.
The greater the coordination between all the boxer’s movements, the greater the effective
mass of the heavy punch. That is why mf is higher for Olympic boxers than for the novice
boxer who participated in the experiments described in the Subsection 7.1.3.
The influence of mf on a and τ is plotted in Figure 7.17: increasing the effective fist mass
increases both the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ . It is interesting to note that
the timespan, τ follows a power law with the mass: τ ∼ 11.1 mf0.19 .
17 110
100
16 100
80
90
60 15
80
40 14
70
20
13
60
0
0 10 20 30 40 2 4 6 8 10
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.17 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer during an impact, for
varying values of mf (from mf = 2 kg in green to mf = 10 kg in dark blue). The values of the other
parameters are kh = 3×105 N/m, kf = 1.1×104 N/m, βf = 250 kg.s−1 , mh = 7 kg and vf = 15
m/s. (b) Influence of the fist effective mass on the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ . The
black dashed line is a power law that the timespan is following, with equation τ ∼ 11.1 m0.19
f .
The effect of fist mass on a punch and its influence on a plausible brain concussion is shown Chap. 7
in Figure 7.18. As for the neck stiffness, we placed a specific punch on the WSTC frontier
and varied the fist mass above and below its initial value.
Figure 7.18 clearly shows that increasing its effective hand mass increases the likelihood of
a concussion for the opponent. Inversely, decreasing its effective hand mass places the blow
in the safe zone.
However, as mentioned earlier, the effective fist mass is also a function of the weight category
of the boxer. While the fist mass increases for heavier weight categories, the head mass also
increases. For each weight category, we extrapolated the average fist mass from [36] and
calculated the head mass using Winter’s anthropological table [81].
The corresponding evolution of a and τ as a function of the weight category, for mh varying
from 4.2 kg to 7.4 kg, and mf ranging from 2.2 kg to 4.9 kg, in Figure 7.19.
The time-span τ is an increasing function of the weight category, with a quasi-constant
increasing rate. On the other hand, a is a decreasing function of the weight category. As
the evolution of a and τ with the weight category are contradictory, we can’t assess the risk
of concussion when moving from one weight category to another.
99
Chap.
7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
hand velocity vf .
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
The fist velocity vf

0
(a)
30
5
40
= 250 kg.s−1 , mh = 7 kg and vf = 9.8 m/s.
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<latexit
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sha1_base64="RmoPOAcgYcL2T3YxkIi4A1ABY4s=">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</latexit>
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sha1_base64="8uAHHvqA1LqrWjBiYk7Klbx2zEQ=">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</latexit>
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yellow). (b) Influence of the weight category on the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
70
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105
110
from 2 kg to 7 kg. The values of the other parameters are kh = 3 105 N/m, kf = 1.1 104 N/m, βf
The effect of fist mass on a punch and its influence on a plausible brain concussion is shown
ation a, which increases linearly with vf but has hardly any influence on τ . Therefore, the
One can observe that the impacting velocity of the fist has an influence on the peak acceler-
acceleration of the head of a boxer during an impact for various values of its opponent’s
who strikes the blow, the initial speed of the fist vf can vary. We plot in Figure 7.20 the
Depending on the initial distance between the two boxers, and the liveliness of the boxer
weight categories (from mf = 2.2 kg and mh = 4.2 kg in green to mf = 4.9 kg and mh = 7.4 kg in
Figure 7.19 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer during an impact, for different
(yellow and black triangle), initially on the WSTC is subjected to different values of mf , ranging
Figure 7.18 – Detailed influence of the effective hand mass on a given impact. A specific impact
20 100
80
15
60
40
10
20
5 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.20 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer during an impact, for varying
values of vf (from vf = 2 m/s in red to vf = 15 m/s in yellow). (b) Influence of the fist velocity on
the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
in Figure 7.21. As for the effective hand mass, we placed a specific punch on the WSTC
frontier and varied the fist velocity above and below its initial value.
200
180
160
140
120
100
Chap. 7
80
60
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 7.21 – Detailed influence of the hand velocity on a given impact. A specific impact (yellow
and black triangle), initially on the WSTC is subjected to different values of vf , ranging from 8 m/s
to 14 m/s. The values of the other parameters are kh = 5 105 N/m, kf = 1.1 104 N/m, βf = 250
kg.s−1 , mh = 7 kg and mf = 4 kg.
It is clear to see that increasing or decreasing the fist velocity gets a blow in and out of the
danger zone, which is above the WSTC line.
To refine this conclusion, each parameter of the model is not, however, independent. For
example, the initial speed and the effective mass of the fist are related to each other by the
muscular capacities of each. Indeed, there is a relationship between the maximum speed of
a multi-joint muscular movement, and the maximum force engaged in this movement. This
relationship is called Hill’s model:
101
v
F = F∗ 1 − ∗ (7.3)
v
In the case of a multi-joint movement, such as a punch, an example of force-velocity rela-

