Energy Saving Technologies

Cogeneration
The course is developed within the frames of project “Development of
Training Network for Improving Education in Energy Efficiency”
acronym: ENERGY, grant Nr. 530379-TEMPUS-1-2012-1-
LVTEMPUS-JPCR.
Project was approved by the European Commission in frame of
program Tempus IV – Fifth call for proposals (Programme guide
EACEA/25/2011).
Sub-programme: Joint Projects
Action: Curricular Reform
Deliverable: 2.1 Development and translation of study courses within
the frame of direction enhancement of energy efficiency (EEE).

This project has been funded with support from the European
Commission Project. This publication reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use,
which may be made of the information contained therein.
RTU Course "Energy Saving Technologies"
Code
Course title Energy Saving Technologies
Course status in the program Courses of Free Choice
Course level Undergraduate Studies
Course type Academic
Field of study Power and Electrical Engineering
Responsible instructor Anastasia Zhiravetska
Academic staff Anastasia Zhiravecka
Nadezhda Kunicina
Anatolijs Zabašta
Ansis Avotins
Volume of the course: parts and credits 1 part, 2.0 Credit Points, 3.0 ECTS
points credits
 Course outline
Theme Hours
Introductive class 2
Co-generation 2
Smart metering 4
Distributed generation 2
DC transmission lines 4
Approaches to reduction of electric energy losses 4
Electrical motors and drives 6
Effective lighting 2
Supercapacitors 2
Standartization and legal bases 4
 Study subject structure

Part Semester CP ECTS Exam Lecture Practic Lab.

s al
1. Autumn 2.0 3.0 * 2.0 0.0 0.0
Cogeneration or combined cooling and heating

According to the Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of

the Council of February 11, 2004 on the promotion of cogeneration
based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and
amending Directive 92/42/EEC cogeneration means the simultaneous
generation in one process of thermal energy and electrical and/or
mechanical energy . In literature the following definitions are often used:
• Cogeneration is the combined production of electrical (or mechanical)
and useful thermal energy from the same primary energy source;
• Cogeneration is the sequential production of thermal and electric energy
from a single fuel source;
• Cogeneration is on-site generation and utilisation of energy in different
forms simultaneously by utilising fuel energy at optimum efficiency in a
cost-effective and environmentally responsible way.

6
 Cogeneration concept
• The mechanical energy produced by cogeneration can be
used to drive auxiliary equipment as well. The thermal
energy can be used either for heating or for cooling. Cooling
can be obtained by thermally driven chillers (usually
adsorption or absorption chillers).
• In a conventional thermal power plant, large amount of heat
(50-70%) is wasted with exhaust gases and cooling agent. A
large portion of the waste heat can be recovered and used
by combining the electrical generation and heat production
processes, increasing in this way the overall efficiency to 80-
90%. This combination of the electrical generation and heat
production processes represents the combined heat and
power (CHP) generation or cogeneration concept.

7
The advantages of cogeneration in electricity and
heat production
The main advantages of cogeneration systems are
the following:
• improve energy efficiency at national level leading to
conservation of fossil energy resources;
• enable locally generation of electricity and reduce the
heat losses;
• enable the use of different fuels;
• can be used in remote areas;
• reduce the environmental impact due to higher
efficiency of fuel conversion.
8
Comparison between individual generation of
a) b)

electricity and heat v/s cogeneration

generation of electricity
Energy loss
60%
Fuel Electricity cogeneration
100% Thermal power 40%
plant Energy loss
10%
Electricity
Fuel 40%
generation of heat 100% Cogeneration
Energy loss plant
Heat
15% 50%
Fuel Heat
100% Boiler 85%

9
The main disadvantages of cogeneration systems

• have high investment and operation costs;

• require utilisation of the generated heat in the case the

generated electricity is fully utilised;

• require back-up system in order to ensure supply security of

electricity and heat, increasing the investment cost.

10
The main components of a cogeneration system

Electricity
Fuel Prime Genera
mover tor

• a prime mover;
• an electrical generator; Heat

• a heat recovery exchanger;

Exhaust gases, Heat
• operating control systems cooling water recuperator

11
Cogeneration technology in electricity and heat
production (1)
The prime mover is a thermal engine (Rankine, Brayton, Diesel, Otto,
Stirling) or a combination of thermal engines which converts chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy transmitted to electrical generator. A
special system, which converts fuel chemical energy directly into electricity,
is the system that uses fuel cell as prime mover. The heat recover see
maybe a heat exchanger or a network of heat exchangers which transfers
the heat from exhaust gases or engine cooling agent to the heating agent or
to water (domestic hot water).
The most important indices used to compare different cogeneration systems
are the following:
mechanical efficiency of prime mover (heat engine):

where: is mechanical power of prime mover;

is heat flow produced by fuel combustion;

12
is fuel mass flow rate, kg/s or Nm3/s;
 Cogeneration technology in electricity and heat
production (2)

LHV is lower heating value (net calorific value) of fuel, kJ/kg or kJ/Nm3.
electrical efficiency:

where: is electrical power generated by system (electrical power

output);
thermal efficiency:

where is the heat flow rate generated by the system.

