Jl I\ l .\ . ' I I, , I ' I ..

' I I ' ' '' 'I '

7.9 THE R- X DI AG nA M

llh· ,·h .11 .1,·tl'l1 , 11 ,·, ,, 1 .1 1,·I. ,, (1.' ,: . ., d1 , 1.,1 11.1.· 1v l.1, ) :11 1ll :1 ..,~.., 11.· 111 c: 111 111.·
l.'. l,q'ilt , .dh l 1.' l'l l' '-1 ' 1\ll,\ II \ 11: 11 11 , : 11 11 1\ h l\\t l \ ,111.ill! ,·, ( 1 1.· . 1.: .11 ,d .,· I ll 11.1
: II1d II ) . I .11 I I1.' I I I \.1 1\ I I I ,· I I II , · l. \ . 11 I. ti 'I I..' ( I l' \ . I . . III \ I II ) I l I I I I1..' I< .\'
, 1, .,~·1.1111 ,, ,lh\l ,·.il k , 1 : 11,· /11 // 11'1/,11 1, c' ,/1 ,1:_: 1 ,11! 1 1,, , i l11.· / . 11l, 11 11 · \ II ... ,11q1l~ 1111.·
1 , 11• 1_: 1/c'I 11/1/1/ c' I I 111· , 11 1\ll ' ll· \ \ , II 1. 1hl 1..' / . ,, d 1. l1.' l ll lll l1.' d I,, d t\ 1d11 l,L'. t ill.' I Ill '
II t: I~ I111 l Ilk l d \ l, I I. I~: 1. · l 1\ I I Il' I 11 h I\I. I;-'. 111I l 1\ k l , 1 l. l II I 1. I1l . I I Il•.' t 1.· . _ l ti I i I1;_ ', /, l' , II\
1,1.· 1.: \j)l'l'''-l'd 111 ll'l 1:,1 1:~ltl.1 1 111 \hll ,l l \11 1II\ . , ,

I ,,,
I. /,: · I .\ · II , 1 (.