tionship is shown in Figure 7.22. Such a relationship between the maximum velocity and
the peak force also exists in boxing [83].
1200
F⇤
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Figure 7.22 – Relationship between the maximal velocity of an upper body multi-joint muscular
movement, and the maximum force engaged in this movement. Data taken from [84] for a bench
press experiment.
In addition to this relationship between the force and the velocity, biophysics models often
say that the force exerted by a muscle is proportional to its section, F ∝ L2 , where L is the
characteristic size of the muscle. Since the mass of the muscle Mm is itself proportional to
its volume, Mm ∝ L3 , we can deduce the following scaling between the effective fist mass
Chap. 7 and it’s velocity :
 
2/3
mf
vf ∝ v ∗ 1 −  (7.4)
F∗
If v ∗ and F ∗ are chosen to fit the range of values recorded in boxing for mf and vf , we
can plot, in Figure 7.23, the evolution of the typical acceleration signal felt by the boxers,
depending on the weight category.
One can observe that, while the timespan τ is linearly increasing with the weight category,
the peak acceleration reaches a maximum for the Lightweight category. This means that
from Flyweight to Lightweight, with a and τ increasing, the risk of a concussion increases as
well. From the Welterweight category, a and τ have opposite trends, which does not allow
us to conclude on the occurrence of concussions.
Visualization of the influence of the different parameters
A summary of the influence of the different parameters of the model is shown in the Figure
7.24: an impact (a = 62 g and τ = 13.5 ms) is placed on the diagram (a, τ ) with the Wayne
102
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20 15 55
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H
H
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r
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<latexit
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pe
<latexit
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Su
<latexit
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<latexit
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(a)
(b)
Figure 7.23 – (a) Acceleration signal perceived by the head of a boxer during an impact, for
varying values of vf and mf , linked by the biophysics scaling given in Eq (7.4). (b) Influence of the
fist effective mass on the peak acceleration a and the time-span τ .
curve. Originally this point (yellow square) is on Wayne’s curve, so the ability of such an
impact to cause a concussion is uncertain.
140
120
Chap. 7
100
80 mf %
vf %
<latexit sha1_base64="xV3i3n/pZbL4QJMFv4HsP3raHaw=">AAAC0XicjVHLSsNAFD3GV31XXboJVsFVmRZLdSe6caloVfBFEqcaTJMwmSilCOLWH3CrPyX+gf6FZ8YUdCE6ITN3zj3nzNy5fhqFmRbibcAZHBoeGS2NjU9MTk3PlGfnDrIkV4FsBUmUqCPfy2QUxrKlQx3Jo1RJr+NH8tC/3jL5wxupsjCJ93U3lacd7zIO22HgaUJnSzfnbfcklp5Sye3Sebkiqo2GWBdrrqiK2mqzucqAa6PedGtVYUcFxdhJyq84wQUSBMjRgUQMzTiCh4zfMWoQSImdokdMMQptXuIO49TmZEkyPKLXnC+5Oy7QmHvjmVl1wFMi/opKF8vUJOQpxuY01+Zz62zQ37x71tPcrcvVL7w6RDWuiP6l6zP/qzO1aLSxZmsIWVNqEVNdULjk9lXMzd1vVWk6pMRMfMG8YhxYZf+dXavJbO3mbT2bf7dMg5p9UHBzfJhbssH9Lrq/Bwf1ao1d361XNjaLVpewgEWssJ9NbGAbO2jRW+EJz3hx9pyuc+88fFGdgUIzjx/DefwE4NOUzg==</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="Yzch3pP3DkjVKPm87KoFvGcPHYw=">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</latexit>
kh % kh .
60
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<latexit sha1_base64="fOtreyZnAnvDvPy7c3+s+ZbdiKU=">AAAC0XicjVHLSsNAFD3G97vq0k2wCq7CpC2ty6Ibl4q2FmyVSRzb0DQJk4lSiiBu/QG3+lPiH+hfeGdMQReiE5LcOfecM3Pv9ZIwSBVjbxPW5NT0zOzc/MLi0vLKamFtvZnGmfRFw4/DWLY8noowiERDBSoUrUQKPvBCceb1D3T+7EbINIijUzVMRGfAu1FwHfhcEXSx3b/s2e30lksZ325fForMYeUyq+7ZzHEr1UqZUVCqliu1mu06zKwi8nUUF17RxhVi+MgwgEAERXEIjpSec7hgSAjrYESYpCgweYE7LJA2I5YgBie0T98u7c5zNKK99kyN2qdTQnolKW3skCYmnqRYn2abfGacNfqb98h46rsN6e/lXgNCFXqE/qUbM/+r07UoXGPP1BBQTYlBdHV+7pKZruib29+qUuSQEKbjK8pLin2jHPfZNprU1K57y03+3TA1qvd+zs3woW9JAx5P0f49aJYcl8Z/XCrW9/NRz2ETW9iledZQxyGO0CBviSc848U6sYbWvfXwRbUmcs0Gfizr8RPtGZTT</latexit>
vf .
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mf .
40
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0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 7.24 – Visualization of the influence of the different parameters of the model on the WSTC.
An impact of characteristics a = 62 g and τ = 13.5 ms, in yellow, is initially on the WSTC. For the
same impact, the parameters of the model (vf , kh and mf ) are modified, displacing the blow in or
out the danger zone.
However, Figure 7.24 shows that if:
• the boxer who hits increases vf , the hit goes over Wayne’s curve, and thus will certainly
cause a concussion
103
• the boxer who hits increases mf , the hit goes over Wayne’s curve, in the danger zone
• the boxer who receives the blow increases kh , the hit goes below Wayne’s curve, avoid-
ing the concussion.
Despite the simplicity of the model established in this chapter, it allows us to visualize and
confirm ring edge intuitions.
When we compare the values of a and τ predicted by our model, we realize that one part
of the diagram (a, τ ) is never reached: the area of large a and small τ . A more complete
model could eventually allow exploring this area of the diagram (a, τ ).
Chap. 7
104
1. An impact in boxing can be modelled with a mass-spring-damper mechanical