13
Cogeneration technology in electricity and heat
production (3)

overall efficiency or total energy efficiency:

This equation is a subject of discussions because it is not appropriate

to add heat with electricity since the heat quality is lower than that of
electricity. It is very difficult to obtain 1 kW electric from 1 kW thermal
due to the losses of heat conversion into electricity. We can use
another index that uses the exergy, as a measure of energy quality, of
system input and output, instead of the overall efficiency.

14
Cogeneration technology in electricity and heat
production (4)

Exergetic efficiency:

Where is exergy flow rate of generated heat;

is exergy flow rate associated to fuel:

ef is specific exergy of fuel, kJ/kg or kJ/Nm3.

15
Cogeneration technology in electricity and heat
production (5)
power to heat ratio:

fuel energy savings ratio:

where
is fuel power input in individual generation system of heat (
)
or electricity ( );

is fuel power input in the system that cogenerates the

same amount of heat ( ) and electricity ( ).

16
 Types of cogeneration systems
The size of cogeneration systems can vary from small „micro”
systems, which can serve the needs of a single building to large
systems that can serve a town.
The cogeneration systems can be divided by the sequence of energy
use and the operating schemes adopted into topping cycle systems
and bottoming cycle systems. In a topping cycle system, electricity or
mechanical power is produced by a heat engine using fuel and the
heat is recovered to meet heating demand. These systems are used in
applications that do not require high process temperature. In
bottoming cycle systems, the heat is produced directly from fuel
combustion to meet high temperature heat demand of industrial
process. The wasted heat is recovered and used as energy source to
generate electricity or mechanical power.
In other way the cogeneration systems can be classified according to
the type of prime mover or thermodynamic cycle used.

17
 Rankine cycle cogeneration systems
A steam turbine cogeneration system includes a heat source, a
heat sink and a steam turbine driving an electrical generator.
The system runs on improved Rankine cycle (steam reheat and
regenerative preheating of feeding water). The heat source can
be a boiler, a nuclear reactor or a waste incinerator. The boiler
can use any type of fuel or combinations of fuels and solar
radiation to produce superheated steam with high temperature
and high pressure.

The power of steam turbine cogeneration system varies from

0.5 to over 100 MW. The generated steam can have up to
450°C and 100 bar in the commercial or industrial sector and
about 540°C and over 100 bar in the utility sector.

18
 Rankine cycle / steam turbines

The most widely used types of steam turbines are:

• back pressure steam turbines;
• condensing steam turbines;
• bottoming cycle steam turbine systems;
• bottoming Rankine cycle systems with organic fluids.

19
 Types of cogeneration systems

Topping cycle system Bottoming cycle system

Prime Gener Electricity

Fuel
mover ator Boiler Thermal
Fuel
energy
Heat
Ste Electri
Waste Heat Gener
Heat am city
heat Waste recov ator
recuperator ery turb
heat
boiler ine

20
 Rankine cycle with steam reheat

T 3
3’
1-2 isentropic water pumping into
2’ 2” boiler;
4’ 2-2’ isobaric heating of water;
2’-2” vaporisation;
2 2”-3 isobaric superheating of
1 4 steam;
s 3-4’ isentropic expansion of
steam in high pressure turbine;
4’-3’ isobaric steam reheating;
3’-4 steam isentropic expansion
The choice between types of steam in low pressure turbine;
turbines depends mainly on the quantities 4-1 condensation
of power and heat, quality of heat, and
economic factors.

21
Cogeneration system with back pressure steam
turbine and steam reheat
3 Steam turbine
Electricity
HPT LPT
Generator
4’ 3’
Boiler 4
Heat

Pump Condensate
2 1

A backpressure steam turbine means a steam turbine from which the steam
exits or is extracted at a pressure and temperature depending on the
temperature level of heat required by the processes. The cogeneration system
with backpressure steam turbine. The steam from turbine transfers the heat to
technological/industrial process reaching the liquid state (condensation). The
condensate is then returned to boiler.

22
Advantages of the cogeneration system with back
pressure steam turbine and steam reheat
• the construction is simple;
• the high cost of low pressure turbine stages are avoided;
• low capital cost due to the lack of cooling plant;
• high overall efficiency as almost all entire generated heat in
boiler is utilised (there is no heat transferred to the heat sink).