\\h1.· 11.· 1111.· , ·:ilu1.·.., 11\ /, :11 1d .\' 1qH1.::-.1.• 111 1111.· c1111 rd111 ;1t t: '- ll i ;, p1 1int 1111 tl1c
N. - .\· d1 ;1g r; 1111 \\l11 1.·l1 . . ,, ... 111 1,,11 i11 Figu re 7..,(l. \\ :,.., (l t i,:!i11 :ill y g ivc 11 l>y ,1
1.\)mb111;1til)ll 1)f tk· 11111.·1.· , :1ri:1hk :-. . \ '. I . :111d //. ✓
lh1.· , ;ilu1.·, 111' /,: :111d .\ · 1.·;111 li1.· p1. 1-.i 1i, ·c lll' 11 q;;11 i,·c \\' li 1.· rc;,.., Z ll lll '> l ;ii way..,
b1.· p1):-.iti,·1.· . .-\11~ 11 1.·:'. ,ill\·1.· ,·;ilu1.' '- 11 !' Z 111 u ... 1 h 1..· 11 q.: kctc d :--i n cc t li t:y li :1v t.: 110
... i~nitk;111c1..· . l:1 :1d di 111 , 11 Ill th1.· pl () t lli' t li1.· 11pcr :1t i11 .:! cli:1ractcri q ic ot a g ive n
r1.·b~·- the ..,~..,11.·m 1.·1111d 1t 11111 :-. ;t!ke1111 !:'. 1li c 111:i1.·r.tti ll n l>I Lil i.., re la y c,1n he
,up1.·rtmp11,1.·d l'll t l1 1.· , .1 1111.· N. - .\' d1 ;1:!r:1m :-.c 1 t li: 11 tlt c r1.·:-.11rn1 -.c u l t ile rcl; ,y
1.· :111 h · ,kt1.·r1n11h·d 111 111 , k1 t\1 .1l·h 11.·, 1.· til t, 11.· I.I\ 11111.·r;1 t ill rl. 111 1..· , y-,11.· 1n
,.:h.ti.tl·t1.·n,t1l· li.1:-. t, , 11 1.· \\ttl1111 tli1.· ,1p1..· r,111n ~ r1.· _:.'.11111 111 tli 1.· 11.•l;,y ch :1 r:1L'IL' ri -.,-
ti"· h 11 l'\ ,1111 ,,k . 11 111,· l l' i,1, lll\ 111\l·d 1, ;1 d i, L1 1l1.'1.' 11.·L I\. tli1..· ,i s 1h 11f , ~ ;111d
.\ , II\.' l''''lll\1.', ;1,\·, ,1 ,1 111 :-: !1 1 1111.· ,'llll\1.' ll llllll , \\'1 1..· 11 11·.tl l'''" l' I .111tl l.1 ~):11 1;!
1\',ldt\l' 1"1""'' 111 1 \\ .11l· 111 till· 1111)1,111 !! d 111..· l'l t(ll l , ii 1111.· 11..· L,~ u n,k r l1:d.i 11L1..· d
f\.'1.: - 11h;1,1.· l.'1111d1 t1Pr1, . . 1... ,h,m11 111 l-'ig.u r1.· 7 .., 1. T .ihk 7 .2 ~ t \ l.'. " tl 1c
\.' lllHlll;d ..,j:!11' 111 /~ ;111d .\ · dcp1..·r1d in ~ 1111 th1.· p o\\e r llllW d 11 cl.'.l i,1 11 in thL:
k 'Y"l1.·111✓
• lh ~tl th1..· --~ltl: l IIHj)ll'-1.·d ~y,tL:lll ;111d rL'l ay c ll ;1r;1(9 ~ '!~li(~ k,v~ _tu lieIll
th~ ,amL· p n; ,-.c qu ;1nt1t11.·, ;111d lhL: ._;, m e , c;1k I he qu ;u 11 1t 11.:" ;,re
.,.,
l ., .
./ :

- I{
i II

I
I
I
I

I
-x I
Figure 7.30. I hL· U- .\' d1.i _!.!1 .1111

u:-11;illy given i11 per 11111 h l·vc11 tilr1111_!.!il lhL·> c.i11 ;ii ,, 1 Ii,: 111 " ' ' . ~ -6 l,,.,,-vv>
e
\ \ ilc11 ()iiJll\ ;ire 11\Cll. iill lil ',\ ,[ L'l ll ;111d fl•l;1\ c il ;1r;I( 1,: 11,IIL'\ 11 .i , -t.t' h e.. v-w,
!L'.·m:-. of l h c '.'>,1111c ph ;1'.'>c q11 ,1 ,;ti11c'.'> .ind lil L· ~;11llL' ,L :1k I l1l· q,: :. h '~ ~ '--R....
:1: u:dly given in p er u 11 11-, •.'\ L'll lilo u~h liiL·\ L·:111 ,il "1 he 111 . , ~ 1, o-..,l -t>i,'rtv)
\\l1c11 ohms ,HL' U'.'>cd. h1'l lh ,y, tc111 :ind IL·l.1, d1.ir: 1L·kr 1,11'-" Ii :,,,_ -bi;- ~ C>-1,-\
ci 1c1· a primary II r a , c u,11,!.,ff I""'' '" ' 11~ 1he I, 1111111 , 11 ~ rd ,1," " ,> i;_~ ,

Tripp,ng 0irec1,o n
0 K(;ld /
loc a 11on
for the r t:ld;'
/

., Z1
\ /
<i I '\ --------

V1
V

~
,y,1cr11 tnr 1l lu~tr.i 1in~ l't1J1\l·11t1,1 n 1,, r r·. :.. ;·
~V~k;n ..: '1;iructcri,t1..:, t)n /?- .\· d1.1!,'.ro1rn 1
 z ~z ,,,.1. 1,,.25> T (o.Js-. 1 T 10. 1275> -= 0.-.s-. 1 --- JfJ. 3775
= IJ 5')(15 [ '.,') . T' pu
(l) ·r lu: 1111pu l., n ...·c dWff ilnl j~ ~hmvn tn F i:! Urt: 7 .32 .
(cJ) The powc.: r :.i r,gk i~
o = us - 01< = 39 .7° - 19.8° = 19.9°

