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;HﾉW"ﾗa"1ﾗﾐ Wﾐ "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ｷ"

]ｷ "ﾗa" ;HﾉW "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ｷｷｷ"

]ｷ "ﾗa"Eｷｪ W "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ｷ "

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく" ｷ"

About the Author"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく" ｷｷ"

CHAPTER ONE"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱ"

THE TANZANIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱ"

CHAPTER TWO"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴ"

THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴ"

1K#v ;y" Ky;;"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヴヶ"

;cj Njd#]"Nd ;]]NF;d1;"Nd"#"1j]];FN#]"cj7;]"jE"];#7;y}KNv"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヴヶ"

1K#v ;y"Ej⁄y"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"Αン"

}1Kjj]"K;#7}げ";EE;1 N ;d;}}"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"Αン"

1K#v ;y"EN ;"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ΓΓ"

yj];"jE"cN77];"];#7;y}"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ΓΓ"

1K#v ;y"}N„"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヲヴ"

} y# ;FN1"v]#ddNdF"#d7"} y# ;FN1"Nd ;d "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヲヴ"

1K#v ;y"}; ;d"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴΓ"

K;"}1Kjj]"1⁄] ⁄y;"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴΓ"

1K#v ;y";NFK "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱΑヴ"

1K#]];dF;}";„v;yN;d1;7"Nd"];#7NdF"1K#dF;くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱΑヴ"

1K#v ;y"dNd;"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱΓヴ"

K;"yj];"jE"}1Kjj]"K;#7}"Nd"x⁄#]N ";7⁄1# Njd"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱΓヴ"

1K#v ;y" ;d"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヱΒ"

vyjE;}}Njd#]"vy;v#y# Njd"#d7"}⁄vvjy "jE"}1Kjj]"K;#7}"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヱΒ"

ｷ"

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CHAPTER ELEVEN"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヴΑ"

PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AS EDUCATIONAL

LEADERS"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヴΑ"

1K#v ;y" ;] ;"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヶヴ"

K;"1jd1;v "jE";7⁄1# Njd#]"];#7;y}KNv"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヶヴ"

yWaW WﾐIW "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲΑヱ"

}⁄0Y;1 "Nd7;„"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲΒΒ"

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;HﾉW"ンぎ"} ; WｪｷI" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ";ﾐS"j W ; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヲΓ"
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;HﾉW"ヵぎ";ﾉWﾏWﾐ "ｷﾐaﾉ WﾐIｷﾐｪ"ﾗ ｪ;ﾐｷ ; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ"I ﾉ W"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヵヱ"
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Eｷｪ W"ヲぎ"]W;SW ｴｷ が"ﾏ;ﾐ;ｪWﾏWﾐ ";ﾐS";Sﾏｷﾐｷ ; ｷﾗﾐ"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヵ"
Eｷｪ W"ンぎ"[W " ; ｷ;HﾉW "ｷﾐ"WS I; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ"ﾉW;SW ｴｷ くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヶ"
Eｷｪ W"ヴぎ";ﾏﾗ ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ"ｷﾐ WﾉﾉｷｪWﾐIW"Iﾗﾏ W WﾐIｷW く"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヵヲ"
Eｷｪ W"ヵぎ Relationship between transformational leadership with EI/EQ"くくくくくくくくくく"ヶヰ"
Eｷｪ W"ヶぎ Relationship between participatory leadership and emotional
intelligence"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヶヵ"
Eｷｪ W"Αぎ Interpersonal leadership in relation to emotional intelligence"くくくくくくくくくくくく"ヶΓ"
Eｷｪ W"Βぎ Effective leadership "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"Βヰ"
Eｷｪ W"Γぎ Effective and improving schools"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"Βヱ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヰぎ Paradigm for good school leadership"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"Βヴ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヱぎ"Stages in strategic planning"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヲΒ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヲぎ" ｴW"vﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ" ﾗIW "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱンヰ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱン: A basic model of strategic management"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱンヵ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヴ: School Strategic Planning Model"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱンΑ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヵぎ Strategic Management Cycle"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱンΒ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱヶぎ Strategic Planning and Strategic Intent"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴヲ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱΑぎ Micro-planning Models"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヴΑ"
Eｷｪ W"ヱΒ: Organisational/school culture as a sub-set of societal culture."くくくくくくく"ヱヵン"
Eｷｪ W"ヱΓぎ Organisational chart for a bureaucratic organisation"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヵヶ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲヰぎ Cultural norms"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱヶヶ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲヱぎ Framework for Understanding Education Quality"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヱΓΑ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲヲぎ Proposed model linking vision and faculty performance"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヰヴ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲンぎ Contexts in which heads of schools work"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヲヱ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲヴぎ Immersion phase: areas of impact"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヲΑ"
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Eｷｪ W"ヲヵぎFramework of challenges facing beginning principals"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヲΓ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲヶぎ Mentors to a school head"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲンΑ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲΑぎ Coaching and mentoring"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲンΓ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲΒぎ Coaching skills for educational leaders"くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヴヴ"
Eｷｪ W"ヲΓぎ"FWﾐSW WS" ﾉW"ﾗa"ﾉW;SW ｴｷ "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヵヶ"
Eｷｪ W"ンヰぎ"cW ｴﾗS "ﾗa"ﾐ ｷﾐｪ"SW "ｴW;S "ｷﾐ ﾗ"ﾉW;SW ｴｷ "くくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくくく"ヲヵΑ"
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To those who gave me insight into Educational Leadership and Management.
My parents Costantine Kuluchumila and Costancia Imelda
To Professor Ann Briggs and my Tutor Mr. Kevin James
And my scholarship award (Ford Foundations International Fellowship
Program) - IFP Tanzania, who, without them obtaining a Masters degree in
Educational Leadership would have been a dream.

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About the Author
Revocatus C. Kuluchumila is an Assistant Lecturer of Educational Leadership
and Management at AMUCTA (A Constituent University College of St.
Augustine University of Tanzania). He received his B.com (Hon.) in Finance
and a Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) at the University of Dar es
Salaam. Under the sponsorship of Ford Foundation, he got his Master of
Education (Educational Leadership and Management) -MEd, from Newcastle
University (the United Kingdom). He had worked within the Department of
Economics at SHYCOM as an educator as well as a Head of Department for ten
years. Besides, he had been a Vice Principal and the Head of Department of
REM (Research Measurement and Evaluation) at SHYCOM Teachers' College.
His area of research interest is preparation and development of educational
leaders.

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CHAPTER ONE

THE TANZANIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

This chapter briefly explores the Tanzanian education system. The chapter

highlights a number of items which include:

‚ The Geographical location of Tanzania

‚ The structure of education in Tanzania

‚ Education in Tanzania: before and during colonialism, and after

independence

‚ School ownership and leadership hierarchy

The Geographical Location of Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania comprises Tanzania Mainland and

Zanzibar. It is one of the East African countries, located between Longitudes

29o and 41o East and Latitudes 1o and 12o South. Zanzibar is situated 30

kilometres east of the mainland in the Indian Ocean. Tanzania shares its borders

with Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia in the south. On the west are the

Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. The northern part is

bordered by Uganda and Kenya; it faces the Indian Ocean on the east. The

country has a total area of 945,090 square kilometres. The official capital city is

Dodoma while Dar-es-Salaam is an administrative centre. In 2006/2007 it had

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an estimated population of 38.7 million. The population growth rate is estimated

to be 2.9 percent per annum (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008:1).

The United Republic of Tanzania has the second largest lake in the world,

Lake Victoria, and the second deepest lake in the world, Lake Tanganyika.

Furthermore the country has the highest mountain in Africa, Mount

Kilimanjaro. The people of this country are Bantu (nearly 90%), with 120

tribes. Its economy is dominated by agriculture, mainly subsistence farming.

Other economic sectors include mining, industries, trade and transport and

communications. Kiswahili is the official language; it is spoken by the majority.

The second language is English. English is used as a medium of communication

in secondary schools and higher levels of education. Its currency is the

Tanzanian shilling (Mmari, 2005:3).

Tanganyika (now Tanzania mainland) was under German rule after the

Berlin Conference of 1884-1885; from 1886 to 1919. After the First World War,

it was ruled by Britain, it got its independence from Britain on 9 th December

1961 (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008: 4). Zanzibar islands were ruled by Arabs

from Oman since 1832; the Arabs, fearing their colony to taken by other

colonialists, decided to put Zanzibar under British protection in 1890. In 1963

Britain gave the Arabs minority independence with the Sultan as the leader of

the country (Othman, 2004: 1-4+0" Vjg" CtcduÓ" twng" ycu" qxgtvjtqyp" qp" 34th

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January 1964. On April, 26th 1964 the two sovereign states united to form the

United Republic of Tanzania (Kipobota and Wobick, 2008: 5).

The structure of education in Tanzania

The structure of formal education in Tanzania is 2-7-4-2-3 that is, 2 years

of pre-primary education, 7 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary

ordinary level, 2 years of secondary advanced level and a minimum of 3 years

of university education (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1995:12). The

general purpose of Tanzanian education is to transmit knowledge from one

generation to the next (Nyerere, 1973:193). The Tanzanian Education and

Training Policy draws out the following aims of education: the provision of

knowledge, skills and values to Tanzanian people for personal and national

development. The education given is also expected to enable the enhancement

of Tanzanian culture, the development of inquisitive minds and respect for

human dignity. Moreover, education provided to a Tanzanian child is to make

her or him able to cope with global technological change (Ministry of Education

and Culture, 1995:1-2).

Education before independence

Like other countries in Africa, the pre-colonial education system in

Tanzania was informal. Nyerere (1968:268) observes that children were taught

mainly through stories told by their elders. They also learned through practice

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and by experiences encountered in life. They were taught good behaviour for

the benefit of society and they were taught different skills and knowledge like

farming, hunting, fishing and treatment whenever someone is sick. Education

delivery was mainly through stories; in this way children were able to

understand the history of their tribe. Occasionally children had to attend formal

classes; this was during initiation. Through these methods the values of the

societies were transmitted from one generation to another and the demands of

the society were catered for.

Colonialists introduced a formal education system into Tanzania. The

colonial education had the aim of promoting colonial interests. The main

purpose was to get a few trained individuals, for example local clerks and junior

officials, for servicing colonial rulers. The education provided was based on the

British model of capitalism with emphasis on white collar-jobs and assumptions

of a capitalist society (Nyerere 1968: 269). This brought a major shift from a

child being trained for serving society to serving a few rulers.

Education soon after independence: 1961-1967

Tanzania inherited the colonial education system. A major task for the

new government after independence in 1961 was to establish an education

system which suited the Tanzanian context. First, racial discrimination within

education was removed. Secondly, there was an expansion of secondary schools

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and higher learning institutions in terms of provision of facilities. Thirdly the

education system was restructured to meet the demands of Tanzanian society,

for example a new history curriculum including African history, and a new civic

syllabus was introduced (Nyerere, 1968: 271).

Education for self-reliance

Education for self-reliance is the philosophy of Tanzanian education. It

was put in place in 1967 during the Arusha Declaration. The Arusha

Declaration was a national party document by TANU (Tanganyika National

Union) which was made on 5th February 1967. It was a policy on socialism and

self-reliance. According to this philosophy, the Tanzanian education system is

to encourage living and working together for the benefit of all. Moreover, the

education given to a Tanzanian child should enable him or her to be a

responsible member of the community (Nyerere, 1968:273).

The education philosophy aims at preparing young people for work in

Tanzanian communities, especially in rural areas where most Tanzanian people

are found. Furthermore the education offered should be able to create an

enquiring mind, the ability to learn from others and build the confidence of the

learner (Nyerere, 1968:274). Ever since 1967 the policy has become the

guiding compass of the Tanzanian education system. However, Wedgwood

*4229<"5:7+"qdugtxgu"vjcv"vjg"rjknquqrj{"Ðjcf"c"uvtqpi"rtq-rqqt"hqewuÑ"dgecwug"

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it required most people to acquire maximum primary education rather than

going for further education.

The status of Tanzanian Education: 1980s to date

Tanzanian government has nationalised and centralised the activities

related to education provision since 1961 through 1970s up to 1980. However,

due to economic hardships of the early 1980s the government started to soften

kvu" uvcpf0" Vjg" eqwpvt{Óu" fgxgnqrogpv" uvtcvgi{" yjkej" hqewugf" qp" itqyvj" cpf"

equity was deserted in favour of a planned development strategy which focused

on growth and efficiency. As a result the government shifted from the policies

of 1960s to those of the 1980s; policies which put all the institutions and the

various firms being controlled by the government (centralisation) under regimes

hqewukpi" qp" vjg" hktouÓ" kpfgrgpfgpeg" *fgcentralisation). At the time when the

government controlled all sectors of the economy, the direction of education

was influenced too.

More private primary schools were started in 1992 when the government

repealed Section 30 of the 1978 Education Act. The repeal of the Education Act

and the amendment which was done in 1995 gave room for more private

primary schools. It should be understood that the Tanzanian ideology of the past

considered education as a service not as a commercial activity. Hence the repeal

of Section 30 made education an enterprise driven by market forces (Mushi,

2009:187)
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 High priority put on productive sectors to enable the country to recover

from the poor performance of various sectors of the economy due the economic

slump of the 1980s led to the educational sector being marginalised. The World

Bank and IMF conditionality on aid emphasising cost-sharing led the further

marginalisation of the education sector. This led to the government putting low

priority on mass education and the goal of equality in education was put into

difficulty as well.

By the mid 1980s the public primary schools were in a state of collapse.

Schools were characterised by acute shortage of teachers, books, laboratory

equipment, and low morale for teachers and sometimes under-qualified

teachers. In short the quality of education in primary schools was extremely

poor.

In 1995, the government introduced the Education and Training Policy

(ETP), a policy that had to guide the provision of education in Tanzania. The

policy was put in place to so as to accommodate the remarkable shift from the

socialist policies of the 1960s and early 1980s. The policy aims to empower

districts, regions and communities to manage and administer education and

training. Besides, the policy aimed at expanding the provision of education and

training through a liberalisation of the provision of education and training.

Furthermore, the policy aims at promoting access and equity to education.

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Liberalisation of school management and ownership

The Education Act No. 25 of 1978 gave monopoly power to the Ministry

of Education to administer schools, which is centralisation of school

administration in Tanzania. The Education Advisory Council was created, the

post of the Commissioner of National Education was created too, and every

Local Authority was made a Local Education Authority (Chediel et al.,

2000:25). This Act also established schools boards for secondary schools.

In 1990, the government constituted a National Task Force on education,

aiming to review the existing education system; as a result of the Task Force,

the ETP was put into place where, as the intention of decentralisation of

education explained, regions, districts and communities have to be given power

to run education. Furthermore the ETP shows explicitly the following with

respect to management and administering schools (Chediel et al., 2000:41):

The management and administration of education and training institutions

are handled by boards and in case of primary schools by committees. The
ETP (1995) states clearly that all education and training institutions shall
have school or college committees. Boards and committees of education
and training shall be responsible for management development,
planning, discipline, and finance. But, the powers and responsibilities of
boards/committees are constrained by the lack of defined powers and
status, and inadequate finance and other facilities. Currently the REOs
and DEOs are managers of education and training in their respective
areas.
Ownership of secondary schools in Tanzania

The ownership of secondary schools in Tanzania is classified into

government schools and non-government schools. Government schools consist

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of two categories, namely, the traditional national schools and community built

secondary schools (ward schools). The latter are the result of the educational

decentralisation initiative. Though they are built by the local communities, on

the basis of broad two categories of secondary school ownership in Tanzania,

they are operated and managed by the government. The non-government

secondary schools are privately owned by individuals, NGOs, and the

church/religious organisations. These secondary schools are managed and

operated by their respective owners (see Mafuru, 2011: 35).

Owujk" *422;<" 3:9+" pqvgu" vjcv<" Ðcnn" rtkxcvg" ugeqpfct{" uejqqnu" vjcv" ygtg"

allowed to operate prior 1992 were owned by religious organisations or other

institutions, such as district trust funds. The repeal of Section 30 of the 1978

Education Act led education being seen as an enterprise... people to invest in

uejqqnu"cu"vjg{"yqwnf"kpxguv"kp"cp{"qvjgt"eqoogtekcn"cevkxkv{Ñ0

Leadership hierarchy

Leadership hierarchy in secondary schools comprises the following leaders:

‚ At the top is the School Board. It is the highest organ of a given

secondary school as per Education Act No. 25 of 1978. According to

Ejgfkgn" *4222<75+" Ðvjg" Uejqqn" Dqctf000jcu" cfxkuqt{" rqygtu" qp" vjg" fc{-

to-day running of the schools, the discipline of the students and teachers,

as well as on vjg"fgxgnqrogpv"cpf"ygnhctg"qh"vjg"uejqqnÑ0

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 ‚ The second to the School Board is the head of school. S/he is the

representative of the MOEVT at school level. And s/he an instructional

leader as well as a link between the school and the community. Besides,

s/he is an accounting officer at school level.

‚ The deputy head. S/he assists the school head in leading and managing

the school.

‚ The senior academic mistress/master. S/he is a person responsible for all

matters related to academics. Individuals working under the senior

academic master/mistress include: a career master/ mistress, heads of

various departments, subject masters/mistresses, and class masters/class

mistresses.

‚ Discipline master/mistress. The discipline master/mistress deals with all

matters concerpkpi"uvwfgpvuÓ"fkuekrnkpg0"Xctkqwu"rgtuqpu"yqtm"wpfgt"vjg"

discipline master/mistress. These include: dormitory masters/mistresses,

physical education (PE) master/mistress, and production master/mistress

and duty master(s)/mistress(s).

In addition to various persons in the school leadership hierarchy, a school

head has a number of bodies which advise him or her in the task of leading the

school, these are: academic staff meeting - only teaching staff attend; the school

council - this is made up of some members from teaching and non-teaching staff
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administration and quality eqpvtqn000" kp" vjgkt" ctgcu" qh" lwtkufkevkqpÑ" *OQGE."

1995:30).

One more important organ in the Tanzanian education system is the

School Inspectorate. The 1995 Education and Training Policy acknowledge

the role of the School Inspectorate organ:

School inspection is vital as a means of monitoring the delivery of

education, adherence to stipulated curriculum and set standards, and
ensuring efficiency and quality in education. The efficiency and effective
delivery of education under liberalised education system, requires closer
monitoring of schools as well as horizontal feedback mechanisms
between the inspectors and educational ...managers ...at zone, regional,
and district levels.
Vjg" uejqqn" kpurgevqtuÓ" ockp" vcum" ku" vq" uwrgtxkug" uejqqnu" uq" cu" vq" gpuwtg"

quality education. According to Chediel, inspectors are supposed to assess and

advise the school heads, teachers, school owners or the Commissioner for

Education (Chediel, 2000:42) in view of inspection findings.

At the Apex are the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

*OQGXV+" cpf" Rtkog" OkpkuvgtuÓ" Qhhkeg" Tgikqpcn" Cfokpkuvtcvkqp" cpf" Nqecn"

Government (PMORALG). From http://www.moe.go.tz/ the organization of

secondary education at the apex level is explained as follows:

Secondary Education in Tanzania is undertaken by the Ministry of Education

and Vocational Training (MOEVT). Basically, this is responsible for Policy
Development, Quality Assurance, setting National Standards, and
Monitoring and Evaluation of Education Sector Development Programme
(ESDP) and related sub-sector programmes including Secondary Education
Fgxgnqrogpv" Rtqitcoog" *UGFR" KK+" yjkng" vjg" Rtkog" OkpkuvgtÓu" Qhhkeg"
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 Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG) is
responsible for the Management and Administration of Secondary Schools in
which case the day-to-day routine functions are assigned to the Local
Government Authorities (LGAs) ... The administration of secondary schools
in LGAs is an additional new function since 2009 following the
announcement of Decentralization of administration of secondary schools
from the Central Government to Local Government Authorities...
Thus, the MOEVT and PMO-RALG are two ministries responsible for

provision of education in Tanzania. However, the MOEVT in addition to being

the overseer of education provision at lower levels (pre-primary, primary,

ugeqpfct{"gfwecvkqp"cpf"vgcejgtuÓ"gfwecvkqp+"ku"cnuq"tgurqpukdng"hqt"vjg"jkijgt"

education in Tanzania.

Conclusions

The chapters which follow should be considered with this national

educational context in mind. Some of the factors identified in the book are

particular to Tanzania; others may apply more widely. The final chapter of the

book considers messages for Tanzanian education which have been raised by

discussion in the book. Yet again these messages may apply more widely,

especially to countries with a similar context.

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CHAPTER TWO

THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL

CONTEXTS
This chapter surveys the concept of educational leadership and a number of

issues are discussed which include:

‚ The concept of leadership

‚ Leadership Styles in Tanzanian Government Schools: A Case of

Boarding Schools

‚ Leadership Styles at Middle Level: At District and Region Level

‚ Leadership at Ministry of Education level

The concept of leadership

Literature in leadership agrees that there is no single definition about

leadership, but, leadership can be described as the process of showing followers

the way forward. It requires a person who is leading to go in front and be

involved intrinsically in the course of reaching the pre-determined goal(s).

Leading necessitates a leader to possess a clear sense of purpose and apparent

vision. In addition, a leader needs to have aptitude to explain her/his vision to

followers. A body of literature tries to distinguish somewhat similar concepts:

leadership, management and administration. For example, Bush (2011: 272)

distinguishes the above three concepts a follows: leadership being the

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policy. Bush (2010: 267) provides a good example on how research could make

a policy pertinent:

The second building block for the leadership and management field is
research. There is growing interest in the notion of evidence-informed
policy although this is more likely to happen where the research confirms
government ideology rather than challenging it. One significant example
is the Evidence-Informed Policy and Practice (EPPI) Centre at the
London Institute of Education. This began focusing on health but
extended into education 2000. Major review was a study of the impact of
school head-teachers and principals on the student outcomes (Bell et al.,
2003) which in turn, led to the Leithwood et al. (2006) research.
An additional important building block of educational leadership and

management is practice. Educational policies and educational theory have to be

put into practice. What's more, research informs better methods of putting

theories and policies into practice. But, the taxing state of affairs in the field of

educational leadership is on bridging theory and practice. According to Bush

(2010: 267) some argue that theory is for the academicians while practice is for

the managers. This sort of thinking puts a gap between theory and practice.

Jqygxgt."Dwuj"uvtguugu"vjg"hqnnqykpi"ykvj"tgurgev"vq"vjgqt{"cpf"rtcevkeg<"Ð000kp"

an applied discipline such as educational management, the acid test of theory is

its relevance to practice; theory is valuable and significant if it serves to explain

rtcevkeg" cpf" rtqxkfg"ocpcigtu"iwkfg"vq"cevkqpÑ" *r0"489+0" Kp"vjg" eqorngzkv{" qh"

educational leadership relying only on experience and intuition could

undermine this field. Literature as well stresses the use of theory to back

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"
practice in addition to experience, for example, see Ronald and Martha (2001:

2).

The concept of leadership has been interpreted in a variety of ways due to

the differing focus of studies undertaken to identify leadership and its

characteristics. In the past, many studies of leadership focused on qualities of

the individual as a leader; recently, researchers are concentrating on particular

features of different individuals to know how leaders behave. As a result, the

meaning of leadership is attached to behaviours of individuals practising

leadership (Hoy and Miskel, 1982:258).

Horner (2003) identifies a number of theories of leadership; these theories

also highlight the various meanings of leadership:

‚ Trait theories...leadership explained by the internal qualities with

which a person is born....the research was based on the idea that the

leader is born not made.

‚ Contingency theories...Certain leadership styles may be most effective

in certain situations.

‚ Xgtvkecn" f{cf" nkpmcig" 1" ngcfgt" ogodgt" gzejcpig" vjgqt{È" vjku" fgcnu"

ykvj" vjg" kpxguvkicvkqp" qh" gcej" hqnnqygtÓu" tgncvkqpujkr" ykvj" vjg" ngcfgt"

as opposed to a general or average leadership style.

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"
 ‚ Theories focusing on culture...leaders must be able to change,

depending on the culture, as the environment shifts and develops.

‚ Two factor theory: In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural

scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory.

According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in

satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent

dissatisfaction. These are categorized as "Motivators" and "Hygiene"

factors, the latter also being referred to as Maintenance Factors.

Ceeqtfkpi"vq"Jgt|dgti."vjg"qrrqukvg"qh"ÐUcvkuhcevkqpÑ"ku"ÐPq"

ucvkuhcevkqpÑ"cpf"vjg"qrrqukvg"qh"ÐFkuucvkuhcevkqpÑ"ku"ÐPq"

FkuucvkuhcevkqpÑ0"

Motivators: They actually motivate an individual. They find their root within

the job itself.

Hygiene Factors: They do not have any motivational value when present, but do

have a de-motivational value if not present. These factors are extrinsic to the

work itself.

Examples of Motivators and Hygiene Factors affecting Job Satisfaction are to

be found in Table 1

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"
"""""""""""""""""" ;HﾉW"ヱぎ"7ｷaaW WﾐIW "HW WWﾐ"ﾏﾗ ｷ ; ﾗ ";ﾐS"ｴ ｪｷWﾐW"a;I ﾗ ""

Motivators Hygiene Factors

Achievement Company Policy and Administration
Recognition Super vision
Growth Possibilities Interpersonal Relations
Career Advancement Salary
Level of Responsibility Status
The Job Itself Job Security
Personal Life

Motivational theories...led to the emergence of the comparison of

transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership stems

from traditional views of workers and organisations and it involves the

positional power of the leader to use followers for task completion.

Transformational leadership searches for the ways to motivate followers by

satisfying their higher orders needs, more fully engaging them in the process of

work.

Bush (2003:5-8+" eqpenwfgu" vjcv" Ðvjgtg" ku" pq" citggf" fghkpkvkqp" qh" vjg"

eqpegrv"qh"ngcfgtujkrÑ"cnvjqwij"ceeqtfkpi"vq"Dwuj"*4225<7-6) leadership can be

looked at from three angles:

Leadership as influence; the central element in many definitions is that

there is a process of influence
Leadership and values; certain alternative constructs of leadership focus
qp"vjg"pggf"hqt"ngcfgtujkr"vq"dg"itqwpfgf"kp"vjg"qticpkucvkqpÓu"rgtuqpcn"
and professional values.
Leadership and vision; vision is increasingly regarded as an essential
component of effective leadership.

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"
The theory distributed leadership
Recently a new theory of leadership is emerging, this is known as distributed

leadership. According to Harris (2010:55-58+" fkuvtkdwvgf" ngcfgtujkr" ku" Ðvjg"

expansion of leadership roles in schools beyond those in formal leadership or

cfokpkuvtcvkxg" rquvu000kv"ku"vjg" ngcfgtujkr" kfgc"qh" vjg" oqogpvÑ0" Vjg" eqpegrv" qh"

fkuvtkdwvgf"ngcfgtujkr"ku"fkuvkpiwkujgf"htqo"fgngicvkqpu"cu."Ð00.tasks are imposed

wrqp"rgqrng"kp"qticpkucvkqpÑ"*Jcttku."4226<3;+0"Vjcv"ku."yjgp"c"ogodgt"qh"uvchh"

in a given organisation is required to fulfil certain task(s) by someone in a

senior position, this is termed as delegation not distribution. But, distribution is

when responsibilities in a given organisation are shared by different persons

(Bush and Glover, 2012:38).

Recent literature proposes that viewing school leadership from distributed

point of view is most likely to offer a helpful insight into how leadership and

management perform and meet challenges in their daily activities in their

respective secondary schools. Various scholars in the field educational

leadership have researched and written regarding distributed leadership (DL).

To start with is by looking at different explanations concerning distributed

leadership. Alma Harris describes distributed leadership as:

Distributed leadership implies a fundamental change in the way formal

leaders understand their practice and the way they view their leadership
role. Distributed leadership means actively brokering, facilitating and
supporting the leadership of others...it does not mean, as some would

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"
 suggest, that every one leads or that everyone is a leader (Harris, 2013:
546-547).
Spillane and colleagues give a similar explanation to that offered by

Alma Harris about distributed leaders. They assert that distributed leadership

fqgu" pqv" korn{" vjcv" xgt{" qpg" kp" cp" qticpkucvkqp" ku" c" ngcfgt<" Ð000FN" jcu"

effortlessly entered the conversation about school leadership and management

...often with simplistic and unwarranted mantras such as everyone is a leader or

vjg" oqtg" ngcfgtu"vjg"dgvvgtÑ" *Urknncpg" gv" cn0." 4233<37;+0" Pgxgtvjgnguu." Urknncpg"

and colleagues put the concept of distributed leadership in practice aspect; here

interactions of members in organisation are seen as necessity in the day-to-day

operations of the school. Thus, in terms of the practice, school leadership is seen

stretched over the work of a number of leaders and followers (Spillane et al.,

2011:161).

Furthermore, Spillane and colleagues describing distributed leadership in

practice focus not on what leaders usually do in their organisations, rather the

hqewu"ku"qp"ngcfgtujkr"cevkxkv{0""Vjgkt"ctiwogpv"ku"vjcv<"Ð000ngcfgtujkr"cevkxkv{"ku"

constituted Îdefined or constructed Îin the interaction of leaders, followers, and

vjgkt" ukvwcvkqp" kp" vjg" gzgewvkqp" qh" rctvkewnct" ngcfgtujkr" vcumuÑ" *Urknncpg" gv" cn0."

2004:10) as shown in Figure 1. Therefore, according to Spillane and colleagues

leadership is seen as a practice stretching over leaders, followers and their

situation not just as an individual activity (Spillane et al., 2004:10).

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"
Leadership in schools
Schools are social organisations comprising leaders, teachers, support

staff and students: all these striving for a goal of providing education. Goals for

providing education differ from one country to another; in Tanzania the goals

for secondary education among others are (Ministry of Education and Culture,

1995:6):

̇ To consolidate and broaden the scope of baseline ideas, knowledge, skills

and principles acquired and developed at primary education level.
̇ To inculcate a sense and ability for self study, self confidence and self
advancement in new frontiers of science and technology, academic and
occupational knowledge, and skills.
̇ To prepare students for tertiary and higher education, vocational,
technical and professional training.
̇ To provide opportunities for acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes
and understanding in prescribed or selected field of study.
The above goals could be achieved if there is effective and efficient

leadership from Ministry level through to school level. Policies are made and

monitored at the Ministry of Education and the implementation is done at

school level, while supervision is done at regional, district level and ward

(community) level. To carry out day to day activities, schools cannot work

alone; this is why the Education and Training Policy recognises the existence of

other bodies like regional education office, district education office and the

communities (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1995:26-28). The Education

cpf" Vtckpkpi" Rqnke{" *GVR+" uvcvgu" gzrnkekvn{" vjcv" ÐOkpkuvt{" tgurqpukdng" hqt"

ヲン"

"
education and training shall devolve their responsibilities of management and

cfokpkuvtcvkqp" qh" gfwecvkqp" cpf" vtckpkpi" vq" nqygt" qticpu" cpf" eqoowpkvkguÑ"

*Okpkuvt{" qh" Gfwecvkqp" cpf" Ewnvwtg." 3;;7<48+" cpf" ÐDqctfu" cpf" eqookvvggu" qh"

education and training institutions shall be responsible for management,

development planning, discipline and finance of institutions under their

lwtkufkevkqpÑ"*Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg."3;;7<4:+0

Examining the leadership continuum of secondary education, from one

extreme - the school - to the other extreme - the Ministry of Education - not

forgetting the middle organs which include the community, the district

education office, and the regional education office, different leadership styles

can be identified. The following sections will identify different leadership styles

employed at school, district / regional and Ministry levels, starting with

government (public) secondary schools. It will examine further, the reasons

why different styles of leadership are used in various contexts.

Leadership Styles in Tanzanian Government Schools: A Case of Boarding

Schools

In Tanzania, secondary schools are in two main categories: Governmental

(Public schools) and Non-governmental (Private schools and schools owned by

religious organisations). Both Government and Private schools are further sub-

divided into two: Ordinary levels schools (Form I-IV) and Advanced levels

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"
schools (Form V-VI). Many Ordinary level schools are not boarding schools,

but many of the Advanced level schools are boarding schools.

School leaders in government schools are in three main categories: senior

school leaders, middle leaders and junior leaders. Senior leadership includes:

the head of school, the assistant heads, senior academic master/mistress and the

Senior Discipline mistresses/masters. The middle leaders are the heads of

departments, sports and cultural masters/mistresses, food masters/mistresses,

and the junior leaders include class masters/mistresses and dormitory

masters/mistresses. Schools also have student-leadership which consists of

head boy/head girl, the school secretary, heads of various committees like food

committee, sports, finance, students, and social welfare.

To run the day-to-day activities the head of school is assisted by the

school bursar (school accountant) for financial matters, the store keeper for

storekeeping toggvjgt" ykvj" uejqqn" ocvtqp1rcvtqp" hqt" uvwfgpvuÓ" jgcnvj" kuuwgu0"

Other support staff include: the registry clerks dealing with the filing system,

head cook for matters relating with student food, the librarian for the library, the

office supervisor for office work and the watchmen(s).

Tasks and responsibilities of a school head in government schools

eqortkug<" Ðuejqqn" eqoowpkv{" tgncvkqpu=" ewttkewnwo" korngogpvcvkqp=" uvwfgpv"

personnel services; and personnel (staff); finance and business management;

ヲヵ"

"
lastly is resectej." gxcnwcvkqp" cpf" ceeqwpvcdknkv{Ñ" *ugg" Dcd{gig{c." 4224<399-

184).

Looking at the three groups of leaders given above, in addition looking at

the tasks carried out by school, the school heads and other leaders in the

hierarchy, and the mode in which decision making is conducted, a number of

leadership styles could be identified together with the reasons to why leaders

may lead in different ways. It is certain that different styles of leadership are

needed to enable the school to implement the curriculum in boarding schools

and be able to meet the objectives of preparing learners holistically. It should be

noted that the significant evidence of using different leadership styles as

discussed below is that, leadership style depends on the context (contingent) of

the tasks or activities given.

Distributed Leadership

One of the leadership styles present in Tanzanian boarding schools is

fkuvtkdwvkxg" ngcfgtujkr<" Jcttku" gv" cn0" *4229<42+" gzrnckp" vjcv." Ðfkuvtkdwvkxg"

leadership is best understood as the practice over leaders, followers and their

ukvwcvkqp"cpf"kpeqtrqtcvgu"vjg"cevkxkvkgu"qh"ownvkrng"itqwru"qh"kpfkxkfwcnuÑ0"Vjku"

implies a social distribution of leadership where the leadership function is

stretched over the work of a number of individuals; it is an alternative

perspective to a heroic leader. Muijs and Harris (2003:439) too describe a

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"
distributive style of leadership when discussing teacher leadership and

distributive leadership:

Distributive leadership theory advocates that schools decentre the

leadership. In this sense leadership is more appropriately understood as
fluid and emergent, rather than a fixed phenomenon. It reflects the view
that every person in one way or another can demonstrate leadership; this
does not mean that everyone is a leader or should be but it opens up the
possibility for democratic and collective form of leadership.....teacher
leadership emphasis upon collective action, empowerment and shared
agency are reflected in distributive leadership theory.
Dimmock (2003:7) describes distributive leadership styles as it is one of

the leadership styles which in one way or another allow members of the school

organisation to participate in leadership.

In Tanzanian secondary schools; government and non-government,

teachers, non-teaching staff and students in some circumstances work as a team,

for example in matters related to discipline, analysis of examination results.

Other activities which reflect presence of distributed leadership is when

members of various departments meet to decide on matters relating to teaching

and learning in their respective departments. Sometimes preparation of

development plans and budgeting is done in team. Teachers usually meet in

staff meetings and make various decisions as a team.

UvwfgpvuÓ" ngcfgtujkr" fgekukqpu" vqiether with decisions reached in staff

meetings are sent to school boards for action and final decision. A good

example of some of decisions is about indiscipline cases regarding students,

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"
yjgtg" fgekukqpu" tgcejgf" htqo" vjg" uvwfgpvuÓ" ngcfgtujkr" cpf" htqo" ogodgrs of

staff are sent to School Board for the final decision. It can be argued therefore

that some elements of the distributive style of leadership are present in

Government Schools. These elements of distributed leadership are spread across

a number of school functions. But, the dominant style of leadership present and

widely practised in Tanzanian government schools is bureaucratic leadership. In

schools for instance educational plans are made at the top, this could be at

Ministry of Education level, at region or district levels and sent down to

secondary schools for implementation. Besides, mainly issues related to

curriculum review are decided at the top levels while schools are just involved.

That is the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) is the institution which have

the mandate for preparation and review of school curriculum, the institute

merely involves teachers from the grassroots. Furthermore, matters related to a

number of students to be enrolled in secondary schools are decided at top levels

not by schools themselves.

At school level features of bureaucratic style of leadership are present. In

most cases, the head of school appoints some members of staff and delegate

duties. The head of school, the senior academic master/mistress, and heads of

department and class masters/mistresses for instance have been given

responsibilities by the head of school of ensuring that teachers implement the

ewttkewnwo0" Oqticp" *4228<375+" ocmgu" engct" vjcv" " " Ðwpfgt" tcvkqpcn" ngicn"
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"
domination, power is legitimized by ncyu." twngu." tgiwncvkqpu" cpf" rtqegfwtguÑ0"

The power is formally bounded by rules. The heads of schools have formal

power bestowed to them by the Ministry of Education. S/he is the internal

inspector of the school and has the power to reprimand any teacher who is not

implementing the curriculum as required. S/he also delegates power to lower

levels to enable the implementation of the curriculum.

School Community Relations

One of the major functions of the school head is school community

relations; the school has to establish good relations with the community.

Communities are responsible for resource contribution. In addition, the head of

the school is obliged to give information to the surrounding community

regarding school activities, achievements and problems. Parents have to be

involved in the academic development of their children (Babyegeya, 2002:183-

184). According to the Ministry and Culture (1995:26) the school leadership is

supposed to involve the community in the process of implementing educational

policy. The style of leadership which fits this situation is either participative

leadership or collaborative leadership. Jarasinghe and Lyons (1996:53) describe

rctvkekrcvkxg" ngcfgtujkr" cu" qpg" qh" ngcfgtujkr" uv{ngu" vjcv" Ðhcxqwtu" eqpugpuwu"

decision making prepared to take time over decisions. Ensure involvement of all

tgngxcpv" kpfkxkfwcnuÑ0" " Dwuj" *4225<9:+" ftcyu" cvvgpvkqp" vq" rctvkekrcvkxg"

leadership as the type of leadership where the group is seen as the focal point in
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"
reaching decisions. It is likely that the need for community [neighbours, parents

cpf"uvwfgpvuÓ"iwctfkcpu_"uwrrqtv"cpf"vjg"tgswktgogpvu"qh"vjg"gfwecvkqpcn"rqnke{"

necessitate the employment of this type of leadership in Government Boarding

schools.

Leading Curriculum

The central role of the school is provision of education. Therefore,

leading the implementation of the school curriculum is one of the major tasks of

the heads of schools. Activities involved in the managing of the curriculum

include (Babyegeya, 2002:178):

‚ Decisions on program to be offered.

‚ Preparation, production or acquisition of materials and equipment
required to implement the curriculum.
‚ Division of the teaching load among teaching staff.
‚ Making timetable and teaching schedule.
‚ Planning of teaching and learning activities.
‚ Monitoring and supervising the teaching and learning process.
‚ Evaluating the performance of students.
‚ Reporting to authorities and parents.
Different leadership styles are highly likely to be adopted to enable

schools to achieve the objective of implementing the curriculum effectively, for

example some elements of managerialism and transactional leadership are

needed. Simkins (2000:321) provides some characteristics of managerialism:

ンヰ"

"
 (i) Commitment to the overriding values and mission of the

specific organisation.

(ii) Decision making is characterised by the discretion entrusted to

those who hold clearly identified managerial roles and authority

and who use specialist management techniques to help make

choices.

(iii) Agendas are derived from concerns focusing around

organisational objectives and outcomes and the deployment of

resources as defined by managers in response to their

interpretations of the environmental forces with which the

organisational is faced.