The disadvantages of the systems is that the steam

mass flow rate through the turbine depends on the
thermal demand. This means that the electricity
generated by turbine is controlled by thermal demand.

23
 Condensing steam turbine systems
In these systems, the steam is extracted from one or
more intermediate stages at the pressure and
temperature suitable for the heating process. The main
part of the steam exits the turbine at the condenser
pressure. A lower condenser pressure (implicit
temperature) means a higher thermal efficiency of
cycle. The condenser temperature is limited by the
temperature of a cooling agent (water, air).

The cogeneration systems with condensing steam

turbine have a higher capital cost and lower overall
efficiency than backpressure systems. The electricity
load can be adjusted independently on the thermal
load by controlling steam flow rate through the turbine.
24
Cogeneration system with condensing steam
turbine
Electricity
Steam turbine
Generator
Boiler
Steam to
process
Condenser Cooling
water
Pump
Condensate from
process
Condensate
tank
25
Bottoming cycle steam turbine systems

Evacuated gases from many industrial thermal

processes have high temperature (500-600°C). The
sensible heat contained in gasses can be recovered to
generate steam in a Rankine based cogeneration
system. The steam turbine can be a condensing
turbine or a backpressure one.

26
 Bottoming cycle cogeneration system with
condensing steam turbine
Flue
gas
Steam Electricity
Heat turbine
recovery Generator
steam
generator Cooling
Flue gas Condenser water
Fuel
Thermal Pump
process

27
Bottoming Rankine cycle systems with
organic fluids
For effective use of low temperature level heat
sources (80-300°C) have been developed plants that
operate on Rankine cycle with organic working fluid.
Organic Rankine cycle is similar to the conventional
steam turbine cycle, but uses as working fluid a high
molecular weight substance and low boiling point,
which is suitable for recovery of heat available at low
temperature.

28
 An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) has the
following advantages
• the heat source cooled to a lower temperature by using
organic fluids so more electric power can be generated from heat;
• the evaporation process takes place at lower pressure and
temperature;
• the expansion process ends in the vapour region and hence
the risk of blades erosion is avoided;
• turbines with organic fluids can provide higher efficiency at
part loads;
• systems have great flexibility, high safety and low
maintenance;
• the smaller temperature difference between evaporation and
condensation means that the pressure drop/ratio is much smaller and
thus simple single stage turbines can be used. The turbine cost is
therefore lower.
29
Temperature profile of water and an organic
fluid at heat addition
°C °C
425°C 425°
400 400 C
exhaust exhaust
gas gas
300 300 superheating
superheating ΔT=38°C
ΔT=38°C
vaporizing
200 vaporizing 200
180
organic
water fluid
100 100
pre- 90 pre-
heating heating

0 25 50 75 0 25 50 75
100% 100%
Relative heat power Relative heat power
30
An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) substances

Substances that can be used in ORC are: hydrocarbons (HC);

hydrofluorocarbons (HFC); hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC);
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC); perfluorocarbons (PFC); siloxanes;
alcohols; aldehydes; ethers; hydrofluoroethers (HFE); amines;
fluids mixtures (azeotropic and non-azeotropic).
The heat losses through irreversible heat transfer from the heat
source and to sink influence the overall efficiency of a
thermodynamic conversion cycle. These losses depend mainly on
matching heat capacity of working fluid, heat source and sink. In
order to achieve the matching of working fluid and source heat
capacities, the multi-component, non-azeotropic working fluids
featuring non-isothermal heat addition are used.

31
An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) plant energy
production depends of:
• good thermodynamic properties;
• high thermodynamic performance (high
energetic/exergetic efficiency);
• good thermal and chemical stability during plant
operation;
• low environmental impact (ozone depletion potential,
global warming potential, atmospheric lifetime);
• good safety characteristics (non toxic, non corrosive; low
flammability and auto-ignition properties).
• good heat transfer properties (low viscosity, high thermal
conductivity);
• low cost and good availability.
The electric power generated by cogeneration systems
with organic Rankine cycle is in the range from 2 kW to
2.5 MW. The electric efficiency is about (10-30)%. 32
 Temperature profile of a multi-component,
non-azeotropic working fluid at heat addition
T T

Heat
source Heat
source

Working fluid Working fluid

q q
33
 Gas turbine cogeneration systems (1)
The gas turbine can operate in a simple Brayton (called Joule
cycle when irreversibilities are ignored) thermodynamic cycle or
in a combined Brayton-Rankine cycle.
The gas turbine systems have been developed initially for
industrial and utility applications and as aircraft engines. Later,
for stationary applications was modified are called aeroderivative
turbines. The main advantages of gas turbine cogeneration
systems are the following: low capital cost; low-cost
maintenance; low installation cost; fast start-ups; rapid response
to changing load; fuel-switching capabilities, high efficiency of
larger plants; high temperature level of heat (450-600°C) which
can be recovered; good environmental performance. The main
disadvantage is in low heat to power conversion efficiency. The
electric power output ranges from few kilowatts (micro turbine
systems) to 250 MW.
34
 Gas turbine cogeneration systems (2)