7.10 REL AYS /..S COM PAR ATO RS I

I'

In gene ral, the l.i .,~ ( Jf a relay is to detec t the chang e bctv
. . cen norm al and I
relay achieves
foultcd con<l1ti(Jm .1 1,d J>cnd a signal when a fault occurs . The
tities and by
this ta~k by mc.,:, uring different fun ction s of applied quan
s, or simply
m,1king a cump ari:,c., n bet ween two or more diffe rent input
term ined) value.
comp aring one rn c .. ~ured quar,tity wi th a stancJarcJ (or prede
he re arc various
Ther efore , the rcl;1y int ellige nce itself is a "comparat o r." T
arnto rs in volve
types of comp ara~ ur:,. The two mo~ t co mm on types of comp
itude and phase
th<: use of ,11n piit ud ~. ancJ, phase comparison. Th e ampl
ned value of
relati on dcpcn c..b o:i ti.~ system con dition s and fo r a prede termi
fa ult , the relay
this rdati on , in Jic,.:i\'c of ;.i particul ar type a nd loca tiun of
g. , overc urrcn t
oper<1tcs. Wit h tLc. excepti on of ce rtain relay types (e.
anical quan tity
rdays ), wher e ur. ly one el ectrical q uantity .9ve rcom -:!s a mech
two electrical
such as lhc rcstr;: int from a sprin g, it is• u.)u al to com pare
quan litics .

7.11 DUA LITY EET V/EE N F-HA SE A ND :..r~1?LIT UDE

COM PAR ATO RS
1

Cons ider two p h~!>c.., r quan titi es A and li such that

A= /A je 111 = A P+ jA" (7.46)
ll = /Il ji., '<l' = BP T jfll( (7.47)

A - 8 A A T B A+B
A-B A

\ i~--QJ-! , / \ --- --- I

~
\
I <P-0 1 I \ . <t>- 0 /
L ---- . . 8
'----- . 8
( b) (c)

when IA+ Bl<

re 7.33. Phase comparison using an amplitude comparator: (a )
I, 4> - 0>90 °; (b) when IA + Bl = /A - BI, <P - 8 =90°; (c) when IA + BI >
IA - BI. <JJ - 8 < 90°.
nts.
Ille~ arc nur the A and il of the ADCO tram,mi:.si0n line consta
 •' • •: • • I

A - B 1-
A+ B

' ft
A A
t-8 A A+B I ·,
I
/ ',=1- A I
I
I
l__ .
L--~~ L-----~- -...-
fa) lbi ''' \(\) < fr>' )
Figure 7.34. AmplituJe C0i11pamon u~ing pha~c.: comparator : (,1) \\ h~·:i
I o > 90°; (b) whc.:n \.-\ j = jJJj. o= 90°; (c) \\ hc.:n IAI;... IIJ I. ti <- lJII
\
T
I, and assume that they arc tne input signals of an amplitude cornr"r &-r
I the relay operates when

\A\> \Bl
\A- Bj
lc-4
\ If the input signals are altcrcd tcr \A+ Bj and so tha t 11,-..l. y-2 ,