Leithwood et al. (1999:14) also explain the concept of managerial

leadership; the explanation clarifies the argument above that sometimes in order

to implement the curriculum, a managerial type of leadership is to be employed

cu" qpg" qh" ngcfgtujkr" uv{ngu" d{" vjg" uejqqn" ngcfgtu000" " " ÐOcpcigtkcn" ngcfgtujkp

assumes that the focus of the leaders ought to be on the functions, tasks or

behaviours and that if these tasks are carried out competently the work of others

kp"vjg"qticpkucvkqp"yknn"dg"hceknkvcvgfÑ0

A different type of leadership style which is used for effective

implementation of the curriculum is instructional leadership, this is a style of

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"
leadership which is learner centred. A study by Pansiri (2008:471-472)

observes:

The heads as instructional leaders, together with the deputy heads and
seniors teachers, should take major responsibility for in-service training
of teachers within their schools, through regular observations of teachers
and organisational workshops, to foster communication between teachers
on professional matters and to address weaknesses.
The study by Pansiri is about quality provision of education through in-service

training of teachers, which should result in efficient implementation of the

curriculum. Furthermore the study emphasises the need to use instructional

leadership as a style of leading, since all teachers and students are involved in

learning.

It is more likely that different styles of leadership are needed to enable

schools to implement curriculum in boarding schools in the process of

distribution of work load, a democratic style of leadership may be used with the

distribution of number of periods (work load) done evenly within a respective

department according to the number of teachers available in that particular

department, using consensus agreement. Allowing distributed leadership instead

of solo leadership in implementation of the curriculum could as well help to

enhance the performance. Teachers in various departments should be

encouraged to work in team and take shared decisions on academic matters for

example shared examination results analysis. More important teachers without

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posts should be seen as leaders because these have important influence on

learners and the whole process of teaching and learning.

Student Personnel Services

Student personnel service is another task which has to be fulfilled by the

ugeqpfct{" uejqqnu0" Cevkxkvkgu" kpenwfgf" jgtg" ctg<" Ðcfokuukqp" cpf" tgikuvtcvkqp."

ceeqwpvkpi." fkuekrnkpg." jgcnvj" ugtxkegu" cpf" uvwfgpvÓu" ygnhctg." eqwpugnnkpi."

qtkgpvcvkqp"qh"pgy"uvwfgpvu"cpf"rtqoqvkqpÑ"*Dcd{gig{c."4224<182-183). Styles

of leadership appropriate for the implementation of this task include firstly,

democratic leadership, where students are involved in leading the school. In

boarding schools, for example, there are democratically elected student

governments whose leaders can be either a head boy or head girl. Harber and

Davies (2003:137-138) describe democratic leadership as leadership which

gpuwtgu"ngctpgtuÓ"tkijvu"cpf"kpxqnxgogpv"kp"ocmkpi"fgekukqp0"

Secondly, a delegative leadership style is also practised; leadership is

delegated to persons who are responsible for admission and registration of new

students, the Assistant Head of School, together with the academic

master/mistress and the class masters/mistress - they are also responsible for

orienting new students - the discipline master/mistress, who is responsible for

uvwfgpvuÓ" fkuekrnkpg" cpf" eqwpugnnkpi." cpf" vjg" uejqqn" fqevqt" 1pwtug" yjq" vcmgu"

ectg"qh"uvwfgpvuÓ"ygnhctg0"

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"
 When indiscipline cases arise, under extreme situations a coercive style

of leadership is used, for example by providing negative reinforcement

(punishment). Sometimes a student can be expelled from school. Under this

ukvwcvkqp" vjg" jgcf" qh" uejqqn" fgocpfu" cfjgtgpeg" vq" vjg" uejqqnÓu" twngu" cpf"

regulations. Fullan and Ballew (2004:43) maintain that a coercive leadership

uv{ng" ku" qpg" yjkej" ckou" cv" eqphqtokv{=" Ðvjg" ngcfgt" fgocpfu" eqornkcpeg" *fq"

yjcv"K"vgnn"{qw+Ñ0

Management of Staff Personnel

The heads of secondary schools have the formal authority and

responsibility of managing staff (personnel management). The school head has

to determine the number of teachers and non-teaching staff his/her school needs

and send the information to the Ministry of Education. S/he also has the

responsibility to monitor and evaluate the job performance of the teachers and

non-teaching staff, and s/he has to prepare the staff development plan and send

it to the Ministry of Education (Babyegeya, 2002:179-180). A number of

leadership styles are used in order to fulfil these functions: firstly,

transformational leadership; to be able to achieve the educational goal of

providing quality education to the learners, the school needs enough teachers

and competent teachers and supporting staff. In addition, all members of the

school have to work together with the same shared vision and purpose.

Leithwood et al. (1999:9) explains transformational leadership as:

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"
 This form of leadership assumes that the central focus of leadership ought
to be the commitments and capacities of organisational members. Higher
levels of personal commitments to organisational goals and greater
capacities for accomplishing those goals are assumed to result in extra
effort and greater productivity.
Leithwood et al. acknowledge transformational leadership as having some

elements of charismatic, visionary, cultural and empowering concepts of

leadership (Leithwood et al., 1999:9). Allix (2000:9) describes a leader-follower

relationship which is vital for the attainment of organisational objectives as

transformational leadership. Leithwood and Poplin (1992: 9) explains the role

of the transformational style of leadership in accomplishing goals of change in

schools as follows:

The collective action that transforming leadership generates empowers

those who participate in the process. There is hope, there is optimism, and
there is energy. In essence, transforming leadership is a leadership that
hceknkvcvgu"vjg"tgfghkpkvkqp"qh"c"rgqrngÓu"okuukqp"cpf"xkukqp."c"tgpgycn"qh"
their commitment, and the restructuring of their systems for goal
accomplishment.
Secondly, authoritative leadership: this is when the school leader uses

his/her authority regarding the involvement of members of staff and students

toward a common vision; education for excellence (Fullan and Ballew,

2004:43). Leaders in boarding schools use their formal role to involve their

workers toward achieving goals of providing education to students.

Vjktfn{." oqtcn" ngcfgtujkr" ujqwnf" dg" eqpukfgtgf0" C" uejqqn" jgcfÓu"

personality is important in the process of leading the school community. As

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"
 leader s/he has to create, observe, and develop the school norms, symbols,

beliefs, values, rites, rituals, heroes and heroines, because these are crucial for

the efficient implementation of the school vision and mission. From this s/he

can build trust within the school community and outside of the school; in

general the school head has to believe in the school culture (Bush, 2003:172).

Finally, when indiscipline issues arise against a certain worker, the head

of school in extreme cases can use an authoritarian style of leadership to

assert their formal power and authority to solve the indiscipline where

reconciliatory means of solving the dispute have failed. Normally

indiscipline issues are solved through a participative or democratic style of

leadership, that is, the head together with the discipline committee work

together to resolve the issue.

Finance and Business Management

The last but one task of the heads of schools is finance and business

management. Different groups of tasks performed here are (Babyegeya,

2002:181-182).

̇ Preparing budgets

̇ Purchasing storage and distribution of supplies and equipment

̇ Managing the budget Îmaking sure that funds are used according

to the budget

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"
 ̇ Accounting and business procedures, e.g. management of salary

and supervision of internal auditing and accounting

̇ Operation of school plant facilities

The head of school together with the school accountant and the store-keeper

have a major responsibility to ensure these tasks are done properly for the

benefit of the students. The likely leadership style used here is bureaucratic

leadership since the school accountant work on behalf of the school head, who

is the accounting officer (Ministry of Education, 1995:26).

Research, Evaluation and Accountability

Research, evaluation and accountability are the last of the big categories

of managerial functions of the secondary boarding school heads: making

evaluation so as to know whether the goal of providing quality education is

being met. The head also needs to conduct evaluation to know the effectiveness

of different services provided at the school. Evaluation also helps the school to

understand how the community view their school, especially parents who are

the key stake holders with respect to education provided to their children

(Babyegeya, 2002: 184). The head of school together with their members of

staff have the key responsibility of making research and evaluation so as to be

accountable to stake holders. It is expected that the leadership styles which suits

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here are: participative leadership, distributive leadership, transformational

leadership and democratic leadership.

The significant evidence of using different leadership styles as discussed

above is that, leadership style depends on the context: it is contingent on the

task or activities undertaken. Leithwood et al. (1999:15) describe contingent

leadership as the approach which assumes that what is important is how leaders

respond to the unique organisational situations or problems that face a given

organisation:

This approach assumes that what is important is how leaders respond to

the unique organisational circumstances or problems...there are wide
variations in the contexts for leadership and that, to be effective, these
contexts require different leadership responses...individuals providing
leadership, typically those in formal positions of authority, are capable of
mastering a large repertoire of leadership practices. Their influence will
depend, in large measure, on such mastery.
Leadership Styles at Middle Level: At District and Region Level

Ceeqtfkpi"vq"vjg"Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg"*3;;7+"ÐVjg"Okpkuvt{"

responsible for education and training shall devolve their responsibilities of

management and administration of education and training to lower organs and

eqoowpkvkgu"*r048+Ñ0"Cpqvjgt"ugevkqp"uc{u"Ðcnn"gfwecvkqp"ocpcigtu"cv"pcvkqpcn."

regional, district and institutional levels shall be responsible for the coordination

of the planning, provision, management, administration and quality control of

formal and non-formal education and trckpkpi" kp" vjgkt" ctgcu" qh" lwtkufkevkqpÑ"

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(p.30). This means that the regional education office and the district education

office have to work hand-in- hand with boarding schools for putting into

practice the goal of education; which is providing quality education to students.

The leadership style that suits this type of activity is a collaborative type of

leadership because the above organs have to work with the school

administration to enable the fulfilment of the educational goal. However, this

argument is limited due to the fact that higher level officers mostly work as

supervisors; they employ directive leadership styles. An article by Farrell

(2001:178-179) in relation to marketing gives the following contribution on the

importance of the school working with the community and higher organisation

levels:

We have seen how postmodern culture presents a challenge to marketing

when it is attempting to understand the market....the problem can be
overcome by adopting new practices which emphasis interactivity,
connectivity and creativity. Schools are well placed to develop this type
of relationship with the community. Relation marketing may well offer
them a way forward.
Farrell is in favour of a collaborative style of leadership instead of the directive

style of leadership employed by higher levels in educational organisational

hierarchies.

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, formerly known as

the Ministry of Education and Culture, is the highest organ in the country

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responsible for the provision of education. The Directorate of Secondary

Education is the department within the Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training responsible for secondary education. Boarding Schools are directly

related and accountable to the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training in

the process of carrying out its day-to- day functions. The Ministry of Education

is responsible for the following; among others (Ministry of Education and

Culture, 2004:14):

‚ Monitoring the implementation of education policy

‚ Preparation of curriculum
‚ Employment of teachers, registration of teachers and overseeing of
their welfare
‚ Inspection of schools (implemented by zones and districts)
‚ Monitoring and management of cross-regional teacher transfer
‚ Approval of educational materials for schools
The expected leadership style used to put into practice this relationship

could be transactional leadership; the relationship between teachers in boarding

schools and the Ministry of Education is an employer-employee relationship.

Coleman (2003:40) offers a definition of transactional leadership which

highlights the relationship between the Ministry of Education as employer and

vgcejgtu" qh" dqctfkpi" uejqqnu" cu" gornq{ggu0" ÐVtcpucevkqpcn" ngcfgtujkr" ku" c"

contractual relationship between the leader and the follower, where the leader

rewards or disciplines the follower depending on the adequacy of the follower

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"
rgthqtocpeg0Ñ" Vjg" Okpkuvt{" qh" Gfwecvkqp" rc{u" vgcejgtu" cpf" fkuekrnkpgu" vjgo0""

The style of leadership adopted, as described by Coleman (2003: 39) could also

be depicted as a masculine style of leadership, which has the following features:

Ðjkijn{" tgiwncvgf." eqphqtokuv." pqtocvkxg." eqorgvkvkxg." gxcnwcvkxg." fkuekrnkpgf."

qdlgevkxg" cpf" hqtocnÑ0" Vjg" tgncvkqpujkr" dgtween Boarding Schools and the

Ministry of Education is based on rules and regulations, therefore to a great

extent aligns with a masculine style of leadership.

Boarding Schools mostly rely on the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training for their finance, despite the fact that the community has

the responsibility of making contributions for the construction of classrooms

and other essential buildings for the school. For this aspect of school

management a centralised and rationalistic type of leadership exists. Glatter

(1999:263) commenting on the situation in the U.K takes a similar view:

In an era of high centralization and dominant rationalistic paradigm, the

field of educational leadership and management is becoming increasingly
resource dependent and facing growing pressure to play a purely
technical role in both teaching and research.
Finally, there is a directive style of leadership: The Ministry of Education

is the policy maker whiles all secondary schools which under it are the

executors of the policy (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004:14). The

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training through its inspectorate organ is

supposed to inspect the quality of provision of education at all secondary

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schools including privately owned ones. This aspect of leadership has elements

of directive leadership. Hoy and Miskel (1982:244) make clear that under a

directive style of leadership the leader sets standards which s/he expects the

follower to fulfil. Usually the Ministry of Education expects government

schools school to complete the syllabus and make sure all students obtain good

grades, otherwise a head of a school has to explain the reasons to why his/her

school did not perform well. A closely related type of leadership is a pace

setting style of leadership as described by Fullan and Ballew (2004:44). This is

also used by the Ministry of Education in relation to government schools; each

school has to meet the goal of providing knowledge, skills and values to

learners. Good educational results are equally important and are emphasised by

the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.

Conclusions

In conclusion, different writers have come up with a number of

definitions of leadership; some focusing on the qualities of the leader and others

on the behaviour of a particular leader, but most writers in principle reach a

consensus that there is no single correct definition of the leadership concept.

Leaders in social organisations like schools, in the process of leading their

followers, employ different leadership styles depending on the prevailing

context. Using an example of government secondary schools (boarding school)

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in Tanzania, the reasons why leaders lead differently in different contexts has

been examined and discussed. The predominant styles are summarised below.

Distributive leadership is one of the styles used to facilitate the day-to-

day running of the school. Different members of staff in one way or another are

involved in leading of schools. Furthermore, both delegated and democratic

leadership are used, where students have their own elected government, formed

according to the law which governs schools in Tanzania. Instructional

leadership is closely linked to this, where the major emphasis is on the learner,

and on leading the process of learning and teaching.

Another style of leadership dominant in public secondary schools in

Tanzania is a participative or collaborative style of leadership. The school

works closely with the community (parents), parents give material and moral

support to the school, the school is required by the law to provide information

regarding students to their respective parents. Boarding secondary schools as

well work with both the district education office and regional education office

to implement their education goal, even though these two higher offices have

more of a supervisory role rather than collaborative.

A managerial style of leadership is also discussed. Leaders in

Government schools use this style of leadership in order to implement the

curriculum: the major focus of the school head is to direct functions, tasks and

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behaviours. Bureaucratic (legal/ rational domination) is also used since the

school head has formal power over the teachers towards the implementation of

the curriculum.

The heads of school have formal authority and power to lead their

schools. The head teacher should be visionary, observe school culture, be a

coaching leader to new employees, and at times be both a charismatic and

empowering type of a leader so as to enhance the implementation of the school

goals. Where there are serious indiscipline problems an authoritarian style of

leadership is used.

A participative or distributed type of leadership is required for the

monitoring and evaluation of school activities. Teachers have to work together

to carry out action research, so as they can come up with the evidence of the

effectiveness of their work.

Last but not least, government schools are under the Ministry of

Education in a leader - follower relationship. The Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training has the formal authority and power to plan, monitor and

evaluate the day-to-day activities of government schools. The leadership styles

which the Ministry commonly displays are authoritative leadership,

transactional and masculine leadership styles.

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 Examining the above styles of leadership, context (contingency) is the

main determinant of the type of leadership in operation at any one time: when

leaders of different organisations are leading, it should be in their mind that Ðpq"

qpg"uk|g"hkvu"cnn"ukvwcvkqpu0Ñ

"

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%*#26'4"6*4''"

"'/16+10#."+06'..+)'0%'"+0"#"%1..')+#."/1&'."1(".'#&'45*+2"
Chapter three examines the concept of emotional intelligence as practiced in a

collegial model of leadership. Various issues discussed include:

‚ Background and context of emotional intelligence.

‚ Collegial model of leadership.

‚ Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational

leadership.

‚ Relationship between participatory (democratic) leadership and emotional

intelligence.

‚ Interpersonal leadership (people-oriented management style) in relation

to emotional intelligence.

Background and Context

Emotional intelligence (EI/EQ) is the intelligence which combines

personal feeling and thinking. It is type of the intelligence that is made up of

emotional skills, which helps a person to know his/her emotions and emotions

of others. According to Brinia, Zimianiti and Panagiotopoulos (2014: 29 citing

Iqngocp."3;;:+"Ð000goqvkqpcn"kpvgnnkigpeg"*GS+"qhvgp"eqpuvkvwvgu"c"oqtg"rtgekug"

guarcpvgg" hqt" uweeguu" vjcp" vjg"kpfgz" qh" kpvgnnkigpeg" *KS+Ñ0" This intelligence is

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like other intelligences found in the human brain, for instance visual/spatial

intelligence, verbal/linguistic intelligence, logical/mathematical intelligence,

bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence and musical/rhythmic intelligence. Emotional

intelligence is found in the right side of the brain. Goleman (1999: 317) defines

goqvkqpcn" kpvgnnkigpeg" cu" Ðvjg" ecrcekv{" hqt" tgeqipkukpi" qwt" qyp" hggnkpiu" cpf"

those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in

qwtugnxgu" cpf" kp" qwt" tgncvkqpujkruÑ0" " Oc{gt" gv" cn0" *4226<3;9+" qhhgt" c" rtcevkecn"

definition of emotional intelligence:

The capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance

thinking: It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to
access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand
emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions
so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.

The concept of emotional intelligence is relatively new. Damasio

(2000:38-39) acknowledges that, although various neuroscientists and

cognitive scientists like Charles Darwin, William James, Sigmund Freud and

Hughlings Jackson wrote widely in the nineteenth century about emotion, little

attention was placed on emotional intelligence. It was Hughlings Jackson who

made the remarkable suggestion that the right-hand side of the brain was

possibly dominated by emotion (Damasio, 2000:39). Damasio goes on to show

that, recently, scientists have started working in laboratory conditions on the

question of emotion; the results indicate that emotion is part of the reasoning

process and is used in making rational decisions (p.41). Other literature

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indicates that the concept of emotional intelligence gained more public attention

at the end of 20th century (Bar-On and Parker, 2002:2009).

Goleman (1999: 26) lists five main components of emotional intelligence.

Vjgug" eqorqpgpvu" ctg<" Ðugnh-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy

and socicn"umknnu0Ñ""Vjg"tgugctej"d{"Dctnkpi"gv"cn0"*4222<37:+"dwknfu"qp"vjg"kfgc"

developed by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and Goleman (1995) and identifies the

five qualities of emotional intelligence as:

‚ Wpfgtuvcpfkpi"qpgÓu"goqvkqpu
‚ Knowing how to manage them
‚ Emotional self-control, which includes the ability to delay gratification
‚ Wpfgtuvcpfkpi"qvjgtuÓ"goqvkqpu."qt"gorcvj{="cpf
‚ Managing relationships
Emotional intelligence is a vital component in leadership because

leadership is about social interactions within an organisation. Leaders need to

understand their emotions and the emotions of their followers for effective

korngogpvcvkqp" qh" vjg" qticpkucvkqpÓu" rtg-determined goals. Goleman et al.

*4224<" 5+" gorjcukug" vjcv." hqt" dguv" cejkgxgogpv" qh" cp" qticpkucvkqpÓu" iqcnu."

leaders have to combine the set out strategies and vision with emotional

intelligence. Emotional intelligence is a powerful tool for bringing a state of

motivation, morale and commitment among followers into the organisation

(Goleman et al., 2005:5). Thus, in schools, emotional intelligence is highly

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needed, as in other organisations. Furthermore, Harris (2007:32) acknowledges

vjcv"Ðvgcejkpi"ku"guugpvkcnn{"goqvkqpcn"kp"pcvwtg0""Vgcejkpi"cpf"ngctpkpi"jcxg"c"

rqukvkxg"eqttgncvkqp"ykvj"goqvkqpÑ0"Vjku"cuugtvkqp"is quite true because students

in a good mood are cooperative and like learning, and the same applies to

teachers. Teachers who, for example, are not distressed participate well in

teaching.

The collegial model

Collegial model of leadership is the one of the leadership models which is

about the leader involving followers in leadership. It encompasses all leadership

styles that involve members of the organisation either in part or completely in

decision-making (Bush, 2003:.64). According to Bush collegial models

comprise the following characteristics (Bush, 2003: 65-67):

‚ First, the models indicate decision-making based on democratic

principles
‚ Second, the models fit organisations like schools and colleges which have
a good number of professional staff
‚ Third, vjg"oqfgnu"vcmg"Ð"c"eqooqp"ugv"qh"xcnwguÑ
‚ Fourth, the number of members who participate in decision-making
should be small; hence the models work efficiently in small schools or
school / college departments.
‚ Fifth, consensus decision-making is preferred to conflict.
Various studies globally show the application of collegial models in

different academic settings (see Witziers et al., 1999:183; Wise and Bush,

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1999:294; Brown et al., 1999:330; and NCSL, 2003:5-6). However, these

studies suggest a variation in agreement as to what extent the collegial models

ctg"dgkpi"korngogpvgf0"Dtqyp"gv"cn0"*3;;;<552+"iq"hwtvjgt"d{"uvcvkpi"vjcv"Ðvjg"

evidence from the research suggests that while collegiality may offer many

persuasive benefits, it is difficult to attain to kvu"hwnnguvÑ0

A number of leadership styles suit collegial models. Some of these are

transformational leadership, participative leadership and interpersonal

leadership (Bush, 2003:76-80). Because of the fast growing technology,

economy and changes of ideologies internationally, most schools or colleges

which used to be centralised are changing from bureaucratic leadership to a

democratic type of leadership. Under these changes educational leaders need

emotional intelligence to be able to lead effectively.

In Tanzanian public schools, the leadership style is hierarchical in nature.

The higher levels of leadership are made up of heads of school, deputy heads of

school, academic masters/mistresses and discipline masters/mistresses; the

middle level is made up of heads of academic departments and the lower level

consists of class masters/mistresses and dormitory masters/mistresses. Despite

the hierarchical nature of this leadership, there are some elements of collegial

models. For example, the head of school delegates some responsibilities to the

deputy head and other senior members of the School Management Team

(SMT). In addition to that, some decisions on how to implement the curriculum

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are decided in staff meetings where all teachers are involved. The students, on

their side, are allowed to elect their leaders and form a student government. The

student government enables students to make suggestions to the school

administration and in this way democracy is practised by students. In the

classroom a participatory type of learning is practised even though most of the

teaching and learning process is still teacher centred.

This chapter explores the need for emotional intelligence among

educational leaders in different countries in general, and Tanzania in particular,

through examining components of collegial models. A closer investigation will

be on the correlation between transformational leadership, participatory

(democratic leadership), and interpersonal leadership (people- centred style of

leadership) in relation to components of emotional intelligence, namely self-

awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. Figure 4 is a

mind map which summarises emotional intelligence competencies, which is

employed to relate the collegial modal and emotional intelligence.

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ku" Ðitqwpfgf" kp" vjg" hwpfcogpvcn" ycpvu." pggfu." curktcvkqpu" cpf" xcnwgu" qh"

hqnnqygtuÑ0"

Goodnow and Wayman (2009: 6) note the relationship between

transactional leadership cpf" vtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgtujkr." Ðvtcpucevkqpcn"

leadership targets first order effect and transformation leadership aims to

cejkgxg"jkijgt"qtfgt"ghhgevÑ0""Cxqnkq"cpf"Dcuu"*4226<42+"uvcvg<

The first order of change - change of degree - can be handled adequately

by the current emphasis on leadership as an exchange process,
vtcpucevkqpcn" tgncvkqpujkr" kp" yjkej" kpfkxkfwcnuÓ" pggfu" ctg" ogv" kh" vjgkt"
performance measures up their contracts with their leader. But a higher
order of change calls for something distinctly different; it is presented in
the perspective shifts often associated with transformational leadership.
Transformational leadership can be thought of as a higher-order exchange
process: not a simple transaction, but rather a fundamental shift in
orientation, with both long and short term implications for development
and performance.
Caldwell and Spinks (1992: 49-72+"qdugtxg."Ðvtcpuhqtocvkqpcn"ngcfgtujkr"

ku" guugpvkcn" hqt" cwvqpqoqwu" uejqqnu<" Ðvtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgtu" uweeggf" kp"

gaining the commitment of followers to such a degree that...higher levels of

ceeqornkujogpv" dgeqog" xktvwcnn{" c" oqtcn" korgtcvkxgÑ0" Dwuj" gzrnckpu" hwtvjgt"

that transformational leadership is dependent on collegiality. That is

transformational leadership presumes a situation where leaders and followers

share the same values and aspirations. The aims of the leader and followers are

the same in such a way that a harmonious relationship is established between

the leader and followers (Bush, 2003: 78).

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 In this respect, components of emotional intelligence are greatly needed

by school leaders for the effective implementation of the school vision through

their followers; for example, the school leader has to create a sense of optimism

in his/her followers. In addition the leader is supposed to be committed to

his/her school vision and strategies and in this way he/she will build trust

among followers. Other components of emotional intelligence required by the

leader are empathy and social skills. Leaders have to understand individuals as

well as team feelings and be ready to act accordingly. For example in the case

that a follower has personal problems like sickness a leader should be flexible

over the rules guiding the organisation. Also the organisational leader needs to

feel that his/her followers require personal development and growth. Besides,

leaders need to possess communication skills, whereby a leader is able to

convince followers to move in the right direction. Lastly, transformational

leaders require skills to manage conflicts which emerge within the organisation.

Through observing their own emotions and those of the followers, as Allix

*4222<;+" cempqyngfigu." Ðvtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgtujkr" godtcegu" c" owvwcnn{"

supportive relationship of moral and motivational engagement between leaders

cpf"hqnnqygtuÑ0

According to Barling et al. (2000: 157) transformational leadership is

about influencing, inspiring, motivating, and stimulating the intellect, and also

is about putting the individual at the centre while transactional leadership is

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solely based on payments. Under transformational leadership the worker is part

of the team in the organisation. In this study, Barling et al. acknowledge the

relationships between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership:

Ðkpfkxkfwcnu" jkijgt" kp emotional intelligence are seen by their subordinates as

displaying more leadership behaviours (Barling et al., 2000: 160). Another

study by Sosik and Megerian (1999) on the role of self-other in transformational

leadership also shows a positive relationship between one aspect of emotional

intelligence, self-other (self-awareness of managers), and transformational

leadership as noted below:

The results of the present study suggest that self-awareness may provide
individuals with greater perceived control over interpersonal events and
in their life...results also supports prior research (e.g. Bass, 1985; Hogan
et al., 1994; Megerian and Sosik, 1997) that transformational leaders who
are self-aware possess high levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy,
and provide orientation for followers (Sosik and Megerian, 1999: 384).

Research by Barbuto and Burbach (2006:51) conducted on 80 officials

and 388 followers in the USA to investigate the relationship between

transformational leadership and emotional intelligence also supports the

argument that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with

vtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgtujkr<" Ðgoqvkqpcn" kpvgnnkigpeg" qh" ngcfgtu" ujctgf" c"

significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of

transformational leadershkrÑ" *Dctdwvq" cpf" Dwtdcej." 4228<73+0" " Kp" igpgtcn" vjku"

study supports the previous study by Barling et al. (2000) that emotional

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intelligence bears a positive correlation with transformational leadership.

However, the study is inconsistent with a previous study by Sivanathan and

Hgmmgp"*4224+"fwg"vq"nqy"xctkcpeg"ykvj"Ðtcvgt"tgrqtvu"qh"kpvgnngevwcn"uvkowncvkqp"

cpf" kfgcnkugf" kphnwgpegÑ" *Dctdwvq" cpf" Dwtdcej." 4228<" 79+0" " " " Hwtvjgtoqtg." kp"

vjku"uvwf{"kv"ycu"uwiiguvgf"vjcv"cp"Ðcdknkv{"dcugf"goqvkqpcn"kpvgnnkigpeg"vguvÑ"d{"

Oc{gt"gv"cn0"*4224<"83+"eqwnf"dtkpi"oqtg"tgnkcdng"tguwnvu"vjcp"vjg"Ðuvcpfctf"ugnh-

tgrqtv"hqtocvÑ"wugf"kp"vjg"Dctdwvq"cpf"Dwtdcej"*4228<"79+"tgrqtv0"

The study by Brown et al. (2006) in the USA using Bar-QpÓu"Goqvkqpcn"

Quotient Inventory (EQI) on factory employees neither confirmed the

relationship between emotional intelligence against expected products nor was

the study able to establish the truth of the previous findings that

transformational leadership has a positive impact on the expected product

(p.330).

The investigators in this study claim that their results are inconsistent

with the previous studies on the relationship between transformational

ngcfgtujkr" cpf" qticpkucvkqpcn" qwvrwv0" " ÐWukpi" Dct-QpÓu" *3;;8+" Goqvkqpcn"

Quotient Inventory (EQI), the results brought no significant relationship

between EI and transformational leadership compared to past research (Barling

et al. 2000; Sivanathan and Fekken 2002; Mandell and Pherwani 2003 cited by

Brown et al., 2006: 344).

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 The authors of this article claim that the likely reason for a significant

difference in findings between this study and the previous research and theories

could be due to sample size. Previous studies used a small sample while this

study used a large sample to be able to generalize the findings. The second

reason thought to support the difference in findings is organisational culture.

The current study was carried out in manufacturing settings in USA, while prior

studies came from different cultural settings. For example in the study by

Barling et al. (2000), data came from a pulp and paper organisation, while in

that of Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) data came from a university residence

hall setting and in the study by Mandell and Pherwani (2003) data came from

human resource representatives in a voluntary organisation (Brown et al.,

2006:345). However, the authors of the article emphasise that the failure of their

study to support the relationship between emotional intelligence and

transformational leadership on the one hand and the lack of relationship

between transformational leadership and desired output on the other hand does

not rule out a relationship between EI and transformational leadership.

The study by Kupers and Weibler (2006:377) employing a Multi-factor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) aiming to find the relationship between

emotional intelligence and transformational leadership found that

transformational leadership is linked to some emotional competencies. The

investigators argue that, due to fast changes in economy, emotional intelligence

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is seen as a tool to effect change in any organisation (Kupers and Weibler,

2006:368). Furthermore, citing George (2000), the investigators observe that

ewttgpv"goqvkqpcn"kpvgnnkigpeg"nkvgtcvwtg"uwrrqtvu"vjcv"vjg"Ðcdknkv{"vq"wpfgtuvcpf"

and manage feelings, moods and emotion in the self and others contributes

guugpvkcnn{"vq"ghhgevkxg"ngcfgtujkrÑ"*r058;+0""Vjg"kpxguvkicvqtu"cnuq"gzrnckp"vjcv"

previous studies have indicated the relationship between EI and

transformational leadership (Kupers and Weibler, 2006:369-370), claiming

further that the four main components of transformational leadership, namely

Ðkfgcnkugf" kphnwgpeg." kpurktcvkqpcn" oqvkxcvkqp." kpvgnngevwcn" uvkowncvkqp" cpf"

kpfkxkfwcn" eqpukfgtcvkqpÑ" ctg" nkpmgf" vq" goqvkqpcn" eqorgvgpekgu0" Gmotional

eqorgvgpekgu" nkpmgf" ykvj" vtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgtujkr" kpenwfg" Ðugnh-awareness,

self-ocpcigogpv."uqekcn"cyctgpguu"cpf"tgncvkqpujkr"ocpcigogpvÑ"*Mwrgtu"cpf"

Weibler, 2006:373). Nevertheless, the research acknowledges that this cannot

be a strong reason for establishing a theory so long as some feelings underlying

goqvkqpcn" kpvgnnkigpeg" nkmg" Ðuwtrtkug." rngcuwtg." lq{." jqrg." hgct." cpzkgv{." cpigt."

cpf" ujcogÑ" ygtg" pqv" kpxguvkicvgf" *r0" 59:+0" Dgukfgu." Mwrgtu" cpf" Ygkdngt."

qdugtxg" vjcv" Ðgoqvkqpcn-related empowering behaviour such as consulting,

delegating and sharing of positive information are not directly represented in

Multi-hcevqt"Ngcfgtujkr"Swguvkqppcktg"*ONS+Ñ"*r0"59:+0

The various findings mentioned above on the relationship between

transformational leadership and emotional intelligence was from business

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contexts not from educational settings. But the truth still holds even for

educational contexts. As Morrison (1998: 210) states: transformational leaders

in an educational setting need to be visionary, recognise values, good at

communication, committed, enthusiastic and hard workers. Morrison sees

transformational leadership as linked to emotional intelligence. The

transformational leader needs various components of emotional intelligence for

effective leadership in educational settings.

As noted earlier, the Tanzanian education system is centralised. Yet, at

school level, some elements of transformational leadership can be observed; for

example, the head of school may involve teachers in making decisions in

meetings and appoints heads of academic departments like history or

mathematics departments, where members within the departments can work

together to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Furthermore, at class

level, teachers are expected to exercise professionalism. Not only are teachers

involved but also students may participate in making decisions through their

elected leaders. School heads in some circumstances use emotional intelligence

to further their ideas, such as through creating a trustful environment with

vgcejgtu" cpf" d{" dgkpi" qrvkokuvke" cdqwv" uvwfgpvuÓ" rgthqtocpeg0" " Cpqvjgt"

example is the social welfare committee, which school heads are required to

establish. These social welfare committees serve two purposes: in times of

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"
involved fully in the process of learning. Bush (2003:78) defines participatory

ngcfgtujkr" cu" vjg" v{rg" qh" ngcfgtujkr" yjkej" Ðcuuwogu" vjcv" vjg" fgekukqp-making

process of the group ought to be thg" egpvtcn"hqewu"qh"vjg"itqwrÑ0"Rctvkekrcvkxg"

leadership is a leadership style which has its focal point on shared decision-

making (Leithwood et al., 1999: 12). A practical definition of participatory /

democratic leadership is given by Fullan and Ballew (4226<" 65+=" Ðvjg" ngcfgt"

forges consensus through participation (what do you think?+Ñ0

Babyegeya (2002:200) outlines features of democratic leaders, and some

of these characteristics include features of emotional intelligence. For example,

Ðfgoqetcvke"ngcfgts encourage members in the group to express their ideas and

feelings, because they believe that such a climate leads to greater creativity and

eqookvogpvÑ0" " Vjku" hgcvwtg" gpeqorcuugu" yjcv" vjg" ngcfgt" ykvj" goqvkqpcn"

intelligence is required to be; he/she should be able to know his/her emotions

and the emotions of her/his followers. Besides, the democratic leader needs to

be transparent, inspirational, influential and self aware (Goleman et al.,

2002:254-478+0" " Qpg" oqtg" hgcvwtg" kfgpvkhkgf" d{" Dcd{gig{c" ku." Ðkh" they

encounter resistance or conflict, they allow them to surface and they seek the

jgnr" qh" vjgkt" itqwr" kp" tgoqxkpi" vjg" tgukuvcpeg" qt" tguqnxkpi" vjg" eqphnkevÑ"

(Babyegeya, 2002:200). The democratic leader requires emotional intelligence

embodied in social skills when leading; he/she should possess conflict

management skills, and moreover he/she should be able to see conflict as source
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"
qh" uweeguu0" " Cpqvjgt" hgcvwtg" ogpvkqpgf" d{" Dcd{gig{c" ku" vjcv" Ðfgoqetcvke"

ngcfgtu" dgnkgxg" kp" vjg" ghhgevkxgpguu" qh" itqwr" yqtmÑ0" " This feature also aligns

with the qualities of emotionally intelligent leaders; leaders with emotional

intelligence emphasise collaboration and believe in teamwork for better

performance. Goleman et al. (2002:173) support the superiority of group

decision-making over individual decision-ocmkpi0" ÐKp" vjg" ncuv" hgy" fgecfgu"

much research has proven the superiority of group decision-making over that of

gxgp" vjg" dtkijvguv" kpfkxkfwcn" kp" vjg" itqwrÑ0" Jqygxgt." Iqngocp" cpf" jku"

colleagues caution that in the case of misunderstanding within the group or if

there is low morale within group members, better decisions can not be reached.

Research at Cambridge University found that even groups comprising brilliant

individuals will make bad decisions if the group disintegrates into bickering,

interpersonal rivalry or power plays (Goleman et al., 2002:174). What is

emphasised by Goleman and his fellows is that leaders as well as followers,

even in a democratic style of leadership, need self-awareness and self-other

awareness to enhance decision making in any given organisation.

Moller (2004: 152) lists the following features of democratic leadership

in schools:

‚ The open flow of ideas, regardless of their popularity, that enables people
to be as fully informed as possible.
‚ Faith in individuals and collective capacity of people to create
possibilities for resolving problems.
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 ‚ The use of critical reflection and analysis to evaluate ideas, problems and

policies.

Nevertheless, Moller notes that the characteristics mentioned above are

rarely implemented in school because in most cases parents, students and

teachers are not fully involved in decision making (Moller, 2004:152).

George (2000:1046) observes that emotional intelligence plays a vital

role in enhancing leadership performance in various organisations. Through

eqpukfgtkpi" fkhhgtgpv" curgevu" qh" goqvkqpcn" kpvgnnkigpeg" nkmg" Ðcrrtckucn" cpf"

expression of emotion, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processes and

decision making, knowledge about emotions, and management of emotions, she

concludes that emotional intelligence is necessary for effective leadership

(George, 2000:1046). Studies by Sosik and Megerian (1999:367), Barling et al.

(2000:158), Mayer et al. (2004:207) and Brown et al. (2006:330) also support

that emotional intelligence contributes to leadership effectiveness.

An article by Ecclestone (2007) in the Guardian, a newspaper published

kp"vjg"WM."qdugtxgu"vjcv"Ðqpg"kp"ukz"cfwnvu"yknn"uwhhgt"htqo"fgrtguukqp"kp"vjgkt"

life time, and one in ten 11-15-year-olds has significant emotional or

dgjcxkqwtcn" fkhhkewnv{Ñ0" Nqqmkpi" rctvkewnctn{" cv" vgcejgtu." Jcttku" pqvgu" vjg"

growing number of teachers with stress, but she relates the growing stress with

the restructuring system of education in the UK (Harris, 2007:19). In this

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context, school leaders need to equip themselves with emotional intelligence

skills and involve teachers, non-teaching staff and students democratically to

help each other in emotional growth through coaching and mentoring and focus

groups.

The Tanzanian education system is dominated by a bureaucratic

leadership style. Most of the major decisions like curriculum preparation and

implementation come from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.

At school level the head of school has the sole responsibility for making sure

the curriculum is implemented. However, the head of school can decentralise

authority through the departments. Some decisions are carried out at

department level, for example distribution of the teaching workload. Emotional

intelligence skills like empathy, self-confidence, initiative, understanding others

and collaboration are useful tools for effective management of departmental

teams. The school head also involves teachers in some decisions, for instance,

in handling indiscipline matters of students, teachers and non-teaching staff.

Handling discipline requires self-awareness and self-regulation. School heads

need social skills to manage teachers, non-teaching staff and students, and for

effective interaction with the community. On the other hand, as leadership at

school level involves teachers, non-teaching staff and student leadership, school

heads have the role of instilling the culture of empathy, self-confidence,

initiative, understanding others and collaboration among followers. When a

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Interpersonal leadership (people-oriented management style) in relation to

emotional intelligence

Interpersonal leadership is the third style of leadership which qualifies as

collegiality. It is a type of leadership which hinges on self-awareness and

collaboration between the leader and his/her followers. The organisational

ngcfgt"rwvu"rgqrng"hktuv."vjgp"vjg"u{uvgo="Ðhqt"kpvgtrgtuqpcn"jgcfs ...the school is

c" rgtuqpÑ" *Cpqp{oqwu." 422:<54+0" " Eqnncdqtcvkqp" dgvyggp" vjg" ngcfgt" cpf"

followers and their interpersonal relationship is the focal point of this type of

leadership (Bush, 2008:79). Anonymous (2008:32) describes interpersonal

leadership or people-oriented management style as follows:

...the female head of my last school employs what Ball calls an

interpersonal management style. She relies on personal relationships and
face-to-face contact to fulfil [her] role...her door is always open
(figuratively speaking at least), and there is definite emphasis on
consideration...the head actively canvasses the views of staff on a wide
range of issues and will do so in the corridor, in the staff room or in the
car park!
A body of literature suggests the need for interpersonal leadership for the

effective implementation of school goals. For instance, the study by Bennett at

al. (2000:347) describes how the heads of primary schools in the UK relied on

staff, governors and community to formulate a Strategic Development Plan

(SDP). Another study by Tuohy and Coghlan (1997:66) explains four levels of

participation within the school. The first is the individual level, where the

teacher establishes a relationship with other teachers and the school in general.
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The second level is the department, on this level the teacher is in a team. As a

member of the department he/she participates in the formulation of plans,

strategies and evaluating mechanisms. The third level is team co-ordination.