The most gas turbine cogeneration systems operate on the

open Brayton cycle. The atmospheric air is compressed in
compressor at a pressure ratio up to 30:1 and then introduced in
combustion chamber where fuel combustion takes place. The
generated flue gas exits the combustion chamber at high
temperature and pressure and with high oxygen concentration
(15-16%).

35
Cogeneration system with open-cycle gas turbine
Exhaust gases

5
Heat
recovery Condensate
T 3
steam from process
generator Steam to
process,
Fuel
4 Electricity
4 3
2
Combustor
2
5
1
Air Generator
s
compressor Gas turbine
1
1 - 2 isentropic compression;
2 - 3 constant pressure heat addition; Cooling air
3 - 4 isentropic expansion in turbine; Combustion air
4 - 5 constant pressure heat recovery; Combustion gases
5 - 1 heat rejection in atmosphere. 36
Cogeneration system with open-cycle gas
turbine
The higher flue gas temperature is at the turbine inlet, the
higher cycle efficiency is. The upper temperature limit at which
turbine can operate is determined by the resistance of turbine
materials and by the cooling efficiency of blades. The current
higher cycle temperature is 1400°C. The heat content of
exhausted gases from turbine can be increased by using a
burner inside the heat recovery boiler. The necessary air for
additional fuel combustion is taken from the exhaust gases
passing through the boiler.
The gas turbine cogeneration systems can use a variety of
fuels: natural gas, gas oil, Diesel oil, biogas, landfill gas and
syngas. The life cycle of systems depends on fuel quality and
varies between 15 and 20 years.

37
Cogeneration system with closed-cycle gas turbine
Heat source

Electricity

Air Generator
compressor Gas turbine

Heat exchanger Hot fluid to

process
Fluid from
process

38
The electric efficiency of gas turbine systems

A reduces number of gas turbine cogeneration systems are running on

closed Brayton cycle. The source heat (nuclear energy, solar energy,
heat from a solid waste combustor) is used to heat the working fluid
(helium, air) which circulates in a closed circuit. The heat contained in
working fluid after expansion in turbine is released to a process fluid.
The electric efficiency of gas turbine systems is in the range of (25-
35)% for small and medium systems and in the range of (40-42)% for
larger systems. This lower electric efficiency is due to the power
consumption of air compressor, which is about 50% of generated power
by turbine. To reduce the power consumption of air compressor, the
following techniques are used: precooling of the compressor inlet air;
cooling of air at intermediate stage of compression and regenerative air
preheating before the combustion chamber inlet.
The overall efficiency of gas turbine cogeneration systems is about
(60-80)% and the power to heat ratio is in the range 0.5-0.8.

39
Reciprocating engine cogeneration systems
For cogeneration applications in institutional, commercial
and residential sectors are preferred the reciprocating
engine based cogeneration systems.
The engines drive an electrical generator and heat
contained in the exhaust gases and cooling systems, which
represent (60–70)% of the inlet fuel energy, is recovered to
generate hot water or steam.
Most of the waste heat is available in the exhaust gases
and jacket coolant, while smaller amounts can be recovered
from the lubricating oil cooler and the turbocharger's
intercooler.
The exhaust gases can also be used for drying or other
direct heat processes.
40
The main advantages of reciprocating engine
cogeneration systems

•low capital cost;

•fast start-ups;
•good operating reliability;
•high efficiency at partial load operation.
•The main disadvantages are:
•high vibrations and high acoustic noise;
•high maintenance costs;
•high pollutant emissions (especially NOx);
•the waste heat is available at different temperature levels
making difficult full utilisation of heat.

41
 Otto cycle and Diesel cycle

The reciprocating engine cogeneration systems may be

classified by the engine cycle in Otto cycle and Diesel cycle.
The Diesel engines are classified as high speed, medium
speed and low speed engines.
The Otto engines can use beside the gasoline many
gaseous fuels such as propane, biogas, and landfill gas.
When they use gaseous fuel they are called “gas engines”.
The Diesel engines can operate on Diesel oil, petrol, bio-oils,
natural gas, biogas, landfill gas, syngas, alcohols and
residual fuel oil.

