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Polypropylene Handbook
Nello Pasquini
ISBN 3-446-22978-7

Vorwort

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http://www.hanser.de/3-446-22978-7 sowie im Buchhandel

http://www.hanser.de/deckblatt/deckblatt1.asp?isbn=3-446-22978-7&style=Vorwort

06.07.2005


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Produktinformation

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Polypropylene Handbook
Nello Pasquini
ISBN 3-446-22978-7

Leseprobe

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http://www.hanser.de/3-446-22978-7 sowie im Buchhandel

http://www.hanser.de/deckblatt/deckblatt1.asp?isbn=3-446-22978-7&style=Leseprobe

06.07.2005

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Produktinformation

Seite 1 von 1

Polypropylene Handbook
Nello Pasquini
ISBN 3-446-22978-7

Leseprobe

Weitere Informationen oder Bestellungen unter

http://www.hanser.de/3-446-22978-7 sowie im Buchhandel

http://www.hanser.de/deckblatt/deckblatt1.asp?isbn=3-446-22978-7&style=Leseprobe

06.07.2005

Fabrication Processes

A. ADDEO, EDWARD P. MOORE, JR.

7.1

Introduction

Polypropylene (PP) is transformed into useful products by a wide variety of processes, which
has been, together with a suitable cost/performance balance, a major factor in its commercial
success. Figure 7.1 shows the breakdown of global sales among the major processes. The ease
of molding and the attractive strength, stiffness, and high use temperatures of articles molded
of PP have made injection molding the largest consumer of PP among the processes used.
A unique aspect of the PP processes, compared to the other major plastics, is the use of
orientation to develop enhanced properties, principally in fibers and films, constituting nearly
one-half of the consumption. None of the other major plastic materials uses orientation to
any appreciable extent, except PET, which is considered a major plastic, where orientation is
used in fibers, biaxially oriented films, and soda bottles, and nylon, which is oriented into
fibers. Lesser but significant quantities of PP are used in unoriented film, sheet, and blow
molding.
5%

7%
20%

10%
7%

4%

19%

21%
7%

Homo IM
Sheet

Fibre
BOPP

Copo IM
Other

IPP Film
Nonwoven

Raffia

Figure 7.1 Breakdown of PP demand by end-use in 2003

(Source: Jacobs consultancy Phillip Townsend Associates Inc.)

382

7 Fabrication Processes

7.1.1

[References on Page 448]

Introduction to Extrusion Processes

Extrusion-based processes may consist of the following steps:

Extrusion,
Forming of the extrudate within and outside of a die,
Quenching the extrudate and crystallizing it,
Reheating the extrudate for forming, or
Orienting the crystallized extrudate.
Not all of these operations occur in every extrusion-based PP process, but they are basic to
the processing of PP. Table 7.1 shows the variety of products made using these process steps.
All employ extrusion and quenching, and some use one or more of the downstream processes
in forming the end-use product.
Table 7.1

Extrusion Processes and Products

Shape of die
opening

Extruded product

Oriented product

Slot

Sheet
Cast film
Melt formed
Extrusion coated

SPPF* items
ThermoSlit tape
formed items
Biaxially oriented film (tentered)
Decorative ribbon

Annular

Pipe
Water quenched blown film
Air quenched blown film
Foamed sheet
Wire and cable insulation

Biaxially oriented film (bubble)

Twine

Individual
openings

Special profiles
*

Melt formed
product

Blow molded
items

Strapping
Slit tape
Continuous multifilaments
Staple multifilaments
Spun-bonded nonwovens
Melt blown nonwovens
Corrugated board Profiles

Solid phase pressure forming

7.1.1.1

Extrusion

The purpose of extrusion is to deliver a molten polymer, uniform in temperature, molecular

weight (MW), and output rate, and free of contaminants or faults such as bubbles or unmelted
polymer, to the forming die. A whole separate science has been built around the process of
accomplishing these easily stated aims. Over the years, many papers and books have been
published on extrusion or, in general on plastic processing science, but only some of them,