model.
2. Increasing the effective fist mass increases the risk of causing a brain
concussion.
3. Increasing the fist velocity increases the risk of causing a brain concussion
4. Increasing its own neck stiffness decreases the risk of suffering a brain con-
cussion (with no helmet).
105
106
CONCLUSION
107
Conclusion
In this thesis, we address the issue of the physical origin of brain concussions in contact
sports. Although concussions are a long-standing concern, the increasing number of con-
cussions in sports such as rugby, American soccer, and boxing suggest that it is a difficult
problem to understand and eradicate.
First, we are interested in the physical origin of concussions, and the potential creation of
cavitation bubbles in the cerebrospinal fluid when an impact is received on the head. This
hypothesis is widespread in the community, but to our knowledge, no experimental study
has been conducted on this subject.
In a second step, we try to understand what happens at the head level when an impact is
received. For this, we have conducted both an experimental study, for which we have devel-
oped a specific sensor, and a theoretical study for which we have elaborated a mechanical
model of the impact.
We begin this thesis with a brief review of the literature on concussion. In particular,
we are interested in the increasing number of concussions. The reason for this increase is
that sports practices are becoming more and more violent, and concussions are becoming
better diagnosed. Moreover, we are interested in the way they are diagnosed. Over the
years, various concussion research projects have aimed to develop criteria for the detection
of concussions, which can be used retrospectively. Although these criteria are empirical and
it is no longer possible to reproduce the experiments that led to them today, they enlighten
us on the importance of two parameters, the maximum value of the head acceleration at the
moment of impact a and the duration of this impact τ .
We then discuss recent efforts to reduce the number and violence of concussions in contact
sports. The French Rugby Federation in particular has set up psycho-technical tests at the
edge of the field as soon as a concussion is suspected.
We then complete the introductory section with a short literature review on cavi-
tation. It is a physical phenomenon known for a very long time, which was first studied for
its implication in the destruction of propellers of ships and submarines. Indeed, cavitation
bubbles have been extensively studied in high-velocity flows. Ccl.
We then discuss the possibility of creating cavitation bubbles by accelerating a liquid-filled