42
 Classification on the size of the engine

Another classification may be made on the size of the

engine as follows

•small units with gas engine (15-1000kW) or Diesel engine

(75-1000kW);
•medium power systems (1-6MW) with gas engine or
Diesel engine;
•high power systems (> 6MW) with Diesel engine.

43
Cooling system and temperature of exhaust gases

The water passing through the cooling system is heated up

to (75-80)°C before entering the heat recovery boiler. When
there is no heat demand the cooling water is guided to the
auxiliary cooler. Medium power systems generate saturated
steam with (180-200)°C while high power systems generate
superheated steam at pressure of (15-20) bar and
temperature of (250-350)°C by using an auxiliary boiler. The
minimum temperature of exhaust gases at boiler outlet
depends on the fuel type. For fuels containing sulphur the
minimum temperature is (90-100)°C and for fuels with no
sulphur content is (160-170)°C.

44
 Closed-loop cooling

Closed-loop cooling is the most common method of heat recovery from

reciprocating engines. In these systems, the engine is cooled by forced
circulation of a cooling agent through the coolers and when there is no
heat demand through an auxiliary cooler (cooling tower or radiator).

Another cooling method of reciprocating engines is ebullient cooling.

This method consists of a natural circulation of a boiling coolant through
the engine. The cooling water at its boiling point is placed to the bottom
of the engine where it is heated and starts to boil generating bubbles.
The bubbles generation leads to a lower coolant density, causing natural
circulation to the top of engine. As the heat transfer from the engine to
the coolant occurs at constant temperature, the engine thermal stress is
lower. The mixture of liquid and vapour after exiting the engine is
introduced in a steam separator for steam separation. The saturated
steam is used in thermal process.

45
 Cogeneration system with reciprocating engine
Exhaust
gases
Hot water
H or steam Heat
o
E
t
l
recovery
e
w
c
Fuel Auxiliary boiler
a
t
t
r
e
boiler
i
r
c
i
Reciprocating
o
t
r
engine
y
, Generator
s
t
e (75-80)°C
a Condensate
m
from process
,
Oil Water Air
cooler cooler cooler
Auxiliary Cooling
cooler water or air

46
Overall efficiency of reciprocating cogeneration
systems
The overall efficiency of reciprocating cogeneration systems is about
(70-85)% and the power to heat ratio is in the range of 0.8-2.4.

The electric efficiency is in the range of (35-45)% for small and medium
size engines and about 50% for large engines.

The system performances are not so dependent on ambient conditions

or load.

47
 Stirling engine cogeneration systems
The Stirling engines are not so well developed, but they
present high interest due to their advantages: high
efficiency, good performance at partial load, low temperature
operation, low pollutant emission level and low vibration and
noise level due to the continuous combustion process.

The Stirling engines can use a large variety of fuels and

different energy sources (combustion gases, solar and
nuclear energy). The fuels can be changed during operation
without stopping the engine.

48
Main disadvantages of the Stirling engines
•high capital cost;
•long start-ups;
•short lifetime of certain parts (shaft seal, piston rings, bearings
leakage).

Unlike the reciprocating engines, at the Stirling engines the fuel

combustion occurs outside the engine and the heat is transferred to a
working fluid (usually helium or air) through a heater.

There are three configurations of Stirling engines: Alpha, Beta and

Gamma (figure next slide). Alpha configuration consists of two pistons in
separate cylinders, which are connected in series by a heater,
regenerator and cooler. Beta configuration uses the displacer-piston
arrangement inside the same cylinder connected to a heater,
regenerator and cooler, and Gamma configuration uses the displacer-
piston arrangement placed in separate cylinders connected to a heater,
regenerator and cooler.
49
Stirling engine configurations

50
The ideal Stirling cycle consists of the following
processes
• isothermal compression (1-2), during which the heat is
removed from the engine at the cold sink temperature;
• constant volume heat addition (2-3), in which both pistons
move simultaneously (compression piston towards regenerator
and expansion piston away from regenerator), so that the volume
between pistons remains constant and working fluid is transferred
from compression volume to expansion volume through porous
media regenerator;
• isothermal expansion (3-4) during which heat is added to
the engine at the hot source temperature (heater);
• constant volume heat rejection (4-1), in which both pistons
move simultaneously to transfer working fluid from expansion
space to compression space through regenerator at constant
volume
51
Stirling cycle

52
Stirling cycle

53
Stirling cycle

54
The ideal Stirling cycle consists of the following
processes

The cylinder volume connected to heater is expansion volume

and connected to cooler is compression volume. The regenerator
between the heater and cooler absorbs and releases heat
alternatively. The temperature difference between cylinder
volumes (Tmax-Tmin) is maintained.