The last level is school management, concerning its interactions with the

external environment.

Looking at all four levels of participation mentioned above, emotional

intelligence is needed both at the individual level and at group level. Therefore,

interpersonal leadership, self- awareness and self-management are important

factors for organisational members. For example, individual teachers need self-

awareness and self-management of their emotions so as to work successfully

with other teachers within the department. At the same time, in team

coordination, heads of school and heads of departments need to be aware of

self. In addition to that, in effecting communications with the external

environment school heads need self-management and social skills.

Two separate studies, one carried out in the USA using a sample of 118

college students and the other in Germany on 103 college students, show a

positive relationship between emotional competence and the quality of social

interactions (Lopes et al., 2004:1018). These two studies agree with the

predictive and incremental ability measure of EI by Mayer-Salovey Î the

Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (Lopes et al., 2004: 1030). The

tgugctejgtu"ctiwg"vjcv"Ðgoqvkqpcn"eqorgvgpekgu"ctg"vjqwijv"vq"dg"korqtvcpv"hqt"
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"
social interactions because emotions serve communicative and social functions,

eqpxg{kpi"kphqtocvkqp"cdqwv"rgqrngÓu"vjqwijvu"cpf"kpvgpvkqpu"cpf"eqqtfkpcvkpi"

qwveqoguÑ" *Nqrgu" gv" cn0." 4226<323:+0" " Jqygxgt." vjgug" uvwfkgu" ctg" nkokvgf" hqt"

generalisation because of the representative sample: most of the participants

were young female college students and most of the interactions took place

outside the college (Lopes et al., 2004:1030). Nevertheless, there are elements

of reality that emotional competencies in formal originations are important for

leaders to enhance social interactions within and outside the organisation.

Harris (2007:172) emphasises the importance of interpersonal leadership

for school leaders in the following observation:

Developing understanding of interpersonal process is fundamental if

leaders are to foster emotional awareness and literacy in others and
engage community members in the co-creative process of learning and
school improvement.

As discussed earlier, the leadership style dominating Tanzanian schools is

the bureaucratic type: the system is considered first before people. In most

cases the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training makes major decisions

like the introduction of new curricula, expanding the enrolment rate of schools

and introduction of school fees without involving even the heads of schools.

Under such a system, even at school level, sometimes heads of schools make

decisions without involving teachers and students because the heads are the

ones who are accountable to the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.

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Conclusions

In conclusion, emotional intelligence is one of the potentials found in the

right side of the brain of a human being. This intelligence is a combination of

feelings and thinking. A body of theories and research integrate emotional

intelligence with leadership models. One set of leadership models linked to

emotional intelligence is collegial models. Collegial models are about leaders

involving followers in almost every aspect of day-to-day functions of the given

organisation. The common leadership styles found under collegial models are

transformational leadership, participatory / democratic leadership and

interpersonal leadership / people oriented management style.

Transformational leadership is a leadership styng"yjgtg"hqnnqygtuÓ"nq{cnv{"

cpf"cdknkvkgu"ctg"vjg"ockp"fgvgtokpcpvu"qh"vjg"qticpkucvkqpÓu"ceeqornkujogpv"qh"

pre-determined goals. A number of studies have indicated a positive

relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence, yet

some studies show neither a relationship between emotional intelligence and

expected output nor a relationship between EI and transformational leadership

(see, Burbutor and Burbach, 2006 and Brown et al, 2006).

Research by Kupers and Weibler shows that components of

transformational leadership, namely idealised influence, inspirational

motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration, are linked

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to some emotional intelligence components. However, they argue that these

cannot be adequate criteria for establishing a theory so long as some aspects of

emotional intelligence are not linked (Kupers and Weibler (2006:378).

The second leadership style discussed is participatory

leadership/democratic leadership. This style assumes the full participation of

followers in decision making. In an education context, democratic leadership

goes up to class level when the learning style is child-centred. Some

components of emotional intelligence integrate democratic leadership, for

instance, school leaders encouraging followers to express their ideas and

feelings in meetings. In addition, emotional competence is enhanced through

school leaders involving members within the organisation to solve conflicts

which arise among them or with the school authority. Another aspect of

emotional intelligence which integrates participatory leadership is the belief of

school leaders in team work and collaboration of all members within the school.

A body of literature acknowledges the need for emotional intelligence for

effective leadership under participatory leadership (George, 2000; Babyegeya,

2002; Goleman et al., 2002; Molller, 2004).

The interpersonal leadership/people oriented management style is the last

style of leadership to be discussed under collegial models. It is a type of

leadership which is based on self-awareness, interpersonal leadership,

collaboration and self-management. Studies show that interpersonal relationship

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together with emotional intelligence contributes to better accomplishment of

organisational goals in educational settings and enhances social interactions.

Additionally, studies by Tuohy and Coghlan (Coghlan (1997), Bennet et al.

(2000) and Lopes et al. (2004) as seen above support the argument.

The leadership styles of collegial models eorjcukug" rgqrngÓu"

relationships first then the system. The models demand that school heads use

emotional intelligence in leading followers. The challenges facing school heads

employed within a bureaucratic context of leadership like Tanzanian school

heads is how to put people first then the system because school heads are

accountable to higher levels: the Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training.

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%*#26'4"(174""

5%*11."*'#&5 "'(('%6+8'0'55"

Introduction

One of the important factors which contribute to the achievement of school

goals is the existence of effective school leadership. The chapter examines the

effectiveness of a school head by looking at the following sub-headings:

‚ Who is an effective educational leader?

‚ Good schools and effective schools.

‚ Efficacy in leadership.

‚ The paradigm of effective leadership.

‚ How can one be an effective school leader?

‚ Possession of power in effective leadership.

‚ An effective leader of change.

Who is an effective educational leader?

A leader communicates vision to her/his followers so they can share what

their leader believes are a way to success. Gorham et al. (2008:1) describe the

qualities of effective leaders as:

Effective leaders convey a vision and, through their example, expand

qvjgtuÓ" xkgy" qh" yjct is possible. They set high expectations, create a
strong sense of community, and get results. Leaders accomplish this both
by what they do, as well as by who they are. In terms of tasks, good
leaders enhance the skills and knowledge of their followers in the
organisation, create a common culture of expectations around the use of
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 those skills and knowledge, hold the various pieces of the organisation
together in a productive relationship with each other, and hold individuals
accountable for their contributions to the collective results.
Gorham and her colleagues depict what effective leaders are required to be.

Effective leaders ought to be the ones who walk their talk. In addition, leaders

have to share and be ready to change organisational culture for the benefit of the

entire organisation. Moreover, an effective leader enables her/his followers to

like work and creates a sense of pride among workers in the good results the

organisation achieves.

Effectiveness in educational leadership depends on the context, for example,

Leithwood and Riehl, (2003:4-6) suggest a number of factors which are vital for

effectiveness in educational leadership. Among of the factors identified are:

̇ Effective leaders help the school to become a professional learning

community to support the performance of all key workers, including

teachers and students. An effective leader is the one who offers

challenging but achievable tasks. An effective school leader, too, traces

school performance, and makes immediate modification of any

deviations. Additionally, an effective school leader communicates

effectively the school vision, mission and school goals.

̇ Leaders in highly diverse contexts help identify and implement forms of

teaching and learning that are appropriate and effective for the

populations they serve."

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 ̇ An effective school leader establishes strong teams within the school;

fosters collaboration, especially in goal setting and decision making.

Besides, an effective school leader establishes well-built organisational

structures and systems. Additionally, an effective school leader is the one

who supports the growth of school culture. Likewise, an effective school

leader enhances collaboration of other educational stake holders, like

parents; community members; government associations; business people;

publishers; and authors.

̇ School leaders can promote equity and justice for all students by

establishing school climates where patterns of discrimination are

challenged and negated and rule of law is observed. To start with, an

effective school leader establishes a system of curriculum delivery which

uwkvu" vjg" rtgxcknkpi" eqpvgzv0" " Kp" qtfgt" vq" gpjcpeg" vjg" uvwfgpvuÓ"

achievement of what they are learning, working through the teachers an

effective school leader should be able to establish well organised

uvwfgpvuÓ"ngctpkpi"itqwru"qt"enwdu<"c"Ðeqoowpcn"ewnvwtgÑ0""Uqekcn"ecrkvcn"

ku" cnuq" xkvcn" hqt" uvwfgpvuÓ" cejkgxgogpv0" " Dtqwijv-in knowledge,

information, values and preferences from parents and family backgrounds

should not be discouraged, because these form social capital. However,

social capital should be welcomed with care; negatives have to be

discouraged.
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 A study by Barber (2001:218-219) gives a similar observation of what could

be an effective educational leader. This study was conducted in England, and

considered the lessons learnt from the educational reforms of the previous 15

years. Some of the features noted may perhaps be employed by Tanzanian

gfwecvkqpcn"ngcfgtu"vq"kortqxg"ngctpgtuÓ"cejkgxgogpv0""Vjgug"swcnkvkgu"kpenwfg<

̇ Set high standards for all and provide extra support for those who need it

most.

An effective leader is the one who sets challenging but manageable goals

in collaboration with the other employees. Setting challenging objectives

could motivate both learners and teachers. Nevertheless, objectives set

have to be achievable. This could be possible if staff development

through further training and provision of seminars and workshop is

conducted. Furthermore, school heads, too, need development and

support so as to manage the pre-determined standards.

̇ Provide comparative data to enable schools to set targets.

One of the problems which face Tanzanian school heads is the failure to

use data in decision making. It is argued that an effective leader is the

one who can conduct research and come up with findings to support

decision making. Additionally, availability of data is likely to enhance

the process of target setting by comparing different points in time.

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 ̇ Spend on ICT

An effective leader is the leader of change. One of the changes to be

effected is investing in information technology; IT/ICT. Investing in

information is most likely to facilitate teaching and learning.

Nevertheless, many schools in Tanzania are in rural areas where there is

no electricity. Investing in ICT could be impossible without new

technology. However, the use of solar system as source of energy could

serve the purpose. In light this Tanzanian government need to invest in

solar energy as well as initiating simple and less costly electricity

schemes for rural schools.

̇ Ensure world class standards

An effective leader would be one who prepares learners to world-class

level. This is a big challenge to educational leaders in Tanzania. A world

class learner may perhaps be made, if: firstly, the curriculum fits

international standards. Secondly, educators have to have a good

education themselves. Thirdly, the school environment should be

conducive to learning, and last but not least, school heads need to possess

the ability to lead: this is when they will be prepared before the job, and

supported in the job.

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 An effective leader is mostly likely the one who practises distributive

leadership. A school leader has to share her/his responsibilities with lower

levels of management and with teachers for effective implementation of school

goals. Discussing this line of thought, Bennett et al. (2003: 4) explain:

ÐFkuvtkdwvgf"ngcfgtujkr"jcu"dggp"wugf"cu"c"u{pqp{o"hqt"Ðujctgf."eqnncdqtcvkxg."

hceknkvcvkxg."cpf"rctvkekrcvkxgÑ0""Hwtvjgt."Uncvgt"rwvu"gorhasis on collaboration of

teachers and school heads in decision making. He sees collaboration among

school leadership and teachers as a way forward for success in leadership in the

21st egpvwt{0" " ÐVjg" vygpv{-first century approach to organisational behaviour

calls for collaboration and school principals should move away from being sole

fgekukqp" ocmgtu" vq" kpxqnxg" qvjgtu" kp" vjg" fgekukqp" ocmkpi" rtqeguuÑ" *Uncvgt"

2005:321).

Features of an effective school leader

NCSL (2007:7) suggested the following features of effective leaders for both

support and teaching staff (see Table 2).

"

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"""""""""" ;HﾉW"ヲぎ"1ｴ; ;I W ｷ ｷI "ﾗa"WaaWI ｷ W"ﾉW;SW

Hqt"uwrrqtv"uvchh"ghhgevkxg"ngcfgtu"È For teachers, effective

ngcfgtu"È
Recognise and value the work of others Are visible and
approachable
Communicate fully and effectively with all Are supportive
staff
Define roles and responsibilities Have in-depth
knowledge of the school
and wider community
Provide development opportunities Are interested in wider
issues rather than just
results
Adopt an open, consultative approach Understand classroom
practice
Are visible Are non-hierarchical
and consultative
Have a constructive approach to performance Distribute leadership
Management effectively
Act and feedback on concerns raised Act and feedback on
concerns raised

Source: NCSL 2007:7

The illustration in Figure 8 also identifies features of an effective leader.

Despite the fact that the Figure is about effective middle leadership, it could

apply to both senior and junior educational leaders.

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 Identification with a profession

Personal values Knowledge & expertise

Understanding own professional identity

Understanding/valuing professional identity of others

Understanding organisational needs and systems

Relating own professional identity to its organisational context

Relating organisational function to its national context

Effective middle leadership

Eｷｪ W"Βぎ Effective leadership

Adapted from Briggs (2008: 130)

A lesson can be learnt within educational organisations in both developed

as well as developing countries. Leaders need to have clear vision which is to

be communicated to their followers, because with clear and shared vision,

achievable goals can be formulated and reached. Senge (1993:209) stresses the

need for educational leaders to have clear vision for their organisations when he

states:

You cannot have a learning organization without shared vision. Without a

pull towards some goal which people truly want to achieve, the forces in
support of the status quo can be overwhelming. Vision establishes the
overarching goals.
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The above different types of schools require different types of leaders, and more

important they demand effective leaders. For instance, a strolling schools,

struggling schools and sinking schools would be so difficult to come out of

their situations unless they have effective leaders who visionary and leaders of

change. Moreover, schools in cruising or moving school need effective leaders

so as to either maintain the level [improving schools] or achieve another higher

level [cruising schools].

Good schools and effective schools

A number of studies try to distinguish between two closely related terms;

good school and effective school. Silver (1994:6) for example notes that

historically a good school may have been seen in terms of gender, and many

ytkvgtu"uvtguu"vjcv"vjg"vyq"vgtou<"ÐiqqfÑ"qt"ÐghhgevkxgÑ"ctg"c"uqekcn"eqpuvtwev0

Good schools have been ones which have trained girls to be good wives
and mothers, or that trained boys to serve the commercial ethic or the
empire. Good has been an infinitely adaptable epithet, used of schools, of
many kinds, by interested parties of many kinds.
Tkng{"cpf"OceDgcvj"fguetkdg"vjg"vgto"ghhgevkxgpguu"cu"yjgp"Ðkpfkxkfwcn"

uejqqnu" ecp" ocmg" c" fkhhgtgpeg" vq" uvwfgpv" cejkgxgogpvÑ" *Tkng{" cpf" OceDgcvj."

2003:176). Thus, according to Riley and MacBeath, school effectiveness

depends on the extent to which it fulfils curriculum goals and aims. The aim of

education is to prepare the learner for his/her holistic development. However,

Riley and McBeath note that several weaknesses are evident in some studies

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since they ignore the role of school culture, organisational change and socio-

economic status as elements of effectiveness (Riley and McBeath, 2003:176-

177). The effectiveness of a given school depends on many factors: those

within the school boundary and external factors which sometimes are beyond

vjg" uejqqnÓu" kphnwgpeg0" " Dtqcfn{" urgcmkpi." cp" ghhgevkxg" uejqqn" ku" c" uwdugv" qh" c"

good school, and to be good, the school is influenced by various factors

including: economic status, culture; need for change, and the community around

it.

Efficacy in leadership

Riley and MacBeath (2003:179-184) depict a range of factors

contributing to effective leadership. In their study, a group of nine year old

learners described the qualities of a good teacher: these qualities could equally

apply to an effective leader.

̇ has a good education and is able to solve problems

̇ is very experienced as a teacher
̇ is easy going but firm
̇ knows how to look after the building and create a nice environment
and safe place for children
̇ knows how to take responsibility for things happening in the school
and does not blame others
̇ is able to make children, adults and the community feel confident
about the things they do in school
̇ provides a good example in their behaviour (by not smoking, or
drinking in school)
̇ is not racist and makes others see that the colour of their skin does not
matter
̇ keeps in touch with local community, letting them know what is
happening in the school
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 ‚ A good school leader maintains relationships inside the school compound
and outside the school.

‚ A good school leader ought to respond to change, since schools are

constantly experiencing change.

‚ A good school leader shares leadership; avoids a charismatic or heroic

type of leadership.

‚ Good school leaders make choices, and decide based on priorities.

‚ A good leader is one who is willing to learn and make appropriate

change.

How could one be an effective educational leader?

Schools and other educational organisations need effective leaders who can

lead the process of furthering educational goals. Southworth (2005:76) notes

vjcv<"Ðkpukfg"gxgt{"uweeguuhwn"uejqqn"{qw"yknn"hkpf"cp"ghhgevkxg"ngcfgtÑ0""Hgcvwtgu"

of an effective leader are as well offered by the University of Bristol (no date)

as explained below:

̇ Have a plan: effective leaders know where they are going. Besides,

effective leaders should be able to share information on strategies and

available resources so as to be able to implement the pre-determined

goals. With a clear plan, followers know what is required to them and the

direction where they are heading to.

̇ Communicate: communication is the key to success. Good and timely

communication helps to remove bottlenecks to the implementation of the

given plan. Effective leaders need to be in touch with all followers in the
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 organisation. Each individual within the organisation should understand

jku1jgt" tgurqpukdknkv{" vqyctfu" hwnhknnkpi" vjg" rncp0" " ÐCp" ghhgevkxg" ngcfgt"

will set up a framework for regular discussion with individuals as well as

teams, so that progress can be monitored, performance tracked and

rtqdngou"rkemgf"wr"gctn{Ñ"

̇ Are available: good leaders are the ones who are mostly available. Good

leaders have to be ready to listen and learn from others, besides good

leaders are the ones who are easily approached and they are open. If any

change is necessary, a leader should communicate the intended change

effectively to her/his followers.

̇ Trust people: to be an effective leader, you need to be able to delegate

responsibilities and be confident that duties delegated can be performed

accordingly. Leaders should establish the culture of open communication

and trust of followers. Calculated risk is sometimes seen as appropriate.

The possibility of failure is, of course, minimised, but is also accepted.

There no culture of blame

̇ Are consistent in their behaviour: contingent leadership style is important

in leadership. Responses to a follower have to take account of the

prevailing circumstances. However, an effective leader is the one who

respects all kinds of followers. Besides effective leaders need to have

emotional competency.

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 ̇ Are decisive: an effective leader has to make logical decisions; decisions

made must have comprehensible explanations.

̇ Are fair: effective leaders need to be firm and clear, not aggressive.

ÐCpqvjgt" xctkgv{" qh" wphcktpguu" vjcv" oc{" dg" hwp" dwv" ku" dguv" cxqkfgf" d{"

ngcfgtu<"iquukrkpi"cdqwv"qvjgt"ogodgtu"qh"uvchhÑ0"

̇ Deal with conflicts: an effective leader is the one who can resolve

conflicts peacefully. Moreover, a good leader is the one who can deal

with conflicts early; avoid escalating conflicts. In dealing with conflicts,

sometimes you can involve some of your followers, for example,

experienced employees.

̇ Ugv" cp" gzcorng<" Ðghhgevkxg" ngcfgtu" ngcf" d{" gzcorngÑ0" " Vjg{" ctg" ygnn"

motivated, hard working and enthusiastic; in this way they can be

respected. Effective leaders have to create the culture of mutual respect

among followers.

‚ Ctg" ecno<" Yqtmgtu" gzrgev" {qw" vq" dg" ÐwphncrrcdngÑ0" " Rcpke" cpf" iqqf"

leadership seldom co-exist. Management of emotions when conflicts

arise is very vital to the leader of a given organisation. Calmness builds

confidence among followers in the ability to deal with the conflict which

has arisen.

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Possession of power in effective leadership

Power is defined as the ability to influence others. The ability to

influence others depends on the structure of the organisation, for instance, in

bureaucratic organisations; power is concentrated at the top and is very low at

the bottom. In a decentralised organisation, power is somewhat distributed,

while in flatter organisations, power is more distributed. Odhiambo defining

vjg" eqpegrv" qh" rqygt" uc{u<" Ðokpkuvgtu." fqevqtu." eqcejgu." cpf" vgcejgtu" ctg"

examples of people who have the potential to influence us. When they do, they

ctg" wukpi" vjgkt" rqygtu." vjg" tguqwtegu" vjg{" ftcy" qp" vq" ghhgev" ejcpig" kp" wuÑ"

(Odhiambo 2007: 32). Power exits both in formal and informal organisations,

that is people with posts and those without posts can have ability to influence

others.

The concept of power is inter-connected with leadership. Any leader

should have power to be able to influence her/his followers. Below are

identified types of power which may be possessed by the leader so that

organisational goals can be accomplished (Bal et al., 2008: 8):

̇ The power of position: is the formal authority that derives from a

rgtuqpÓu"vkvng"qt"rqukvkqp"kp"c"itqwr"qt"qticpkucvkqp
̇ The power of charisma: is the influence that is generated by
ngcfgtÓu"uv{ng"qh"ngcfgtujip or persona
̇ Power of relationship: is the influence that leaders gain through
their formal and informal networks both inside and outside of their
organisation
̇ The power of information: is the control that is generated through
the use of evidence deployed to make argument

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"
 ̇ The power of expertise: is the influence that comes from
developing and communicating specialised knowledge (or the
perception of knowledge)
̇ The power of punishment: is the ability to sanction individuals for
failure to conform to standards or expectations
̇ The power of rewards: is the ability to recognise or reward
individuals for adhering to standards or expectation.

In the study conducted by Bal et al. (2008:8), participants ranked the top

three as mostly practised at their place of work, while the power of punishment

was the one of lowest exercised types of power.

The power of charisma: a charismatic leader is the one who encourages

and inspires his/her follower to the best. But, it is advised with the power of

charisma, one has to maintain the features that make him/her the way he/she is:

Ðmaintain the characteristics that make you who you are, but try to identify two

or three behaviours that might increase your ability to connect with others (such

as making eye contact, smiling more qhvgpÑ (Bal et al., 2008:8).

The power of relationships enhances collegiality; it is likely that a leader

who practises relational power enhances performance at their place of work.

The power of reward is prevalent in a transactional type of leadership. This is a

hqtocn" v{rg" qh" ngcfgt" tgncvkqpujkr0" Vjg" tgncvkqpujkr" ku" ÐK" yqtm" 1" {qw" rc{=" vjg"

tgncvkqpujkr" ku" gornq{gg" 1" gornq{gtÑ0" " Vjg" rqygt" qh" rwpkujogpv" ku" ngcuv"

mentioned in their research, but this power is mostly used when a leader

reprimands followers in case of indiscipline matters.

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"
 To be an effective leader, this research found the following types of power

were reported by the respondents: the power of relationship [89%], the power of

information [57%], the power to reward others [51%] and the power of

expertise [48%]. The least reported was the power to punish others [3%] (Bal et

al., 2008:10).

Below is a summary of what was concluded by this study on effective

leadership.

Make relationship a priority; do not overplay your personal agenda [be a team

player instead of self-serving]; maximise your communication network; be

generous with information [share information]; make the most of your position

(find subtle ways to communicate formal authority); develop your brand of

charisma (for example, making more eye contact and smiling); be expert; tailor

your power to reward others; reward with words; punish with purpose; teach

others (see Bal et al., 2008: 17-18).

Even though, this research was not conducted in educational settings,

still, it provides a good example which could be employed by educational

leaders for effective leadership. Educational leaders, too, need to command

good relationships with followers as well as students in the school boundaries.

Moreover, they have to command good relationships with the community and

other educational stake holders in order to further educational goals. The ability

to influence others is an important requirement for educational leaders; this

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"
could be possible if the leader possesses adequate information. Enough

information enables the educational leaders to make sound decisions. What is

more, the power of expertise is needed by educational leaders. Effective

educational leaders are more likely to be the ones who possess a strong

educational base. It is strongly advised that leaders within the Ministry of

Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT) together with other educational

leaders have to have excellent knowledge in educational leadership. Effective

educational leaders are the key for improving teaching and learning.

An effective leader of change

Gfwecvkqpcn" ejcpig" ku" kpgxkvcdng0" " Kp" vqfc{Óu" hcuv" oqxkpi" yqtnf" uejqqn"

leaders are constantly leading change. Schools need, for instance, new

technology; new ways of content delivery; improved ways of relationship; new

ways of addressing new culture; new curriculum to cater for the current

demands and future needs of learners. Effective leaders are the ones who can

manage the challenges of change. Good leaders, too, are the ones who can

effectively communicate vision, mission and strategies of the school as an

organisation for learning. According to Odhiambo (2007:35), an effective

leader of change is the one who employs a transformational approach of

ngcfgtujkr=" jg" iqgu" hwtvjgt" uc{kpi<" Ðvtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" ngcfgts are seen ...to be

sensitive to organisational building, developing shared vision, distributing

leadership, and building school culture necessary to changes taking place within

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vjg" uejqqnÑ0" " C" uvwf{" d{" Fc{" gv" cn0" *3;;;<6-9) too, identifies features of an

effective educational leader who can lead change:

̇ Vjg" rgtuqp" kp" vjg" rtqhguukqp<" Ðrgtuqpcn" xcnwgu=" tgurgev" hqt" kpfkxkfwcnu."

fairness and equality, caring for wellÎbeing, whole development of

uvwfgpvu"cpf"uvchh."kpvgitkv{"cpf"jqpguv{Ñ0""Uqog"qh"vjg"rctvkekrcnts in this

research acknowledged that moral values can be a central part of effective

leadership. According to the participants involved in this study, a head-

teacher, who cares both staff and students, is an effective leader; she/he is

a leader of change. For instance, one of participants said:

I have a core belief in equal opportunities for all and I try to let
this determine my leadership style. I believe in fairness and
equality for pupils. I try and demonstrate this by treating staff and
pupils with courtesy and kindness but ultimately I try and
demonstrate that the school is a place where everyone has the
same chance to succeed. (S7).
̇ Maximising staff potential: an effective leader of change is the one who

puts more weight on staff development. Staff development should focus

on whole staff development; staff development should benefit the school

as well as benefiting staff as individuals. School heads have to

understand the importance of staff development especially in a period of

change, because developing staff enables them to acquire necessary skills

and knowledge as important elements for change.

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 ̇ High expectations, setting and monitoring standards: the effectiveness of

a leader of change could observed in the in the ways he/she involves or

influences her/his followers towards the achievement of organisational

objectives. An effective leader of change in an educational context ought

to have a clear sense of direction; be honest; willing to take risks;

courageous; and above of all be able to set challenging but achievable

goals. An effective leader of change is the one who promotes trust and

cohesion among members of staff. In this study by Day et al. (1999:6),

one of the participants said:

I see leadership as being the front person of the organization,

fighting our corner and coming up with certain broad ideas that
ctg" vjgp" ocpcigf" È" KvÓu" vq" fq" ykvj" uwrrqtvkpi" uvchh" cpf" rgqrng"
hggnkpi" vjcv" K" yknn" uwrrqtv" vjgo0" " KvÓu" vq" fq" ykvj" oqvkxcvkpi" cpf"
crrtgekcvkpi" uvchhÓu" ghhqtvu" È" dgkpi" kpvgtguvgf kp" yjcv" vjg{Ótg"
fqkpi"cpf"ikxkpi"vjgo"hggfdcem"qp"c"fckn{"dcuku"È"hqt"vjgo"vq"hggn"
there is somebody who they trust to go out there and give a good
ceeqwpv"qh"vjgougnxgu"È"vjg"hggnkpi"vjcv"KÓo"pqv"iqkpi"vq"fq"vjgo"
fqyp"È"vq"rcvtqn"vjg"dqwpfctkgu"È"*U33+
Where a leader provides motivation, gives prompt feedback, appreciates

every effort of workers, and establishes a sense of trust, these could be

essential fundamentals for effecting change in an educational setting.

This is because it creates a situation where teachers and supporting staff

see change as a process towards the success of their organisation.

̇ Making tough decisions: an effective leader of change is one who has the

capacity of making tough decisions as well as dealing with the

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 consequences. Change is always followed by resistance from staff and

students. In this study, Day and his colleagues found that tough decisions

are usually associated with two major dilemmas. These problems are:

ÒFgxgnqr" qt" fkuokuuÓ" cpf" ÒUwd-eqpvtcevkpi" xgtuwu" ogfkcvkqpÓ. School

heads sometimes find themselves at a crossroads, whether to continue

working with a member of staff who is not performing his/her work or

dismissing her/him. This is one of the problems which need tough

measures to be taken. However, one subject in the study suggested:

I think that is one of the things which is perhaps more difficult

about management, as opposed to leadership, in teaching. If you
are manager or a director of ICI and a member of staff has been
giving problems there comes a point where you say "Oh I think this
ku" kv" K" fqpÓv" vjkpm" kv" ku" kp"vjg"kpvgtguv" qh" vjg" qticpkucvkqp" vjcv" {qw"
eqpvkpwg0$" " Kp" vgcejkpi" kv" fqgupÓv" yqtm" nkmg" vjcv0" " K" hkpf" kv" tgcnn{"
hard that there is a class of children who nobody is pitching in for.
You can support somebody who is incompetent for as long as you
like but there comes a point where you know that it is not going to
make any difference; particularly if they have been doing it for a
long time (S2).
This comment is very vital, even though sometimes controversial, how

can you remain with the worker who is not performing? If the worker is not

performing well due to lack of skills and knowledge, the way forward could be

training. However, sometimes, dismissal in unavoidable if an employee does

not fulfil the organisational interests; developing the learners. Yet, this should

be last resort after all the necessary consultation has been made.

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 The second dilemma is in situations where the head has to choose

between sub-contracting and mediation. From time to time the school heads get

into conflict, between fulfilling external demands against fulfilling

qticpkucvkqpcn" ckou0" " Cu" Fc{" gv" cn0" *3;;;<32+" pqvg<" ÐVjg" encuj" dgvyggp"

externally imposed changes and internal needs or the values of staff moves from

being a management issue and becomes a dilemma when it presents head-

vgcejgtu"ykvj"vjg"ejqkeg"qh"jcxkpi"vq"cfqrv"vjg"tqng"qh"gkvjgt"c"Òuwd-eqpvtcevqtÓ."

qt"ogfkcvqtÑ0

In the study of Day and colleagues, many of the characteristics of an

effective leader are similar in different countries like Denmark, Scotland,

England and Australia (see Day et al., 1999: 13). These features are:

‚ Leadership means having a clear personal vision of what you want

to achieve.
‚ Good leaders are in the thick of things, working alongside their
colleagues
‚ Ngcfgtujkr"ogcpu"tgurgevkpi"vgcejgtuÓ"cwvqpqo{."rtqvgevkpi"vjgo"
from extraneous demands.
‚ Good leaders look ahead, anticipate change and prepare people for
kv"uq"vjcv"kv"fqgupÓv"uwtrtkug"qt"fkugorqygtkpi"vjgo0
‚ Good leaders are pragmatic. They are able to grasp the realities of
the political and economic context and they are able to negotiate
cpf"eqortqokugÓ"
‚ Good leaders are informed by and communicate clear sets of
personal and educational values which represent their moral
purposes for the school

The education sector in Tanzania is not performing well; one of the main

problems facing secondary schools, for example, is poor quality. The increase
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in the number of secondary schools has brought a high demand of teachers, and

teaching resources but the government is failing to meet the increased demand.

As a result many secondary schools lack teachers and essential teaching

resources like books and laboratory equipment. Furthermore, school heads in

general lack proper leadership skills. The educational sector needs major

change. Effective educational leaders are needed who can change the education

system. Studies of effective leaders of change could be a vital tool for making

significant transformation for the benefit of the learners. Research carried out

d{" Etqyvjgt" *4223<38:+" eqoogpvu<" Ðgxkfgpeg" qh" vgcejgtuÓ" ngcfgtujkr" tqngu" kp"

successful school reform has been documented in a small but growing number

qh"jkij"swcnkv{"tgugctej"rtqlgevuÑ0""Etqyvjgt"ku"uwiiguvkpi"vjcv"ghhgevkxg"ejcpig"

needs the collaboration of teachers. School heads in Tanzania should not fail to

remember to involve teachers when planning for educational reform.

Nonetheless, educational leaders should also involve supporting staff, students

and the community when they are planning and leading educational change.

Concluding remarks

Effective educational leaders in the Tanzanian context are likely to be the

ones who can prepare learners for full growth; both mentally and physically.

An effective school head will have a clear vision and be able to communicate it

effectively to teachers, supporting staff as well as students. As Odhiambo

*4229<"52+"rwvu"kv"vqq<"Ðuweeguuhwn"hwvwtg"rtkpekrcnu"yknn"dg"vjqug"yjq"ctg"cdng"vq"
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"
foster relations with teachers, students, and the community through shared

vision making and promotion of professional interaction and those will develop

uvtqpi"rqukvkxg"uejqqn"ewnvwtgu"vq"tghngev"vjgug0Ñ""Vjg"etkvgtkqp"hqt"c"engct"xkukqp"

should be that which inspires learners for good outcomes at the end of the

lesson. Besides, an effective Tanzanian head should be assessed by the capacity

she/he has to train learners to be critical and analytical thinkers. Additionally,

learners should have the skills and knowledge that can lead them into self

employment. Lastly, learners from an effective leader should be able to

compete at an international level.

However, emergent questions which need detailed investigation are: first,

does Tanzania have effective schools? The second question is: does Tanzania

have effective school leaders? These two questions can be well answered if

detailed studies are conducted. Currently Tanzanian schools operate within a

bureaucratic leadership context. School heads are accountable to higher

hierarchies; this, every now and then limits their accountability to the learners.

Accountability to the learners together with decentralisation of authority could

make Tanzanian school heads more effective leaders.

Decentralisation of authority could be carried out to school level, where

schools are allowed to prepare their own curriculum, employ competent

teachers and determine their pay according to merit and working environments.

Allowing schools to employ and determine teacher remuneration may help to

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reduce the shortage of teachers, especially in rural areas where the shortage is

acute. Decentralisation could also allow schools to utilise funds raised from

school fees and other learner contributions for school development. However,

transparency and external auditing of funds, together with the strengthening of

school boards ought to be emphasised.

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%*#26'4"(+8'"""

41.'"1("/+&&.'".'#&'45"
Chapter five is about middle leadership. Subjects covered in this chapter

include:

‚ Middle leadership

‚ Roles of a middle leader

‚ Conclusions

Middle leadership

A leader can be a formal leader or an informal leader. In formal

organisations, such as schools, leaders have vision which needs to be explained

to their followers in order to fulfil the pre-determined objectives. On the other

hand, managers are those who execute the vision, mission and policies set out

d{" ngcfgtu0" " Dncpfhqtf" *3;;9<3+" fghkpgu" c" ocpcigt" cu" Ðuqogqpg" yjq" igvu" vjg"

lqd"fqpg"vjtqwij"rgqrng."yjkng"ngcfgtujkr"ku"cdqwv"xcnwgu."okuukqpu"cpf"xkukqpÑ0"

In educational settings, for example public secondary schools in

Tanzania, there are usually three layers of leaders, arranged hierarchically. The

first layer is made up of the senior leadership team which includes the head of

school, assistant head, senior academic master/mistress, and senior discipline

master/mistress. The middle layer is that of heads of departments; this includes

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all heads of various subjects departments like the history, mathematics and

economics departments. The last layer is that of class-masters or class-

mistresses or dormitory masters/mistresses. The organisational structure of

public secondary schools in Tanzania is illustrated in Figure 1.

The heads of academic departments are the middle leaders within the

school. The other middle leaders include: class masters/mistresses, senior

discipline master/mistress; masters/mistresses in culture and sport and

dormitory masters/mistresses. Busher and Harris, (1999:306) describe a head of

fgrctvogpv" cu" hqnnqyu<" Ðkp" jkgtctejkecn" vgtou." vjg" jgcf" qh" fgrctvogpv" ku" c"

middle mancigtÑ0" " Okffng" ngcfgtu" ctg" cnuq" hqwpf" kp" c" pwodgt" qh" eqwpvtkgu"

world-wide, although they have different names. In the UK, for example, they

are called subject leaders, department heads or middle leaders/managers

(Sammons et al., 1997:203; Busher and Harris, 1999: 305; Wise and Bush,

1999:183; Glover et al., 1999:331; Earley and Weindling, 2004:14 Briggs,

2005:27; Tranter, 2006:15). There are also school middle leaders in Sweden,

Hong Kong, Singapore, New Zealand, the USA, Canada, Australia and The

Netherlands (see Bennett, 1999:289; Witziers et al., 1999:.294; Bush and

Jackson, 2002:423). Heads of department are both middle leaders and middle

managers. Earley and Weindling (2004:113) explain that, in English schools

Ðokffng"ocpcigtu"ctg"uggp"cu"jcxkpi"c"key leadership role - cu"okffng"ngcfgtuÑ0""

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The Teacher Training Agency (TTA) in the UK refers to middle managers or

curriculum co-ordinators as subject leaders (Earley, 1998:152).

The position of head of department in Tanzanian secondary schools has

been established by rule. The heads of schools are required to appoint teachers

to become heads of different academic departments. The selection of a

particular teacher depends on the type of subject a teacher is teaching. In

addition, a teacher should have a considerable number of years of service at that

particular school. The literature shows that the situation is different in other

countries, for example, in the UK, a middle leadership position is aspired to and

the person who applies for that job is supposed to have training (Blandford,

3;;9<436="Lqpgu"cpf"QÓUwnnkxcp."3;;9<;5="cpf"Dwuj."422:<32+0

A study by Bush and Jackson (2002: 423) gave evidence about middle

ngcfgtuÓ" rtgrctcvkqp" cpf" fgxgnqrogpv" kp" xctkqwu" rctvu" qh" vjg" yqtnf." nkmg"

Singapore and the USA (Chicago), before they become middle leaders. In

countries like Sweden, Australia, New Zealand and Canada there was no well-

guvcdnkujgf" u{uvgo" hqt" okffng" ngcfgtuÓ" rtgrctcvkqp" *Dwuj" cpf" Lcemuqp." 4224<"

423). The reason behind providing leadership skills for middle managers is to

enable them to meet the increased challenges of the job.

Middle leaders, as other leaders in schools, play a pivotal role in enabling

the achievement of the major objectives of any given school: quality teaching

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and learning. The study by Harris and Chapman (2002: 6-16) identify a number

of qualities for an effective leader. Although Harris and Chapman ascribe the

qualities to heads of school, they are also essential to middle leaders, as can be

seen below:

‚ Firstly, effective leaders execute vision; middle leaders should involve

departmental members in the execution of vision and values. Middle

leaders should be able to articulate that vision to followers.

‚ Secondly, an effective leader focuses on learning; middle leaders should

focus on effective learning within their department. Middle leaders

should pay attention to the high performance of each learner in the

department s/he leads. Moreover the middle leader has to inculcate the

spirit of learning to each member of the department.

‚ Third, consistency in decision making; a middle leader has to be

consistent in their decisions and their day-to-day routine work.

Hwtvjgtoqtg"u1jg"jcu"vq"dg"qrgp"cpf"jcxg"eqwtcig"vjcv"Ðyg"ctg"pqv"vjgtg"

{gv"dwv"yg"yknn"igv"vjgtgÑ0

‚ Fourthly, insist on and maintain a high degree of relationship in the

department; a middle leader has to be focused on high-quality

relationships with department members and students. He or she should

possess well-developed social skills.

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 ‚ The fifth, combine moral purpose with willingness to be collaborative

and to promote collaboration amongst colleague, whether through team

work, or extending the boundaries of participation in leadership and

decision-making.

‚ Lastly, commitment is one of the key factors for effective leadership.

Middle leaders need to be creative, responsible to students and staff

needs, also to be role models.

Examining the above background and context of middle leaders in Tanzania, the

UK and other countries globally, it is clear that middle leaders play a vital role

in secondary schools. This chapter explores this role in a Tanzanian context,

while making comparisons with what takes place in other countries, especially

the UK. Middle leader roles to be discussed are: putting systems and structures

in place, communication, curriculum management, resource management and

performance management. Furthermore, roles like organisational improvement;

modelling; and professional improvement will be discussed. Lastly, motivation,

liaison, monitoring and evaluation roles will be examined.