container, to model a head, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), accelerated by an impact.
We end this bibliographic review by specifying the damaging potential of these bubbles, as
well as the dynamic equation governing their growth in an infinite fluid.
We begin the experimental part of this thesis with a study of cavitation bubbles induced
by accelerating a closed container. We describe the experimental device that we have
imagined to reproduce the impacts received by the athletes. A tank filled with water, but
of variable volume, is placed on an impact tower. Controlled impacts are applied to it, and
a fast camera and an accelerometer, both high frequency, allow for analyzing the dynamics
of the cavitation bubbles created. We then study the influence of the two main parameters
put forward by the previous works on brain concussions, a, and τ . An equation of the
dynamics of the bubbles thus created is given, as well as scaling laws giving their maximum
radius as a function of the only parameters a and τ . After that, we investigate the energy
released by the cavitation bubbles when they implode. Although the destructive mechanism
109
is not precisely identified, the literature agrees that the energy released by the implosion of
a cavitation bubble scales as the pressure variation to which it was subjected multiplied by
its maximum volume. Finally, we compare this energy to the values likely to damage the
brain and compare our predictions to the empirical concussion criteria described in Chapter
1.
After the encouraging results of the chapter on bubbles generated in a closed container,
we wished to refine the model and imagine an experimental device that would be closer to
the skull-CSF-brain system. Indeed, after analysis of MRI images, we found that the CSF
was confined between the skull and the brain, with a thickness of about one millimeter. This
is why we studied the dynamics of cavitation bubbles, generated by accelerating a
closed container and confined in a space of the order of a millimeter.
We have shown the difference between the growth of ”confined” and ”free” bubbles and we
have proposed a new equation for the dynamics of confined cavitation bubbles. Thanks to
this equation governing the radius of the bubbles during an impact, we know once again
how much energy is released by the bubbles at the time of their implosion. We then com-
pared this energy to the energy levels required to damage the brain, and concluded on the
possibility of damaging the brain with cavitation bubbles in the CSF.
To conclude the experimental part of this thesis, entirely dedicated to cavitation bubbles,
we have set up an experiment aiming at getting closer to the real CSF conditions. Thus,
we started to study cavitation bubbles induced by accelerating a closed container
and confined between a soft solid, with an elastic modulus comparable to the
brain, and a hard solid similar to the skull. We have not been able to go as far as
the two previous chapters, but we have developed all the necessary tools for this study. We
started by comparing the growth of free and soft confined bubbles. We realized that the
dynamics are different and that it is also different from the growth dynamics of cavitation
bubbles confined between two solid walls.
We could then estimate the volume of cavitation bubbles thanks to the deformation of the
gel.
The third part of this thesis focused on real-life situations, particularly during a boxing
match.
First, we detailed the development of a sensor that can be attached to the boxers’
Ccl.
helmet. The idea was to compare the models made in the laboratory with measurements in
the ring. Throughout the cavitation bubble experiments, the only two impact parameters
that allowed us to quantify the energy released by the bubbles were a and τ . We have,
therefore, in collaboration with the start-up company Phyling, developed a high frequency
(impacts are recorded at 10,000 Hz), wireless and non-intrusive accelerometer that gives,
for each impact received by a boxer, the values of a and τ . These measurements not only
help in the detection of concussions but also quantify the training load of athletes.
In the last chapter of this thesis, we have tried to develop a mechanical model of
head impact. The goal of this chapter was to determine which parameters, related to the
athletes or their equipment, influence the values of a and τ . To do this, we first measured
the parameters of our model through laboratory experiments. For the parameters that we
could not measure, we did bibliographic research. We then validate our model in a controlled
laboratory experiment. Finally, we investigated the influence of the different parameters,
and their ability to cause or avoid a concussion during an impact.
110
From the point of view of sports practice, we have shown that an impact to the head is
very likely to cause the formation of cavitation bubbles in the cerebral spinal fluid. Thus,
we have given analytical criteria of detection, based on measurable data on the field, the
maximum acceleration of the head at the time of impact a, and the duration of the impact τ .
We also contributed to the development of a tool to measure these data (a and τ ), which is
already used by the boxers of the French Federation of Boxing. Finally, we have developed
a model that allows us to orientate the protection of athletes, by showing which part of
their equipment, their training or the parameters of an impact are more prone to cause a
concussion.
In order to continue the work presented here, we can think of some perspectives: - finish
the confined cavitation experiments between a rigid and a soft surface. The elaboration of
a model allowing to show the energy released by the bubbles will allow a better estimation
of the damage that can be done to the brain. - carry on the collaboration with the athletes,
and to set up an automatic analysis tool of the data measured by the wireless accelerometer,
coupled with the videos of the trainings and the matches.
Ccl.
111
112
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118
Titre : Cavitation induite par accélération et lien possible avec les commotions cérébrales
Mots clés : cavitation, commotions cérébrales, mTBI
Résumé : Les commotions cérébrales sont de plus sion générée par un impact entre sommet et base de
en plus fréquentes dans les sports de contacts tels la cuve entraine la création de bulle de cavitation.
que le rugby, le football américain ou la boxe. Dans un premier temps, les bulles sont libres de
De nous jours, la plupart des diagnostiques sont croitre dans tout le volume de la cuve, donnant lieu
basés sur des test psychotechniques et des ana- à une croissance en 3D régie par l’équation de
lyses de symptômes, les commotions n’étant pas Rayleigh-Plesset. Dans un second temps, les bulles
détectables par imagerie médicale. Les premiers sont confinées entre des surfaces variables : un confi-
travaux de recherche portaient sur l’élaboration de nement entre deux surfaces rigides, et un confine-
critères physique de détections des commotions. ment entre une surface rigide et un solide mou.
L’accélération de la tête au moment de l’impact est La seconde partie de ce manuscrit, se concentre
apparue très rapidement comme le facteur le plus in- sur les impacts reçus par les sportifs, et en particu-
fluant sur l’occurrence des commotions. L’hypothèse lier les boxeurs, en situation de combat. Nous avons
la plus relayée est l’apparition de bulles de cavitation développé un accéléromètre haute fréquence, sans
dans le liquide cérébro-spinal (LCS) du au choc. fil intégré aux casques des boxeurs. La nature des
Dans une première partie présente une étude signaux collectés et ensuite mis en regard avec un
expérimentale de la formation de bulles de cavita- un modèle mécanique de l’impact. Ce modèle prend
tion induites par acceleration d’un contenant fermé notamment en compte différentes caractéristiques
est présentée. La boite crânienne est modélisée par propres aux athlètes et à leur équipement, et prédit le
une cuve remplie d’eau reproduisant le comporte- signal d’accélération ressenti par la tête à chaque im-
ment du LCS. Cette cuve est ensuite placée sur pact. Nous retrouvons ainsi des tendances intuitées
une tour d’impact, permettant de reproduire les si- par les athlètes et les entraineurs, et procurons un
gnaux d’accélération des impacts intervenants pen- outil supplémentaire pour prévenir les commotion
dant les rencontres sportives. La différence de pres- cérébrales.
Title : Cavitation induced by acceleration and possible link to brain concussion