\I < _)erates \vhen

I
\ \A+ B\ > \A - B\
• ' J-v~ ~
then 1t acts as a phase comparator, as shown in Figurc 7.33 . Thi, V\, t. -UJ..__
the fact that both A and B must have the same polarity in order tu .s,..a,Ay) J j
equation and to operate the relay. v
Similarly, a phase comparator with inputs A and B operate~\\ l::lk\ /\ ~
ll have the same directional sense or polarity. The refore. in th e e,v'-(,,\1\...+ 1 i~-~
t:1ese inputs are altered to \A+ Bj and \A - B\ , as shown in Figure l · 3 Lt ,-tk..J....
.1e relay acts as an amplitude comparator when \A+ B\ and \A- B\ \,j_,.r--(_ ~ t -L.
,;ame directional sense, that is. jAj > \B\. Therefore, in the c.:\·-: n'\:. ,\1.,~t- ~'---
. 1put quantities arc altered to the sum and difference of th-: l>r" o/-, "'-PJ_ rj'}--;---c
·.1put quantities, an amplitude comparator can be.: u-,cd a, a p i0v-:G:.... { ~,.......
;,arator or vice versa.

:•.12 COMPLEX PLANES

/
Consider the two phasor quantities given by

A= \Aje 111 =A,,+ jAq

1
B = \B\e '" = B,, + jB</

B
- I' cos(O -
-A = IA
IH
<l>) + J - ·IAI.
B
sm(ll - rh) 4'

en as the reference phasor, then

386 SYSTEM PROTECTION

m in term s of the 1·,,·,1I

~ anu•1 1ma
•
~1na
•
ry ( or quad ratu re) com po11c11 !)

(7.SU )
lf the phas ors A and,,B repr esen t voltage
and curr ent , respectiv el y, then the
real and imag inar y -com pon ents of AIU sym
bolize resistanc e H and rcac.:tance
X. The refo re, as alre ady discussed in Sect
ion 7.9 , it can be plott ed in tre
Z-pl ane . Thu s, th~ resu ltan t diagram is
calk d the i111f) edo11 cc diugram .
Similarly. if phas or ll/A is plot ted, its
real and imaginar y rn111po11c11!),
repr esen t cond ucta nce G and susceptance
plot ted in the Y-p lanc . The refo re, the
n. Thus, the ph asor B./A can be
resultant diagram is called the
admiHa11ce diagram.
On the othe r hand , if the phasors A and
Il both represent curr ents or
volt ages , then the real and imaginary com
pone nts of A/ B and B IA symbol-
ize quan titie s that are defined by Warring
ton [8, 91 as the "alpha" i.rnd
.. beta " quan titie s. respectively . The refo re.

o:= - ,\B = I,\-B I{' 1( 11 - •1•1 =- \,\ll,,I + ;·\-,\l.\ \q (7 .51 )

Thu s, such phas or can be plot ted in the o:-p

lane and the resu lt:in t dia!!. rar:1 is
calle d the alpha diagram. Similarly,
-

(3 = B
A
= I
B \e'l<l• - ui
A
= I I + i\ BI
Il
A P A "
-
( I . •""')
-

= /3,, + if3,,
The rfor e, such pha sor can be plot teJ
in the (3-plane . anJ the re:--ult.rnt
diagram is calk d the beta diag ram .
In gene ral. the oper atin g char actc rist~ of a
rela y is plotted on a pd: u
aph whose ordi nate s arc the real and imag
inar y rnm pon cnts nf A / B \) r
. where ,\ and B arc the two quan titie
s com pan.:d by the co111 par::ih1r
equa tion s repr esen ting such oper atin g
char;.ictcristics arc ~i f ~.:l'\ )thi -
&ypc and ther efor e repr esen t circles, sect
ors of ci rc k~ . m !-tr,1i;;ht
us, the oper atin g char acte risti cs repr esen
t the th rc -,!w ld (lir h 11111 -
pera tion whe re the com para tor has zcrn
inpu t ; th..::n :\' re, t'.1-:
sitivc (trip ping ) on one side of the char;1ctc
r i~tic an~'. ncr;1:1, c
n the othe r side . In the even t that the rclJy
char ach'ri,ti..:: i-, a
thro ugh the orig in whe n plot ted on the o
-rt,111c, a'i :-Ill' " n Ill
• it becomes a stra ight line outs ide the ori t:111
"h'-' n phitt L'.I l ':l
 o-p'Jne ,j - ptJ"e