Putting Systems and Structures in Place

In Tanzanian secondary schools, within each department, the head of

department is required to establish a subject log book. This is a book which all

members of the department are supposed to fill in after the completion of a topic
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within the syllabus and sign it as proof that he/she has covered that topic or sub-

topic taught. The head of department is also required to sign. In addition to

that, a head of department is required to establish departmental meeting files.

Other files established include: one file for internal examinations and another

file for external examinations (National Examinations). Moreover the head of

department is required to establish files for keeping schemes of work, one file

hqt" ogodgtuÓ" qh" fgrctvogpv" nguuqpu- plans and a file for keeping records of

uvwfgpvuÓ"octmu0"

The roles played by the heads of department in Tanzania with respect to

putting structure and system in place are to a large extent similar to what takes

place in UK secondary schools (Sammons et al., 1997:205; Wise and Bush,

1999:191-192; Harris and Chapman, 2002:14; Busher, 2005:145). Differences

come from the level of technology. In Tanzania most records are on paper; it is

highly likely that in the UK, record documents are kept in computer files.

Besides this in the UK middle leaders prepare plans and curriculum for their

respective departments, while in Tanzania plans are made by the senior

management team and the curriculum is set by the Tanzania Institute of

Education (TIE) on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training.

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Communication

Communication is a leadership role played by the head of department. In

communicating, the head of department acts as both a buffer and bridge

between members of the department and students on the one hand and the

Senior Management Team (SMT) on the other. The head of department has the

responsibility of ensuring that vision and plans are clear to members of the

department. In addition to that, grievances, suggestions and demands from the

department team and students reach the senior management team via the Head

of Department in a smooth way. A National College for School Leadership

report (NCSL, 2003:14) enumerates the communication tasks done by the

middle leaders in UK as: upward communication, communication to SMT,

downward communication, communication between members of departments

which involves interpretation of aims. Other communication tasks include:

communication receiver, when one member of department conveys a problem

to the departmental head instead of communicating with a departmental

member.

In effecting the communication process, the head of department has to

convey information skilfully so as to avoid conflict between Senior

Management Team (SMT) and teachers or students. Earley and Weindling

(2004: 115) note that communication skill is one of the necessary four skills

identified by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) which subject leaders should
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possess. Busher and Harris (1999:307) also observe that the TTA and Office

for Standards in Education (OfSTED) see communication as one of the essential

functions of the head of department in the UK.

The different methods of communication enumerated above are practised

by middle leaders in Tanzania, but middle leaders can communicate outside of

the school through the senior school leadership.

Curriculum Management

This is one of the crucial roles of the middle leader; he/she has to make

sure teaching and learning are carried out smoothly and in an effective way.

Earley (1998:153 observes that subject leaders have a major responsibility for

the curriculum and effecting quality teaching and learning. And a study carried

out by Busher and Harris (1999:307-308) describes the curriculum management

role as two-fold: the first aspect is where the middle leader applies transactional

leadership in monitoring the achievement of school goals and sets the standard

of performance of both teachers and students. As for the second aspect, citing

Glover et al. (1998), they describe the middle leadership role with respect to the

curriculum as mentoring and support so as to develop pupils academically and

socially. Another study by Busher (2005:145) also shows the middle leader as

the key person for improving teaching and learning for all students. An

effective middle manager develops quality teaching and learning for all

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students. The research carried out by Witziers et al. (1999:301) emphasises that

departments are crucial for quality education in Dutch schools.

Earley and Weindling (2004:116) mention six steps for improving the

quality of teaching and learning employed by middle leaders in Welsh

secondary schools. These steps are: enhancement of in-service training; good

planning and sharing experiences within departmental meetings; promoting

vgcou="oqpkvqtkpi"rwrknuÓ"vcumu"cpf"fkurnc{kpi"rwrknuÓ"yqtm0"

Some aspects of the curriculum role of a middle leader explained above

could be adopted in Tanzania. For example the transactional way of monitoring

performance is inevitable. Besides, mentoring of students could help to improve

their performance, especially students coming from poor families or single-

parent families. Furthermore the study by Turner quoted by Earley and

Weindling highlights to a large extent the requirements for heads of

departments for improving curriculum delivery in Tanzanian secondary schools,

despite the fact that the research was conducted elsewhere. What is needed is to

interpret it in the Tanzanian context.

Resource Management

The head of department manages human resources, financial resources

and physical resources. In Tanzanian secondary schools, the head of

department is responsible for keeping safe departmental curriculum resources,

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"
files, tables and chairs and books. The situation is different from that of the

UK, Canada and the Netherlands. The middle leader in the UK manages

finance, human resources and curriculum resources like books which are owned

by the department. In the Netherlands departments influence the employment

of new teachers (Witziers et al., 1999:295). The study by Hannay and Ross

*3;;;<568+" kp" Qpvctkq" *Ecpcfc+" uejqqnu" rtqxkfgu" gxkfgpeg" vjcv" Ðitqwrkpi"

teachers provides political support for allocation of human and financial

tguqwteguÑ0" " Dncpfhqtf" *3;;9<387+" gzrnckps that middle managers in the UK

have the responsibility of determining and managing their departmental

budgets. Furthermore, the NCSL report (2003: 13) shows that middle leaders in

the UK and USA own both curriculum resources and financial resources; they

have the responsibility for preparation and management of departmental

budgets.

In the process of managing staff, the middle leader requires competence

kp" uwrrqtvkpi" fgrctvogpvcn" ogodgtu" vq" oggv" uvwfgpvuÓ" pggfu0" " Vjtqwij" vjku."

trust is created among team members (Glover et al., 1999:338). Moreover the

middle leaders need to enhance collegiality within the department. This means

involving members of department in decision-making. Involving members

creates a collaborative culture and hence effective performance (Busher and

Harris, 1999:307).

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 The research by Turner and Bolam (1998:385) acknowledges the need for

the head of department to control his/her departmental members so as to

effectively accomplish all responsibilities. Although heads of department have

no responsibility for finance in Tanzania, this responsibility could still be of

importance, especially for a department owning funds for purchasing

curriculum materials.

Performance Management

Performance management is another important role of middle managers.

The role aims at teaching and learning enhancement. In the UK, secondary

schools, middle leaders are provided with a self-evaluation guide. According to

Fgrctvogpv" hqt" Gfwecvkqp" cpf" Umknnu" *FhGU+" *4227+" vjg" okffng" ngcfgtuÓ"

evaluation guide advises middle leaders on how to make performance

evaluation:

This guide is aimed at middle leaders in secondary schools: subject and

year leaders, SENCOS and other coordinators of aspects of school
improvement. It provides guidance for middle leaders in evaluating the
rgthqtocpeg"qh"vjgkt"vgcou"cpf"vjg"vgcoÓu"korcev"qp"rwrknu0"Kv"ku"fgukipgf"
vq" uwrrqtv" okffng" ngcfgtuÓ" eqpvtkdwvkqp" vq" vjg" uejqqn" ugnh-evaluation
process, and the inspection process, through evidence gathering and
making judgement (DfES, 2005:2).
Specifically the middle leaders play the following role with respect to

performance management (DfES, 2005:4-7):

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 ‚ Firstly, about judging standards; the middle leader makes analysis and

kpvgtrtgvcvkqp"qh"rwrknuÓ"rgthqtocpeg"kp"vjg" uwdlgev0"Jg1ujg"cnuq"jqnfs a

review with teachers about the evaluation of class progress, categorised

groups and individuals. Furthermore, he/she has the responsibility of

fkuewuukpi"rwrknuÓ"fkuekrnkpg"ykvj"vgcejgtu0"

‚ Secondly, he/she evaluates teaching and learning through assessing

schemes of work, observing teaching and participating in reviewing

vgcejgtuÓ"rncpu0

‚ Thirdly, the middle leader is to enhance sustainable improvement, s/he

leads discussion on priorities, setting SMART (Specific, Measurable,

Achievable Realistic and Time bound) targets. In addition the middle

leader leads improvement in teaching, review and constructs the

curriculum. Moreover s/he has the responsibility of identifying and

providing staff development needs.

‚ Lastly, the middle leader shares experiences with other middle leaders

and teachers on different suitable approaches for teaching and learning.

Some aspects of performance management mentioned above are not

performed by the heads of department in Tanzanian secondary schools. For

example, self-evaluation has not yet been introduced in Tanzanian secondary

schools although there is a plan to implement it in the near future; the system is
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"
vgtogf" vjg" ÐQrgp" Rgthqtocpeg" Tgxkgy" Crrtckucn" U{uvgo" *QRTCU+Ñ0" " Uqog"

hwpevkqpu." nkmg" vjg" cpcn{uku" qh" uvwfgpvuÓ" rgthqtocnce, discussion on discipline

matters about students, encouraging teachers to prepare standard schemes of

work and sharing experiences with other heads of department, are found in

Tanzanian schools. In this way Tanzania could learn from other countries about

jqy" vq" kortqxg" vgcejgtuÓ" rgthqtocpeg" vjtqwij" okffng" ngcfgtu." gurgekcnn{"

through self-evaluation.

Organisational Improvement

The prominent tasks of the middle leader under organisational

kortqxgogpv" kpenwfg" fgrctvogpv" ogodgtuÓ" rtqhguukqpcn" fgxgnqrogpv."

observing school culture and in-service training.

Heads of departments in Tanzanian secondary schools do not have the

responsibility of proposing or appointing teachers for training; this is the

responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. At school

level a head of school proposes teachers for further skills enhancement. But the

head of department can persuade members of the department to apply for

training. A good example is when the head of department advises teachers who

are working without professional teaching qualifications to go for the Post-

graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) course. The situation is different in the

UK, where middle leaders have responsibility for the professional development

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of their team-members (Earley, 1998:153; Glover et al. 1999:340; Bush and

Wise, 1999: 189).

Promoting school culture is another aspect of organisational

improvement. The head of department has to develop and observe both culture

and sub-culture for the benefit of the whole school. For example, the middle

leader has to promote the culture of discussing issues related to teaching and

learning within her/his department. In addition, heads of departments have to

promote a sense of optimism within their departments and a culture of

cooperation among departmental members.

Team Management

A team is a group of people with a shared meaning, values and norms.

Crawford (1997:4) defines teams as formal groups with a common goal. In

most schools middle managers perform their day-to-day tasks in teams

*Dncpfhqtf." 3;;9<:4+0" " Ceeqtfkpi" vq" *Dncpfhqtf." 3;;9<:5+" Ðguugpvkcnn{."

successful team-work depends on a clearly defined set of aims and objectives,

vjg" rgtuqpcnkvkgu" qh" vgco" ogodgtu" cpf" vjg" vgco" ocpcigtÑ0" " Vjg" uvwf{" d{"

Hannay and Ross (1999:346) in Ontario, Canada, gives evidence that putting

teachers together in a department enhances interactions. Everard and Morris

(1996:162-386+" kfgpvkh{" ukz"uvgru" hqt" vgco" dwknfkpi" yjkej" ctg<" ÐVwpkpi" vq"vjg"

problem, Objective setting, Success criteria, Information and ideas, Plan,

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"
Cevkqp." cpf" Tgxkgy" *VQUKRCT+0Ñ" " Vjgug" uvgru" ctg" korqtvcpv" vq" vjg" okffng"

manager with his/her department for effective team building. A head of

department is supposed to understand his/her department members and their

capabilities so that they can be given different roles in meetings. Everard and

Morris (1996: 158-160 citing Belbin, 1993) discuss various roles which have to

be played by departmental members in meetings:

‚ Firstly, coordinator: this role is played by a teacher who has the ability

to lead the meetings; he/she is the chair of the meeting.

‚ Secondly, shaper: his/her role is to influence direct attention and

motivate his/her fellow members to reach sound decisions.

‚ The third role is that of a plant: this is the teacher who is creative,

innovative and who has problem-solving potential within the

department.

‚ The fourth role is that of monitor-evaluator: this should be a member

of department who has ability to make assessments and analyse

problems so as to provide advice on how to make adjustments.

‚ Other roles include: implementer; this is the one who can put plans

into practice within the department and the resource investigator role;

this is the one who has the ability to find sources of new funding and

other resources.
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 ‚ The last role is of completer-finisher; this should be the member of

the department who pays attention to various details, standards and

specifications.

The roles mentioned above are vital for effective implementation of the

goal of quality teaching and learning in a particular subject within the

department. It can be suggested that heads of department have to learn how to

distribute responsibilities to departmental members because these particular

roles are rarely applied. Furthermore distribution of responsibilities within the

department can create motivation among members and enhance performance.

Professional Development

Middle leaders in secondary schools in some countries are responsible for

developing their teachers professionally. The case is different in Tanzania,

where professional development is the role of the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training. Sometimes teachers develop themselves, for example,

through pursuing studies at The Open University of Tanzania. In the UK, heads

of departments plap" hqt" vjgkt" vgcejgtuÓ" fgxgnqrogpv" *Dncpfhqtf." 3;;9<" 3:7="

Earley, 1998:154; Wise and Bush, 1999: 189; Glover et al., 1999:340; Harris

and Chapman, 2002:3 and Briggs, 2005:32). Professional development enables

teachers to improve their performance through acquiring new skills. Teachers

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should be lifelong-learners and this is possible if they get support from their

leaders and employers.

Blandford (1997: 186) emphasises that learning is supposed to include

okffng" ocpcigtu" cnuq=" Ðvjg" fgxgnqrgt" owuv" dg" fgxgnqrgfÑ0" " Vjg" oclqt"

challenge facing Tanzanian teachers is lack of professional development. The

problem is made worse by the state of poverty facing the country. But, school-

based initiatives, like providing seminars or workshops at the place of work

could help to ease the challenges of obsolete skills. Programmes like

mentoring, coaching, seminars and reflection can be useful tools for improving

the quality of teachers within the department.

QÓUwnnkxcp" cpf" Yguv-Burnham (1998:6) offer a concept-map which was

proposed by the Department of Education and Science (DES) in the UK about

the in-ugtxkeg" gfwecvkqp" qh" vgcejgtu0" " Uvgru" kpenwfg" Ðkpfwevkqp" *hktuv" {gct+."

orientation (5-8 years), advanced seminars 8-12 years), mid-career advanced

studies (12-15 years) and senior management/refreshment (for senior and

okffng"ocpcigtu+Ñ0""Hgy"uejqqnu"kp"vjg"WM"rwv"vjg"kfgc"kpvq"rtcevkeg"yjgp"kv"

was originally proposed, due to limitations of funding, but it seems that it was a

good idea for the professional improvement of teachers. It is likely that the

concept can be adopted in the Tanzanian context if the budget allocation to the

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training increases. Training of teachers

can be arranged in zones and most of the training could be conducted through
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seminars or workshops. In these ways departments could have better quality

teachers

Modelling

A middle leader is required to be a good example to his/her department.

The study by Harris and Chapman (2002:3) identifies some qualities of

effective leaders; these qualities are: optimism, wider view, self-confidence and

value-driven leadership. Others include: realistic, resilient, determined

individuals, strategic, setting challenging goals and observing culture. The

noted characteristics are needed by any middle leader regardless of the situation.

For the successful accomplishment of educational goals, for example, the

middle leader ought to create a sense of optimism among members of

department that every pupil has the ability to perform better. In addition to that,

the middle leaders have to be at the forefront of completing the set-pieces of

work within the department. Creating a strong feeling of love of work and

commitment to work among members of department is also a crucial aspect of

thg" okffng" ngcfgtuÓ" tqng0" " Jgcfu" qh" fgrctvogpv" kp" Vcp|cpkc" rctvkekrcvg" kp"

teaching, preparation of schemes of work and lessons plans. It would be a bad

example to find a head of department without schemes of work or lesson plans,

and failing to attend classes for no good reason. The study by Busher

(2005:147) in the UK shows that middle leaders have to be good teachers; and it

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is in this way they are respected. This presents a problem, that being a middle

leader while at the same time having the responsibility of teaching is a big load.

Motivation

Itcjco"cpf"Dgppgvv"*3;;:<82+"fghkpg"oqvkxcvkqp"cu"c"eqodkpcvkqp"qh"Ðcnn"

drives, forces and influences - conscious or unconscious - that cause the

gornq{gg"vq"ycpv"vq"cejkgxg"egtvckp"ckouÑ0""Oqvkxcvkqp"ku"Ð"vjg"eqoplex forces,

drives, needs, tensions, states, or other mechanisms that start and maintain

xqnwpvct{" cevkxkv{" fktgevgf" vqyctfu" vjg" cejkgxgogpv" qh" rgtuqpcn" iqcnuÑ" " *Jq{"

and Miskel, 1982:137). Middle managers motivate departmental members in

order to meet departmental and school goals. It is one of the core and delicate

roles of the head of department. It is a core role because motivated teachers

work hard, they have high interest in the job, they cooperate within the

department and they can accept change; in general, teaching and learning is

enhanced when teachers are motivated. The opposite is also true, because when

there is a lack of motivation among members of department the likely outcomes

are indifference within the department, minimal or no cooperation, resistance to

change, persistently poor time management: in general workers do not like the

job.

Herzberg in his two-factor theory proposes factors which can motivate

employees in any given work setting. These factors can be used by the head of

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department to motivate his/her followers. The factors are termed as motivators

qt"ucvkuhkgtu="vjg{"kpenwfg"Ðcejkgxgogpvu."tgeqipkvkqp."yqtm"kvugnh."tgurqpukdknkv{"

cpf"cfxcpegogpvÑ"*Jq{"cpf"Okumgn."3;:4<36;+0""Oqvkxcvqtu"qt"ucvkuhkgtu"ngcf"vq"

job satisfaction (ibid, 149).

The middle leader, through creating a challenging environment for his/her

department members, for example by the introduction of Information

Technology in the classroom, can motivate his/her department members and

students for the particular subject. Similarly, teachers can be motivated if they

participate in decision making.

Providing opportunities for advancement for teachers within the

department is another way of motivating followers. Introducing new ways of

learning within the classroom, for example a learner-centred approach motivates

students. A distributive leadership style is another way of motivating

departmental members; the head of department has to distribute some of his/her

responsibilities to other members of department. Distributive leadership can be

carried out by middle leaders even in a centralised education system like

Tanzania. A study conducted in the UK shows that middle leaders motivate

their followers through praise, putting into practice new ideas, professional and

competence recognition. Furthermore, teachers are motivated through

encouragement and delegation of responsibilities (Glover et al., 1999: 340).

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Liaison Role

In the Tanzanian education setting, liaison is the responsibility of the

head of school. The head of school communicates with the surrounding

community, parents, members of the school board, other schools and the

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, and sometimes even other

education stake-holders like local donors. On issues concerning a particular

subject area, the head of department can communicate with other departments

within the school and outside the school, for example borrowing books and

laboratory equipment, also by sharing experiences with middle leaders in other

departments in his/her school or in neighbouring schools. In the UK, the

situation is somewhat different; middle managers have the responsibility of

liaising with outside organisations like parents, guardians, and school governors

(Earley, 1998:154; Wise and Bush, 1999:187; Busher and Harris, 1999: 308).

One advantage associated with the ability to communicate with external

organisations is that it is easy to share experiences with other schools especially

on matters within the same subject area. Another advantage is that the middle

leader could acquire funds from outside the organisation for the benefit of

her/his department.

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Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring is about tracking data or recording data, and evaluation

involves assessment. The head of department is required to monitor and

evaluate the process of teaching and learning in his/her subject area. Through

keeping records and involving teachers in assessing the teaching and learning

process, strengths and weaknesses can be identified and rectified. It is only by

evaluating what is being done now and what has been done in the past that the

future can be planned with confidence. This is true not only for individuals but

also for groups and indeed the whole organisation (Hardie, 1998:175).

Middle managers monitor and evaluate the quality of the teaching and

learning process by inspecting plans: long term, weekly and individual lesson

plans. Moreover middle managers have to conduct lesson observations in

encuutqqou." kpurgevkpi" uvwfgpvuÓ" yqtm." vcnmkpi" vq" rwrknu." and administering

various tests. Last but not least, the middle leaders can use questionnaires to

assess teaching and learning progress within his/her subject area. In order to

improve the performance of all students, middle leaders have to establish a

proper system of keeping records and ensuring sound assessment. Evidence

from the study conducted by Busher (2005:145) in the UK shows that effective

middle leaders establish a proper filing system to facilitate the monitoring and

evaluation process. The study by Wise (2001: 338) confirms that, in English

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schools, middle leaders have the responsibility of monitoring and evaluating the

quality of teaching and learning within their departments.

In the Tanzanian context, heads of department in secondary schools do

most of the tasks noted above, for example keeping marks records for all

students within the subject area and checking classroom attendance registers. In

addition to that they have to make sure that teachers prepare schemes of work

and lessons plans; sometimes they talk with students to get their ideas on how

teaching and learning is being conducted. But classroom observation and

administering questionnaires is not used as means of monitoring and evaluating

teaching and learning. Nevertheless, these could be some of means to be used

by the Head of Department to get feedback from students on how teaching and

learning is conducted.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this review of middle leadership literature shows that the

middle leader plays a pivotal role in secondary schools to enhance the quality of

teaching and learning. A number of responsibilities performed by the middle

leaders examined include: establishing systems and structures, bridging senior

management and lower level management, and students in terms of

communication. He/she is also responsible for supervising both curriculum

implementation and management resources within the department. Other

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functions of middle leaders are: management of performance within the

department, ensuring organizational improvement and team building. Moreover,

the middle manager is responsible for the professional development of his/her

members of department. Lastly, the middle manager plays a modelling role,

liaison role and he/she participates in monitoring and evaluation.

A number of the studies reviewed show that the middle management

position in secondary schools is found in developed and less developed

countries globally; examples of these countries are the UK, USA, Sweden,

Australia, The Netherlands, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, and Tanzania.

This chapter has demonstrated relationships and differences between the roles

performed by the heads of departments in Tanzanian secondary schools and the

UK in particular and other countries in the world in general. The literature

surveyed shows more similarities and fewer differences in terms of the role

performed by the middle leaders in Tanzania with respect to other countries.

For example, both in Tanzania and the UK heads of department keep

documentation like stwfgpvuÓ" octmu." uejgogu" qh" yqtm." nguuqpu" rncpu" cpf" rcuv"

examination papers. In addition to that, heads of departments facilitate the flow

of information from senior management to members of departments, and

information from students and teachers to the senior management team.

Furthermore, in all countries surveyed, heads of departments are responsible for

quality learning, monitoring and evaluation. The major significant differences

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observed are on fund management and professional development of

departmental members. In Tanzania, heads of department do not have their own

funds and staff development is the role of the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training. With the increase in numbers of students in secondary

schools the job of the Senior Management Team is becoming more complex and

demanding. Therefore, Tanzania may learn from other countries about how to

utilize heads of department more effectively.

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%*#26'4"5+:""

564#6')+%"2.#00+0)"#0&"564#6')+%"+06'06""

Making choices is a natural phenomenon in human life. Human beings plan

for effective and efficient utilisation of resources in order to gain the most out of

what is available. It is a common event for human beings before taking any

decision to think, for example, how; when; where; to whom; and for what

purpose they will take any action. Any decision is done after some sort of

thinking. Thinking before making decision could be termed as planning. This

chapter discuss two major concepts related to planning: strategic planning and

strategic intent. The main questions discussed include:

‚ Origin of planning
‚ Strategic planning
‚ Strategic planning in relation to leadership
‚ Models of strategic management in schools
‚ School accountability in relation to planning
‚ Strategic intent
‚ Strategic competence
‚ Decentralisation of educational planning in Tanzania
Origin of the term Planning

Babyegeya (2002: 11) explains that educational planning at a national

scale resulted from socialist economies; the command economy led by the then

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USSR. Western Europe adopted this practice in education after the World War

II because of the high demand for reconstruction which rose after the Second

World War in their countries:

The theoretical basis for planning education in the Soviet Union was the
polytechnic education principle of practical training for the young, to
make them active and productive members in the communes, an idea that
was developed by Karl Marx in the nineteenth century. Education
planning at the state level became embraced in Western countries and
Japan, after the Second World War, as a response to the need for
economic reconstruction, and to compete effectively with the USSR.
Furthermore, Babyegeya argues that other theorists like Theodore W.

Shultz (1961), Becker (1964), and Harbison and Myers (1964) who advocated

for the human capital theory had a great influence on western countries to adopt

planning in their education systems (Babyegeya, 2002:12).

A range of definitions about planning are offered in the literature,

especially in economics, for instance, Kilonzo (1992:2) defines planning as:

Ðvjg" fgnkdgtcvg" iqxgtpogpv" cvvgorv" vq" eqqtfkpcvg" geqpqoke" fgekukqpÎmaking

over the long run and to influence, direct, and in some cases even control the

ngxgn" cpf" itqyvj" qh" pcvkqpuÓ" rtkpekrcn" geqpqoke" xariables such as income,

eqpuworvkqp."gornq{ogpv."kpxguvogpvu."ucxkpiu."cpf"gxgp"gzrqtvuÑ0"Rncppkpi"ku"

hwtvjgt" fghkpgf" " cu" Ðc" hqtocn" rtqeguu" qh" fgekukqp-making that is involving

choices about directions for the future and about immediate actions needed to

gpuwtg" vjg" ghhkekgpv" cpf" ghhgevkxg" qrgtcvkqpu" qh" cp" qticpkucvkqpÑ" *Dcd{gig{c."

2002: 3). Educational planning as in other sectors, like business and economics,
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involves a systematic process of making sound decisions on where to go and

how to get there. It aims at achieving an effective and efficient outcome from

education for the benefit of the learners. Educational planning is both strategic

and operational: the operational plan sets out the action needed to fulfil the

intentions of the strategic plan.

Strategic planning

West-Burnham writing on strategic planning defines it as:

... a process operating in an extended time-frame [3-5 years] which

translates vision and values into significant, measureable and practical
outcomes. Although the primary responsibility of senior management, the
process requires two-way communication at all stages and has to be
focused on the core purpose and practical activities of the school or
college (West-Burnham, 1994: 84).
West-Burnham acknowledges the involvement of members of staff in the

process of preparing a strategic plan. Normally, the strategic plan is in the

hands of higher levels of management; however, educational leaders, for

example secondary school principals, have to get a range of advice and

suggestions from teachers, supporting staff, students and other educational stake

holders in the process of preparing a strategic plan. Involving members of the

staff could be advantageous as long as these are the implementers of the plan.

Once they are involved, implementation is more likely to result in good

achievement, since the plan becomes theirs.

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 Plans prepared, whether strategic or operational, have to be flexible.

Plans prepared too rigidly can bring resistance from the implementers.

Resistance to the top-down type of plan could be costly in terms of time and

energy used to remove resistance, and resources may be lost due to the failure

of meeting the expected outcomes. This is because plans can tempt resistance

from implementers when they are not involved in the planning process, and

unclear plans also provoke resistance. Morgan (1993: 55) cautions about

strategic planning which is not collaborative:

...strategic plans quickly become straitjackets because of the political and

other alignments that are created. They are often inflexible and their
implementation often mobilises cynicism and resistance from many
quarters. All too often, they become an end in themselves, saluted in
annual reports and launched with great fanfare, but fizzing in
implementation because all the real energy has been put into creation of
the plan itself.
Lumby (1999: 75) also acknowledges the need for having unanimous agreement

between top management, who prepare strategic plans, and lower levels of

management including workers [teachers and non-teaching staff] who are the

implementers of the plans. When researching strategic planning in English

Further Education Colleges, Lumby found that the plan itself could be relatively

unimportant, as the rapidly changing environment could make it redundant as

soon as it was produced. What her respondents saw as important is taking part

kp"vjg"rtqeguu="cu"qpg"rtkpekrcn"rwvu"kv<"Ð{qw"jcxg"vq"uc{"vjkpiu"vq"{qwtugnh"cpf"

vq"gcej"qvjgt"kh"{qw"ctg"vq"dg"vq"cev"rwtrqughwnn{Ñ"*Nwod{."3;;;<97+.

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 ;HﾉW"ンぎ"} ; WｪｷI" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ";ﾐS"j W ; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ"

Strategic planning Operational planning

Focus Achieving goals Routine activities

Purpose Planning the best course of action Achieving the best use of
available resources

Rewards Effectiveness, impact Efficiency, stability

Information Future opportunities Present situation

Organisation Entrepreneurial, flexible Bureaucratic, stable

Problem solving Finds new ways and Relies on past experience

Alternatives

Risks High Low

Adapted from Chang, 2006:5

Planning is a process which takes place continuously. Briggs (2002:177)

provides the illustration in Figure 12 of the continuous process of planning;

which is known as a planning cycle. In this process, planners have to ask

themselves questions, these include: where are we going? Planning has to

define targets, goals and expected outcomes. An additional important question

is: are we getting there? Activities planned to be carried out are to be

monitored, and any deviation from what was planned has to be recorded. More

to the point, any success is to be noted. Lastly, another crucial question which

needs attention is: are we there yet? This type of question demands the whole

of the activities which are conducted to be evaluated based on the anticipated

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 questions include what overall results (strategic goals), the system should
achieve and the overall methods (or strategies) to implement policies.
̇ Action planning is a process whereby one translates the policy directions
into executable, measurable and accountable actions. In a broader sense,
action planning includes specifying objectives, outputs, strategies,
responsibilities and time lines (what, what for, how, who and when).
The planning process suggested by Chang could be adopted by the MOEVT

with respect to secondary schools in Tanzania; however, to make it effective,

the involvement of stake holders is essential. It is advised that teachers,

students, parents, publishers, economists and authors could play a vital role

through saying what they need to be included in the MOEVT strategic plan. At

school level, for example, a good approach could be involving teachers,

students and supporting staff to prepare a strategic plan, which will be compiled

and sent to the MOEVT. It strongly advised further that monitoring and

evaluation should not be forgotten, and the process ought to include all

educational stake holders.

The Educational Sector Development Programme (ESDP) as given by the

MOEVT highlights many aspects of planning which are most likely to prepare

Tanzanian learners to full growth: this is encouraging. Yet, the programme

needs to be participatory; it also needs to put into account the whole issue of

collaborative monitoring and evaluation. But, one of the big challenges is to

reach many rural schools on the issue of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT); rural schools, especially Ward schools, lack electricity.

Some questions do not have concrete answers. How, for instance can

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computers be introduced to rural schools where there no electricity? How can

ICT be taught if teachers do not know how to use computers? This could be

possible if the government invests in electricity production or other simple and

easily adapted technology, for example, by using solar power.

Encouraging development partners, for example, Swedish International

Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) to expand its project of supplying

electricity to many rural areas could as well enable rural schools to get

electricity. Currently SIDA is working hand-in-hand with the Tanzania

Electrical Supply Corporation (TANESCO) to enhance the supply of electricity

in some rural areas of Tanzania (see SIDA, 2012). Furthermore, Tanzania as a

country should start thinking about new ways of providing computer knowledge

to students in remote areas, for example, by using new discovery knowledge,

where learners can learn computers themselves (see Mitra et al., 2005:21). The

following is the ESDP explanation downloaded from http://www.moevt.org.tz

website

Education Sector Development Programme is an attempt to realize the

objectives of Education Sector policies. It was formulated to address
critical issues and problems facing the education and training sector in
general. The Programme is a comprehensive and complex undertaking
entailing many fundamental changes including Information and
Communication Technology (IT) as well as the participation of many and
varied actors in education and training. These interventions are focused
primarily on the learner, the teacher and the teaching/learning
environment, ultimately intending to improve the academic achievements
and competences of the learner

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Strategic Management and Leadership

Hkfngt" *3;;8<72+" fghkpgu" uvtcvgike" ocpcigogpv" cu<" Ðvjg" etgcvkqp" cpf"

implementation of strategy in response to and in anticipation of future events

and trends in the outside world ... is concerned with deciding on strategy and

planning how to implement it. It consists of analysis, decision-making,

korngogpvcvkqp" cpf" gxcnwcvkqpÑ0" " Vjg" hwpfcogpvcn" dgjcxkqwt" qh" cp{"

organisation is its constant change. Organisations are regularly externally

influenced, for example, by regulatory frame-works, economy, politics, science

and technology as well as social factors. To be able to work effectively,

organisations need constantly to adapt to the external environment. Strategic

management is necessary for organisations to fit into their external

environment.

Chang (2008:3) offers a similar definition of strategic management to that

qh" Hkfngt" cu"Ðc" eqpvkpwwo"qh" uweeguukxg"uvcigu"uwej"cu<"etkvkecn"cpcn{uku"qh"vjg"

system, policy formulation and appraisal, action planning management and

oqpkvqtkpi."cpf"tgxkgy"cpf"gxcnwcvkqpÑ0""Kv"ku"c"ocpcigogpv"u{uvgo"fguetkdgf"

as informed decision-making structure which involves all staff members from

the top to the bottom.

Fidler (1996:50) outlines strategic decisions made at organisational level,

these include:

‚ Vjg"ueqrg"qh"cp"qticpkucvkqpÓu"cevkxkvkgu
‚ Cp"qticpkucvkqpÓu"nqpi-term direction
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 ‚ Ocvejkpi"qh"cp"qticpkucvkqpÓu"cevkxkvkgu"vq"vjg"gpxktqpogpv
‚ Devising activities which are sustainably given the level of
organisational resources.

In order for the organisation to be able to survive and thrive, it has to

make decisions about its capacity; for instance, a school has to decide firmly

how many students will be enrolled yearly depending on the availability of

physical and human resources. However, in organisations where a bureaucratic

system of leadership is dominant, where most decisions are made at the top, this

could be rather difficult to implement.

One more important decision which has to be carried out concerns the

qticpkucvkqpÓu" nqpi" vgto" rncp0" " Vjg" nqpi" vgto" rncp" gzrnckpu" yjgtg" vjg"

organisation is going, what the long-term goals are and what is expected to be

achieved in the long term. The organisational vision and mission could be the

guiding principles of this plan.

Organisations too, need to identify external factors which could hinder

their development. Activities to be carried out should equate to what is agreed

by national policies, and the regulatory frame-work. Also, the prevailing

political situation and economic situation of the country could be the

determinants of what is carried out by the organisation. The last but not least

consideration is resource availability. Resources are scarce in comparison to

demand, and determining priorities could prevent the organisation from going

into crisis. Below is a basic model of strategic management as given by Fidler

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 analysis weaknesses and threats to the school will be identified. Also,

strengths and opportunities pertaining to the school will be made known.

̇ The third process will be deciding how to choose; stage C. Under this

stage alternative strategies will be put down.

̇ The fourth stage is developing strategies and choosing the best strategy

which will then be adopted; phase D

̇ Deciding on a plan and putting it into implementation [E]. All involved

in preparing a plan document have to agree on the format of the plan and

how that plan will be executed.

̇ Plan execution [F]. Plan drafts will be produced and re-produced and

thereafter refined to suit the pre-determined objectives of the school.

After a draft is agreed by all participants, it will be put into practice.

A different model of strategic management in schools is that of Fidler and

Bowles. It is a linear model; this model was developed by Fidler and Bowles in

3;;30" " Cu" Hkfngt" *3;;8<" 82+" rwvu" kv." Ðvjku" oqfgn" dtkpiu" qwv" vyq" korqtvcpv"

differences from school development planning ...at analysis stage there are

inputs from outside the school...the second difference is the presence of creative

xkukqp"qh"vjg"hwvwtg"000kp"cffkvkqp"vq"cpcn{uku"qh"vjg"rtgugpvÑ0

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 Hall acknowledges the importance of monitoring and evaluation. Besides,

collaboration is stressed; the strategic school management process is to involve

teachers as well as supporting staff. School leaders ought to communicate

vision and mission clearly to members of staff, as they are the main

implementers.

A number of questions are posed here for Tanzanian secondary schools: do

secondary schools prepare strategic plans? Do Tanzanian secondary schools

monitor and evaluate performance? It is high time that these crucial questions

are given answers by the Tanzanian education system so as to improve

outcomes and educational outputs for learners. The challenge to the MOEVT is

to enhance the capacity of school leaders in the area of planning, since many

school heads lack the capacity to prepare plans, or to prepare school vision and

mission statements. Moreover, school heads need support to develop

monitoring, review and evaluation skills.

School Accountability in relation to Planning

UejqqnuÓ" ceeqwpvcdknkv{" eqpukuvu" qh<" ewnvwtcn" ceeqwpvcdility; professional

accountability, market accountability; political accountability, technological

accountability; community accountability; and economic accountability.

Different areas of accountability pose challenge to the entire exercise of

planning. However, opportunities available in the environment could be used as

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opportunities to facilitate the formulation of strategies and goals. The presence

of negative entropy can be used by schools as an opportunity to strengthen the

spirit of top management to involve educational stake holders in the planning

process. Also, planning in teams and implementing in teams could lessen

negatives from outside schools. In addition, schools can use opportunities from

the environment for expansion.

Strategic intent

Minniti (2009:1) distinguishes two similar concepts; strategic planning

and strategic intent. Strategic planning is more management based, while

strategic intent is based on leadership within an organisation. Citing Hamel

2005, Minniti (2009:1) explains:

ÐÈ" Strategic intent is more than simply unfettered ambition. (Many

companies possess an ambitious strategic intent yet fall short of their
goals.) The concept also encompasses an active management process that
kpenwfgu"hqewukpi"vjg"qticpk|cvkqpÓu"cvvgpvkon on the essence of winning,
motivating people by communicating the value of the target, leaving
room for individual and team contributions, sustaining enthusiasm by
providing new operational definitions as circumstances change, and using
intent consistenvn{"vq"iwkfg"tguqwteg"cnnqecvkqpu0Ñ

The term strategic intent is here used in a business context, although it

can apply to other settings, such as education. Hamel and Prahalad (1989:66)

express strategic intent as dealing with creativity, and innovation; planners ask

how will next year be differently winners ask what must we do differently?

Uvtcvgike"kpvgpv"ujqyu"vqoqttqyÓu"qrrqtvwpkvkgu"yjkng"uvtcvgike"rncppkpi"vtkgu"vq"

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cpuygt" vqfc{Óu" rtqdngou0" " Uvtcvgike" kpvgpv" ku" c" jkij-level statement by which

your organisation will achieve its vision. It is a statement of design for creating

a desirable future (stated in present terms).

Strategic intent focuses not only on effective leadership but also on active

management which involves the whole organisation in the process of achieving

worldwide leadership. Additionally, with strategic intent, the organisation sets

targets that have staff commitment. Strategic intent puts more emphasis on the

long term nature of planning, although it does not forget short-term planning.

One of the most critical tasks for strategic leaders is to lengthen the

qticpk|cvkqpÓu" cvvgpvkqp" urcp0" " ÐStrategic intent provides consistency to short-

term action, while leaving room for reinterpretation as new opportunities

gogtiguÑ" *Jcogn." 4205 cited by Minniti, 2009:3). Supporting the role of

management in enhancing strategic intent Hamel and Prahalad (1989: 64)

acknowledge:

...the concept also encompasses active management process that includes:

hqewukpi" vjg" qticpkucvkqpÓu" cvvgpvkqp" qp" vjg essence of winning;
motivating people by communicating the values of the targets; leaving
room for individual and teams contributions; sustaining enthusiasm by
providing new operational definitions as circumstances change ...