Keywords : cavitation, brain concussion, mTBI
Abstract : Concussions are increasingly common in top and the bottom of the tank leads to the creation of
contact sports such as rugby, American football and cavitation bubbles.
boxing. such as rugby, American soccer or boxing. To- In a first step, the bubbles are free to grow in the
day, most diagnoses are based on psycho-technical whole volume of the tank, giving rise to a 3D growth
testing and symptom analysis, as concussions are governed by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation. In a se-
not detectable by medical imaging. Early research cond step, the bubbles are confined between variable
focused on developing physical criteria for detecting surfaces: a confinement between two rigid surfaces,
concussion. The acceleration of the head at the mo- and a confinement between a rigid surface and a
ment of impact quickly appeared to be the most in- soft solid. The second part of this manuscript focuses
fluential factor on the occurrence of concussions. The on the impacts received by athletes, and in particu-
most widely reported hypothesis is the appearance of lar boxers, in combat situations. We have developed
cavitation bubbles in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) due a high frequency accelerometer, wireless integrated
to the impact. into the boxers’ helmets. The nature of the signals Bib.
In the first part, an experimental study of the formation collected and then compared with a mechanical mo-
of cavitation bubbles induced by acceleration of a clo- del of the impact. This model takes into account va-
sed container is presented. The cranium is modeled rious characteristics of the athletes and their equip-
by a tank filled with water reproducing the behavior ment, and predicts the acceleration signal felt by the
of the LCS. This tank is then placed on an impact to- head at each impact. We thus find trends that athletes
wer, allowing to reproduce the acceleration signals of and coaches have intuited, and provide an additional
the impacts occurring during sports events. The pres- tool to prevent concussions.
sure difference generated by an impact between the
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Cavitation induced by acceleration and possible link to