55
Conceptual diagram of a cogeneration system with
Stirling engine

The Stirling engine drives an electrical generator and the

waste heat from the heat source is used to heat up the
water. To obtain a high electrical efficiency of cogeneration
system, the temperature of heating source should be as high
as possible. This is achieved by combustion air preheating
using the heat contained combustion gases leaving the
heater. The combustion air temperature usually increases up
to (500-600)°C.

56
 Conceptual diagram of a Stirling system
Exhaust
gases 6
c Economizer
Flo Temperat
w ure [°C]
Air 5
1 20
2 1
preheater Air 2 600
Heater
4 Fan 3 1300
Combustion
3 4 800
chamber b
Fuel 5 270
a Water from 6 130
t
E Electric process a 60
Pump
lw generator Stirling engine b 75
e Cooler
a c 90
ct
te
r
i 57
c
 System thermal efficiency
To increase the system thermal efficiency, the engine cooling
water (heat sink) is used to recover the waste heat in an
economizer (heat exchanger). Stirling engines are usually
installed horizontally downstream the combustion chamber. The
air preheater and economizer are placed above the combustion
chamber to obtain a more compact structure.

The Stirling engines have initially developed as car engines with

power in the range of 3kW to 100 kW. Now the engines are built
for cogeneration systems with the power up to 1.5MW especially
for micro-cogeneration systems. The electric efficiency is up to
50%, the overall efficiency lies within the range of (65-85)% and
the power to heat ratio is 1.2-1.7.

58
 Fuel cell cogeneration systems
Fuel cells may generate power in the range of 0.1kW to 50MW. A fuel
cell is an electrochemical cell which can continuously convert the
chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidant to electrical energy by a
process involving an essentially invariant electrode-electrolyte system.
The structure of a simplified fuel cell consists of an electrolyte layer in
contact with two gas permeable electrodes coated with a catalyst is
shown on next slide. The electrodes are connected to a device that
completes an electric circuit. The hydrogen fuel is fed continuously to
one electrode and the oxidant (oxygen from air) is fed continuously to
the opposite electrode. The hydrogen fuel is oxidised into hydrogen
protons loosing its electrons to the electrode, which becomes in this way
anode. The electrolyte membrane permits only the positive ions to flow
from anode to cathode. Therefore, the electrons move to the cathode
through the external electrical circuit and electrical current begins to
flow. The electrons react with oxidant and hydrogen protons at the
cathode forming water and producing heat.

59
 Fuel cell working diagram
Load
2e-

Fuel Oxidant

H2 Positive ½ O2
ion
H2O Electron H2O

Depleted Electrolyt Depleted

t oxidant and
E oxidant and e
product gases, product gases,
lw
(90-1000)°C Anode Cathode (90-1000)°C
e
a
ct
te
r
60
i
c
The chemical reactions involved at electrodes

61
 Efficiency of a fuel cell
The efficiency of a fuel cell as the ratio of electrical energy produced
and the chemical energy of the fuel is about (35-55)%. The working
temperature is in the range of ambient temperature to 1000°C. By using
the generated heat, the overall efficiency of a fuel cell reaches up to
(75-90)%, the highest efficiency amongst all conversion systems.

The main advantages of fuel cells are: high efficiency; size flexibility
(single cells can be stacked to provide the appropriate voltage for any
application); high reliability due to the lack of moving parts; low pollutant
missions.

The main disadvantages of fuel cells are: high cost; large size and
weight relative to generated power; large start-up time; fuel availability;
some fuel cells require expensive catalysts; some fuel cells are
susceptible to poisoning; some fuel cells suffer from corrosion and
breakdown.
62
 Fuel cell cogeneration system

Exhaust
Air gases

E Cathod off
H
l gas
o
e Fuel Anod off gas Fuel cell stack DC power Inverter
Reformer
tc gas DC/AC
Hydrogen
t rich gas
w
r Water
a
i
tc
Feed water Water tank
e
it
rE
t
ylw Heat
t,e
a exchanger
o
ct
te
p
r
ri 63
o
c
 Other subsystems and component

As the fuel cell voltage is too low (about 1.2V) it is necessary

to stack many cells to increase the power output.

Besides the stack, a fuel cell system includes other

subsystems and component such as :

•fuel preparation unit. When other fuels than pure fuels

(hydrogen) are used, fuel preparation (impurities removal,
thermal conditioning) or fuel reforming is required;
•air compressor or blower for air supply;
•temperature control system;
•water management system;
•electric power conditioning system.
64
 Classification of fuel cells

The fuel cells are classified according to the type of

electrolyte and fuel as follows:
- proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC):
o direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC);
o direct Ethanol Fuel Cell (DEFC).
- alkaline fuel cell (AFC):
o proton ceramic fuel cell (PCFC);
o direct borohydride fuel cell (DBFC).
- phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC);
- molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC);
- solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC);
- direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC).