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 ‚ Developing independent technology-based learning for all
‚ Creating and sustaining a high Îachievement and success culture
Davies acknowledges strategic intent as a powerful means to be

employed by contemporary schools which are constantly facing rapid global

changes. He stresses that strategic intent could be a means of leveraging-up

school performance. In effecting change, Davies offers the following model in

the process of building strategic intent:

;HﾉW"ヴぎ"0 ｷﾉSｷﾐｪ" ; WｪｷI"ｷﾐ Wﾐ "

Articulate 1 Current understanding and desired new strategy

Build 2 Images, metaphors and experiences of desired new

understanding

Create 3 Dialogue and conversations with shared

understandings to frame new understandings

Define 4 Formal plans and frame of reference for the school

Adapted from Davies, 2011:84

Davies emphasises a strategic intent model to be a strong means of

building capability and capacity for major change in the school (Davies,

2011:86). Concerning the four steps for building a strategic intent shown in

Table 4, Davies says:

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 The key to building strategic intents is for leaders in the school to
articulate the desired new objective (strategic intent) and to work through
a process with staff of sharing experiences of good practice and
developing images of what the new strategy can look like...the leader will
create a dialogue through strategic conversations to frame new
understandings of where the school can be in future. The school can then
move to agreed formal plans on how to implement the new strategy
(Davies, 2011:84).
ｴW" ﾏﾗSWﾉ" ﾗa" ; WｪｷI" ｷﾐ Wﾐ " ｷ " Iﾗﾏ ﾉW Wﾉ " ﾐW " ｷﾐ" ｴW" ;ﾐ ;ﾐｷ;ﾐ"

WS I; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ" ﾗIW く""} ; WｪｷI"ｷﾐ Wﾐ "; ";" ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ" ﾗIW が" W W"

ﾉﾗﾐｪど W ﾏ" ;ﾉｷ ";ﾐS" ;ﾐ ｷ "ｷﾐ W;S"ﾗa" Iｴﾗﾗﾉ "aﾗI ｷﾐｪ" ﾗﾗ"ﾏ Iｴ"ﾗﾐ" ｴﾗ ど

W ﾏ" ﾉ;ﾐ く" " N " a ｴW " WﾐIﾗ ;ｪW " Iｴﾗﾗﾉ " ﾗ" W ﾉﾗ W" a W" ﾗ ﾗ ﾐｷ ｷW "

;ｪｪ W ｷ Wﾉ " ; ｴW " ｴ;ﾐ" IﾗﾐIWﾐ ; ｷﾐｪ" ﾗﾐ" ﾉ;ﾐ " ﾗ" ﾗﾉ W" I Wﾐ " ﾗHﾉWﾏ く""

0W ｷSW が" ; WｪｷI" ｷﾐ Wﾐ " ; " ;" IﾗﾐIW " " Wﾏ ｴ; ｷ " ﾗﾐ" Sｷ;ﾉﾗｪ W" ;ﾏﾗﾐｪ"

ﾗ ﾆW "; " ;"ﾆW " ﾗ"WaaWI ｷ W" Iｴﾗﾗﾉ"SW Wﾉﾗ ﾏWﾐ く" ｴ " ;ﾐ ;ﾐｷ;ﾐ" WIﾗﾐS; "

Iｴﾗﾗﾉ " ﾐWWS" ﾗ" ﾉW; ﾐ" ;Hﾗ " ; WｪｷI" ｷﾐ Wﾐ " ﾗ" ; " ﾗ" Wﾐｴ;ﾐIW" ｴW" ﾗIW " ﾗa"

ﾉ;ﾐﾐｷﾐｪ" ｷﾐ" ｴWｷ " W WI ｷ W" Iｴﾗﾗﾉ く" " 7; ｷW " ﾐﾗ W ぎ" さ ｴW" ﾆW " ﾗ" WaaWI ｷ W"

; WｪｷI"SW Wﾉﾗ ﾏWﾐ "ｷ "ﾐﾗ " ｴW" ｷ Wﾐ"SﾗI ﾏWﾐ "H " ｴW" ;ﾉｷ "ﾗa"Sｷ;ﾉﾗｪ W"

ｴ; " ｪﾗW " ﾗ" ﾏ;ﾆW" " ｴW" ; WｪｷI" Iﾗﾐ W ; ｷﾗﾐ " ｷﾐ" ｴW" Iｴﾗﾗﾉざ" ふ7; ｷW が"

ヲヰヱヱぎΓヲぶく"E ｴW が" ; WｪｷI"ｷﾐ Wﾐ " "ﾏﾗ W"Wﾏ ｴ; ｷ "ﾗﾐ";I ｷ W"ﾏ;ﾐ;ｪWﾏWﾐ が"

W;ﾏ" ﾗ ﾆが"I W; ｷ ｷ ";ﾐS"ｷﾐﾐﾗ ; ｷﾗﾐく Rtcjcncf"eqoogpvu"cu"ygnn<"Ðo{"tgugctej"

convinced me that ... we need to start with strategic intent, create a strategic

architecture, understand core competencies and products ...and that the

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leverage is based on continuous configuration of these competgpekguÑ"*Rtcjcncf."

1993: 47).

Strategic competence

Davies (2011:88-89) discuss the concept of core competencies or

strategic capabilities in educational settings. He lists a number of strategic

competencies which are core attributes of sustainable and successful schools.

He emphasises that these capabilities are essential for organisational effecting a

substantial change. Competencies enumerated include:

‚ Fundamental understanding of learning

‚ High level of trust and communication
‚ Using assessment for learning and not just assessment of learning
‚ A creative and innovative culture
‚ A positive team approach to problem-solving
Decentralisation of educational planning in Tanzania

The education sector for many years in Tanzania has been planned from

the top. The Ministry of Education has sole responsibility for formulating

educational policies and planning. Nevertheless, due to difficulties encountered

in the implementation of top-down plans, it was seen as logical for the process

of planning to be devolved to lower levels. Districts became the focal point for

preparing educational plans. Still, most of educational plans prepared at district

level are micro-plans and the master plan is still prepared at the Ministry of

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Educational level. As MOEC (2002:1) obsetxgu<"Ðukpeg"3;;9."vjg"Okpkuvt{"qh"

Education and Culture, in collaboration with various international organisations,

has initiated school mapping as a pre-requisite to sound educational micro-

rncppkpi"cv"vjg"fkuvtkev"ngxgnÑ0"

However, the challenge which faces districts and schools is the lack of

competent people to utilise the school mapping reports so as to prepare school

and district educational plans. Many secondary schools, for instance, have

teachers who have completed a diploma in education. At diploma level

procedures on how to prepare development plans are not taught. But, some

school are headed by head-teachers who completed university level, and some

have heads who have attended training on how to prepare development plans. It

is possible that some of these schools prepare development plans. But, most of

schools where development plans are prepared rarely involve lower levels of

management, normal school teachers and non-teaching staff or students.

Decentralised planning is participatory: the school, community and district are

perceived as a core for the successful implementation of decentralised planning

as shown in Figure 17.

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participate in planning. With clear vision, mission and strategies educational

leaders are mostly likely to lead the planning exercise successfully. In addition

to strategic leadership among educational leaders, strategic intent could be

another liberating tool for the poorly performing educational sector in Tanzania.

Rncppkpi" owuv" hqewu" qp" hwvwtg" uweeguu" ]vqoqttqyÓu" qrrqtvwpkvkgu_" kpuvgcf" qh"

concentrating too much on present problems. Moreover, Tanzanian schools are

working in an open system; they cannot, for instance, avoid the influences of

globalisation; that is why strategic intent could be a beneficial approach to

educational planning. It can be said confidently that Tanzania needs leadership,

strategic planning and strategic intent to improve its education system.

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%*#26'4"5'8'0""

6*'"5%*11."%7.674'"
This chapter focuses on school culture, and aims at introducing the concept of

culture as it is used formally or informally in Tanzanian secondary school

leadership settings. The following issues are addressed in this chapter:

‚ Meaning of school culture

‚ Origin of the concept of organisational culture

‚ School culture under bureaucratic leadership

‚ Changing school culture

‚ School culture as a ladder to achievement

‚ Cultural norms

‚ Comparing school cultures

Meaning of school culture

Organisational culture is not depicted on the formal structures of

organisational charts, yet the notion of culture is deep-rooted in both formal and

informal organizations. It influences the day-to-day activities of organisations

such as schools and hospitals, as well as non-governmental establishments.

Raywid (2001:108) defines culture as a Ð000kind of the underlining set of norms,

values, beliefs, rituals, and traditions that make up the unwritten rules of how to

vjkpm."hggn."cpf"cev"kp"cp"qticpkucvkqp0Ñ OceDgcvj"*3;;;<"5:+"cffu<"ÐEwnvwtg"ku"

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a way of seeing and doing things, a set of attitudes to life and accompanying

dgjcxkqwtÑ0" " Hwtvjgtoqtg." Dwuj" cpf" Cpfgtuqp" *3;:;<" :9+" qhhgt" c" ukoknct"

explanation about culture:

Culture is an expression that tries to capture the informal, implicit- often

unconscious-side of ...any human organisation... culture in everyday
usage is typically described as the way we do things here. It consists of
patterns of thought, behaviour and artefacts that symbolise and give
meaning to the workplace.

Bush and Anderson say that organisational culture depends on the context

and is dynamic. What is believed, valued, assumed and celebrated at school A

might not be the same as school B. Besides, school culture could be shaped to

suit the requirements at that particular time. Nevertheless, there could be

similarities influenced by societal / national culture, for example, the same

curriculum; school rules imposed by the Ministry of Education; comparable

education philosophy and educational policy.

Brady (2008:1) describing culture which operates in the background of

education notes:

ÐÈqticpk|cvkqpcn" ewnvwtgu" qrgtcvg" cv" ugxgtcn" ngxgnu" ukownvcpgqwun{0"

These include: (a) artefacts, those rites, symbols, ceremonies, and myths
that serve to make organizational behaviour routine; (b) espoused values,
systems of beliefs and standards that provide the basis for an
qticpk|cvkqpÓu" uqekcn" dgjcxkqwt" cpf=" *e+" dcuke" cuuworvkqpu." vjqug"
institutional practices that are so deeply ingrained in the collective
consciousness of the group that to act in any other manner is unthinkable.

Table 5 adapted from Johnson (2008:78) sums up some elements which

influence organisational culture. The paradigm expresses the following

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elements: control systems, organisational structures, power structures, symbols,

rituals and routines, and stories and myths.

;HﾉW"ヵぎ"WﾉWﾏWﾐ "ｷﾐaﾉ WﾐIｷﾐｪ"ﾗ ｪ;ﾐｷ ; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ"I ﾉ W

Element Expression

The paradigm What the organisation is about; its mission; its value. However, it should be

expresses recognised that formal mission statements, although designed to encapsulate the

goals and values of an organisation, may not accurately reflect the real culture

as practiced within the organisation.

Control The degree to which they seek to direct and monitor what is going on.

systems

Organisational Management hierarchies, lines of reporting, and the way that work flows

structures through the business.

Power Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what power is

structures based?

Symbols Telling features of organisational culture. Formally adopted logos and designs

can tell much about how the organisation would like to portray itself, but less

obvious symbols (such as executive dining rooms and reserved parking spaces)

are more telling indicators of the true state of affairs.

Rituals and Many of which are habitual rather than necessary, also give an indication of

routines what people within an organisation consider to be important.

Stories and Cdqwv" jgtqgu." cpf" xknnckpu=" cdqwv" vjg" qticpkucvkqpÓu" vtkworju000ctg" c" ogcpu"

myths whereby the values of an organisation are promulgated without the necessity to

formally promote them.

Adapted from Johnson, 1988:78

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Origin of the concept of culture

Morgan explains the origin of the term culture as a metaphor derived

htqo"citkewnvwtg="ewnvkxcvkqp."Ðvjg"rtqeguu"qh"vknnkpi"cpf"fgxgnqrkpi"ncpf0""Yjgp"

we talk about culture we are usually referring to the pattern of development

tghngevgf"kp"c"uqekgv{Óu"u{uvgo"qh" mpqyngfig."kfgqnqi{."xcnwgu."ncyu."cpf"fc{-

to-day rituals. The word is also frequently used to refer to the degree of

refinement evident in such systems of belief and practice, as in the notion of

being culturedÑ"*Oqticp."4228<338+0

According to Bush, the concept of culture gained more recognition as

bureaucratic leadership had a number of limitations (see Bush, 1998:32).

Bureaucratic leadership puts more emphasis on rules and principles; it is

mechanistic, based on structures and systems. Additionally, bureaucratic

leadership overlooks the beliefs and values of organisational members (Bush,

1998:33). On the other hand, school culture, for example, stresses relationship

between staff and learners and between staff and the community (Durrant and

Holden, 2006:16).

Culture can be seen at two distinct interdependent levels: the society level

and the organisational level. The society or national level is a supra-level whilst

the organisational level is the micro level. Organisational culture is a sub-set of

national culture as shown in Figure 18, where ten aspects of societal culture

form a continuu

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 Bush observes that this model (in Figure18) could be used in an educational

context in different countries depending on the leadership approach prevailing.

Bush (2003:158-159) discusses societal culture in a range of educational

settings as follows (Refer Figure 18):

‚ In some educational settings, power is either distributed or concentrated,

for example, in schools where collegiality is predominant, collaboration

is an overriding culture, nevertheless, in some educational backgrounds,

power and authority is rigorous (in formal models).

‚ Self-oriented/ group- oriented settings: staff working in a self-oriented

culture are more self-contained and self-governing. Yet, in group-

oriented culture workers are more rooted to team work.

‚ In some work settings, employees are involved in goal formulation. Any

ejcpig"ku"rctvkekrcvqt{<"cu"c"tguwnv"vjg"ewnvwtg"qh"Ðvjku"ku"qwtuÑ"ku"etgcvgf0"

Vjku" ku" vgtogf" ÐRtqcevkxkuo0Ñ" " Kp" eqpvtcuv." wpfgt" ÐHcvcnkuoÑ" hgct" qh"

change is prevalent among workers. This is mainly in working places

where workers are hardly involved in decisions; their attitude is to admit

things as they are (fatalism), that is, the culture of conformity is

prevalent.

‚ Some cultures stress creativity and innovation, some culture encourage

duplication.

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 ‚ Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in some organisations rules

and procedures govern the day-to-day work; this is where a limited

relationship culture exists. In holistic culture lateral relationship in the

organisation is more highly emphasised than formal relationship.

‚ Male influence/female influence: In some cultures, a large number of

school heads are male, for instance, in Tanzania, China, and Thailand. In

other organisations, for example, in economic and political leadership

most of leaders are also male. However, in some educational settings

female influence plays a notable role.

School culture under bureaucratic leadership

Bureaucratic leadership is hierarchical in nature. Usually communication

from the top is in form of orders and directives. Workers provide suggestions

and demands while leadership provides rules and regulations as well as

supervising implementation. A bureaucratic type of leadership is mechanistic;

leaders are decision-makers while the lower workers are primarily

implementers. The organisation chart of a bureaucratic school, for instance,

indicates how members of staff should behave. Figure 19 shows how the

authority flows from the top in a bureaucratic model of leadership.

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 Organisational culture influences organisational structure (Morgan

1986:131). In bureaucratic leadership, for example, the values and beliefs of

schools are in a formal relationship. Roles and relationships are found in

hierarchies depicted in an organisation chart.

QÓPgknn" *3;;6<" 32:+" fguetkdgu" fkuukoknctkv{" dgvyggp" vjg" organisational

culture found in complex establishments and culture in small organisations:

The relationship between organisational structure and culture is of crucial

importance. A large and complex organisational structure increases the
possibility of several cultures developing simultaneously within the one
organisation. A minimal organisational structure, such as that found in
most primary schools, enhances the possibility of a solid culture guiding
all areas of organisational activity.

The difference nqvgf" d{" QÓPgknn" ku" tgngxcpv" vq" Vcp|cpkcp" ugeqpfct{"

school leadership. Despite the formal manner of relationship in Tanzanian

schools, a unitary school culture could enhance teaching and learning as beliefs,

values and norms are skilfully transmitted. Yet, the prevalence of sub-cultures is

inevitable; these sub-cultures could hinder or facilitate better performance of

school organisations depending on how the school leaders take care of them.

Cnqpi"vjku"nkpg"qh"vjkpmkpi."Enctm"*3;;4<"96+"uvtguugu"vjcv"Ðc"elear description of

the aims of a school, college or any section within it, helps to provide a

common vision and set of values. Well-uvcvgf" ckou" yknn" ugk|g" gxgt{dqf{Óu"

kpvgtguv0"Uwej"ckou"yknn"jgnr"kp"etgcvkpi"c"uvtqpi"ewnvwtgÑ0

World-wide some countries practise a bureaucratic style of leadership,

these countries include: Tanzania, Czech Republic, China, Greece, Israel,

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Poland, South Africa, Slovenia and many countries of South America (Bush,

2008: 45). Bureaucratic culture which is largely based on replication is

dominant in these countries compared to most of western countries where

creativity is the leading culture. It can be argued that the slow development of

schools in many developing nations may possibly be influenced by an

inadequacy of creativeness, innovation and inventive ideas during the teaching

and learning process.

In a bureaucratic style of leadership the following relationships between

ngcfgtu"cpf"hqnnqygtu"ctg"fqokpcpv0"ÐVjg"uejqqn"ngcfgtu"ockpvckp"tgurqpukdknkv{"

for planning and control...issues instructions are in line with own perception of

rtkqtkvkguÑ"*Lctcukpijg"cpf"N{qpu."3;;8<75+0""Jq{"cpf"Okumgn"*3;:4<"9;+"ocmg"

clear that in bureaucratic schools, a formal relationship is the order of the day;

Ðkp" lqkpkpi" vjg" qticpkucvkqp." gornq{ggs accept the authority relation because

they agree, within certain limits, to accept directives of their supervisors. The

organisation has the right to command and the employees have the duty to

qdg{Ñ0" " Pqpgvjgnguu." Jq{" cpf" Okumgn" *3;:4<;3+" gzrqug" vjg" rtgsence of sub-

cultures; teachers who have skills and know-how are constantly in strain and

tension with the school leaders.

According to Durrant and Holden (2006:17) a top-down decision making

culture, especially one which is externally imposed, causes workers to feel

disturbed and defeats their sense of worth. This could be a lesson to Tanzanian
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secondary schools most of whose decisions are highly centralised. A shift from

top-down to bottom-up could most likely enhance the quality of decisions in

schools.

It is believed that school culture is inextricably linked to classroom

culture, vjtqwij" vjg" hqnnqykpi" curgevu<" Ðtkvwcnu=" gzrgevcvkqpu=" tgncvkqpujkru="

curricular focus; extra-curricular activities; decision-making processes; and

itcfwcvkqpu"tgswktgogpvuÑ"because what happens at school level could influence

what happens in the classroom (Raywid, 2001: i). Examining what is said by

Raywid could well raise challenging questions such as: Do school cultures in

bureaucratic organisations focus on the learner? Can bureaucratic leadership

enhance the preparation of the learners? Are learners involved in determining

their learning destiny? For instance in the Tanzanian context, educational

philosophy, policy and school curriculum are prepared at national level; the

system is centralised. The Tanzanian Institute of Education (TIE) has the sole

responsibility for preparing school curriculum. In Tanzania, students are not

involved in determining what they should learn. Also, the lecture method is still

a main teaching method/technique. This is dissimilar to what Nyirenda and

Kujwok" *4224<" :6+" uwiiguv<" Ðrwv" vjg" rtqdngou" dghqtg" jko1jgt" cpf" ngv" jgt1jko"

uqnxg"jgtugnh1jkougnh000Ñ

Nyirenda and Ishumi (2002:84) propose a participatory method of content

delivery; a teacher should not be the only source of knowledge. They advocate
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the change of teaching and learning culture, they emphasise teaching and

learning to be learner centred. Delegation of authority should take into account

all activities within the classroom and those outside of the classroom, and the

central focus should be learners.

A study conducted in Quebec in Canada (Deblois et al., 1994:2) supports

vjku"vjgqt{<"Ð000kv"jcu"dggp"qdugtxgf"vjcv"uvwfgpvu"rgthqto"dguv"kp"uejqqnu"ykvj"c"

participatory climate at all levels and where high but realistic expectations for

uvwfgpvu" ctg" jgnfÑ0" " Dgukfgu." kp" c" uvwf{" fqpg" kp" dwukpguu" ugvvkpiu." Rgvgtuqp"

explains the role of culture to boost productivity. This observation could apply

to any organisation including the education sector in Tanzania. Peterson

(1985:109) observes:

...Culture affects what people focus on and ...what is important to pay

attention to. Culture affects motivation. Motivation affects productivity.
And finally, culture affects the willingness of staff members, students,
and administrators, to put into continuous improvement and refining their
craft. So, culture is input in productivity.

A mutual kind of school culture could be a good way for Tanzanian

secondary schools to improve academic achievement. Students, teachers,

supporting staff and parents could celebrate their achievements together by

identifying appropriate heroes and heroines. Furthermore, shared leadership

could allow the use of action research as an approach to improve practice at the

placg"qh"yqtm"cu"Eqjgp"gv"cn0"*4229<533+"rwv"kv"Ð000cu"cevkqp"tgugctej"cpf"uejqqnu"

are often structured differently; schools being hierarchical; formal; and

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bureaucratic while action research is collegial; informal; open; collaborative and

crosses boundaries...for action research to be successful, the conditions of

eqnngikcnkv{"jcxg"vq"rtgugpvÑ0"Eqjgp"cpf"eqnngciwgu"uwrrqtv"vjg"vgco"yqtm"cu"c"

way to enhance performance and achievement in any undertaking; shared

leadership could be a way forward. Foskett and Lumby (2003:177) also observe

that organisations cannot work effectively within power obsessed cultures.

Sharing in running of schools, for instance, is more likely to improve

performance. Beatty (2007:50) as well like Foskett and Lumby criticises the

reliance on a bureaucratic style of leadership since it undermines educational

development.

In the educational discourse the call for a departure from traditional

bureaucratic hierarchies has been heard for some time; for instance in the
advocacy for teacher empowerment in shared decision-making (e.g.
Malen and Ogawa, 1988; Blase and Blase, 1994; Short; and Greer, 1997)
and the associated necessity of different, more collaborative relationship
(e.g. Dunlap and Goldman, 1991).

Changing school culture

In the rapidly moving world, change is inevitable. Various studies have

identified the importance of changing school culture to the benefit of the

organisation. These studies stress the need for changing culture to suit the way

goals will be implemented; a change of goals has to go together with a change

of school culture. Deal and Kennedy (1982:15), commenting on business

organisations that could as well apply to educational settings note:

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 Companies that have cultivated individual identities by shaping values,
making heroes, spelling out rites and rituals, and acknowledging the
culture network have an edge. These corporations have values and beliefs
to pass along - not just products. They have stories to tell - not just profits
to make. They have heroes whom managers and workers can emulate -
not just faceless bureaucrats. In short, they are human institutions that
provide practical meaning for people, both on and off the job.

In order to effect a change of school culture, understanding of both the

nature of the change and the existing sub-cultures is necessary. The school

leader has to understand, for instance, the significant symbols (school motto;

common language; rules; organisation aims; prize giving behaviour; school

uniform; corporate worship; heroes/heroines). For instance, symbols are

essential in the process of constructing organisational meanings, and rituals are

important as well in putting together members in a given organisation.

Ceeqtfkpi"vq"Dgctg"gv"cn0."*3;:;<3;3+"Ð000"jgtqgu"*cpf"cpvk-heroes) around whom

a saga is built personify the values, philosophy and ideology which the

eqoowpkv{"ykujgu"vq"uwuvckp000Ñ

Furthermore, Lewis (1996: 14-15) stresses the need of reviewing the

ewnvwtg"uq"cu"vq"dg"ocpcigf"uweeguuhwnn{<"Ðcwfkvkpi"ewnvwtg"ku"cp"gusential task if

kv" ku" vq" dg" ocpcigf" ghhgevkxgn{Ñ0" " Jqygxgt." Hkfngt" *3;;8<" 33:+" cfxkugu"

differently regarding cultural change; Fidler says that cultural change should

vcmg" rnceg" yjgtg" kv" ku" pgeguuct{<" Ðhcnnkpi" tqnnu." rqqt" tgrwvcvkqp." rqqt" gzcou"

results, large-uecng" cdugpvggkuo." cpf" rqqt" kpurgevkqp" tgrqtvÑ0" " C" ejcpig" qh"

school culture may bring good academic performance to schools where negative

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micro-politics are dominant. The establishment of a sense of mutual respect as

well as collegiality may reduce micro-political behaviour among members of

uvchh0""Vjku"dwknfu"cnuq"qp"Jctitgcxgu"*3;;7<"63+"yjq"eqpegfgu"vjcv"Ðejcpikpi"

uejqqn"ewnvwtg"eqwnf"jcxg"vjg"ghhgev"qh"rtqoqvkpi"uejqqn"kortqxgogpvÑ0""Rwtmg{"

and Smith (1982) also acknowledge the beneficial effect of a positive school

culture on school improvement:

We have argued that an academically effective school is

distinguished by its culture: a structure, process, and climate of
values and norms that channel staff and students in the direction of
successful teacjkpi"cpf"ngctpkpiÈ0Vjg"nqike"qh"vjg"ewnvwtcn"oqfgn"
is such that it points to increasing the organizational effectiveness
of a school building and is neither grade-level nor curriculum
specific (p. 68).
A body of literature gives recommendation about methods to adopt so as

to effect cultural change, for example, Gorringe (1994: 186) outlines six steps to

be followed when changing culture:

‚ Clarity of purpose: a clear vision

‚ Presentation: of vision and strategy
‚ A published action plan
‚ Confidence building: supporting and guiding people to act effectively
‚ Leadership: setting the vision and strategy, and leading in process of
implementation
‚ A focus on underlying principles: referring back to the values which
guide management action

Gorringe emphasises the responsibility of a leader to effect change for a

given organisational culture. This is further supported by Nias et al. (1989:103)

yjq"cempqyngfig."ÐJgcfu"ctg"founders qh"vjgkt"uejqqnÓu"ewnvwtgÑ0"Iqttkpig"cnuq"

advocates collaborative leadership, where members of staff understand the

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reason for change and the benefits therein. Additionally, school leaders have

the responsibility of communicating clearly the process of transforming their

school beliefs, values, norms and symbols to external education stake holders.

But, change should not entirely be a school leader role; the involvement of all

members in the school could make change successful. Renchler (1992:3)

advises how school leaders may change school culture. The focus is to look

forward, leaving behind some of the old norms, customs and beliefs. Take the

good and leave the bad ones behind:

Old practices and other losses need to be buried and commemorated.

Meaningless practices and symbols need to be analysed and revitalised.
Emerging visions, dreams, and hopes need to be articulated and
celebrated.

It can be argued that school heads in Tanzania need to learn how to

change school culture so as suit the learning and teaching process. Participatory

methods as a replacement of lecturing methods in classrooms could enhance

teaching and learning. What's more, involving subject-teachers in the process

of preparing the curriculum may well be an added advantage; however, this

depends upon willingness at a national level to involve teachers. Using

different motivation methods may increase the morale of teachers and

supporting staff as well as students. Furthermore, collaborative decision

making may cultivate a spirit of good performance among teachers, non-

teaching staff as well as students. Additionally, the shift from rule-of-thumb to

action research as a means of finding answers for making decisions could

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possibly increase efficiency in decision making. In general schools have to take

into account the school culture and sub-culture that would facilitate effective

change.

Creation of vision and mission which may well be transformed into good

strategies and plans that will be shared among teachers, supporting staff,

students and the community can improve academic performance among learners

in community secondary schools. In addition, a change of culture from personal

work to team work may be a catalyst for academic success in community

secondary schools. One of the key elements of school culture which is mostly

forgotten by Tanzanian schools is evaluation. Evaluation helps to pinpoint

success and failure. School heads have to establish the culture of appraising

success and failure at their respective schools. This could minimise repetition

of errors and poor practice.

Furthermore, school heads should break the culture of isolation; that is,

neighbouring schools could establish cooperation, be it in academics, sports and

games, and various ways of solving common issues affecting their schools. In

addition, school heads, especially beginners, can formulate associations or

establish networks which will help them to learn better ways of leading their

schools. Above and beyond, academic visits among neighbouring schools could

make stronger academic performance for struggling community secondary

schools. The emphasis is that school leadership ought to break the culture of

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development and growth. In so doing, the possession of a particular cultural

norm will depend mainly on the context, together with the weight of that norm.

[gv"Uvqnn"cpf"Hkpm"*3;;8<;:+"uwiiguv<"ÐVjg"wnvkocvg"cko"qh"cp{" uejqqn"ujqwnf"

be that practice be undgtrkppgf"d{"cnn"qh"vjgug"pqtouÑ0

Understanding cultural norms is an essential challenge to educational

leaders in Tanzania. For example, many community secondary schools are

gkvjgt"ÐuvtwiinkpiÑ."ÐuvtqnnkpiÑ"qt"Ðukpmkpi"uejqqnuÑ0""Cecfgoke"rgthqtocpeg"ku"

poor, some schools face strikes. In addition, community secondary schools face

cewvg" ujqtvcig" qh" vgcejgtu=" encuutqqou=" ncdqtcvqtkgu=" vgcejgtuÓ" jqwukpi=" vgzv"

books as well as reference books; and a high student drop-out rate particularly

for girls. Adoption of various cultural norms could bring ways out of some of

these problems. Fuller and Clarke (1994:119) support the use of cultural

models instead of policy mechanics models as tools for school effectiveness by

explaining:

...the classroom culturalists focus on the implicitly modelled norms

exercised in the classroom and how children are socialized to accept
particular rules of participation and authority, linguistic norms,
orientations toward achievement, and conceptions of merit and status. It
is the culturally constructed meanings attached to instructional tools and
pedagogy that sustain this socialization process, not the material character
of school inputs per se.

Furthermore a study by Deblois et al. (1994:1) in Quebec, Canada, found

a positive correlation between strong organisational culture and improved

academic performance together with low drop-out rate. Considering students,

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Tanzanian school heads should create among students the culture of

responsibility. Learners ought not to rely on good-luck, the Japanese word

Gambatte; persevere, do not give up should be their motto. Park (2002:148)

advocates:

...the Academy believes that the very same spirit is at the heart of what
jcu"ocfg"Cogtkec"itgcv0"Kp"vjg"yqtfu"qh"Vjqocu"Lghhgtuqp."ÐK"co"itgcv"
bgnkgxgt"kp"nwem"cpf"K"hkpf"vjg"jctfgt"K"yqtm."vjg"oqtg"K"jcxg"qh"kvÑ0"Hqt"
that reason, every day at the Academy begins by publicly honouring a
student who has demonstrated this gambatte spirit.

Additionally, school leaders are needed to motivate students in particular

and staff in general. The culture of motivation to learn in schools could be one

of important factors for improving academic performance in Tanzanian schools,

especially struggling schools. The culture of motivation to learn is one way or

another absent in Tanzanian schools. It is worst amongst teachers; teachers are

poorly motivated. Renchler (1992: 3) demands that school heads take into

consideration the whole of issue of motivation by stating:

...thus, a principal interested in establishing the motivation to learn and

cecfgoke" cejkgxgogpv" cu" egpvtcn" hgcvwtg"qh" c" uejqqnÓu"ewnvwtg" owuv" hktuv"
persuade everyone Îstudents, teachers, parents, staff, and school board Î
that goals related to those areas are desirable, achievable, and
sustainable...

According to Renchler, cultural symbols like rituals; school shared

values; stories; cultural networks; school motto, newsletters; statement of goals;

behaviour codes; school song; unspoken expectations; cherished traditions

ought be communicated and celebrated as motivational tools. Renchler offers a

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lesson to school heads in Tanzania. It is most likely that motivation could be a

vehicle to upturn the struggling secondary schools in Tanzania.

A number of studies have found a positive correlation between school

culture and good academic performance. For example, the findings of a study

made by Purkey and Smith (1983: 440), despite the fact that it was done about

30 years ago, could still be relevant today:

Vjg" nkvgtcvwtg" kpfkecvgu" vjcv" c" uvwfgpvÓu chance for success in learning
cognitive skills heavily influenced by the climate of the school...A school
-level culture press in the direction of academic achievement helps shape
the environment (and climate) in which the student learns. An
academically effective school would be likely to have clear goals related
to student achievement, teachers and parents with high expectations, and
a structure designed to maximise opportunities for students to learn. A
press for academic success is more likely to realise that goal than would a
climate that emphasises affective growth or social development.

Additionally, a recent study by Cleveland et al. (2011:35) still supports

vjg" ctiwogpv" rwv" kp" rnceg" d{" Rwtmg{" cpf" Uokvj<" Ðuejqqn" ewnvwtg" ku" etkvkecn" vq"

establishing successful school learning environments. It provides one of the

oquv"ukipkhkecpv"hqwpfcvkqpu"hqt"uweeguuhwn"uvwfgpv"cejkgxgogpvÑ0

Building the culture of collegiality and collaboration in Tanzanian

schools could be another criterion for success of community secondary schools.

All teachers and supporting staff should feel as they are an essential part of the

school. Supporting this kind of culture (www.teacherbulletin.org, p.1)

cempqyngfigu<" Ðc" uejqqnÓu" rgthqtocpeg" yknn" pqv" kortqxg" wpvkn" vjg" uejqqn"

culture is one where people feel valued, safe, and share the goal of self-

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kortqxgogpv000Ñ" " Kp" qtfgt" vq" guvcdnkuj" c" ngctpkpi" qticpkucvkqp." Hqumgvv" cpf"

Lumby (2003) advise openness among school leaders, teachers, supporting staff

and students, and school heads who accept open constructive criticism from

their lower level staff members. Despite the dominance of a bureaucratic model

of leadership, allowing followers to comment negatively towards schools

leaders, especially in meetings may possibly enhance cooperation among school

leaders and followers. Besides, this can build a culture of tolerance and

accountability among school leaders. Foskett and Lumby (2003:176) note,

Ðyjcv"ku"egtvckp"ku"vjcv"kh"vjgqtkgu"qh"vjg"ngctpkpi"qticpkucvkqp"ctg"vq"dg"qh"xcnwg"

to a school or college, some realistic hope of openness and of sharing power

amongst the hierarchy of staff and between staff and students and between the

kpuvkvwvkqp"cpf"vjg"eqoowpkv{"owuv"gzkuvÑ0""Gxgp"vjqwij"Vcp|cpkcp"ugeqpfct{"

schools are operating in a formal style of leadership, it highly likely that Foskett

cpf" Nwod{Óu" vjgqt{" eqwnf" dg" qh" dgpghkv" vq" kortqxg" cecfgoke" cejkgxgogpvu"

among secondary schools. Besides, celebrating the good performance of

individuals can be another motivational factor. Heroes and heroines have to be

recognised.

Comparing school cultures

School culture differs from one school to another. Norms, beliefs,

values, traditions and customs vary from one school to another. Furthermore,

school culture is not the same from one region of the world to the other; in most

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of the developing nations, schools emphasise replication whereas in the west,

schools stress innovation. Table 6 gives examples of school culture from

various regions of the world.

""""""""""""""""""" ;HﾉW"ヶ"W ;ﾏ ﾉW "ﾗa" Iｴﾗﾗﾉ"I ﾉ W"

African schools Chinese schools and USA Australian

Far East schools schools schools

Language, race, Some research found that Cultural Curriculum offers

gender and class in students and teachers in capital due to a range of skills
South Africa are deep countries of the Far East often dominance of enhanced through
social re-arrangement see memorisation and capitalism collaboration and
in the country where understanding as working plays a great competition
the post-apartheid is together to produce higher role on among schools
being given new quality outcomes. In contrast, performance,
meaning; however in the West it is more common controlling School fees are
racial integration is to associate memorising with family arranged by
still a challenging 'surface' and understanding background schools in private
issue (Soudien,1990: with 'deep' approaches to cpf"uvwfgpvuÓ" schools
108) learning (Dahlin &Watkins, aptitude in
2007:65) the USA
Most important
emphasis on Power is concentrated in
Tanzanian education hands of few leaders,
(primary and collective benefits is stressed ,
secondary) is on culture too stresses
input: classrooms; consideration rather than
teachers; books; aggression (Bush and Qiang,
laboratories and 2000: 60-62)
desks while
forgetting learning In Thailand the dominant
outcomes: creativity; culture is of power-
innovation; concentration, stressing
numeracy; literacy; replication (Bush, 2008:159)
writing; analysis and
critical thinking
(www.uwezo.net,
2010:7).
Conformity is
dominant culture in
Tanzanian schools

Conclusions

A big question which needs an answer from all Tanzanian stake holders

ku<" Ku" Vcp|cpkcp" uejqqn" ewnvwtg" gpcdnkpi" ngctpgtuÓ" cejkgxgogpvA" " Ctg" pqtou."

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"
values, beliefs, used as means to good achievement? The educational sector in

Tanzania is underperforming. The difficulty lies in the mode of delivery - the

process of leaning. It is mainly teacher centred instead of learner centred, even

though this is from time to time led by a large number of learners in the

classroom. The kind of education that puts less emphasis on quantity is an in-

put oriented form of education. The belief of this sort of education is that the

availability of essential facilities like classrooms, desks, laboratories and

teachers enable learning to take place. However, it forgets about motivating

educators; it does not celebrate heroes and heroines, its beliefs focus on quantity

rather than on outcome. This type of education is not likely to prepare learners

to achieve their full potential. The education that is provided in Tanzania is that

which emphasises reproduction instead of creativity and innovation.

The culture of centralisation of curriculum preparation, the failure to

involve educators and learners in making major decisions, for instance policy

making, is another hindering aspect. The belief is that lower levels are mainly

recipients of what the elite formulate at the top. This undermines creativity in

both learners and teachers.

Various schools possess cultural symbols like the school motto, uniform,

school song, shared values, norms and beliefs: the question is how they are

being used as a vehicle for success? Most of these are taken for granted. Still,

it has to be acknowledged that school culture might be an important factor for

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future success of teaching and learning in Tanzanian schools as Duignan

(2006:6) believes:

Educational leaders and teachers have a particular responsibility to ensure

that students in their care receive the type of education and learning
experience that help transform their lives so that they can break the bonds
korqugf" d{" hqtegu" hqt" Ðkpvgpug" kpfkxkfwcnkuoÑ" cpf" dgvvgt" eqpvtkdwvg." cu"
responsible citizens, to the common good

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"
%*#26'4"'+)*6"

%*#..'0)'5"':2'4+'0%'&"+0".'#&+0)"%*#0)'"
Chapter eight is about leading change in education settings. The entire

discussion in the chapter focuses on effecting change in Tanzanian Community

schools by using SEDP I and SEDP II as a case in point. Issues discussed in this

chapter include:

‚ The concept of change in education

‚ Challenges of change from the internal environment: the case of SEDP I

and SEDP II

‚ Difficulties emerging from external environment: the case of SEDP I

and SEDP II

‚ Opportunities for organisational change

The concept of change in education

Oqttkuqp" *3;;:<35+" fghkpgu" ejcpig" cu" c" Ðeqpvkpwqwu" rtqeguu" qh" fgxgnqrogpv"

cpf" itqyvj" vjcv" kpxqnxgu" c" tgqticpkucvkqp" kp" tgurqpug" hgnvÑ0" " Oqticp" *4228<"

241) supports the meaning given by Morrison by stating tjcv<"Ðctqwpf"722D0E"

the Greek philosopher Heraclitus noted that you cannot step twice into the river;

everything flows and nothing is static; cool things become warm, the warm

eqqnu."cpf"vjg"oqkuv"ftkguÑ0""Hwnncp"*4229<9+"iqgu"qp"hwtvjgt"d{"tgoctmkpi"vjcv<
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"
 The urgent reasons for reform are now familiar, the global society is
increasingly complex, requiring educated citizens who can learn
continuously and who can work with diversity, locally and
internationally. Although the source of blame arises, it is now an
undeniable conclusion that the education system and its partners have
failed to produce citizens who can contribute to and benefit from the
world that offers enormous opportunity, and equally complex difficulty
hkpfkpiu"qpgÓu"yc{"kp"kv0
Fullan is possibly advocating for educational change that will prepare a

learner to be a lifelong learner, at the same time for educational reform that will

enable a learner to acquire skills relevant for the fast changing world. Morrison

*3;;:<5+" cuugtvu" vjcv" Ðejcpig and reform in education are inescapable.

Regardless of how one views society, education, as a significant component in

uqekq"ewnvwtcn"cpf"geqpqoke"tgpgycn"cpf"fgxgnqrogpv"ku"ecwijv"wr"kp"ejcpigÑ0

Various forces like technology, demography, and legal, economic and

political conditions cause disequilibrium in a school and necessitate change

(Babyegeya, 2002: 212). Leading change, whether internally or externally

generated, involves facing many barriers and limitations; in fact barriers to

change emerge both within the organisation and outside it. According to Stoll

and Fink (1997:55-57) school change involves many challenges.