(a J /Il l

Figure 7.35. Typical relay-operatin g ch:1r.u:1,·r1,1 1c

( /,) rlnlll'c.l Oil µ- pl:1tll' .

the P-planc. ::is shown in Fi~urc 7.:-5(/1) . T lt1.· uppl1,11c ti! th ,, ,, ~ '
Furthermore, if the circular char:irt cri ,tic, arc 110 1 flltn g tlt 1l•tt1:li · ~ ~..,, ~-----
they arc orthogonal in th1.: two planes .
uz✓-

1.13 GENEnAL EQUATION OF COMPAnATO RS

I' t t.,"--
ln order develo p the general equation 1.' f ni1111,,1, .11Pr-.. . ""u "
to --u__;i--
logic configuration of a rela y is ma ck up t, f t" u \\ L'1i,: lt t1.·d , up:· e.,"-. ~ ,.,J. rJ,
comparator, a s !>hown in Figure 7.3(1(0 ). ,..\ ,, ume al,l ) th.1 1 ~ , .1 11, s~L.
1
".'-( .l-}l~
o input signals ~uch th at wh en the plta , c rc l.1 !1\111, hip l'r ..--, L. At-... t
lationship complies with prct.ktcrmincu tlm::-.lwlJ cu11 J1 11\,,i- -~., \' ~ " ~ ) '\..>
tiatcd. Let and two input signals be

SI = kl ,\ + .L. : B ~)
S: = k _,A + k, B ~ '-I

,. k~, k 3 , and k 4 are design con , t.111b . t\lt crn.1t1, 1.• h .

(k,I.\I rn, fl+ k:IBI cos <l:>) + j( k J \ I ,in (I + .L. : JI , ,111 <I• l ~ s
,IAI cos (J + k. !BI cos lJ) ) + j(k ,i.-\ 1!>in (I .... k. :u. , 111 •I>J >~
sho•., s the rh:iSLlr diagram . Both S 1 a nJ S: ar1.· :;· :.- -v,_\ h '
·\ t ' ..,.....,_
· h rn1Ju.:cs a trip (0pcrJ t~l ~ifn.il "h~ 111..·,1.:r ().\ ) \ l ,\
pari,<.m mode .
 ~•, ~ 1 L M I ' I h '1 l l. l I\. •tJ

,
A - - --

u------ t
Comp,ir Jlor

s.,

Io I

• ---
s~ s,
/1'
'

-- --- 1i

I
I
I
I -- -- /1
/
/ I

:
1,,... ,1, I
Equ.i
lllC,,l <
I _j__J
I I JI l~.. :
I
~,.
k
'-.1A
I
I

Reference Jx1s
ri11a11
I I, I

Figuro 7.3G. t.,l.'lll' t,tl l·111111',11 ;1tur 1q11l' 'l'lllat11111 : {a) bl11~·k di ;1b r ;1111 : (h) ph.1 Mi r
di,l f l;\111 .

7 .14 A f11~P LIT UD::. c o:.,,H;i\RA TOR

Th..: t11p siL!ll,il i!> p, l,d ucl.'J for an amplitU<.k rnmparato r when jS 1 > js,j.
1
Thl.'rdrn..: , th..:i r 111\lJulii \viii be equal at the thre sholJ of operation, that is,
IS,\ ~ \S~\ fnr any phase ;ingk between them (the locus of which represents
the rclay-trippint- duracteristic) . Thus, at the thresholJ of operation

tk 1 \A\ Cl)S Ii + "- :I~)\ ens 111 / + (k 1 !Al sin O + k~IBI si n 1l>/
= l"- J\\ c1,s O + kJ\BI ens 1l>f + (k ,IA! sin O + kJIBI sin o/ (7 .57 )

Rcanan~i n~ thl.' krn1::. .

tk~ - k;)\AI: + 2(k ,k: - k_il-:J}\Aj\ll\ cos(ll> - U) + (k ~ - k~)lill 2 = 0

(7 .58)