65
 Combined cycle cogeneration systems

Some thermodynamic cycles work between high temperature levels

and others work between moderate temperature levels. In order to
obtain a higher efficiency, a high-temperature topping cycle is combined
with a medium- or low-temperature bottoming cycle. The rejected heat
from the topping cycle is recovered in the bottoming cycle to produce
mechanical/electrical energy. The most common combined cycle
systems are the combined Brayton – Rankine cycle based systems. The
gas turbine plant operates between 300K and 1700K and rejects heat at
800K. The steam turbine plant in its turn operates between 300K and
750K and rejects heat at 300K. By combining the cycles, a large part of
rejected heat in topping cycle is used in the bottoming cycle. The
disadvantage of gas topping cycle consisting in high exhaust
temperature becomes advantage for the steam bottoming cycle. We can
notice in the T-s diagram that the combined cycle covers a larger area,
resulting in a higher efficiency.
66
 Brayton - Rankine combined cycle cogeneration
system
Exhaust gases
E Heat
E l recovery
V Pump
H
l e steam Condensate
o
e c generator 2 1 from Electricity
Supplementar
tcEy burner process
Fuel
Fuel trl 3
rie
w
IV Electricity
a
ic c
II
tcit
Combustor III Backpressu Generator
4
ittr
e Gas re steam
rtE yi
turbine turbine Steam to process
Air ylw ,
c Generator
I compressor t,e
a i
o
ct
Air
te y
p
rr,
ri 67
o
ct
 The overall efficiency of the Brayton - Rankine
combined cycle cogeneration system
W GT  W ST  Q ST
comb 
H f ,GT  H f , ST
E
H where: W GT , W ST
l
o
e are the electrical power generate by gas turbine and steam turbine, respectively;
tc
Q ST is the heat flow generated by steam system;
t
w
r
a
i H f ,GT , H f , ST
tc
e
it are the heat flow produced by fuel combustion in gas turbine and heat recovery
rE
t steam generator respectively.
ylw
t,e
a
o
ct
te
p
r
ri 68
o
c
T-s diagram of combined cycle (Brayton cycle with
Rankine cycle)
1700K
T III

E
H
l
o
e 800K
tc IV
t Qrec 3
w
r 750K
a
i
tc 650K Qrec
e
it II V
rE
t
2
ylw
t,e
a I Qexh
o 300K 1 300K 4
ct
te
p s
r
ri 69
o
c
 Combined cycle cogeneration systems

In order to find what the cycles are suitable for combination

they should be ranked according to their operating temperature
range. The Rankine and Stirling cycles are suitable both for
topping and bottoming cycle. The Brayton, Otto and Diesel
cycles and also the high temperature fuel cells can be better
used as topping cycles. The Kalina cycle (a modified Rankine
cycle operating with ammonia-water mixture), organic Rankine
cycles and low temperature fuel cells can be used only as
bottoming cycles.

70
 Thermodynamic cycles arranged according to their
temperature range of operation
T
(°C)
2000
E
H
l
o
e
tc 1500
t
w
r Otto/
a Diesel High
i Brayton temperatu
tc 1000 cycle cycle
e (reciproc re fuel
it (gas cells
rE ating Stirli
t turbine) Rankine
ylw engines) ng cycle
t,e 500 Brayton cycl
a cycle
o
ct e Kalina Organic Low temper
(air cycle fuel cells
te Rankine
p bottoming) cycle
r 0
ri 71
o
c
 Distributed energy resources
In the last decades a novel technical concept in energy supply emerged,
the distributed/decentralized energy resources (DER). DER is defined as
an electricity-generation system located in or near user facilities, which
provides electrical and thermal energy simultaneously to meet local users
in top-priority. They can be divided into two major sections. The first section
includes high-efficiency cogeneration or combined cooling and heating
(CCHP) systems in industry and buildings, using prime mover technologies
as reciprocating engines, gas turbines, micro-turbines, steam turbines,
Stirling engines and fuel cells. The second major area of DER is on-site
renewable energy systems with energy recycling technologies, including
photovoltaic and biomass systems, on-site wind and water turbine
generators, plus systems powered by gas pressure reduction, exhaust heat
from industrial processes, and other low energy content combustibles from
various processes. The combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP)
systems are derived from the cogeneration (combined heating and power-
CHP) systems.