7.1 Introduction

383

although dated, still remain fundamental for the study of the relevant theory [1, 2, 3, 4].
Rather than attempt to present that science, we will mention some of the more important
points that govern the selection, design, and operation of processing equipment and the
consequences to the end-products.
When the physical volumes of the PP products are considered, along with the fineness of
some of the extrudates, such as fibers, the requirements on cleanliness and uniformity of
viscosity in the extruded melt (whether from temperature or MW variations) are extremely
demanding. Yet, they are met on a regular basis. The processor must know the limitations of
his equipment with regard to the above needs, as well as chose the appropriate polymer grade,
to achieve the desired goals. The supplier, in turn, must recognize the sensitivity of the
processors operation to each of the polymer variables under his control. With any given system,
the capabilities of the equipment can be exceeded, leading to quality fluctuations. It is the task
of the processor, with the assistance of the polymer supplier, to reach the best balance of
polymer, equipment, operating conditions, and end-use properties for the intended application.
Because of the large volume, critical PP processing operations usually require close co-operation
between supplier and processor to achieve the best balance of these factors. Of course, cost is
always part of the equation, as well.
To aid in producing the most uniform output rate and melt quality, metering pumps are often
used in extruding PP, and melt filters are almost universally employed. Although continuous
filters are often used, most filters are batch-operated, and a shutdown is needed to replace or
renew them. This results in gradually changing conditions as the filter plugs and the back
pressure increases. While this can be mitigated to some degree by using larger filters, the size
can quickly become cumbersome. In spite of attempts to improve the filter designs and
operation, filtration remains a problematic but essential step for reliable extrusion operations.
The designs of extrusion dies are highly varied; they are often custom designed for the particular
process or customer. Fortunately, PP is far less prone to disastrous thermal breakdown in the
die than, for example, PVC, where minor hang-up points can lead to major degradation of
the polymer, with the release of toxic and corrosive gases. In such a situation, PP merely
degrades to a somewhat lower MW, and proceeds on through the die. Consequently, the design
of dies for extrusion of PP is simpler than for the more sensitive polymers.
In general, for thin extrudates, high melt flow rates are used to reduce the pressure drop
through the die. This normally results in some compromise in toughness properties, which is
less of a problem in oriented items. Where the melt must retain its shape for some time before
crystallization occurs, or where high toughness is crucial, low melt flow rates are used.
Enhancement of the melt shape retention can be provided with a special type known as high
melt strength PP [5].
For thin extrudates, a large drawdown from the die is usually employed to allow a larger die
opening and lower pressure drop through the die, and, in the case of slot and annular dies,
more practical die opening adjustments for controlling thickness distribution across the
extrudate. The smallest die openings are used for thin films, extrusion coating, and fibers,
where 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm (10 mil to 20 mil) are typical openings, although the final extrudate
is often a small fraction of that.
If the drawdown ratio is high, it is possible to encounter a phenomenon known as drawdown
surge. This is a rheological response to the drawing stress that can give a large periodic variation

384

7 Fabrication Processes

[References on Page 448]

in the thickness of the drawn item. It is most commonly found in fiber processing but may
also occur in thin film or extrusion coating operations. It is alleviated by lowering melt viscosity,
reducing the draw stress, or more rapid cooling during the draw, which solidifies the drawn
item more quickly, thus stabilizing it. Depending on the particular process, changes in the
rheology of the polymer may also help.