̇ Mobility of teachers and principals. A high level of turn over causes

problems of continuity, commitment to goals and school vision, and
can disrupt momentum of the improvement process.
̇ The difficulty of sustaining commitment. Fullan (1991:89) comments
vjcv" " Ðvjg" " rtqdngo" qh" uwuvckpkpi" eqookvogpv" ku" gpfgoke" vq" cnn" pgy"
programs irrespective of whether they arise from external initiative or
are internally developed, new staff may not be committed to particular
iqcnu0Ñ
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"
 ̇ Micro political pressure. Micro political issues significantly challenge
uejqqn" kortqxgogpv=" 000Ðtghqtou" eqpvkpwcnn{" hckn" dgecwug" cvvgpvkqp" ku"
not paid to the alteration of power relationships. Schools are places in
which control is a key issue. Principals are faced with the problem of
maintaining control while trying to generate enthusiasm and
eqookvogpvÑ0
̇ Decentralisation. Less effective schools are left to flounder without
system-level checks and balances to ensure they do not decline, to the
extent that they find themselves in big difficulties when is already too
late.
̇ Maintaining the distinction between means and end. While is often
difficult to measure the outcomes of a specific improvement, it
essential to keep them in mind.
̇ Contextual differences. Does one size- fit- all? A problem of generic
school improvements is insufficient detail in attention to variations in
improvement conditions and strategies in different types of school.
̇ Concurrent agendas. At the same time as the schools are involved in
development work, they must also maintain their focus on other
commitments and respond to external directives

Challenges of change from the internal environment: the case of SEDP I

and SEDP II

Internal difficulties associated with leading organisational change at a

community secondary school may arise from five sources namely: curriculum,

teaching and supporting staff, school environment, and school management

team and school culture.

Hktuvn{."ewttkewnwo"korngogpvcvkqp."hqt"gzcorng"Ðvjg"iqcn"qh"UGFR"K"ycu"

to reach 50 percent cohort participation and transition rate from primary to

ugeqpfct{"gfwecvkqp"d{"4232Ñ*ugg"Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg."4226<"r0"

i). The goal seemed to be ambitious as long as the increase of students did not

correspond to the training of teachers; SEDP II shows that the training of

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"
teachers is still low compared to demand (MOEVT, 2010:12). This is a

practical barrier, where change is impeded by the insufficiency of resources, as

denoted by Morrison (1998:122). A further difficulty in African countries and

particular in Tanzania to reach and meet the demand of the disadvantaged

groups: students such as those with HIV/AIDS; hunters; gatherers; fishermen;

orphans; people with disabilities; street children and in general the girls, few of

whom are sent to school in developing countries (Ministry of Education and

Culture, 1995:18).

Secondly, teachers and non teaching staff: SEDP II explains clearly the

role of vjg" Uejqqn" Ocpcigogpv" Vgco" cv" uejqqn" ngxgn<" Ðvjg" ocpcigogpv" vgco"

includes a head of school, assistant head of school, senior academic master

/mistress, senior master/mistress in charge of discipline, sports and cultural

affairs master/mistress, senior master/mistress for school maintenance and

rtqlgevu"cpf"uejqqn"ceeqwpvcpvÑ"*Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg."4226<"37+0""

It can be clearly seen that the role of teachers and supporting staff within SEDP

is not evidently stated, although these are the key players in the implementation

of the plan. A study by Stoll et al. (2006:221) acknowledges the role of the

teachers in effecting change:

Kpvgtpcvkqpcn" gxkfgpeg" uwiiguvu" vjcv" gfwecvkqpcn" tghqtoÓu" rtqitguu"

fgrgpfu"qp"vgcejgtuÓ"kpfkxkfwcn"cpf"eqnngevkxg"ecrcekty and its links with
school-ykfg"ecrcekv{"hqt"rtqorvkpi"rwrknuÓ"ngctpkpi0"Dwknfkpi"ecrcekv{"ku"
therefore critical. Capacity is a complex blend of motivation, skill,
positive learning organisation conditions and culture, and infrastructure
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"
 of support. Put together, it gives individuals, groups, whole school
communities and school systems the power to get involved in and sustain
learning over time.
It is more likely that without the collaboration of teachers and non-

teaching staff the success of SEDP will be in reasonable doubt. Sarason

*3;:4<7+"vcmgu"c"ukoknct"xkgy"d{"ctiwkpi"vjcv"Ðvjg"gxkfgpeg"ku"tcvjgt"engct"vjcv"

although it is true that the principal is the gate keeper in regards to change

effort, the ultimate outcome depends on when and how teachers become part of

vjg"fgekukqpu"vq"kpkvkcvg"ejcpig0Ñ""Cp"ctvkeng"d{"Etqyvjgt"*4224<389+"cffu"vjcv"

Ðitgcv"vjgqtkuvu"nkmg"Rgvgt"Ftwemgt"ugg"mpqyngfig" yqtmgtu"nkmg" vgcejgtu"cu"vjg"

leading class of post-industrial world; it is time to rethink leadership as it relates

vq"vgcejgtu"cpf"oqxg"qp"htqo"vjg"kfgqnqi{"qh"cwvjqtkv{"dcugf"ngcfgtujkrÑ0"""""""""""""

Another contribution is made by Fullan (2007:3) on problems encountered

d{" pqv" kpxqnxkpi" vgcejgtu" kp" gfwecvkqp" tghqto." Ðvgcejgtu" eqornckp" vjcv"

administrators introduce change for their own self aggrandizement and they

pgkvjgt"mpqy"yjcv"ku"pggfgf"vq"wpfgtuvcpf"vjg"encuu"tqqoÑ0"Fwttcpv"cpf"Jqnfgp"

*4228<43+"gorjcukug"vjcv<"Ðvgcejgtu"yqtmkpi"vqigvjgt"kp"pgvyqtmkpi"ctg"vjg"mg{"

to the transformation of teaching and learning , they do this by engaging in the

classroom innovation , the challenges for the school is to identify, deploy and

kpetgcug"vjg"ecrcekv{"hqt"kppqxcvkqpÑ0

The third important internal challenge to the head of the community school

in the implementation of SEDP concerns the school environment, which

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"
includes all the physical resources inside and outside of the classroom. The

School Management Team (SMT) under the head of a school has to ensure the

quality of any newly constructed building and maintenance of all available

buildings at their respective school (Ministry of Education and Culture,

2004:15). This argument fails to recognise the financial difficulties facing

Tanzania as one of the poor countries in the world and the fact that such

maintenance is beyond the capacity of the school head with his/her management

team. The money provided to the school is usually not enough especially for

maintenance of old classrooms, library and dormitories.

The fourth internal challenge emerges from the School Management Team

whose chairperson is the school head. The School Management Team does the

hqnnqykpi"*Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg."4226<"37+"Ðocpcikpi"qh"fc{- to-

day activities, preparation of school development plans and budgets,

supervising the implementation of education and training policy, taking care of

new building construction and maintenance of old buildings, lastly working

with village governments to identify students in need of government

urqpuqtujkrÑ0"Vjgtg"ku"pq"fqwdv"vjcv"vjg"Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp and Culture has

a positive will to decentralise some of its roles to lower levels. The challenges

are: Are the School Management Teams prepared to implement the given roles?

Are the school heads prepared to implement the given roles? Literature

indicates that most of educational leaders in Africa and Tanzania in particular

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"
lack leadership training (See Mathibe, 2007: 523, Onguko et al., 2008: 721 and

Bush and Jackson, 2002:418)."" In a study by Khamis and Sammons (2007: 2)

about developing countries the following observation is made:

Head teachers have a pivotal role in deciding the fate of any change,
especially regarding sustainability and continuation towards improvement
once the improvement integration ceases. A more focused training of
heads relating to their roles in a school where the innovation is taking
place could be effective in ensuring the continuing support which is
necessary once head teachers have been through the training process.
It is also certain that the education sector in Tanzania to a large extent is

still dominated by a formal leadership style; and decision making is still top-

down despite the obvious measures of decentralizing education. Because of the

nature of this leadership style, even at school level a formal type of leadership

exists. Sarason (1982: 160) gives evidence for the educational institution

working under the bureaucratic type of leadership:

The principal wants to be and feel influential .The dilemma begins when
the principal realizes that words and power, far from guaranteeing
intended outcomes, may be ineffectual and even produce the opposite of
what is desired. When hostility and resistance to his recommendation
ideas of change is encountered for example with a teacher, the principal
uses two alternatives to respond: assert authority or withdraw from the
fray.
The last but not least source of challenge when a school head is leading

change is that of changing school culture. Morrison (1998: 152) defines

qticpkucvkqpcn"ewnvwtg"cu"c"Ðeqodkpcvkqp"qh"xcnwgu."pqtou"cvvitudes to and care

for its employees, rites and ceremonials, celebrations of achievements, formal

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"
and informal networks and systems of communication, the ideology,

perceptions, expression of needs and interest, patterns of expectations and the

general oriepvcvkqpÑ0""Fwttcpv"cpf"Jqnfgp"*4228<35+"fghkpg"ewnvwtg"cu"Ðvjg"yc{"

yg"fq"vjkpiu"jgtgÑ."cpf"ekvkpi"OceDgcvj"*3;;;+"ikxg"vjg"ogcpkpi"qh"ewnvwtg"cu"

Ð"c"yc{"qh"uggkpi"cpf"fqkpi"vjkpiu."c"ugv"qh"cvvkvwfgu"vq"nkhg"cpf"ceeqorcp{kpi"

dgjcxkqwtÑ*Fwttcpv"cpf"Jqnfgp."2006:13).

Fidler (1996: 113) outlines three factors relevant to changing organizational

culture:

(i) Evident crisis: where an organizations evidently in trouble or

heading for trouble, there is a greater willingness to consider deep-

seated change

(ii) Attractiveness of change; the proposed change needs to have all its

highly desirable features emphasized

(iii) Strength of present culture: the stronger the present culture, the

more difficult it is to change.

Fwttcpv" cpf" Jqnfgp" *4228<" 38+" eqoogpv" vjcv" Ðejcpig" yjkej" ku" gzvgtnally

mandated, top down seems to be most associated with the feelings of alienation

cpf"c"nquu"qh"ugnh"guvggoÑ0

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"
 Babyegeya (2002: 206) uses a hypothetical example of two schools with

different assumptions that produce different values and behaviour:

School A

‚ Truth comes from older, wiser , better educated and higher status

members of the organisation

‚ People are capable of loyalty and discipline in carrying out

directives

‚ Relationships are linear and vertical and each member has her/his

own territory

School B

‚ Ideas come from individuals

‚ People are responsible, motivated and capable of governing

themselves and truth can be determined by testing ideas from

different people

‚ Members of organisation now themselves as a family who will take

care of each other

Taking into account the various definitions of culture and the two different

hypothetical school cultures given above, it is highly likely that a head of a

community school in Tanzania will have many challenges in the

implementation of both SEDP I and II, especially if s/he works in culture of

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school B, because SEDP gives a little room to members of the school (teachers,

supporting staff and students) to participate in the process of education reform.

For example, the school management team does not directly include class room

teachers, supporting staff and students in the preparation of development plans,

budgets, ensuring quality constructed classrooms and the other day to day

affairs of the school (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004). However,

School A would have a reasonable chance of implementation, because the

school culture is one of respecting and obeying directives from the older, trusted

members.

Morrison (1998:122) emphasises that before effecting any change,

members of any given organisation have to be motivated. The whole process

should be discussed by members: for example what are the likely benefits and

problems of that particular change will bring to the organisation? Central to any

discussion of change is the analysis of the personal motivation...people must be

motivated to change, to face novelty, to cope with the disequilibrium that

change brings.

Difficulties of change arising from the external environment

A school does not exist in isolation; in the process of implementing

education reform under SEDP I or SEDP II it interacts with the external

environment. This includes: the global influence, the Ministry of Education and

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"
Culture, the regional leadership, district leadership, the ward and community at

large including parents. It will also face cultural influences for example belief

diversity, together with the fact that students come from different ethnic and

economic backgrounds.

Vjg" yqtnf" ku" oqxkpi" uq" hcuv" kp" vgtou" qh" vgejpqnqi{=" vqfc{Óu" uejqqnu." hqt"

instance, have the exerted pressure to make sure that students are taught the use

of computers. Fullan (2007: 6) describes reforms in the world brought by civil

oqxgogpvu="Ðgfwecvkqp"cu"c"vqqn"qh"nkdgtcvkqpÑ="vqfc{Óu"yqtnf"pggfu"rgqrng"yjq"

are lifelong learners and who can work within changing contexts. Managing

ewttkewnwo"ku"c"xgt{"ejcnngpikpi"vcum"kp"vqfc{Óu"yqtnf0

The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, formerly Ministry of

Education and Culture is responsible for policy formulation and monitoring, it

provides finance and recruits teachers (Ministry of Education and Culture,

2004:14). The possibility is remote that the planned policy can be well

implemented when the heads of schools are not involved in the process of

formulating the plan; lack of teachers, high rate of teacher turnover especially in

rural areas and financial difficulties facing schools also limit leading effective

change. An article by Simkins (2000:330) concerning education in the UK

observes top down change rarely work:

Evolving policy environment which educational institutions have

faced over the past 10 years in the United Kingdom has exerted a
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"
 number of common pressures on those who lead and manage them.
These pressures include:
‚ The need to perform in the quasi market and take more customer
focused approach to those they serve.
‚ The need to set and meet demanding targets in terms of measurable
performance indicators which are set by the central government or
its agents.
‚ The need to exhibit appropriate forms of management and
organisation which can be inspected and for which institutions can
be held to account.
Hwnncp"*4229<32+"cffu"vjcv"Ðvjg"vqr"fqyp"ejcpig"fqgu"pqv"yqtm"fwg"vq"ncem"qh"

qypgtujkr."eqookvogpv"qt"enctkv{"cdqwv"vjg"pcvwtg"qh"vjg"tghqtoÑ0

The coordinating organs for SEDP are: the regional education office,

district education office, the ward education office and the school boards

(Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004: 14); however, the school head and

his/her team have more responsibilities in terms of accountability.

Education reform touches the community; parents/guardians of learners.

Parents usually worry about changes introduced in education (Fullan, 2007: 3);

in most cases significant changes in school to be effective should involve

parents/guardians. Sarason (1982:2) supports the argument; Ðqpg" ecppqv"

understand the failure of efforts to change and improve schools unless one deals

ykvj" vjg" uejqqn" eqoowpkv{" tgncvkqpujkru" cpf" vjgkt" nctign{" kornkekv" ejctcevgtÑ0"

Durrant and Holden (2006:22) emphasise that:

School based and extended communities of practice foster critical

friendship and sharing of good practice across departments, school and
district boundaries. Such partnership offers the opportunity for
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 professionalism founded on the following principles and increased
opportunities for professional dialogue:
‚ Reducing teachers professional isolation
‚ Connecting professional development to meaningful content and
changes
‚ Creating an environment of professional safety and trust

SEDP involves the community in various ways; for example parents who

cannot afford to pay school fees for their children are provided with government

scholarships, the community has the responsibility of constructing of

classrooms (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2004:15). The limitation on the

community collaboration for school development is the prevailing state of

poverty among parents in the country. Because of poverty heads of school relies

much on the Ministry of Education for finance.

Sometimes the head of a secondary are in poor relationships with the

community around the schools, for example schools get into land disputes with

vjg" eqoowpkv{=" kv" ku" c" hcev" vjcv" kp" Vcp|cpkc" Ðkpfkxkfwcnu." rwdnke" cpf" rtkxcvg"

organisations and the community in general tend to encroach on schools land

earmarked, allocated and demarcated for gfwecvkqp" kpuvkvwvkqpuÑ" *Okpkuvt{" qh"

Education and Culture, 1995: 27).

Finally, a head of a community school faces cultural challenges from the

external environment: A study by Riley (2008:311-315) some problems

regarding schools working with the community, this observation could as well

face Tanzanian schools despite the fact that observation is in developed world:
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"
 We live in fragile Îsome might say dangerous-times. There may be cities
across the globe, from San Paulo, to Los Angeles, to London in which
communities are marginalised or isolated: white working-class
communities, refugee or immigrant communities, each with their own
tensions and complexities, but nevertheless rich in culture and social
capital. For the children and young people in those communities, success
needs to be achieved in partnership with their home communities, not in
spite of them. Otherwise there is a risk of alienation. This requires
reciprocity on the part of schools and communities: it means bringing
schools into communities, and communities into schools.
Billot et al (2007: 15) take a similar view:

It has been noted that continual and increasing immigration is putting

pressure on school communities both in terms of resourcing and changing
characteristics of the school community, in such a context it imperative
that schools recognise the differing needs and goals of students and
respond to this diversity.
A school cannot exclude itself from cultural influences like religious beliefs,

ethnicity, rituals, heroes and heroines, celebrations, stories and informal

networks; the challenge to the head of the school is how to handle them. Fullan

*4226<33;+"ikxgu"c"ukoknct"qdugtxcvkqp<"ÐRgqrng"tctgn{"ejcpig"vjtqwij"c"tcvkqpcn"

process of analyse-think change. They are much more likely to change in a see-

feel sequence. The role of the leader is to help create a process that helps people

see new possibilities that engage their emotions and thus change behaviours or

tgkphqteg"ejcpigf"dgjcxkqwtÑ0

Opportunities for organisational change

A leader of change encounters many barriers associated with personal

values, psychological effects, and fear of losing power as well as practical

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"
limitations. Yet, there are positive forces toward organisation change

(Morrison, 1998:22). It could be possible that the head of a community

secondary school under major secondary education reform in Tanzania has

opportunities for successful management of change; support from the

community for construction of classroom for example is one of the

opportunities for positive change, availability of financial resources from the

Ministry of Education is another opportunity, utilisation of available resources

like teachers, classroom and available books is an added advantage. He/she also

gets advice from higher levels of hierarchy; the regional level, district level, the

ward level and from the school board. Ministry of Education (2004: ii)

acknowledges that:

The plan clearly recognises the current strengths, weaknesses, and

resource limitations in the present system. It is predicated on a
community based development approach intended to elicit greater
participation from below. Its implementation will demand commitment
and hard work of all stake holders. Furthermore, it provides us with a
secondary education that can meet challenges and exploit opportunities
provided by globalization and liberalization.
Stoll and Fink (1997:50-54) propose a number of possibilities for leading

successful change.

‚ Schools need to address internal conditions that maintain and

support improvement, readiness for change and capacity to take
ownership
‚ Establishing trust and openness between staff, pupils and the
community before embarking on substantive change
‚ Having vision, it helps the school to define their own direction and
to develop an attitude that we are in charge of change
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"
 ‚ Joint planning
‚ Commitment to change is more likely when those involved in
implementation of school improvement are consulted and involved
in making decisions
‚ Systematic planning, monitoring and evaluation of the process and
of final outcomes is essential
‚ The ability to deal with problems actively, promptly and in depth is
important
‚ Schools require flexibility to accommodate external ideas within
the own context and needs.
Fullan and Ballew (2004:5) take the similar view on reinforcing the forces for

positive change by outlining the following measures:

‚ Moral purpose; acting with the intention of making a positive

change in the lives of employees, customers and society
‚ Understanding change; it essential for leaders to understand change
process.
‚ Building relationships
‚ Creating and sharing knowledge
The ideas set out by Stoll and Fink (1997) together with Fullan and Ballew

(2004) are restricted by the way SEDP was prepared. The plan has been made

at the top and the head of the community secondary school and his/her

management team are just implementers, and they have to be accountable for

that at higher levels. There is a good possibility that the implementation of the

plan will be difficult, especially in securing strong support from teachers, non

teaching staff and the students and community.

Morrison (1998: 16) advocates a number of enabling factors for leading

positive change; the model has some advantages when addressing resistance to

educational change. The factors enumerated are:

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"
 ‚ Communication
‚ Involvement and ownership
‚ Clarity at all times in all things
‚ Clear focus
‚ Encouraging success
‚ Looking at the causes of problems and difficulties
‚ Providing evidence of benefit
‚ Using evaluation and self evaluation
‚ Involving and addressing personal responses
‚ Being sensitive to people
‚ Identifying the kinds of threats
‚ Building trust
‚ Looking at cultural factors in the organisation
‚ Providing support
‚ Cfftguukpi"kuuwguÓ"qh"vkokpi
‚ Playing to people strengths
‚ Offer compensation
‚ Undertake task analysis
Babyegeya (2002: 208) advocates strongly for positive change of culture to

accommodate new stories, symbols, rituals, structures, promotion of heroes and

heroines as opportunities for leading positive change. Kotter (1996:59)

concludes that a transforming organisation succeeds if a sense of urgency is put

on fellow managers and employ.

Conclusions

In conclusion, a leader of a community secondary school would experience

a number of barriers in the process of effecting change; difficulties arise from

within the school and outside the school. Although the overall aim of the reform

is to benefit the leaner, there is only a slight possibility of implementing the

objective successfully, since neither learner nor teachers were involved in the

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"
preparation of the plan; SEDP comes from the top. Another limitation is the

capacity of the school; it is suggested that more students have to be enrolled to

meet the demand of secondary education (Ministry of Education and Culture,

2004: vi). Schools face a number of problems like financial difficulties,

shortage of teachers, inadequate books and few classrooms; it highly likely that

the quality of education will be negated by the number of students. SEDP

specifies that the head of school together with his/her management team will

form a steering committee, that committee will be responsible for the overall

implementation of the plan. The head and the team have limited capacity to

implement the plan because they were neither involved in its formulation nor

they are given skills to implement the plan.

There are also challenges from school culture, where a school receives

students from different tribes with different customs, norms, beliefs and

traditions. Cultural diversity is one of the barriers to leading effective change

within the school. It is unlikely that change will be led successfully where

students, teachers and supporting staff are not motivated toward change; how

will heroes and heroines be decided? How will the rites and rituals be

reinforced? How will the cultural diversity be managed? Whenever the plan is

top down there is only a small possibility of managing school culture.

Vqfc{Óu"yqtnf"ku"hwnn"qh"ejcnngpigu"nkmg"vjg"tcrkf"ejcpig"qh"vgejpqnqikecn"

development, pressure for economic development, trade liberalisation, shortage

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"
of job opportunities, political turbulence, spread of killer disease like

HIV/AIDS, street children and orphans. Students need computer knowledge and

parents are after a better education for their children: all these are challenges

which face a head of school under SEDP reform.

There are also accountability issues. Schools work under Ministry of

Education and Culture, with the school board, ward, district and regional

education offices having a supervisory role: there is a strong possibility that the

school head with his/her Management team works under pressure.

Despite the fact that the head of a community secondary school faces many

difficulties in leading the reform introduced by Ministry of Education under

SEDP, there are some opportunities for success. Communities have the

responsibility of constructing classrooms to be used by the increased number of

students in addition to finance that comes from the Ministry of Education, and

parents have a strong demand for secondary education for their children. The

Ministry of Education provides scholarships for students who are unable to pay

school fees, it also employs new teachers. The school head also receives advice

from the higher organs in the hierarchy; the school board, ward, district and

region education offices in addition have existing structures and resources

Kv"ecp"dg"uckf"eqphkfgpvn{"vjcv"vjg"UGFRÓu"iqcnu"ctg"xgt{"korqtvcpv"hqt"vjg"

economic take-off of Tanzania, but capacity building of implementers and the

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"
involvement of key stake holders in decisions relating to education reform in

Tanzania is essential for successful implementation of this education plan.

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"
%*#26'4"0+0'""

6*'"41.'"1("5%*11."*'#&5"+0"37#.+6;"'&7%#6+10"
Chapter nine aims at addressing the issue of quality education. The chapter

considers the role of school heads as key players for achieving quality

education. A number of questions are raised and answers sought concerning

how school heads could be fully involved to achieve quality of education in

Tanzanian secondary schools. This chapter is divided into seven parts namely:

‚ Factors responsible for quality education

‚ Style of leadership needed to meet quality education

‚ How could be a good school be made

‚ Involvement of school heads

‚ Involvement of parents

‚ Linkage of theory and practice

Factors Responsible for Quality Education

UNESCO (2000) identifies a number of factors to be considered when

aiming to make the process of teaching and learning of high quality. These

factors identified in a study by Mbelle (2008:8 quoting UNESCO, 2000)

comprise:

̇ Learner background (gender, age, home language).

̇ Home background (distance to school, meals received, parents in the
home).
̇ Home learning support (assistance with home work, activities other than
school related work, parent education).
̇ Teacher background (age, gender, training, experience).
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"
 ̇ Teaching conditions (furniture, learning materials, availability of chalk
boards and chalks).
̇ VgcejgtuÓ" yqtm" gpxktqpogpv" cpf" cevkxkvkgu" *cxckncdknkv{" qh" vgcejkpi"
resources, teacher activity after school).
̇ School head background (gender, qualification, experience).
̇ School characteristics (school safety, school size, school shifts, school
facilities, buildings, and amenities).

The four main settings pin-pointed by UNESCO so as to achieve quality

teaching and learning include: the home environment; the school; teachers; and

vjg"uejqqn"jgcfÓu"gpxktqpogpv0""Cv"jqog"vjg"rctgpvu"vqigvjgt"ykvj"pgkijdqwtu"

play a big role with respect to child growth and development, while at school,

the school head together with teachers lead the way towards quality teaching

and learning. The investigation by Mbelle (2008:8) shows further that analysis

done in Botswana, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal,

Uganda and Zambia, regarding on the relatiqpujkr" dgvyggp" ngctpgtuÓ"

performance against the above factors indicated that teacher background,

vgcejkpi" eqpfkvkqpu." vgcejgtuÓ" yqtm" gpxktqpogpv" cpf" cevkxkvkgu." cpf" uejqqn"

characteristics played a big role in quality education.

Zombwe (2008:8) is concerned about poor management strategies in

Vcp|cpkc" uejqqnu<" Ð000vjg" ngcfgtujkr" crrtqcej" ujqwnf" ejcpig0" Yg" jcxg" vq"

remember that the school administration has either motivating or de-motivating

role for teachers. Dictatorial leadership may contribute to teachers running away

htqo"vjg"rtqhguukqp0"Vjg"kornkecvkqp"hqt"vjku"ku"mknnkpi"ngctpgtuÓ"rqvgpvkcnuÑ0

ヱΓヵ"

"
 Educational quality in terms of outcome does not stand on its own: it

depends on the quality of inputs. In short poor input is mostly likely to lead to

poor outcome, while inputs of high-quality could likely result in high-quality

output. The framework in Figure 21 shows the interdependence of input and

qwvrwv." vjg" hkiwtg" cu" ygnn" eqpukfgtu" qvjgt" hcevqtu" nkmg" eqpvgzv." cpf" ngctpgtuÓ"

characteristics. All these have a bearing towards achieving quality education.

ヱΓヶ"

"
 ;ﾐ;Hﾉｷﾐｪ"ｷﾐ "

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}Iｴﾗﾗﾉ" W;SｷﾐW "

v ｷﾗ "ﾆﾐﾗ ﾉWSｪW" vｴ ｷI;ﾉ"ｷﾐa ; I W";ﾐS"a;Iｷﾉｷ ｷW "" }ﾗIｷ;ﾉ"HWﾐWaｷ ""

0; ｷW " ﾗ" K ﾏ;ﾐ" W ﾗ IW ぎ" W;IｴW が"

ﾉW; ﾐｷﾐｪ"" ｷﾐIｷ ;ﾉ が"ｷﾐ WI ﾗ が" W ｷ ﾗ が"
;Sﾏｷﾐｷ ; ﾗ が""

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1ﾗﾐ W "
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̇ vｴｷﾉﾗ ﾗ ｴｷI;ﾉ"
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;ﾐS"ﾉ;Hﾗ " ﾆﾐﾗ ﾉWSｪW";ﾐS" W;IｴW ";ﾐS" ;ﾐS; S "
ﾏ; ﾆW " ﾗ " ﾉW; ﾐW "" ̇ v HﾉｷI"
IﾗﾐSｷ ｷﾗﾐ " ｷﾐa ; I W"" ̇ vWW "WaaWI " W WI ; ｷﾗﾐ "
ｷﾐ" ｴW" ̇ v HﾉｷI" ̇ v; Wﾐ ;ﾉ" ﾗ " ̇ ];Hﾗ "
Iﾗﾏﾏ ﾐｷ W ﾗ IW " ̇ ｷﾏW"; ;ｷﾉ;HﾉW"aﾗ " ﾏ; ﾆW "
"" ; ;ｷﾉ;HﾉW"aﾗ " Iｴﾗﾗﾉｷﾐｪ";ﾐS" SWﾏ;ﾐS "
̇ }ﾗIｷ;ﾉど WS I; ｷﾗﾐ" ｴﾗﾏW" ﾗ ﾆ" ̇ ｪﾉﾗH;ﾉｷ ; ｷﾗﾐ"
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̇ ふ#ｷS" ﾗaW ｷﾗﾐ"ﾗﾐ"
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ﾏ; ﾆW ""
" ̇ d; ｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ"
ｪﾗ W ﾐ;ﾐIW";ﾐS"
"

Eｷｪ W"ヲヱぎ Framework for Understanding Education Quality

#S; WS"a ﾗﾏ";E#"FﾉﾗH;ﾉ"cﾗﾐｷ ﾗ ｷﾐｪ"yW ﾗ が"ヲヰヰヵぎ"ンヶ"

ヱΓΑ"

"
 Figure 21 summarises some the main elements regarding the relationship

between educational input and educational outcomes (EFA Global Monitoring

Report, 2005:35-37)

̇ Context: cognitive development and the accumulation of particular

values, attitudes and skills are important objectives of education systems

in most societies. Their content may differ but their broader structure is

similar throughout the world...in one sense the key to improving the

quality of education Î to helping education systems better achieve these

objectives Î could be equally universal.

̇ Enabling inputs: other things being equal, the success of teaching and

learning is likely to be strongly influenced by the resources made

available to support the process and the direct ways in which these

resources are managed.

̇ Outcomes: the outcomes of education should be assessed in the context of

its agreed objectives. They are most easily expressed in terms of

academic achievement (sometimes test grades, but more usually are

popularly in terms of examination performance), though ways of

assessing creative and emotional development as well as changes in

values, attitude and behaviour have also been devised. Other proxies for

learner achievement and for broader social or economic gains can be

used; an example is labour market success. It is useful to distinguish

ヱΓΒ"

"
 between, achievement, attainment and other outcome measures-which

can include broader benefits to society.

̇ NgctpgtÓu" ejctcevgtkuvkeu<" jqy" rgqrng" ngctp" Î and how-quickly Î is

strongly influenced by their capacities and experience. Assessments of

the quality of education outcomes that ignore initial differences among

learners are likely to be misleading.

̇ Teaching and learning: the teaching and learning process is closely nested

within the support system of inputs and other contextual factors.

Teaching and learning is the key arena for human development. It is here

that the impact of curricula is felt, that teacher methods work well or not

and the learners are motivated to participate and learn how to learn.

Tanzania has made a notable effort towards educating its citizens since

independence. Nonetheless, the quality of education especially at primary level

started to deteriorate in the early 1980s. In recognition of that, various

programmes were put in place, for instance the Primary Education Development

Programme (PEDP)-2002-2006 and Secondary Education Development

Programme (SEDP)-2005-2009. Various efforts have also been put in place for

children out of school, for example, Complementary Basic Education in

Tanzania (COBET).

With all these initiatives, the number of enrolments of children to school has

kpetgcugf"cu"Wyg|qÓu"*2010:7) study shows:

ヱΓΓ"

"
 ..., as a result of Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP)
and Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP), there has
been a significant increase in children enrolled in primary and secondary
schools. In 2000, there were 4,382,410 children enrolled in primary
schools; by 2005 the number of children enrolled increased to 7,541,208,
an increase of 72 percent. In 2003, there were 345,441 students enrolled
in Forms 1to 6. In 2010, there are 1,638,699 students enrolled in
secondary schools, an increase of 374 percent...
For a poor country such as Tanzania, this is quantitatively a notable

achievement; however, the quality of education is still poor. Much advice has

been offered to improve the quality of education in Tanzania. But the role of

school head as a leader for change towards high quality in the process of

teaching and learning is not often emphasised. The following section considers

the means of progress towards quality education with the school head as driver.

What style of leadership could be put in use?

Leading in an educational context involves various approaches, for

example, transformational, transactional, or instructional leadership. The main

factor to enhance performance of any school organisation is the quality of

leadership. The student outcomes and the success of any school organisation

depend a great deal on the style of leadership employed.

A recent study by Robinson et al. (2008:635) in New Zealand on the

importance of the style of leadership in influencing academic and attitudinal

qwveqogu"hqt"uvwfgpvu"uwiiguvu<"Ðvjg"eqorctkuqpu"dgvyggp"vtcpuhqtocvkqpcn"cpf"

instructional leadership and between the five leadership dimensions suggested

that the more leaders focus their relationships, their work, and their learning on

ヲヰヰ"

"
the core business of teaching and learning, the greater their influence on student

qwveqoguÑ0""Vjku"uvwf{"gzrnckpu"gzrnkekvly the benefits of transformational and

instructional approach to leadership and its good impact in improving learner

outcomes.

Also, Crippen cpf"Ycnnkp"*422:<769+"pqvg<"Ðowej"qh"vjg"ewttgpv"nkvgtcvwtg"

advocates for educational leaders who can develop strong, effective and caring

eqoowpkvkgu"kp"cnn"ugiogpvu"qh"uqekgv{Ñ0" A transformational style of leadership

as well as an instructional style of leadership is likely to fulfil the named

conditions. By successively involving lower levels in leadership and by putting

attention on the need of the learner and on the curriculum, the quality of

education could be improved.

Crippen and Wallin (2008:547 referencing Murphy and Seashore-Louis,

1999: xxii) acknowledge the role of transformational type of leadership which

oc{"dg"c"xgjkeng"hqt"gpjcpekpi"uejqqn"jgcfuÓ"kphnwgpeg"wrqp"uvwfgpvuÓ"qwveqog"

when they say:

In these new post-industrial educational organisations, there are important

shifts in roles, relationships, and responsibilities; traditional patterns of
relationships are altered; authority flows are less hierarchical; role
definitions are both more general and more flexible; leadership is
connected to competence for needed tasks rather than to formal positions;
and independence and isolation are replaced by cooperative work.

Attention should be given to studies on the usefulness of the

vtcpuhqtocvkqpcn" uv{ng" qh" ngcfgtujkr" ykvj" tgurgev" vq" kortqxkpi" uvwfgpvuÓ"

outcome [academic as well as attitudinal]. A transactional style of leadership is

ヲヰヱ"

"
still dominant in Tanzanian secondary schools. For instance the relationship

between educational officers and schools heads is top-down. At school level,

the dominant feature of relationships between a school head with teachers and

students is hierarchical. The complexity oh" c" uejqqn" jgcfÓu" tqng" cpf"

responsibilities is for the most part likely to be reduced if a lateral relationship

at school level as well as at Ministry of Education level exists. Distributed type

of leadership is mostly likely needed to enhance performance in educational

settings.

How can a good school be made?

High quality schools are keys for good student outcomes. Yet, better

schools are made by good school leaders. School heads have the responsibility

of making good schools. School heads, for instance, have a key role in creating

favourable teaching and learning environments as well as establishing good

relationships with the outside environment: parents, guardians, the community

and policy making bodies. Muijs observes the positive influence of school

jgcfu"qp"uvwfgpv"qwveqogu<"Ðcu"pgy"jgcf-teachers you are the critical agents for

change and higher standards school by school. There is literally no more

korqtvcpv"lqd"kp"Dtkvckp"vqfc{"vjcp"{qwtuÑ"*Owklu."4232<68"ekvkpi"Dnckt."3;;;+0""

In the US, Bush uckf<" Ðkh" {qw" jcxg" iqv" c" iqqf" rtkpekrcn." cp" kppqxcvkxg."

smart, capable person, who is motivated and dedicated and who believes every

ejknf" ecp" ngctp." {qw" yknn" hkpf" gzegnngpeg" kp" vjcv" rctvkewnct" uejqqnÑ" Ñ" *Owklu."

ヲヰヲ"

"
2010:46 quoting, Bush, 2003). These two political leaders recognise the role of

uejqqn"jgcfu"kp"etgcvkpi"iqqf"uejqqnu"cpf"kphnwgpekpi"uvwfgpvuÓ"cejkgxgogpvu0""

Besides, Bush goes further in his speech by identifying some important

variables for school heads at their particular schools: innovation and treating

each learner as an individual. School heads as leaders of change need to be

innovative and creative thinkers. This is because modern schools have to cope

with fast moving science and technology and other new demands in educational

settings.

Mulford and Silins (2010:78) in their recent study suggest that effective

principals have an indirect influence on learner outcomes through teachers

working with students in classrooms as well as outside classrooms, for example,

in extra-curricular activities. Furthermore, a study by Mulford and Silins gives

evidence about the involvement of classroom teachers in leadership as having a

positive impact on learning and on the capability of school leadership as a

whole. In addition, improvement in school culture as well as school structure

and systems brings a positive impact on learner outcomes (Mulford and Silins,

2010:78). The study by Mulford and Silins is consistent with the study

conducted by Day et al. (2009) on the quality of leadership. High quality

leaders have a major bearing on the success of any school, compared to the

effect of policy made from higher levels (Mulford and Silins, 2010:80 citing

Day et al., 2009).

ヲヰン"

"
their followers; align followers and supporting systems; empower their

followers; and lastly motivate their followers (Kantabutra, 2010:382).

McpvcdwvtcÓu" xkukqp" oqfgn" qh" ngcfgtujkr" ku" c" yc{" hqtyctf" vq" etgcvkpi" c" iqqf"

school. School leaders have to have the ability to communicate effectively what

they dream to be the reality. Moreover, to improve the performance of a given

school leaders need to establish effective communication networks and set up

purposeful delegation of duties and responsibility, to empower followers, as

well as giving staff the capacity to perform through professional development.

One more factor which makes a good school is motivating followers as well as

students. Motivation encourages performance. De-motivation depresses

performance. A good quality school could be the one whose leaders motivate

both students and staff.

Are school heads involved in the preparation of high-quality curriculum?

A school head is an internal inspector on all matters related to curriculum

implementation at a given school. She/he is also involved in the supervision of

curriculum implementation at the school. In Tanzanian secondary school

settings, a school head is accountable to higher educational hierarchies [district,

region or national level] for learner achievement at their school. In order to be

able to supervise curriculum implementation, it is important for school heads to

be involved in the whole process of curriculum preparation and development.

But, when one examines the process of curriculum preparation in Tanzania,

ヲヰヵ"

"
school heads are rarely involved, either in school curriculum preparation or

curriculum change. This argument is supported by the study of Chediel et al.

(2000:38) which indicates no involvement of school heads even in text book

preparation. The questions which arise are: school heads as instructional

leaders, how they can supervise curriculum implementation while they are not

acquainted with what they are supposed to supervise?

In study conducted in Botswana, Pansiri (2008:486) identifies three

major skills in the curriculum management: instructional supervision, classroom

observation and activities at school aimed at professional development.

Findings from this study suggest that 75% of teachers acknowledged that Senior

Management Team (SMT) members visited them in the classroom, 70% of

teachers said that SMT praised them. Besides, 70% said the SMT gave them

helpful feedback (Pansiri, 2008:486). Furthermore, Pansiri acknowledges the

usefulness of routine classroom visits in enhancing curriculum implementation.

In a Tanzanian context, similar to Botswana, SMTs are to be found in

most secondary schools, consisting of: school head, second head (second-

master/mistress), Senior Academic Mistress /Master, Discipline

Mistress/Master, Maintenance Teacher, store-man/store-keeper and school

nurse/doctor. In most cases the supervision of the curriculum is left to the

school heads, because school heads are the ones accountable to higher levels.

Occasionally, the school head delegates his/her authority to the second heads or

ヲヰヶ"

"
the academic masters/mistresses. But, SMT has little knowledge and skills in

matters related to the management of curriculum change, because the Tanzania

Institute of Education (TIE) rarely involves school heads or other senior staff at

school level in the process of curriculum preparation.

In this era of rapid technological and socio-economic change, a new

outlook is needed to enhance student outcomes (academic, attitudinal and

psychomotor change). The integration of instructional and transformational

styles of leadership could improve student outcomes. For example, in a study

of 24 schools in the US involving elementary, middle and high schools, findings

show that integration of both instructional and transformational styles of

leadership led to improvement of learner outcomes (Robinson et al., 2008:666).

MOEVT, in addition to advising the Tanzanian Institute of Education (TIE) on

involving a number of education stake holders in the preparation or change of

school curriculum, it should advise the involvement of school teachers and non-

teaching staff as well as students in curriculum management. The major role of

the school heads towards having quality curriculum management, which aims to

ocmg" dguv" wug" qh" ngctpgtuÓ" rqvgpvkcn." eqwnf" dg<" jcxkpi" uvtqpi" xkukqp" cpf" vjg"

ability to share it with staff, outstanding strategic intent, the creation of an

enabling school culture, as well as good interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.

Above and beyond, school heads as well as other SMT members need training

ヲヰΑ"

"
on all matters relating to curriculum management, through short courses,

seminars and workshops to enhance their skills.