72
High-efficiency cogeneration or combined cooling
and heating
In a CCHP system the thermal or electrical/mechanical energy is further
utilized to provide space or process cooling. The CCHP systems are known
also as trigeneration systems and as building cooling heating and power
(BCHP) systems. One can say that a cogeneration system is a CCHP
system without any thermally activated equipment for generating cooling
power. Thermally activated equipment is the equipment that uses waste
heat instead of electricity to provide air conditioning and/or dehumidification
loads such as absorption chiller, adsorption chiller and desiccant
dehumidifiers.
The CCHP systems are classified into two categories:
- traditional large-scale CCHP systems;
- relatively small capacity distributed CCHP units with advanced
prime mover and thermally activated equipment to meet multiple energy
demands in commercial, institutional, residential and small industrial
sectors.
73
High-efficiency cogeneration or combined cooling
and heating systems
In a CCHP system the thermal or electrical/mechanical energy is further
utilized to provide space or process cooling. The CCHP systems are known
also as trigeneration systems and as building cooling heating and power
(BCHP) systems. One can say that a cogeneration system is a CCHP
system without any thermally activated equipment for generating cooling
power. Thermally activated equipment is the equipment that uses waste
heat instead of electricity to provide air conditioning and/or dehumidification
loads such as absorption chiller, adsorption chiller and desiccant
dehumidifiers.
The CCHP systems are classified into two categories:
- traditional large-scale CCHP systems;
- relatively small capacity distributed CCHP units with advanced
prime mover and thermally activated equipment to meet multiple energy
demands in commercial, institutional, residential and small industrial
sectors.
74
Distributed cogeneration or combined cooling and
heating systems
The distributed CCHP systems are classified in accordance with their
capacity as follows:
- micro systems (capacity under 20 kW);
- mini systems (capacity under 500kW);
- small scale systems (capacity under 1MW);
- medium scale systems (capacity from 1 to 10MW);
- large-scale systems (capacity above 10MW).

A typical CCHP system comprises the prime mover, electricity generator,

heat recovery system and thermally activated equipment. The waste heat
from the engine is used to heat up the domestic water, to generate heating
power during the winter and to drive the adsorption chiller (for cooling
power) during the summer.

75
The main advantages of distributed cogeneration
or combined cooling and heating systems

The main advantages of distributed CCHP systems are: high fuel

energy utilization; low emission; increased reliability of the energy
supply network.
The prime mover selected to meet diverse demands and limitations
can be steam turbines, reciprocating internal combustion engines,
combustion turbines, microturbines, Stirling engines and fuel cells.
The thermally activated systems include absorption chillers,
adsorption chillers and desiccant dehumidifiers.
The diagram below is useful in choosing the cogeneration system
for a given application (electrical power demand).

76
Schematic diagram of a micro combined cooling,
heating and power system
Electricity
Natural gas Gas engine
cogeneration
Domestic
unit
hot water

Heat
Adsorptio

storage tank
Heat exchanger exchanger

Hot water
n chiller

Coolin
Coolin g
g Supply tower
tower water

storage tank
Cold water
Colector pipe Colector pipe

77
Space heating/cooling
Distribution of main cogeneration systems

78
 References

1.Home page of Directorate-General for Energy http://ec.europa.eu/energy

2.EDUCOGEN, The European Educational Tool on Cogeneration Second Edition, December 2001.
3.A. Thumann, Plant engineers and managers guide to energy conservation, The Fairmont Press, 2002.
4.Cogeneration. Best practice manual, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency, 2006
(http://www.energymanagertraining.com).
5.C. Beggs, Energy: Management, Supply and Conservation, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.
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Rankine cycles – A review of various applications, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979
7.I. Vaja, A. Gambarotta, Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) bottoming with Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs), Volume 35,
Issue 2, February 2010, pp. 1084–1093.
8.United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Catalog of CHP Technologies. http://www.epa.gov/chp/
9.B. Kongtragool, S. Wongwises, A review of solar-powered Stirling engines and low temperature differential Stirling
engines, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 7, Issue 2, April 2003, pp. 131–154.
10.D.G. Thombare, S.K. Verma, Technological development in the Stirling cycle engines, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, Volume 12, Issue 1, 2008, pp. 1–38.
11.EG & G Services Parsons, Inc., Science Applications International Corporation, Fuel Cell Handbook, Fifth Edition,
National Energy Technology Laboratory, October 2000.
12.A. Kirubakaran, Shailendra Jain, R.K. Nema, A review on fuel cell technologies and power electronic interface,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13 (2009), pp. 2430–2440
13.L. Carrette, K.A. Friedrich, U. Stimming, Fuel cells: principles, types, fuels, and applications, CHEMPHYSCHEM 2000,
1, pp. 162-193.
14.M.A. Korobitsyn, New and advanced energy conversion technologies. Analysis of cogeneration, combined and
integrated cycles, Febodruk BV, Enschede, 1998.
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(2006), pp. 459–495.

79
Questions?

80
Thank you!

81