To cite this version:

HAL Id: tel-04105395

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est

Cavitation induced by acceleration and

École doctorale n◦ 626 de l’Institut Polytechnique de Paris (ED IP Paris)

Thèse présentée et soutenue à Palaiseau, le 07 octobre 2022, par

I Cavitation bubbles induced by acceleration in free and confined

Chapter 3 Cavitation in a closed container 29

Chapter 4 Cavitation bubbles in a confined environment 47

Chapter 5 Cavitation in a soft confined space - Perspectives 63

II Data collection in boxing 75

Chapter 6 Wireless accelerometer 77

Chapter 7 Modelling an impact on the head 85

Violent impact during a boxing fight, potentially leading to a brain concussion

1.1 A brief history of brain concussion in contact sports

1.2 Experimental criteria for brain concussions

with a the acceleration in g and n a weighting factor greater than 1.

with a the linear acceleration in g, and ∆t the duration of the shock.

Chap. 1 HIC AIS Head injury

1.3 Data collection for brain concussion in contact sports

1.3.3 American football

1.4 Review of the physical models for brain concussion

1.4.1 A simplified view of the head

1.4.2 Models and mechanisms for mTBI

• Gradient of pressure in the cerebrospinal fluid An impact on a closed container,

Take home message of Chapter 1

3. The collapse of cavitation bubbles in the CSF is a mechanism that could

0 ms 0.6 ms 1.2 ms 1.8 ms

2.1 Cavitation in an accelerated container

As cavitation onset in an accelerated container cannot be described using the conventional

2.2 Bubble growth

Hence, one can define u the radial velocity of the fluid:

The condition of impermeability at the gas/liquid interface (r = R) ensures that u(R, t) =

R2 R̈ + 2RṘ 2R4 Ṙ2 ∂p

Integrating between r = R(t) where p = p(R) and r → ∞ where p = p(t), we obtain:

where ν = µ/ρ is the cinematic viscosity of the fluid.

2.3 Bubble collapse and damage

• Emission of a shock wave

• Formation of a high-velocity liquid jet

Take home message of Chapter 2

2. The bubble dynamics is governed by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation.

3. The collapse of cavitation bubbles involves two distinct mechanisms: the

In this chapter, we detail the development of an experiment of cavitation induced by accel-

3.1 Experimental set-up

3.2 Pressure drop in the contre-coup area

Chap. 3 0.6 0.6 1.4

ρU̇ (t)z + p = constant (3.1)

3.3 Influence of the impact time

Figure 3.6 – Chronophotographies of cavitation bubble growth upon impacts of characteristics (a

3.4 Bubble dynamics

3.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset equation

for which the only input is p(t).

dynamics of the bubbles.

3.4.1.1 Low acceleration regime

pb = p = p0 − ρU̇ (t)L (3.3)

where R0 is the initial radius of the bubble.

where a is the peak acceleration of the impact.

3.4.1.2 High acceleration regime

Multiplying Eq. (3.6) by ṘR2 , we get:

With pv = ρav L, we have ∆p = ρ(av − a)L, which ultimately yields to:

th against the numerically computed value R

3.5 Energy released by the bubbles and damaging potential