School heads have the role of curriculum control; regarding this

responsibility they work in collaboration with the school inspectors. School

heads have internal quality control of the curriculum at their respective schools.

However, for effective and efficient control of education quality, they need to

work together with School Inspectors who are external quality controller of the

curriculum. School inspectors are the quality controller of education in

Tanzania.

Could involvement of parents improve academic achievement?

The Secondary Education Development Plan Phase II (SEDP-II)

recognizes the problem of deterioration of the quality of education in Tanzania,

especially in public owned secondary schools. SEDP-II clearly admits that,

despite the extensive planning under SEDP-I: to raise the overall pass rate from

36% (2004) up to 70% (2009) by the following means: providing in-service

training; reviewing the curriculum; enhancing library services; restructuring

examinations; increasing funding as well as raising the production of Diploma

teachers (MOEVT, 2010:10), still, there was an improvement of just 4% in the

pass rate.

The pass rate from Div. I-III rose to 40% during the five years of SEDP I

(MOEVT, 2010:11). SEPD-II hwtvjgt" uvcvgu<" Ðtgiwnct" kp" ugtxkeg" vtckpkpi" hqt"
ヲヰΒ"

"
science and mathematics teachers have been conducted. However many

vgcejgtu" jcxg" pqv" jcf" vjku" qrrqtvwpkv{" {gvÑ0" Cnvjqwij." vjg" ewttkewnwo" kp"

ordinary levels was improved in 2005, funding to secondary schools was

increased, more books were sent to schools, more teachers were employed, and

new teacher trainees were sent to Teachers Colleges and Universities.

Regarding establishing libraries, only 57 out of 2406 planned libraries were

built by 2009 (MOEVT, 2010:11).

Furthermore, a number of studies conducted in Tanzania, for example, a

study by Mbelle and Katabaro (2003:12), disclose poor performance among

learners at ordinary level schools; the situation being worse for girls than boys.

Ð000cv" hcknwtg" tcvg" *fkxision zero) the proportion of females is very high (20.52

percent in 1992; 17.3 percent in 1997; 17.28 percent in 1998 and 14.43 percent

in 1999 and 14.0 percent in 2000 compared to male figures of 7.94 percent; 4.45

percent; 6.06 percent; 6.54 percent and 4.38 percent respectively) (Mbelle and

Katabaro, 2003:12). The most recent study conducted by Uwezo (2010:5) still

shows quantity compromising quality. Despite the fact that this study was done

at primary school level, the situation is most likely the same at secondary level.

Another study by Wedgwood, discussing the state of secondary education in

Tanzania gives comparable data to those offered by Mbelle and Katabaro

above:

ヲヰΓ"

"
 Low quality of education and the financial burden of fees on parents have
had negative effects on efficiency in terms of high dropout rates. Out of
83,509 students in Form I in 2001 there were only 60,851 in Form IV in
2004, meaning that less than 73% of the original cohort continued
directly to form IV (Wedgwood 2006:389 citing MOEC, 2004b). The
lowest transition rate is for form II to form III, with the form II national
examinations acting as barriers to progression. Retention is much lower
for girls than for boys, so with the gender balance close to 50:50 in form
I, girls make up around 40% of those leaving school. This is largely due
vq"iktnuÓ" rqqtgt"rgthqtocpeg" kp"vjg" hqto" KK" gzcokpcvkqpu000" *Ygfiyqqf."
2005:9).
One of the ways to prevent the deterioration of provision of education in

secondary education can be through school heads involving parents in the

process of provision of education. In the course of meetings with parents, for

example, a school head might get good advice on how to implement curriculum

delivery at his/her school. The head might also give advice to parents about the

need for girls to stay and to achieve within the secondary school system.

Additionally, currently, most of secondary schools are ward schools (shule za

kata). Communities are involved in construction of classrooms, laboratories,

uvwfgpvuÓ" jquvgns or water wells by either contributing money, or through

offering labour power. Establishing a good relationship with the community

can be a major component towards quality academic attainment of a given

secondary school.

A different way of involving parents/community is through choosing some

of parents to be on the School Board; in this way parents will have

representation in school decision bodies. But, the ability to create a good image

ヲヱヰ"

"
of the school outside of the school compound is a skill which has to be learnt.

Tanzanian school heads need to acquire this skill before or during their course

of headship, either through mentoring and coaching or through specialised

educational leadership training colleges. The curriculum prepared for education

students at the different educational levels needs to include content regarding

goqvkqpcn"kpvgnnkigpeg"cpf"uqekcn"umknnu."cpf"kp"uejqqn"jgcfuÓ"oggvkpiu."ugokpctu"

or workshops one of the emphases could be the possession of social skills.

Can linkage of theory apf"rtcevkeg"kortqxg"ngctpgtuÓ"cejkgxgogpvA

At present, the globe is experiencing remarkable economic, demographic

cpf"vgejpqnqikecn"ejcpig0""Ngxkpg"*4227<33+"cfokvu"vjcv"Ðvjg"lqd"qh"vjg"uejqqnu"

has been transformed by extraordinarily economic, demographic, technological

cpf" inqdcn" ejcpigÑ0" " Cv" rtgugpv." uejqqn" jgcfu" pggf" vq" ecvgt" hqt" vjg" gpnctigf"

requirements of learners, teaching and non-teaching staff and the community at

large. Increased new roles and heightened expectations could be met where the

capacity of school heads is improved through training. A number of studies

support the significance of leadership training as a way of improving school

jgcfuÓ" umknnu" cpf"vjgkt" swcnkv{" qh" rgthqtocpeg." hqt" kpuvcpeg." Dwuj" cpf" Lcemuqp"

(2002:418); Briggs et al. (2006:260); Pheko (2008:72); Onguko et al.

(2008:718); Duncan (2009:3); Webber et al, (2009:1). Furthermore Wildy and

Clarke (2008:484) emphasise the training of school leaders as follows:

ヲヱヱ"

"
 We acknowledge that continued professional development is essential,
especially the kind of structured reflective learning activity that helps
principals to review their practices and analyse their tacit professional
knowledge in a systematic way.
Findings from various pieces of research demonstrate further that the

complexity and pressure of the job can overwhelm school heads, particularly

novice principals (Draper and McMichael, 2000:471; Walker and Qian,

2006:300; Slater et al, 2008:702). Furthermore, Wildy and Clarke (2008:731)

ctiwg<"ÐQhvgp."pqxkeg"rtkpekrcnu"hceg"vjg"challenge of their new appointment at

a cost to their confidence, self-efficacy, and ability to manage multiple and

eqorgvkpi"rtguuwtguÑ0" " Yjcv)u" oqtg." fcvc"uwiiguv"vjcv" ocp{" pqxkeg" rtkpekrcnu"

are put into the job because of their ability and experience in the classroom, yet,

their lack of skills in leading human resource makes their job hard. Worse still,

in some developing countries of Africa school heads may be appointed without

any experience in teaching (Bush and Oduro, 2006:363).

Provision of knowledge, along with skill enhancement, contributes to

quality improvement. Nevertheless, a topic which is widely discussed by

numerous studies is the failure to link theory with practice. Lashway (2003:2),

for example, acknowledges:

... Putting academic knowledge at the centre of programs is inevitably

self-defeating. No matter how effectively professors package and present
the knowledge, they (or their students) ultimately face the problem of
creating a bridge between theory and practice..., it turns out to be bridge
to nowhere.

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"
Lashway explains the limitations of academic knowledge in practical work in

the field, since academic merit may be of little use in practice when the experts

lack, for instance, emotional intelligence (see Goleman, 1999:22). A teacher

with academic distinction might not be an effective leader if s/he lacks social

skills, empathy, self-regulation and self-awareness. Furthermore, in an

investigation carried out in Slovenia, researchers call for a further study to find

if there is significant difference between theory and practice. Trnavic and

Roncelli-Xcwrqv"*422;<"323+"rqug"vjg"swguvkqp<"ÐKu"vjgtg"c"icr"dgvyggp"tjgvqtke"

cpf"cevwcn"rtcevkeg"qh"ngcfgtujkr"kp"UnqxgpkcAÑ

Huber suggests PBL (Problem-Based Learning) as a way of solving the

dilemma of bridging theory and practice. In his model, the leadership

curriculum for school heads focuses on real situations found in their day-to-day

gpxktqpogpv" *Jwdgt." 422:<393+0" Jqygxgt." Jwdgt" vqq" eqoogpvu." Ðfgurkvg" vjg"

link to its reality, the situatkqp"tgockpu"eqpuvtwevgf"cpf"kocikpgfÑ0""C"tgrqtv"d{"

Levine (2005), further exemplifies the debate on preparation and development

of school leaders. Levine argues that the problem lies in the kind of curriculum

to satisfy the current demand of educational leaders; Levine (2005:27) denotes,

Ðvjg" v{rkecn" eqwtug" qh" uvwf{" hqt" vjg" rtkpekrcnujkr" jcu" nkvvng" vq" fq" ykvj" lqd" qh"

being a principal. In fact, it appears to be a nearly random collection of

eqwtuguÑ0"

ヲヱン"

"
 In a comparative study made in the USA and Australia, principals ask for

pre-service programmes which connect theory and field work (Su et al.,

2003:52). Improvement in field-experiences and internships are seen as an

input to success in the implementation of theory addressed throughout training;

short of that, the connection between theory and practice will be missing. Some

qh"vjg"tgurqpfgpvuÓ"ykujgu"*Uw"gv"cn0."4225<74+"ctg<"

... to have more hands-on experiences, more mentoring by experienced

site administrators, more emphasis on practical skills, and realistic issues
and problems that principals may face, more shadowing and mentoring,
more in-dcumgv"cevkxkvkgu"kp"gxgt{"eqwtug."oqtg"ecug"uvwfkgu"qh"rtkpekrcnuÓ"
work, more observation on exemplary principals, longer commitment to
field work...

A study by Ronald and Martha in the USA on the preparation of

principals also suggests that the preparation of school heads should take into

account what really happens in the work place. This observation is made in

respect of the failure of many programmes to link theory and practice. Ronald

cpf"Octvjc"*4223<"4+"rtqrqug"vjcv"Ð000""rtgrctcvkqp"ku"vq"dg"itqwpfgf"kp"rtcevkeg"

and include some field-gzrgtkgpeg000Ñ

The body of literature noted above proposes the linkage of theory and

practice so as to improve teaching and learning. Curricula prepared to increase

the competence of school heads have to take into account what happens in real

situations, on the ground. Besides, follow-ups of what is offered at training

institutions are necessary. In African countries, and Tanzania in particular, this

is a challenge to all curriculum developers. Our leadership and management

ヲヱヴ"

"
training colleges ought to consider the challenges which face our school heads

and prepare content aiming to enhance their capacity to deal with those

dkhhkewnvkgu0" " Tgn{kpi" ockpn{" qp" Yguvgtp" eqwpvtkguÓ" ewttkewnc" oc{" pqv" uqnxg"

Tanzanian education problems, especially the question of poor quality.

Furthermore, studies on the applicability of leadership training could be useful

if they are carried out by our persons who deeply understand Tanzanian

educational culture.

Conclusions

The effectiveness and efficiency of a given school depends for the most

part on the quality of the school head. And, many studies conducted into school

headship have the same opinion: that school heads play a pivotal role in their

uejqqn0"" Vjg" swcnkv{" qh" ngctpgtuÓ" cejkgxgogpv." kp"vgtou" qh" mpqyngfig." cvvkvwfg"

and skills depends mainly on the excellence of school leadership. It can be

argued that the outcome of schools in all situations: moving schools, struggling

schools, strolling schools, cruising schools or sinking schools depends strongly

on the ability of the school leader. A number of factors may help Tanzanian

secondary schools to improve the quality of their learner outcomes. One the

factors which could lead to the improvement of Tanzanian secondary schools in

terms of quality are the development of the competencies of school heads.

Another is the involvement of schools heads in different spheres of decision

making.

ヲヱヵ"

"
 Another important aspect is the effectiveness of school boards. Each

secondary school is supposed to have a school board, which is the main policy

making body at school level. It is made up of: Regional Educational Officer

(REO), a District Educational Officer (DEO), twelve members (ten chosen by

the Regional Administrative Secretary and two elected by members of the

board) together with the school head as Secretary to the board. The school

board as the main policy making body ought to work hand-in-hand with the

school head to improve the quality of the school through formulating enabling

policies. Another organisation which has a big role to play is the Inspectorate.

This body is concerned with inspecting the implementation of school

curriculum. But, all kp" cnn" vjg" tqng" qh" uejqqn" jgcf" kp" kortqxkpi" ngctpgtuÓ"

outcome must not be under-estimated.

The traditional top-down educational model needs to change to enable

schools as well as learners to achieve good educational outcomes. And, if real

change is aimed for, school heads have to be source of the transformation,

instead of being the recipient of the change. The reason is simple; the school

head knows exactly what happens on the ground [at the school]. Moreover,

she/he is acquainted with the school culture, which is one of the main

determinants of change. The MOEVT, REOs, DEOs and other higher

educational organisations have to work hand-in-hand with schools heads to

effect high quality educational change in Tanzanian secondary schools. In this

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"
way a school heads could be a vehicle for quality teaching and learning in

schools.

ヲヱΑ"

"
%*#26'4"6'0""

241('55+10#."24'2#4#6+10"#0&"5722146"1("5%*11."*'#&5"
This chapter explores the concept of the professional growth and

development of school heads. Issues discussed in this chapter include:

‚ Induction

‚ Mentoring

‚ Coaching

Introduction
Heads of school play a critical role in ensuring smooth teaching and

learning as well as provision of quality education in schools (Bush and Oduro,

2006:359, Wildy and Clarke, 2008:469 and Rhodes et al., 2008:311).

Cffkvkqpcnn{."Fgcp"*3;;5<3+" uwrrqtvu"vjku"kfgc"d{"uvcvkpi"vjcv<" Ðdgkpi"c"ngcfgt"

means knowing where one is going and working to achieve a shared vision with

{qwt"eqnngciwguÑ0"Cpf"uejqqn"jgcfu"ngcfgtu"kp"vjgkt"tgurgevkxg schools.

But, school leaders of the 21st century bear pressing demands from

learners, teachers, the community and educational stake holders at large (Hale

and Moorman, 2003:7) in the process of fulfilling their duties. The pressure

depends on the type of leader and his/her focus.

̇ Instructional leader - is focused on strengthening teaching and

learning, professional development, data driven decision making and
accountability.

ヲヱΒ"

"
 ̇ Community leader - is imbued with a big picture awareness of the
uejqqnÓu" tqng" kp society; shared leadership among educators,
community partners and residents; close relations with parents and
others; and advocacy for school capacity building and resources.
̇ Visionary leader - has a demonstrated commitment to the conviction
that all children will learn at high levels and is able to inspire others
inside and outside the school building with this vision.
Thus school leaders do face leadership complexity and challenges depending on

the type of leadership mention by Hale and Moorman above.

A report by NCSL (2003:15) also summarises a number of common challenges

which face the beginner school heads in England, Scotland and possibly with

other countries world-wide. These include:

‚ feelings of professional isolation and loneliness

‚ dealing with the legacy, practice and style of the previous head teacher
‚ dealing with multiple tasks, managing time and priorities
‚ dealing with the school budget
‚ dealing with (e.g. supporting, warning, dismissing) ineffective staff
‚ implementing new government initiatives, notably new curricula or
school improvement projects
‚ problems with school buildings and site management

Harris et al. (1994: 375) paint a picture of an outstanding leader, where they

emphasise that possessing vision is a key feature for a superb school leader.

Possession of vision together with sharing a vision is seen as the tool that directs

the whole process of providing education.

Outstanding leaders have a vision for their schools- mental picture of a

preferred future Î which is shared with all in the school community
and which shapes the programmes for learning and teaching as well as

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"
 policies, priorities, plans, and procedures pervading the day-to-day life
of the school...
Kitavi and Van Der Westhuizen (1997:251) admit on the role of the principal to

the learners and what they become.

In many ways the school principal is the most important and influential
individual in any school. it is his/her leadership that sets the tone of the
school, the climate for learning, the levels of professionalism and the
morale of the teachers and the degree of concern for what students may or
not become. If a school is a vibrant innovative, child-centred place, it has
a reputation for excellence if students are performing to the best of their
ability, one can alwc{u" rqkpv" vq" vjg" rtkpekrcnÓu" ngcfgtujkr" cu" vjg" mg{" vq"
that success.
Furthermore, various studies describe different contexts where school

leaders work (see Draper and McMichael, 2000: 466-469 and Bush and Oduro,

2006:361-462). Context to the school heads may well provide a supporting

environment, yet sometimes a given context can work as a hindering factor to

both beginner and experienced school heads. The following frame-work; Figure

45"fgrkevu"uqog"qh"vjg"eqpvgzvu"qh"uejqqn"ngcfgtuÓ"yqtmkpi" -environment. It is

advisable that preparation of new school heads and supporting experienced

school heads should focus on these contexts

ヲヲヰ"

"
Harris (2003:437) acknowledge that improvement of uvwfgpvuÓ" rgthqtocpeg"

relies heavily on the effectiveness of the school leadership.

Many writers state the importance of training school heads before they

take up their post. Van der Westhuizen et al. (2004:705) address the advantages

of training inexperienced principals in South Africa before they take up

headships. Advantages include: enhancement of quality of performance;

sustainable performance in the situation of change; knowledge and skills

enhancement; and increased capacity to perform day-to-day tasks. Stroud

(2006:89) observes that as long as leadership is seen as a key factor for school

effectiveness and better performance, the training of beginners in, and those

aspiring to, leadership in the UK schools should be given high priority.

Furthermore, Rhodes et al. (2008:331) emphasise the need for preparation of

school heads when they state:

Given the potential leadership crisis in schools both in the UK and

internationally, those individuals in schools charged with the
important task of managing and developing their human resources
need to be prepared for this important role.
Jcnnkpigt"cpf"Jgem"*3;;:<379+"tgncvg"vjg"tqng"qh"vjg"rtkpekrcn"vq"uvwfgpvuÓ"

performance in their review of research conducted from 1980 - 1995; the

outcome shows that there is a significant relationship between an effective

rtkpekrcn" cpf" uejqqn" ghhgevkxgpguu" vqigvjgt" ykvj" uvwfgpvuÓ" rgthqtocpeg0" " Cnuq."

ヲヲヲ"

"
Fwpecp"*422;<3+"cempqyngfigu"vjcv"Ðvjg"tqng"qh"vjg"rtkpekrcn"ku"tgeqipk|gf"cu"

critical to school improvement and student succguuÑ0

On the other hand, studies conducted in developing countries show that

school heads are rarely prepared for the job of leading schools. For example,

the research by Lungu (1983:85) acknowledges that the obvious problems

facing education in Africa are the lack of planning and development of

educational leaders.

Bush and Jackson (2002:418) also explain the shortage of training for

gfwecvkqpcn"ocpcigtu"kp"Chtkec<"Ðykvjqwv"vjg"pgeguuct{"umknnu." ocp{"jgcfu"ctg"

qxgtyjgnogf" d{" vcumuÑ0" " Tgegpv" uvwfkgu" uvknn show little effort being made by

developing countries to train and develop school leaders, for example, the study

d{"Mjcoku"cpf"Ucooqpu"*4229<79:+<"Ðpq"vtckpkpi"ku"tgswktgf"vq"dgeqog"c"jgcf"

vgcejgt" kp" RcmkuvcpÑ0" " Cffkvkqpcnn{." Rjgmq" *422:<93+" cfxqecvgu" vq the

government of Botswana the need for launching an educational training policy

as a guide for the training of heads of secondary schools. DeJaeghere et al

(2008:1) and Onguko et al. (2008:715) observe the lack of leadership training

and insufficient training colleges available to school heads in Sub-Saharan

Africa and East Africa respectively.

Furthermore, a body of literature discusses the shortage of educational

leadership skill training to heads of school before the job and during the job in

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"
developing countries. Harber and Davies (1997:61), for instance , show that in

less developed nations, heads of schools come from teaching, usually with no or

little training for the job. What's more, they argue:

A major concern of school management debate in recent years has

been the need to train head teachers. Head teachers are chosen
because they are good at one thing (teaching) and then put into a
managerial role which can demand quite different skills (p.77).
Most educational leaders lack leadership skills; as Everard and Morrris

(1996:4) put it, the education system expects three things from educational

managers and leaders: leaders who combine resources to achieve the

predetermined aim, leaders who are catalysts of change and leaders who affect

sustainably the development of resources. Literature shows that most school

heads in developing countries lack these skills. Dadey and Harber (1991:1) note

that the obvious problems facing African education systems are lack of planning

and support of educational leaders. There are no guidelines for preparation, in-

service training and development for school heads (Dadey and Harber,

1991:26). Otunga et al. (2008:371) confirm the state of affairs facing principals

in South Africa, where most principals fail to cope with radical global change

because of inadequate skills for leading their schools.

Tanzania faces an acute shortage of prepared and developed school leaders

like other African countries. The condition is worse in many recently

established community secondary schools. A good number of heads promoted

ヲヲヴ"

"
to community schools lack both experience as well as training in educational

leadership. Most of these school heads depend mainly on intuition and rule of

thumb in decision making in various matters arising at their respective schools.

Inadequacy of institutions involved in training school leaders is likely one of the

oclqt"eqpvtkdwvkpi"hcevqtu0""Vcp|cpkc"jcu"qpn{"qpg"gfwecvkqpcn"ngcfgtuÓ"vtckpkpi"

institute namely the Agency for the Development of Educational Management

in Tanzania (ADEM). Various leadership training approaches could enhance

the effectiveness of school leaders. These include: Induction; mentoring; and

coaching.

Induction
Itcjco" cpf" Dgppgvv" *3;;:<43;+" fghkpg" kpfwevkqp" cu<" Ðvjg" rtqeguu" qh"

receiving employees when they begin work, introducing them to the company

and to their colleagues, and informing them of the activities, customs and

vtcfkvkqpu"qh" vjg" eqorcp{Ñ0"Vjg"eqppqvcvkqp"qh" vjg"vgto"kpfwevkqp"d{"Itcjco"

and Bennett refers to employees in a business environment, but a new employee

in the education sector needs induction too. Novice school leaders, for instance,

need to be oriented to new tasks, for example how to formulate school plans,

and prepare school budgets, and on school culture. In general new heads need

orientation in their new school setting. Tranter (2006:146) emphasises the

importance of orienting a new member of staff as follows:

ヲヲヵ"

"
 The first principle is that the person should have a very pleasant day and
leave the school pleased with the decision they made-maybe by having a
blend of activities and meetings, with some unstructured time for
informal conversation and findings ways around the school and
department.
Even though, Tranter discusses the introduction of a new member of

staff, a middle leader, this principle may well apply to school heads also. But,

orientation of novice school heads should take a considerable number of days to

enable them to learn many things which are not familiar to them. A number of

countries have embarked on induction programmes to equip beginning school

jgcfu"ykvj"pgeguuct{"umknnu"hqt"ngcfgtujkr0""Vjgug"kpenwfg"Ycngu<"Ðkp"4223."vjg"

Rtqhguukqpcn" Jgcfujkr" Kpfwevkqp" Rtqitcoog" ycu" korngogpvgf" kp" YcnguÑ"

(Connolly et al., 2002: 339). The programme is aimef" cv" dwknfkpi" jgcfuÓ"

aptitude and self-confidence as well as contributing positively to learner

outcome (Connolly et al., 2002:344).

...that was a main purpose ...to offer a structure which would help people
feel less exposed in the early stage of headship, while at the same time
promoting one of the key underlying themes of the whole headship
programme which is to raise standards and one of the best ways of doing
that is to provide support and challenge in equal measure (NAfW
official).
In Scotland, findings from a study conducted by Draper and McMichael

show that notable development has been made with respect to novice school

heads preparation (Draper and McMichael, 2000:459). Yet, this investigation

indicates that the Local Government Authorities provided inadequate induction

for beginning head-teachers. The school heads needed an induction programme

ヲヲヶ"

"
yjkej"eqwnf"cfftguu"vjg"hqnnqykpi<"Ð*c+" oqtg"tgncvgf"vq"vjg"igpgtcn"eqpvgzv"kp"

which they all worked; and (b) their own particular context, and that this

induction should not be a single day but rather a longer term more iterative and

tghngevkxg"rtqeguuÑ"*Ftcrgt"cpf"OeOkejcgn."4222<68;+0""

Briggs et al. (2006: 264) summarise difficulties facing new heads in

English schools in Figure 24. The difficulties listed are similar to those facing a

principal in Mexico, as can be seen in Figure 25.

Eｷｪ W"ヲヴぎ Immersion phase: areas of impact

Source: Briggs et al., 2006: 264

ヲヲΑ"

"
 In Botswana, uneven induction is provided for beginning principals.

Some novice principals are given induction for three weeks while a number of

principals are inducted to new jobs after two years (Pheko, 2008: 79). Since

new principals generally experience inadequate support at the beginning of their

job, some rely on their peers for learning new skills in leadership like financial

management; public relations; human resource management; external

accountability; planning and budgeting. Nevertheless, the research indicates

that lack of support from the Ministry of Education frustrates beginning head-

teachers (Pheko, 2008: 79).

In Mexico, Slater et al. (2008:710-711) explain difficulties which face

beginning principals. Some of the difficulties facing a Mexican school head are

similar to those facing a novice school head in England (see Figure 6.2) despite

the fact that Mexico and England have different settings. Using a school

fktgevqt" ÐCtpwnhqÑ." Uncvgt" cpf" eqnngiwgu" rtqxkfg" c" eqpetgvg" gzcorng" qh" jqy"

beginning school heads struggle due to poor leadership preparation and support

from the Government. In Mexico novice heads are not prepared, professional

support and development is only for experienced principals.

ヲヲΒ"

"
 Structure: Human resource:

Conflict over how to allocate / Conflict between people

spend time
Insecurity in his performance to
Difficulty with paperwork / more his supervisor concerning
time is devoted to paperwork paperwork
instead of learning

NEW
HEAD

Political: Symbolic:

Conflict in the broader system Conflicts in the culture

Ctpwnhq"ku"c"Òycxg"ocmgtÓ"kpuvgcf"qh" Conflicts with other sub-cultures

making waves or systems

The system is too formal

"

Eｷｪ W"ヲヵぎ Framework of challenges facing beginning principals

Source: Slater et al. 2008:710-711

In Australia, according to Wildy and Clarke (2008a: 471) there is no

rqnke{"cdqwv"rtkpekrcn"rtgrctcvkqp="Ð000vjgtg"eqpvkpwgu"vq"dg"c"jgcx{"fgrgpfgpeg"

on the traditional apprenticeship model, by which future school leaders are

prepared mostly by moving up ranks from classroom teachers to master teachers

vq" jgcfu" qh" fgrctvogpvu" cpf" vq" uejqqn" rtkpekrcnujkrÑ0" " [gv" Fctguj" cpf" Ocng"

discredit such a model, since it is impracticable under complex circumstances

and inflexible at a time of change (Daresh and Male, 2000:91). Induction is

mainly provided by employers concerning financial management and legal

ヲヲΓ"

"
issues; in many cases, new principals rely on peers for human resource

management. Wildy and Clarke conclude that beginning principals need

adequate preparation instead of being given very few days (three days) for

induction. Otherwise, a novice principal would face many technical hitches

pertaining to the new job (Wildy and Clarke, 2008a:484).

Training of school heads could be done traditionally at school level,

when, for instance a deputy head is delegated some duties and responsibilities

by the school head, although this method is criticised by Gorham et al. (2008:3).

Gorham and colleagues give the following limitations against this traditional

model of preparing school leaders:

̇ When training, mentoring, and on the job leadership assignments

kpxqnxg" c" uejqqn"ngcfgt" ykvj" qpgÓu"rggtu"cpf1qt" uwrgtkqtu."fkuewuukpi"
thorny leadership issues without threat repercussions (either real or
perceived) may be awkward. As a result, root issues may not get
discussed adequately, if at all discussed.
̇ While many school leaders receive good ideas from training programs,
many do not obtain follow-up support to transfer that learning to their
real life situations, limiting the application of that learning to 5 to 10
percent.
̇ In many instances, there is either minimal or no system of
ceeqwpvcdknkv{" vq" gpuwtg" vjcv" c" ngcfgtÓu" qxgtcnn" ngcfgtujkr" iqcnu" ctg"
identified and being met. While most school leaders have an annual
performance review, such reviews may not focus on leadership skills
beyond minimum requirements.
In many African countries, school heads are put into the new job of

headship with little or no induction at all; a traditional model of preparation is

mainly practised despite the limitations outlined by Gorham above. In most

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"
cases, experience acts as a major criterion for appointment to headship. In an

African study conducted Bush and Oduro (2006:366 -367) the following is

revealed:

...often without consideration, principals in developing countries like

Kenya are tossed into the job without pre-service training, without
guarantee of in-service training, and without support from their
employers. In Ghana...it a common practice, especially in rural schools,
for head-teachers to be left unsupported after appointment. Most head-
teachers assume duty with little or no knowledge of their job descriptions.
Bush and Oduro (2006:367) offer options which could be employed by

Tanzania and other African countries to familiarize newly-promoted heads of

school; these include:

‚ Assign veteran principal to assist new appointee

‚ Provide manuals for new principals
‚ Orient the new principal to the school and the community
‚ Encourage networking with other principals
‚ Visits to other schools
Some of the above suggestions could be adopted by the Tanzanian

government for new school heads notwithstanding the financial difficulties

facing the country; for example, heads of nearby schools assisting newly-

appointed heads, providing guiding handbooks, in-service training of second-

masters/mistresses by their respective heads, networking with other heads and

paying visits to other schools and observing what is happening in terms of

leadership.

ヲンヱ"

"
 Draper and McMichael (2000:468-469) advise the use of previous heads,

Senior Management Team (SMT) and deputies for inducting novice school

heads; this is a cost-effective method of induction which may well be employed

in Tanzania. Walker (2008:23) observes networking as an important tool for

reducing isolation:

...a network of support is crucial - it is absolutely essential. I am working

in a situation now with this authority where there is no immediate
pgvyqtm"qh"uwrrqtv"ctqwpf"og."pq"yqogpÓu"itqwr"cu"uwej0""Uq"K"mggr"kp"
contact with women that I have known previously from other authorities.
I think it is important that women learn not to work in isolation, whatever
their job or whatever area they happen to be in: that they do have that
network of support; that they develop themselves in such a way that they
feel comfortable.
Here Walker discusses isolation as one of challenges facing black women

in management, but the theory could be extended to all novice school leaders;

women and men. Because of the unfamiliarity of the job, beginning principals

face isolation. Networking is likely to reduce the sense of isolation as well as

enabling faster learning of the new job.

Mentoring
Jqduqp" *4225<4+" fghkpgu" ogpvqtkpi" cu" c" Ðrtqeguu" yjgtgd{" c" oqtg"

experienced individual seeks to assist someone less experiencgfÑ0" " Kv" ku" c"

process where a more knowledgeable person willingly shares information with a

ヲンヲ"

"
less experienced person on a basis of reciprocated respect. Mentoring in

educational settings could be conducted with experienced school heads,

inspectors, advisers and consultants. Furthermore, Hobson referring to Kram

cpf" Kucdgnnc" *3;:7+" " ocmgu" engct" vjg" vgto" ogpvqtkpi" cu<" Ðqp" vjg" qpg" jcpf." c"

career progress-oriented dimension and, on the other hand, psycho-social

development functions, incorporating counselling and friendship...mentoring

oc{" kpenwfg" cnuq" rggt" uwrrqtv." eqwpugnnkpi." uqekcnkucvkqp" cpf" eqcejkpiÑ"

(Hobson, 2003:5 citing Kram and Isabella, 1985). Mentoring is being practised

in various countries world-wide, for example, development programmes in

France, England, Singapore and the USA include mentoring in their course for

developing school leaders (Huber, 2008:173).

Dctpgvv" cpf" QÓOcjqp{" *422:<45:+" fghkpg" vjg" vgto" ogpvqt" cu"Ðuqogqpg"

with experience, expertise, wisdom and/or power who teaches, counsels and

helps less experienced or knowledgeable persons to develop professionally and

rgtuqpcnn{Ñ0""Fwpecp"*422;<6+"ikxgu"cpqvjgt"fghkpkvkqp"qh"c"ogpvqt<"ÐC"ogpvqt"

is commonly described as a person who offers advice, support, and guidance to

a less experienced person with the objective of career and personal

fgxgnqrogpv000ogpvqtkpi" ku" cdqwv" fgxgnqrkpi" c" yjqng" rgtuqpÑ0" " Jwdgt" *422:<"

395+" fguetkdgu" ogpvqtkpi" cu<" Ðc" eqorngz" kpvgtcevkxg" rtqeguu" dgvyggp" rgtuqpu"

with different levels of experience and expertise, which stimulates interpersonal

and psycho-uqekcn"fgxgnqrogpvÑ0
ヲンン"

"
 Hobson reveals factors which can make mentoring successful; factors

listed by Hobson (2003: 2) include:

‚ Supporting novice school heads to solve problems they encounter at their

working stations

‚ Acting as a catalyst or a change agent

‚ Linking the school head to resources and people

‚ Discussing various issues relating to school leadership and management

‚ Hkpfkpi"pgy"uqnwvkqpu"vq"pgy"uejqqn"jgcfuÓ"rtqdngou"

New principals encounter many challenges, such that they need someone

who can provide mentoring. For instance, in a study by Draper and McMichael

(2000:464), new principals consulted a mentor on how to continue with several

stages in their career despite the fact that they had access to training in

manaigogpv" eqwtugu0" " YjcvÓu" oqtg." tcrkf" yqtnf" ejcpigu" kp" vgtou" qh" uekgpeg"

and technology are enlarging the role of organisational executives as well as

school heads. Increased duties for school heads could be well affected if school

heads are well prepared at the beginning of their jobs, and further supported in

the course of their career. A recent study conducted in the USA found that both

novice and experienced school heads benefit from mentoring (Duncan, 2009:

12). Areas identified by participants which need most attention include:

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"
Ðfkhhkewnv"uvwfgpvu="fkhhkewnv"rctgpvu="fkhhkewnv"hcewnv{="eqoowpkv{="uejqqn"dqctf="

media; outside agencies; personal issues; data-driven decisions; instructional

leadership; creating collegiality; legal issues; budget and finance; and diversity

kuuwguÑ"*Fwpecp."422;<34+0""Kpuvkvwvgu"vtckpkpi"uejqqn"jgcfu"kp"ngcfgtujkr"eqwnf"

take the above list for headship training programmes.

There is a strong possibility that mentoring may be a good means of

assisting newly-appointed heads as well as experienced school heads in

Tanzania to acquire leadership and management skills for effective

implementation of educational objectives. Experienced school heads, retired

education officers, inspectors, peer support and retired heads of schools can be

resourceful personnel for the job. The exercise could be profitable but it needs

central and local government support in terms of funding and training of

mentors.

A study carried out in the UK by Briggs et al. (2006: 262) suggests that

newly-appointed principals could get mentoring and support from experienced

heads. It is also advisable that new heads can seek a mentor who may be her/his

former head or educational leader for knowledge on how to implement their

new role (Draper and McMichael, 2000:464). Above and beyond, major studies

carried out by Bolam et al. (1993) in the UK and Grover (1994) in the USA also

support the effectiveness of mentoring for school heads (Hobson, 2003:2).

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"
Similarly, studies carried in Hungary, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain and

Wales give a comparable observation (Hobson, 2003:12).

Figure 6.4 shows different persons who could be used by Ministry of

Education and Vocational Training as mentors. This team of experienced and

skilled personnel may possibly be used to mentor both newly-appointed and

experienced school heads on various issues. Mentoring could start at assistant

principal-ship level where a principal may perhaps play a role of mentor. For

example, a study conducted in 1995 in North Carolina in the USA admits that a

principal can work as a mentor. This study stresses the preparation of

educational leaders to acquire good grounding in field-rtcevkeg="Ðjcxkpi"""ceeguu"

to a quality principal who is also a good mentor is a key to have a successful

internship [fienf" dcugf" gzrgtkgpeg_Ñ" *Tqpcnf" cpf" Octvjc." 4223<" 3+0""

Furthermore, Huber examines various methods which are currently in place to

enhance the quality of school leaders; among them is mentoring (Huber, 2008:

164).

New ways of learning are being explored using workshops and

increasingly located at the work place itself (using methods like
mentoring and internships).
Huber, too, acknowledges the advantages of school leaders possessing

skills for mentoring. Existing School heads for instance, by mentoring deputy

school heads, could benefit the whole school since these deputies are

responsible for day to day activities on behalf of principals. Nevertheless, he

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"
funding for implementing this key exercise. More important, proper strategies

have to be put in place; short of that, the exercise will not be profitable as well

as successful.

Coaching
Hobson acknowledges that coaching is different from mentoring, as

coaching aims at helping a person in practical tasks, while mentoring is a broad

kind of support carried out by an experienced to a less experienced individual

(Hobson, 2003:5). The following observation on coaching made by Graham

and Bennett supports the meaning provided by Hobson above. The emphasis

put here is, a coach gives a hand to a trainee on a specific job.

Often, coaching consists of demonstration followed by trainee imitating

vjg" kpuvtwevqtuÓ" cevkqpu0" " Vjg" vtckpgg" ecp" tgrgcv" fkhhkewnv" qrgtcvkqpu." cum"
questions, and progressively attain higher level of skills. Simple tasks
should be demonstrated first; then more complex tasks once the simple
ones have been mastered (Graham and Bennett, 1998: 302)

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"
 Coaching Mentoring

Practical tasks Broad support

Recording transactions in Counselling

account books
Peer support
Balancing account books
Socialisation
Store keeping
Sharing experience and
Writing minutes information

Eｷｪ W"ヲΑぎ Coaching and mentoring

Eqcejkpi" ku" hwtvjgt" fghkpgf" cu" c" Ðrtqeguu" hqewugf" qp" urgekhke" umkll

dwknfkpiÑ"*Gctng{"cpf"Ygkpfnkpi."4226<"398+0""Jqygxgt."htqo"tgegpv"nkvgtcvwtg."

Bentsen (2010: 37) offers a different explanation regarding coaching, whereby

the coachee is transformed instead of adopting exactly what is given by a coach.

...A reciprocal learning relationship, where constructed knowledge and

co-produced goals planning are taking place between two or more people.
She defines coaching as a structured conversation that keeps the person
being coached focussed on professional issues and moves systematically
ahead to achieve goals...she describes coaching as participatory,
collaborative and reflective discourse where the person being coached is
able to elicit needs, thoughts and ideas. Through coaching the
professional becomes transformative in their professional development
rather than merely a reproductive agent of existing social patterns.

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"
 Coaching is one of the widely used approaches used to support

educational leaders in developed countries, for instance, in the UK and the

USA. Hobson (2003:7 accepts:

New head-teachers need to develop new skills and to extend skills

developed in their earlier teaching and management careers. Drawing on
work conducted in the field of cognitive psychology, real life skills...are
usually learnt with the aid of some form of coaching.
Bush and Jackson describe the mode of coaching in Ohio, Chicago, and

Pgy" Uqwvj" Ycngu0" " Eqcejkpi" ku" dgkpi" eqpfwevgf" d{" vjg" uq" ecnngf" Ðngcf"

rtkpekrcnÑ"kp"Qjkq0""ÐOcuvgt"RtkpekrcnuÑ"kp"Ejkeciq"vjtqwij"vjg"rncp"mpqyp"cu"

ÐNKHVÑ"uvc{"with trainee principals for a period of a half a year coaching them.

In New South Wales coaching is carried out online (Bush and Jackson,

2002:425).

Coaching could be a different approach which could be used in Tanzania

to help newly-appointed heads of community schools to fulfil their

responsibilities. This observation is further supported by Barnett and

QÓOcjqp{"*422:<45:+"tgictfu"vq"pqxkeg"jgcfu0""Ujqtv-term assistance to newly-

appointed headmasters/headmistresses might help them to learn tasks

successhwnn{0" " Hwtvjgtoqtg" ÐEqcejkpi" ecp" tgfweg" kuqncvkqp." kpetgcug" ngcfgtuÓ"

ugnh" cyctgpguu." kortqxg" umknnu" cpf" dgeqog" oqtg" tghngevkxgÑ" *Dctpgvv" cpf"

QÓOcjqp{." 422:<46:+0" " Oqtgqxgt." eqcejkpi" ku" c" mg{" hcevqt" hqt" rgthqtocpeg"

improvement (West-Burnham, 1998:72). Coaching may well also be a useful

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"
means of developing inexperienced heads of secondary schools in Tanzania by

using retired and experienced education leaders, and also through peer support.