7.1.1.2

Quenching

The cooling, or quenching, of the PP extrudate is easily separated into two categories: slow
and rapid. With thick extrudates, thicker than approx. 2 mm (80 mil), no amount of rapid
outside cooling can speed up the removal of heat held inside the PP section. So at least the
center of the extrudate will be slowly cooled, with the high crystallinity and large spherulites
associated with high crystallization temperatures. In water-cooled thick sections, such as
profiles, it is also necessary to provide enough heat transfer on the water side, through agitation
or flow, to prevent the stagnation of the water movement and the occasional evaporation of
the water, causing bubbles and visual faults on the surface of the extrudate.
In thin sections, thinner than approx. 0.3 mm (12 mil), the heat transfer from the inside of
the molten extrudate is rapid enough that the external cooling rates control the PP form
obtained. When the cooling rate exceeds 80 C/s, lower crystallinities and the clearer, tougher
mesomorphic (smectic) form is obtained. This usually means making sure that the cooling
device, such as a chill roll, intimately contacts the melt. In the case of chill roll cast film, an air
knife is usually used to insure that the melted web is in contact with the metal roll, not floating
on an insulating layer of air between the film and roll. Layers of air as thin as 25 m (1 mil)
can significantly reduce the cooling rate. The most rapid cooling results, of course, from the
coldest cooling device. However, practical considerations usually limit the coldness of the
quench device; in the case of a chill roll, the condensation of moisture from the atmosphere
on the exposed section of the roll would lead to difficulties in obtaining uniform cooling of
the thin film.
When air is used for cooling, as with a bundle of fibers, the uniform flow of the air over the
molten strands is usually the factor limiting the rate and the uniformity of the cooling.
Therefore, considerable attention is given to the design of air distribution systems. Air-cooling
is not rapid enough to achieve the smectic form of PP in conventional grades. Therefore, PP
is not conventionally used in air-cooled films, while this has been a major outlet for PE. However,
with the development of more rubbery, less crystalline forms of PP, known as high alloy
copolymers, air-cooled films have become a reality with PP. Further details appear in
Section 7.2.3.3.

7.1.1.3

Reheating

When reheating PP, such as in a thermoforming operation, a new set of questions arises.
While in theory the most rapid heating comes from the highest temperature source, such as
radiating red-hot heating elements, the uniformity of heat becomes a problem with PP. Because
PP does not absorb infrared rays well, variations in the temperature reached can be quite
high, depending on minor differences in thickness, crystallinity, composition, or proximity to

7.1 Introduction

385

the heaters. In addition, the sharp melting point of PP usually means that the behavior of the
partially melted form changes rapidly as the temperature rises, requiring a quite precise
temperature to process well in the next process step. It is for this reason that, for processes
such as thermoforming and foaming, PP has been regarded to have a narrow processing
window. That view has been revised with the development of high melt strength PP.
Heating with hot air provides more precise temperature control, but larger installations and
accordingly higher investments are needed. This approach is taken with the tenter frames (see
Section 7.2.2.2) used for making biaxially oriented films.
In large volume operations, some advantage can be realized by conducting the downstream
operation in-line with the extrusion. In that instance, the quenching operation need only
remove enough heat to establish the dimensional stability of the extrudate, and reheating
may begin while considerable heat remains. While this reduces the amount of reheating needed,
the condition of the form entering the final operation now depends on the consistent operation
of all three upstream steps: the extrusion, the quench, and the reheat. Therefore, this approach
is attractive only for large volume products.
The crystalline nature of PP requires more heat to melt it, more cooling to quench it, and
again more heat for reheating operations, than required for amorphous polymers. In this
respect, comparisons with, for example, polystyrene are often disappointing, as some 40%
more heat must be transferred to achieve similar processing rates, resulting in slower
throughput or greater investment in heating and cooling equipment.

7.1.1.4

Coextrusion

Often, special properties can only be achieved by a significantly different polymer in a

coextruded structure. In PP, the properties typically achieved by coextrusion are improved
oxygen barrier, typically using an ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) polymer or a wider heat seal
temperature range, although embedding colored or reclaimed polymer have also employed
coextrusion. Coextrusion has been applied to sheet, blow molding, and biaxially oriented
film.
The achievement of uniform distribution of a polymer such as EVOH, differing sharply from
PP in composition, preferred process conditions, and rheology, is a major technological
challenge. Whether a slot or annular die is used, special designs are needed to distribute the
included non-PP layer uniformly across the sheet or around the tube. Multichannel dies, fed
by separate extruders for each polymer, offer the most reliable, but also the most expensive,
approach. When the polymers involved are reasonably well matched rheologically, a feedblock
approach can be a less expensive alternative [6]. In this design, layers of polymer are joined at
a relatively large cross section and are designed to distribute uniformly as the melt flows into
a relatively wide, thin extrudate. In non-critical situations, this approach can provide satisfactory
distribution, but maintenance of the distribution also requires careful control of process
variables.
Even with multichannel dies, other problems arise. Adhesion between polymer layers can be
a problem; therefore special polymers are introduced to provide adhesion between the
dissimilar polymers. Consequently, the original three-layer structure, PP/barrier/PP, becomes
five layers: PP/adhesive/barrier/adhesive/PP.