Methods practised in Chicago, Ohio, and New South Wales may perhaps

be adopted in Tanzania, but the Tanzanian environment should be considered

while planning coaching programmes for school heads. For instance, instead of

online coaching, school heads may well be coached by using mobile messages

and through cellular phones for those in rural areas and by on-line as well as

mobile phones for those in urban centres. Another means might be through

using experienced heads to coach deputy heads before they are appointed to

headship. However, both local government and central government should put

aside a budget for this exercise.

A recent study conducted in Australia on evidence-based coaching for

training and education indicates benefits derived from coaching. Although this

study was done in a developed country setting, it is likely to work in a

developing country like Tanzania.

Participation in the programme was associated with reduced anxiety,

increased goal attainment, enhanced cognitive hardiness and higher levels
of personal insight. Participants also had higher end-of-semester marks
as compared to the cohort that did not participate in the intensive personal
eqcejkpi" rtqitcoog0" " Vjgtg" ycu" pq" ejcpig" kp" rctvkekrcpvuÓ" ngxgn" qh"
psychological well-being (Grant, 2008:56).
Day et al. (2008:215) discuss a variety of experiences encountered by the

coach in the coaching process. In a qualitative based study, they found that

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"
coaching is occasionally characterised by intense moments [emotions and

anxiety] between the coach and the client. These moments are described as

some times causing distancing, gaining insight or break-down of bond between

the coach and the client. However, results explain the significance of the

eqcejÓu" goqvkqpcn" eqorgvgpeg" uq" cu" vq" dg" cdng" vq" cuukuv" cpf" ocpcig" jku1jgt"

enkgpvÓu"goqvkqpu0""Hwtvjgtoqtg."vjku"utudy shows that by using supervision, the

eqcejguÓ"cdknkv{"vq"jcpfng"etkvkecn"oqogpvu"tqug0""Vjku"tgugctej"eqpenwfgu"vjcv"

personal insight of the coach, reflexes in relationship and emotional competence

of the coach and the client are the key issues to the success of the coaching

process.

Experienced school heads as well as beginners need coaching at some

point in time. Coaching could be facilitated by external specialists who come

from outside the organisation or a specialist who comes from the school

concerned. An investigation conducted by Grant et al. (2009:396) reveals that

coaching by using external professional executives reduced stress and

depression among respondents. Furthermore, this study shows that coaching

enhanced performance, personal confidence and personal insight, and improved

rctvkekrcpvuÓ"ocpcigogpv"qh"ejcpig0""Dtqcfn{."ocpcigtkcn"eqorgvgpeg"coqpiuv"

respondents increased. Besides, this study stresses that short term coaching

together with evidence-based executive coaching is effective. Despite the fact

that this study was conducted in a psychology setting per se, it is likely to work
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"
also in an educational setting. Educational executives in Tanzania, for example:

Regional Educational Officers; Regional Academic Officers; District

Educational Officers; together with District Academic Officers could be

involved in short-term coaching of school heads in their respective districts and

regions.

Wilson (2010:16) identified various methods which could be used by

coaches with educational leaders. Her emphasis is that the coach should make

an evaluation of the level of the skills her/his client has. Prior to coaching,

investigations have to consider mainly four factors: novelty to the job,

familiarity with the task, familiarity with the duty, and experience of the task.

Her model is likely to be beneficial to education, since the abilities of school

heads differ in ways similar to those given by Wilson. Figure 28 depicts

approaches to coaching which could be employed by the coach to his/her

coachee depending on the level of familiarity with the tasks.

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"
 Coaching

If they are new If they are If they are If they are

to a task or somewhat familiar familiar with the seasoned at a
goal, you can with a task, yet task, yet task, you might
TELL hesitant, you can something is in DELEGATE
(instruct, train, COACH the way, you can (and continue to
guide, offer (with some COACH check in as they
advice) instruction) (be a thought need you to)
partner)

Eｷｪ W"ヲΒぎ Coaching skills for educational leaders

Source: Wilson (2010:16).

Furthermore, Wilson (2010:18) cites various skills which can be imparted

to the learner [coachee]; these skills include: listening, enquiry, giving

feedback, and sharing.

Concluding thoughts
Tanzania faces an acute shortage of specialised institutions for preparing

and supporting school leaders. School heads need skill enhancement in areas

such as: preparation of school vision and mission; devising school strategies;

action research; conflict management; instructional leadership; creating

collegiality; legal issues; planning; resource management; community relations

and implementation of the education and planning policy. Furthermore school

heads require knowledge on how to organize the school calendar, and send

different reports to parents, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

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"
(MOEVT) plus various educational stakeholders. Lastly, but not least, school

heads need skills in managing school buildings like classrooms, toilets,

ncdqtcvqtkgu."nkdtct{."uvchhtqqo"cpf"vgcejgtuÓ"jqwugu"yjkej"hqto"rctv"qh"vjg"fc{-

to-day activities of school heads.

The scarcity of training institutions for educational leaders causes a good

number of educational leaders including school heads to lead by rule of thumb.

Devising a number of strategies for preparing educational leaders is likely to

minimise this problem, for example, the use of mobile phones as one of the

methods for mentoring and coaching both rural and urban school heads.

According to Tanzania Communications Regulatory Authority (TCRA), April-

June Report 2013, Tanzania had 28 million mobile phone subscribers

(http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/tanzanian-phone-users-28m/4975/). It is

to be expected that a good number of school heads possess mobile phones. A

cheap means of support could be a coach or a mentor using phone text messages

for providing induction, mentoring or coaching.

Another method which can be employed to prepare and support

educational leaders is through on-line communication. However, this method

can be used only in urban areas where the internet is available. This is one of

the very effective means of reaching many persons at a modest cost. But, the

government could investing in solar energy and less-costly rural electrification

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"
could help to serve the on line communication for heads available in rural

schools.

Additionally, mentors and coaches can distribute learning materials like

leaflets, brochures and hand-outs to enable educational leaders acquire relevant

skills in leadership and management in addition to face-to-face meetings.

Distributing learning materials can be through post offices; most of schools in

rural areas as well as urban centres can be reached though the post office.

Last but not least, the entire process of preparation and development of

school leaders may be achieved through encouraging peer-coaching and

networking. Through networking, school heads may be able to share

experiences and reduce professional isolation, particularly among beginner

heads. Lastly follow-ups and evaluation of the entire exercise are important to

the success of any on-going programme of preparation and support of school

heads for the benefit of learners and the educational sector at large.

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"
CHAPTER ELEVEN

PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AS

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
Chapter eleven examines the concept of preparation and development of

women as educational leaders. The chapter is divided into seven sub-headings:

‚ The historical aspect of women as educational leaders

‚ Dcttkgtu"vq"yqogpÓu"rtqitguu

‚ Gendered style of leadership

‚ The current trend

‚ Can there be a different approach?

The historical aspect: women in educational leadership

Women have historically been overlooked in regard to education and

leadership world-wide. For example a recent UNESCO review noted, regarding

iktnuÓ"gfwecvkqp<

We live in a world in which education is characterised by extensive

gender inequalities. Two thirds of all those who have no access to
education are girls and women. Sixty-five million girls never even start
school, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education,
often because its quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equal
to those of boys (Herz and Spurling, 2004: 2). More than 542 million
women are illiterate, many as a result of inadequate or incomplete
schooling. Lack of literacy is generally associated with poverty and
discrimination. (UNESCO, 2003: 87)
In the developing world, studies have identified factors which limit the

number of women in leadership positions in educational sectors, Oplatka

(2006:2008), for example, mentions cultural norms that depict women as

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"
ineffective in leadership, male domination and dormant discrimination as some

qh" vjg" nkokvkpi" hcevqtu0" Qvjgtu" hcevqtu" kpenwfg<" yqogpÓu" tgnwevcpeg" vq" crrn{."

their lack of awareness of how the promotion system works, fear, and lack of

gender-based socialisation.

In Africa, and particularly in East Africa, women are given few chances

as regards to leadership positions, including leadership in educational settings as

Dctocq" *4235<47+" tgoctmu<" ÐChtkecp" uqekgvkgu" nctign{" eqpvkpwg" vq" fkueqwtcig"

women with ambition in politics, among other sectors of life such as education

from aspiring to leadership positions and their marginalised position is still a

ujctgf"rjgpqogpqp"kp"ChtkecÑ0

In Africa cultural practices have contributed to a large extent to the

absence of women from educational leadership. In African communities women

were historically rarely given opportunities to attend school. For a long time, a

school was for a boy, and a girl was a source of wealth to a family when she got

married.

An investigation by Pirouznia of the obstacles facing women in

principalship identifies two main barriers to leadership, both internal to the

woman herself and externally induced by society. ÐInternal obstacles include:

sex-role stereotyping, lack of aspiration, role conflict, and low self-esteem.

External obstacles include: lack of encouragement, family responsibilities, lack

of mobility, and hiring and promoting practices (Pirouznia, 2009). However, the

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"
role of women as informal leader in families and communities has been noted

since historic time. Women, for instance, in Africa have sole responsibility of

taking care of children. In some single-parent families, women are responsible

for the up-bringing of children and are main bread winners. Women too have

been main producers of goods and services particularly agricultural products,

both food and cash products, in Africa and in most developing nations. The

literature on educational leadership indicates that the main hindering factor for

women in educational leadership is family obligation. For instance Oplatka and

Vcokt" *422;<" 43:+" pqvg<" Ð000qpg" qh" vjg" oclqt" hcevqtu" chhgevkpi" yqogpÓu" ectggt"

gzrgtkgpegu"ku"hcokn{"tgurqpukdknkvkguÑ0"

UNICEF describes three main factors hindering education in Tanzania:

Ðuqekcn-cultural beliefs and practices; gender biased socialisation in schools and

geqpqoke" hcevqtÑ" *WPKEGH." 4225<" 3+0" WPKEGH" qdugtxgu" vjcv" dcf" rtcevkegu"

which allow early marriage among girls and pregnancies when they at school

contribute to few women achieving high levels of education.

Furthermore, at school girls are encouraged to be passive and boys to be

cevkxg0" Vjku" jkpfgtu" iktnuÓ" kpswkukvkxgpguu<" cu" c" tguwnv" vjgkt" rtqitguukqp" tcvg" vq"

higher levels of education becomes minimal. On top of that, poverty among

families accelerates early marriage among girls, since families take girls as a

source of income. Besides, poor belief among parents leads boys to have a first

priority of being sent to school, thinking that girls could get pregnant in their

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"
course of study, and hence be a loss to the family. Ozga (2008:3), writing from

a broad-dcugf" kpvgtpcvkqpcn" xkgyrqkpv." pqvgu<" Ðyqogp" ctg" cdugpv" htqo"

educational management...their absence is caused by structural, societal

qduvcengu000owej" oqtg" pggfu" vq" dg" fqpg" vq" dtgcm" fqyp" qduvcengu" vq" yqogpÓu

cfxcpegogpv"cpf"vq"eqodcv"fkuetkokpcvkqp"cickpuv"yqogpÑ0"

Findings from recent research in Greece suggest that the proportion of

female students to male students in secondary and higher education is still low

(Mitroussi and Mitroussi, 2009: 505). Another recent study conducted in the

USA shows disparities in educational leadership between men and women, in

spite of women gaining the majority of graduate and doctoral degrees. In this

study, Lee Gupton (2009: 3) notes:

Women make up 57 percent of the undergraduates in the U.S colleges

today, and they earn a majority of the doctoral degrees awarded in this
country (States News Service 2009). Yet, men continue to dominate in
the most coveted leadership positions through the profession of
education...it is clearly evident, Arlton and Davis wrote fifteen years ago,
Ðvjcv" vjg" rtqrqtvkqp" qh" yqogp" cfokpkuvtcvqtu" ]kp" cecfgoke"
administration] decreases as the level of positions and responsibility
increases...

A different recent study conducted in the UK institutions of further

education (FE) acknowledges the small number of women in managerial

rqukvkqpu0"Ð000"hgocng"ogodgtujkr"qh"eqnngig"dqctfu"ku"hgygt"vjcp"52"rgtegpv"cpf"

only four of the 43 Scottish colleges have females as board of management

ejcktuÑ" *OeVcxkuj" cpf" Miller, 2009:353). Arar, writing about women in the

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"
WM"uejqqn"ugevqt"eqoogpvu<"Ðkp"vjg"WM"kp"4229-8, women constituted 75 per

cent of all primary school principals and 32 per cent of secondary school

principals (Arar, 2013). In Tanzania statistics indicate that the number of

females in education is increasing, Table 8 shows a good proportion of female

teachers in comparison with male teachers in secondary schools.

"""""""""""""""""" ;HﾉW"Αぎ" W;Iｴｷﾐｪ" ;aa"H " W "ｷﾐ"ｪﾗ W ﾐﾏWﾐ ";ﾐS"ﾐﾗﾐどｪﾗ W ﾐﾏWﾐ " WIﾗﾐS; " Iｴﾗﾗﾉ が"ヲヰヱヰ

Type Male Female Total % of female % of male

teachers teachers

Government 19666 10586 30252 34.99273 65.00727

Non- 8155 2110 10265 20.55528 79.44472

government

Adapted from the MOVET [BEST] statistics, 2013

However, data shows that since Tanzania got its independence, only two women had been

Ministers for Education (see Table 9).

"

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"
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;HﾉW"Βぎ"cｷﾐｷ W "aﾗ ";S I; ｷﾗﾐ"ｷﾐ" ;ﾐ ;ﾐｷ;どc;ｷﾐﾉ;ﾐS" ｷﾐIW"ｷﾐSW WﾐSWﾐIW"

"

" No Name of mister Period

" 1 Mr. O. Kambona 1960 Î 1963

2 Mr. S.N. Eliuofoo 1964 -1965

3 Mr. C. Mgonja 1965 Î 1970

4 Rev. S. Chiwanga 1971 Î 1974

5 Mr. I. Elinawinga 1975 Î 1977

6 Mr. N.A. Kuhanga 1978 Î 1979

7 Mrs. T. Siwale 1979 Î 1982

8 Mr. J.A. Makweta 1983 Î 1985

9 Prof. K.A. Malima 1986 Î 1989

10 Mr. A. Mayagila 1990 Î 1991.

11 Mr. C. Kabeho 1991 Î 1994

12 Prof. P. Sarungi 1995 Î 1995

13 Prof. J. Kapuya 1995 Î 2000

14 Mr. J.J. Mungai 2000 Î 2005

15 Mrs. M. Sitta 2005 Î 2008

16 Prof. J. Maghembe 2008 Î 2010

17 Dr. S. Kawambwa 2010 Î To date

Source: MOEVT data, 2013

But, despite continuing male-dominance, for instance in most of poor

countries of the world, some policies have bggp" rwv" kp" rnceg" fwg" vq" yqogpÓu"

struggle towards equal opportunities; for instance, Oplatka (2006:606) notes the

kpetgcug" qh" yqogpÓu" oqxgogpvu" hkijvkpi" hqt" gswcn" qrrqtvwpkvkgu" kp" fkhhgtgpv"

spheres of life:

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"
 Eqpvgorqtct{"yqogpÓu"oqxgogpvu"kp"Kpfkc."Ngdcpqp."Egypt and Kenya,
for instance, have challenged the male-dominated structures in their
countries and gender inequalities. They strived for the introduction of
gender-sensitive policies and programs so as to improve the lives of
women in their countries...women hold higher percentage of professional
positions in Latin America...and have access to management positions in
many occupational sectors within developing countries in Africa and
Asia...women hold 14 percent of school administrator positions in Korea,
13 percent of Chinese principalship positions, half of the primary and
secondary school principalship positions in Trinidad and Tobago. Even in
Muslim countries like Turkey, there are reports of women in educational
leadership positions, although in Pakistan, the power is in the hands of the
school boards that are held by men only...

Dcttkgtu"vq"YqogpÓu"ectggt"rtqitguukqp"

Women face various barriers to career progression in general and

headships in particular. The literature gives different reasons, varying according

to the location where women are found. For example, Oplatka names factors

jkpfgtkpi" yqogpÓu" rtqitguukqp" vq" jgcfujkr" kp" fgxgnqrkpi" " eqwpvtkgu" cu" dcugf"

qp" uqekcn" ewnvwtcn" xcnwgu<" Ðgpvtgpejgf" pqtou" kpuetkdgf" kp" vjg" ewnvwtg" qh" ocp{"

developing countries (such as Turkey, China, Islamic countries) attribute certain

tasks and spheres of responsibility to each gender, assuming that one must

dgjcxg"kp"ceeqtfcpeg"ykvj"vjg"uqekcn"gzrgevcvkqpu"qh"qpgÓu"igpfgt000Ñ"*Oplatka,

2006:612). Another factor discussed by Oplatka is gender discrimination, where

men are preferred for leadership over women by the authorities in place

(Oplatka, 2006:612). The situation is further stressed by Barmao who says:

ÐyqogpÓu" ectggtu" qhvgp" uwhhgt" dgecwug" qticpkucvkqpu" v{rkecnn{" fq not

ceeqooqfcvg"vjgkt"cffkvkqpcn"jqwugjqnf"tgurqpukdknkvkguÑ"*Barmao, 2013:28).

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"
 In some African countries, cultural barriers and the cost of education are

two contributing factors to few girls being in school, because parents prefer

boys to girls when it comes to education issues. For example, sometimes girls

are taken from schools to go for circumcision ceremonies in preparation for

marriage. As regards the cost of education in Tanzania for example, before the

removal of school fees in primary schools the cost of educating one child was

approximately half of the annual income of poor rural families ( see Watkins

2000: 178).Because of the cost of education many families opted for boy-child

education instead of girl child education. But, despite the fact that at the present

no school fees are paid at primary school level, there are a number of charges

which parents have to pay, and they are too costly taking into account the

economic status of most of the parents. Charges paid include: examination fees,

stationery contributions, watchmen contribution, buying of uniforms, building

funds and transport cost to and from school for schools available in towns and

cities. These other educational charges as well contribute to some families not

sending their girl-children to school.

Studies on women in education leadership also mention a number of

hcevqtu" jkpfgtkpi" yqogpÓu" ectggt" rtqitguukqp" kp" fgxgnqrgf" eqwpvtkgu." vjgug"

kpenwfg<" igpfgt" fkuetkokpcvkqp." yqogpÓu" nqy" ugnh-confidence and job-family

conflicts (Oplatka, 2006:612). Referring to barriers facing women in leadership

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"
Fitzgerald paints a gloomy scenario of indigenous women as a numerical

minority who face challenges in a white world; walking between two worlds.

KÓo"iqkpi"vq"dg"lwfigf"qp"yguvgtp"xcnwgu0"Vjgtghqtg KÓo"vt{kpi"vq"yqtm"
ykvjkp" vyq" u{uvgou" K" uwrrqug0" Dwv" kvÓu" oqtg" vjcp" vjcv" {qw" mpqy0" K" co"
trying to work within two systems but I am also a woman in a white
ocpÓu" yqtnf0" KvÓu" rtgvv{" nqpgn{" cv" vkogu0" Kv" cnuq" ogcpu" K" co" lwfigf" d{"
western values and values placed on male leaders. Then again, I can be
lwfigf" cu" c" yqocp0" Uqogjqy" vjcv" fqgupÓv" uggo" hckt0" K" hggn" vjcv" K" co"
always walking between two worlds. (Fitzgerald, 2006:207).
Faced with the same problem, Walker explains how one head of department

was able to overcome a number of obstacles in an English system and succeed

in her career as well as maintain her culture, Walker notes:

For me, political awareness had to go alongside academic achievement. It

was important because I had actually seen what had happened to the few
black girls that did succeed going to the good school I went. It was as if
to succeed they had to forfeit their own cultural background...so you
could become academically successful, you could go on to a professional
career, and still maintain some sort of integrity towards your culture and
hard working for your people. So I did a lot of reading that...had to do
with my own culture development..., and that has been a strong motivator
towards helping me become the woman I am today. (Walker, 2008:19).
Gendered Style of leadership

Ozga (2008: 11) and Oplatka and Tamir (2009: 233) describes gendered style of

leadership: masculine and feminine. But, some of the characteristics described

as masculine can be taken by female leaders, and also features described as

feminine could be characteristics of a male. Some of the features of gendered

leadership styles are similar to those found in formal, managerial, transactional,

transformational or collegial styles of leadership.

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"
masculine characteristics. Whatever the methods of supporting the growth of a

female leader, the emphasis must be: work according to the prevailing situation.

The current trend

As the body of literature and research indicates that still there are few

women in senior school leadership positions, the question which needs critical

analysis is whether the situation can be changed. If women are good leaders at

family and community level, it is likely that they can be good school heads if

they are developed. Nonetheless, recent studies show an upward trend of

women into educational leadership. For example, in recent research conducted

in the US, Gupton shows that the number of female heads increased to 35% in

1993 from 25% in 1987 and currently women principals are about equal to men

principals (Gupton, 2009:4). A different study by Arar also shows an upward

vtgpf" qh" hgocng" ngcfgtu" kp" vjg" WU<" Ðkp" 4225-4, in the USA the percentage of

female school principals in elementary schools reached 56 per cent of female

school principals and rose 26 per cent in high schools (Arar, 2013:33).

This might be a good sign to many countries globally which are lying behind in
terms of female leadership. But, just as men require preparation and
development, women too require professional growth. In addition to building
their capacity through various courses on educational leadership, women still
need another type of training; to challenge the patriarchal assumptions of
society. Women have been discriminated against for many centuries from
family level to national level. Building their confidence to challenge this
discrimination may enhance their performance in the leadership arena.
Leadership training directed at men should also challenge patriarchal
assumptions, in this way both women and men would be fighting for equal right
of both men and women into leadership.

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"
Can there be a different approach?

Discrimination against women is grounded in history. As the literature

indicates women have been isolated from some spheres of life since time

immemorial. In African traditional education for instance, some elements of

education was gender biased. A range of knowledge, skills and values given to

boys in certain circumstances was different from that given to girls. Girls were

raised to be future mothers and boys were raised to be future fathers. For this

reason, their responsibilities determined the type of education given to children.

When formal education was introduced in Africa, mostly boys were given the

chance to attend school while a few girls were allowed to attend.

In some parts of the world discrimination against women can be seen in

job areas, for example where women are paid differently from men. If history is

the root of the problem, the solutions of the problem have to address this

historic bias. Pirouznia (2009:227) gives the following suggestion to overcome

female discrimination in leadership:

...there is a need to challenge gendered behaviour in society and bring

jctoqp{"dgvyggp"ogp"cpf"yqogpÓu"tqng"kp"c"hcokn{0"Qpg"crrtqcej"eqwnf"
be projects for boys and girls at school level pretending as if they were in
a family situation, and learn how their roles could be modified and acted
differently. Therefore, schools need to incorporate pretending family
situation projects in their curriculum. The most important is for teachers
themselves to ensure that they model appropriate gendered behaviour
(i.e., that they do not allow gendered scripts to be part of their classroom
environment). Reconstructing or redefining masculinity requires social
change. It must occur in early childhood, in schools, in the media

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"
 (especially television), in universities, in organisations, and through
government policies and initiatives.
Rktqw|pkcÓu" tgeqoogpfcvkqpu" cko" cv" ejcpikpi" vjg" qwvnqqm" vqyctfu" yqogp."

starting at home, then to school level up to higher levels where policies are

made. If women care for families and some in single families are bread winners,

why cannot they be educational leaders? Making a change of attitude from the

family level could mostly likely empower women into educational leadership.

Girls have to be encouraged to compete for various positions starting at the

lower levels of education, for example at primary schools. More to the point, at

primary and secondary levels extra-curricular activities must not be gender

biased.

In Tanzania there is a science project for female learners at secondary school

level. The project is run by Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE);

the forum focuses on promoting school-girls in Science, Mathematics, and

Technology (SMT) (see http://www.fawe.org). In promoting Science,

Mathematics and Technology (SMT) among girls the model pursues a number

of activities and resources which include:

‚ Science camps and clubs.

‚ Study tours.
‚ Profiles on women achievers in science-based fields.
‚ Exposure to role models.
‚ Awards to female achievers in SMT subjects.

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"
 The comparable project could be initiated to prepare adolescent girls as

future leaders all aspects of life. Such a training programme would emphasise

courage; equality; human rights issues; emotional intelligence; collaboration;

team work; gender differences; conflict management; action research and other

managerial responsibilities of an educational leader. These trained girls would

be a catalyst for change. Through these trained young girls in leadership, more

girls will be encouraged to participate in educational leadership. In addition,

sensitization seminars and workshops and meetings that involve both male and

female teachers are likely to be a useful vehicle for changes in attitude. With

time a country would get a good number of female educationists into leadership.

In addition to training, seminars, workshops, and meetings could play the role

too. The advice given by the participants in the recent study by Gupton (2009: 7

and 11) in the US may be the motto of women in educational leadership:

̇ Excel in your work

̇ I made sure that I knew more and produced more!
̇ Fq"yjcvgxgt"{qw"fq"ygnn="fqpÓv"dg"chtckf"vq"fq"oqtg"cpf"vq"vcmg"qp"
more responsibility
̇ Women can lead just as well as men, but they must work much harder
to get to the same level
̇ Do the best job possible and respect will come
̇ Be best you can be
̇ Rtqxg"{qwt"yqtvj#"Ogp"fqpÓv"cnyc{u"pggf"vq"fq"vjku="lwuv"dgkpi"c"ocng"
is sufficient!!
̇ ...help other women, even those who may be your competitor
̇ Be the nurturer and supporter of others
̇ Establish both professional and personal support system
̇ Marry someone who can handle your success
̇ Maintain strong, supportive personal relationships and support
systems - marriage, family are absolute essential
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"
 ̇ Tend to your personal relationships as astutely as you do your
professional ones
...network, not just for job advancement, but also to learn, to share,
and to maintain professional friends.
In the process of preparing and developing women into educational leadership a

number of external and internal factors are necessary. Some factors depend on

the woman herself, and other factors emerge from peer groups. Working harder

may perhaps give her credit. Teaming up with other workers is another factor

emphasised by Gupton. Through teaming up, each one in a given school will be

able to complement each other. Coaching one another in various peer groups is

qpg"qh"vjg"hcevqtu"yjkej"oc{"ceegngtcvg"yqogpÓu"fgxgnqrogpv"kpvq"gfwecvkqpcn"

leadership. For instance, women who have been in leadership positions for a

considerable time, have a role to play helping novice women principals into

leadership through coaching. Coaching can work if women in leadership

practise networking. Last but not least, the support of the family is essential for

her professional growth and development.

Conclusions

Women are still few in educational leadership despite the fact that they

constitute a large percentage of the labour force in education especially at lower

levels of education. Nonetheless, there is a positive trend. In Tanzania for

instance, the number of female Regional Educational Officers (REOs), District

Educational Officers (DEOs) and school heads is increasing. Still, a deliberate

effort is needed, and this endeavour has to begin at family level as well as

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"
primary level. Girls must be encouraged to participate in leadership. Besides,

initiating a special project for training adolescent girls as future leaders is highly

recommended. The preparation of adolescent girls for leadership should not be

only considered at national level, but this should be a global effort, as in both

developing and developed nations, women are still few in leadership positions

in education and in other areas in society. Fighting the negative attitude of

seeing women as lacking competence in leadership and management will most

likely bring positive results for women in educational leadership and other

spheres of life.

ヲヶン"

"
%*#26'4"69'.8'""

6*'"%10%'26"1("'&7%#6+10#.".'#&'45*+2""
Chapter twelve draws together all the recommendations implied in or

made in previous chapters about educational leadership in Tanzanian secondary

schools. The chapter briefly summarises various issues discussed in the

previous eleven chapters as follows:

Chapter one explored the Tanzanian education system. Both education

systems before independence and after independence are discussed.

Furthermore, two concepts about school ownership and school leadership for

the Tanzanian schools are discussed at length. Chapter one briefly sets a scene

of the following chapters about educational leadership in Tanzanian secondary

schools.

Chapter two examined the theories of leadership. The chapter concludes

by suggesting that every educational leader to consider leadership as

contingency. Context (contingency) is the main determinant of the type of

leadership in operation at any one time: when leaders of different organisations

ctg"ngcfkpi."kv"ujqwnf"dg"kp"vjgkt"okpf"vjcv"Ðpq"qpg"uk|g"hkvu"cnn"ukvwcvkqpuÑ0"

Chapter three of this book is about emotional intelligence (EI). The

chapter tries to examine the role of emotional intelligence in educational

settings. The specific focus is on three aspects of leadership: transformational

ヲヶヴ"

"
leadership, interpersonal leadership and participatory leadership and how these

three parts are related to the concept of emotional intelligence. The chapter

summarises that EI is vital in leading in educational backgrounds, despite the

fact that the style of leadership is a collaborative one or another style of

leadership. It concludes by calling upon Tanzanian educational leaders to take

into account emotional intelligence in school leadership.

One of the important factors which contribute to the achievement of

school goals is the presence of effective school leadership. Thus chapter four

examines the concept of effectiveness as related to school leadership, mainly

heads of schools. This chapter concludes that effective educational leaders in

the Tanzanian context are likely to be the ones who can prepare learners for full

growth; both mentally and physically. Furthermore, effective school heads will

have a clear vision and be able to communicate it effectively to teachers,

supporting staff as well as students.

Schools comprise departments, leaders of the departments are known as

middle leaders. This notion of middle-leadership and different role performed

by middle leaders is described in chapter five. It is generally concluded that

with the increase in numbers of students in secondary schools in Tanzania and

world-wide the job of the heads of schools is becoming more complex and

demanding. As a result, Tanzania could learn from other countries about how

ヲヶヵ"

"
to utilize heads of departments more effectively so as to easy the work-load of

heads of schools.

It is common for human beings before taking any decision to think, for

instance: how, when, where, to whom, and for what purpose they will take any

action. Two important concepts basing on planning are covered in chapter six:

strategic planning and strategic intent. Strategic planning is simply described as

a process operating in an extended time-frame [3-5 years] which translates

vision and values into significant, measureable and practical outcomes.

Uvtcvgike"kpvgpv"ujqyu"vqoqttqyÓu"qrrqtvwpkvkgu"yjkng"uvtcvgike"rncppkpi"vtkgu"vq"

cpuygt" vqfc{Óu" rtqdngou0" " Strategic intent is a high-level statement by which

your organisation will achieve its vision. It is a statement of design for creating

a desirable future (stated in present terms). Simply put, a strategic intent is your

eqorcp{Óu" xkukqp" qh" yjcv" kv" ycpvu to achieve in the long term. The chapter

summarises by arguing school leaders in Tanzanian secondary schools to adopt

these two important concepts in planning: strategic planning and strategic

intent.

Chapter seven is about culture in educational context. The chapter shows

explicitly that organizational culture operates at several levels simultaneously.

One of the levels is made up of artefacts: those rites, symbols, ceremonies, and

myths that serve to make organizational behaviour routine. The second level

include: espoused values, systems of beliefs and standards that provide the basis
ヲヶヶ"

"
hqt" cp" qticpk|cvkqpÓu" uqekcn" dgjcxkqwt0" Vjg" vjktf" ngxgn" kpenwfgu<" dcuke"

assumptions, those institutional practices that are so deeply ingrained in the

collective consciousness of the group that to act in any other manner is

unthinkable. It is also argued that the relationship between organisational

structure and culture is of crucial importance. A large and complex

organisational structure increases the possibility of several cultures developing

simultaneously within the one organisation. And for a minimal organisational

structure, such as that found in most primary schools, enhances the possibility

of a solid culture guiding all areas of organisational activity. In concluding the

chapter, few pertinent questions are raised: Is Tanzanian school culture enabling

ngctpgtuÓ" cejkgxgogpvA" " Ctg" pqtou." xcnwgu." dgnkghu." wugf" cu" ogcpu" vq" iqqf"

ngctpgtÓu"cejkgxgogpvA""

Educational change is theme given in chapter eight. Briefly in this chapter

the following is discussed and emphasised: the urgent reasons for change are

now familiar, the global society is increasingly complex, requiring educated

citizens who can learn continuously and who can work with diversity, locally

and internationally. The chapter employs the Secondary School Development

Plan (SEDP I and II) in Tanzania by means of an example of a community

school to explain the difficulty for effecting change. It is concluded that barriers

for change emerges within the school and outside of the school, and these

internal and external barriers limit effectiveness to change.

ヲヶΑ"

"
 Chapter nine is about the part of school heads on the quality education. It

is well argued in this chapter that effectiveness and efficiency of a given school

depends for the most part on the quality of the school head. This is why

numerous studies conducted into school headship have the same opinion:

school heads play a pivotal role in their school. Furthermore, the quality of

ngctpgtuÓ" cejkgxgogpv." kp" verms of knowledge, attitude and skills depends

largely on the competence of school leadership. Briefly, it is argued in this

chapter that the outcome of schools in all situations: moving schools, struggling

schools, strolling schools, cruising schools or sinking schools depends strongly

on the ability of the school leader. The chapter concludes that a number of

factors may help Tanzanian secondary schools to improve quality of their

ngctpgtuÓ" qwveqogu0" " Vjtgg" korqtvcpv" hcevqtu" yjkej" eqwnf" ngcf" vq" vjg"

improvement of Tanzanian secondary schools in terms of quality are: first, the

development of the competencies of school heads. Secondly, is the

involvement of schools heads in different spheres of decision making. The third

one is about the MOEVT, REOs, DEOs and other higher educational

organisations to work hand-in-hand with schools heads to put into practice the

high quality educational in Tanzanian secondary schools.

Tanzania faces an acute shortage of institutions for preparing and

supporting school leaders. But, heads of schools need skill enhancement in

areas such as: preparation of school vision and mission; devising school

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"
strategies; action research; conflict management; instructional leadership;

creating collegiality; legal issues; planning; resource management; community

relations; planning; finance management; and implementation of the education

and planning policy. Alternatives methods for capacity building of school

leaders in Tanzania are discussed at length in chapter ten. These alternatives

include induction, coaching and mentoring.

The last chapter; chapter eleven, is about preparation and development of

women into educational leadership. The chapter begins by giving a gloomy

situation of women into education: We live in a world in which education is

characterised by extensive gender inequalities. Two thirds of all those who have

no access to education are girls and women. Sixty-five million girls never even

start school, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education,

often because its quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equal to

those of boys.

However, the chapter offers optimism of women into education and

educational leadership: women hold 14 percent of school administrator

positions in Korea, 13 percent of Chinese principalship positions, half of the

primary and secondary school principalship positions in Trinidad and Tobago.

Even in Muslim countries like Turkey, there are reports of women in

educational leadership positions, although in Pakistan, the power is in the hands

of the school boards that are held by men only. The chapter concludes by
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"
suggesting that putting programmes on preparation of adolescent girls for

leadership at nationals and global levels could put more women into leadership

who are still few in leadership positions in education and in other areas in

society. And also fighting the negative attitude of seeing women as lacking

competence in leadership and management will most likely bring positive

results for women in educational leadership and other spheres of life.

In conclusion, I hope that the book, will in some way guide heads of

uejqqnuÓ" rtgrctcvkqp" cpf" fgxgnqrogpv" kp" Vcp|cpkc" cpf" gnugyjgtg." cpf" 1" qt" kvu"

basic principles are: informed leadership; shared leadership; and leadership

focused on learning. Written for students, educational leaders and policy

makers, this book will provide useful concepts and theories which could shape

the way secondary schools are lead in Tanzania and other countries in the

world. Furthermore, the book is expected to be a useful tool for policy makers

and practitioners in educational leadership.

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"
4̨̋̋ø̋º̊̋œ"
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57$,'%6"+0&':""
A
ADEM
Admission
Administration
Accounting
Acquisition of materials
A leader of change
Assistant head
Authoritative leadership
Autocratic leadership
B
Barrier for change
Behavioural difficulty
Boarding schools
Board and committees for education
Bridging senior management& lower level management
Bureaucratic leadership
C
Capacity building
Coaching
Core competence
Challenge
-leading change
-new principles
Charismatic leadership
Class master/mistress
COBET
Coercive leadership
Conceptual frame work
Consensus decision-making
Counselling
Collegial model
Collective leadership
Conflicting management skills
Community relations
Communication skills
Communication steps
-upward communication
-downward communication
-communication between members
Community school leader
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Contingency theories
Context
Critical reflection & analysis
Curriculum
Curriculum implementation
-management
-change

D
Decentralisation,
-planning,
Delegate leadership
Democratic leadership
Department meeting
Department members
Department for Education and Skills, (DfES)
Department of Education and Science (DES)
Dictatorial leadership
Difficulty of change
Directorate of secondary education,
Directive leadership
Discipline
Distributive leadership
Division of teaching load
Dormitory master
E
Educational change
Educational reform
Educational input,
Education and Training Policy
Effective leadership
Effective manager
Efficient leadership
Emotions
Emotional competencies
Emotional control
Emotional intelligence
Emotional growth
Empathy
Employment of school teachers
ESDP
Equifinality
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Evaluation
F
Formal Authority
Formal leadership style
Followers
FE
Functions of middle leaders,
G
Gender behaviour
H
Hawathorne experiment
Head boy/girl
Head of department
Head of school
Hierarchy
Homeostasis
Hypothetical secondary school
I
Idealised influence
ICT
IE
Inexperienced principals
Induction
Information
Informal leader
Intellectual simulation
Interpersonal leadership
Internal challenges for leading change
Inspirational
Instructional leadership
K
Kinaesthetic intelligence
L
Leadership
-collegial
-distributive leadership
-transformational
-instructional
-transactional
-participatory
Leadership style
-women,
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-men,
Leadership as influence
Leadership and values
Leadership and vision
Leadership paradigm
Learning outcome
Liaison
legal rational domination
Logical/mathematical intelligence
M
Manager
Managerialism
Managerial leadership
Management
Masculine type of leadership
Matron/Patron
Mentoring
Modelling
MOEC
MOEVT
Middle leaders
Middle leaders
-Sweden
-Hong Kong
-Singapore,
-New Zealand
-USA
-Canada
-Australia
-The Netherlands
-UK
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Middle manager
Mission
Moral leadership
Morale
Motivation
Motivation theory
Monitoring
Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
N
Negative reinforcement
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Negative entropy
Networking
Novice school leader
NCSL
Nurturing
O
Obstacles to leadership
Office for Standard in Education (OfSTED),
Operational planning
Organisational culture
Orientation
Organisational improvement
Organisation as biological system
Organic approach
OPRAS
Open system
Opportunities for change
P
Pace setting style of leadership
Participative leadership/collaborative
Participatory type of learning
Participative leadership
Participatory planning
PEDP
People oriented management style
Personal feelings
Personnel management
Performance management
Peer support
Personal support
Planning
Planning cycle
Planning process
Policy
Power
Public secondary school
Putting system and structure in place
Practice
Preparation of school heads
Problem Based Learning (PBL)
Professionalism

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Q
Qualities of effective leaders
Quality
Quality curriculum
R
Rational style of leadership
REO
Reflection
Relational management
Rational legal domination
Reporting
Research
Resource management
Reprimand
S
Senior Academic Master/Mistress
Senior Discipline Master
Senior Management Team (SMT)
Self-awareness
Self-confidence
Self-other awareness
Self-management
Self-regulation
Self-other/self-awareness
Self perception
SEDP strategies
SEDP
School leader
School context
School culture
Scientific theory
Support to school heads
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Strategic decision
Strategic management/leadership
Strategic planning
SMART targets
Social awareness
Social skills
Social interaction
Successful change
Subject leader
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School culture
School environment
School effectiveness
School secretary
School inspection
School community relationship
School Management Team (SMT)
School Management role
Shortage of leadership skills
Sports and culture
Staff potential
Steps for improving quality teaching
Store-keeper
Strategic Intent
Strategic Development Plan (SDP)
Strategic management
Student government
Student union
Student personnel services
Student welfare
SWOT
T
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Teacher Training Agency (TTA)
Team building
Team management
Teaming up
Theory
TCRA
TIE, 181
Top-down change
Tough decision
Training school heads
Trait theories
Transformational leadership
Transactional leadership
Trustworthiness
Two factor model
Two factor theory
U
UNESCO
UNICEF
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Uwezo
V
Verbal /linguistic intelligence
Vision
Visionary leader
Visionary model
-content
-attribute,
Visual/spatial intelligence
Voluntary organisation
W
Women into leadership
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