F,
 AMf'LllUUt. C,OMf'Ah/, ::,: ,

I I(
-B 12 + 2 -B -- - k,"'-• ') cm,
k. J..,' --- . ( <I> - {) ) ~~~~~
~ k~ =-= ( j
I
)
• (\
.L

A A k 1 -k~ k~- J

\Vhich can be rccxprcssed as

where

Equation (7.60) represents the equation of a circle of radiu~ r an d e-wl0-

locatcd at Po on the (l-planc, as shown in Figure 7.37. having IP,.I co, \; ~~1
jJ~,. sin Oas coordinates rcprcscntc:d by {3P and j{3</ .
./2~·S'in~i!arly, it is possible lo express equation (7.58) in term'> of the cZ I rl.\b-,
~ qua,1tit1cs so that

lal2 + 210'. dO'.ol cos(ctJ - 0) +Jal=/

wh{1e

~1

{3-plane

Jp
Id cbrac1cri~tic~ of comparator plotted in J3-pl.11,
 / y ·\' ~
.____________________ ....
-..,0:. '

--- - ·•• ·· :--! ' : .-~" -' :- .-::: :- ::- : c.: .. .ii• ,- .1 ,' ! .1 , 11 : !; ,' I r.hl1u -.. r .111-I l' l'11tc1
: _--.~_ :::-.: .:.: -..1. ,• ·-: : :-.:- ,1. -?:.:~ ~- - .::- :- ~-' 1\ :1 n h ; t:r ,· -:- ..~~ - !"l .l\ 111 ; ,I
;,\ 1 l-,,~ cl :1nJ

7.1 5 ?H~S~ cc~.•.~,.\R,.\TCR

7.-: ~:-.;- :-~; ~..: ::- i' : ,,.: _.-.- J : .• r .: j' ;~.. :-.· ,-,, n~ l'·lr.1:,, r " h: n t!, ,' 1' 1,,,!u, t ,, f th,·
:-.. _, ~:.: . ::-==- ~ .. 2 ~. 1:- ;',':- .::, : . T!:: :-1,:n.11 :- ~ 1 .in ~l ~: .1 1.- f i\ ,•11 h,
~~::..:.:~.- :-s , - _:-:- ) .'!'.".~ ,- -~~,,-: : i, , ::- . .1 :- h·f,-. : c. Th: 11.'.1,' r,·. til l'\' c.111 [,c
_:-:' ) . r~

( 7 .c,S)
(7 .(,,))

T.-:~ ?::,.::.;:: ,•: ~ ~::3 ~- J:0: r., .n i:::-..: ::1 \\ :: ~· n 1!1~ l\\l) p!1.1:-,' r:; .t r \.'. in rh,? :-l' .

Th.::-::.:-:t. _: :::: : ::r :::-:-:.•:J ~- :· ~•;-;:- r.1: i,':1

(7. ,0)

(7.71)

1.1:1 iJ, - t:rn ti:

- - - - - - - - = :: X
1 - t.rn t\ un r'-

.:n
 1
'
1 I \ I , \ 1 ,

1 II
' I. Il l 1\ I.il l : •

I.ill ( 11
I . Ill 1I.

cl: ,·.111 h · dL·tr, 1ni11L·d lr \1 111 t·q1 1. 1111, 11 , 1·

Tli-: -l ll.l1111 11c:-- 1.t11 1\ .111 d 1.111

.1 1hl ~ - .5c, ). 11·~111·, ri, ch . .is

A1 ,I . \ I •
/ SI I) ,1 "_. :B :--i ll l 1 1
t ·L
t :111 ,1i A, IH/ \'\\S 1J1
J.. I/.\ ! ,,1:-, I'

r
, ,i. \ I :- II I I I I
1- ,//q ,1 11 " ' -:
1
7
I.I 11 /I,
A)-\ / ,\1 ~ // I AI I II i \'\ l\ <I•

.111d ( :-.-:- 1,) i,11,, r qu.1 11,1 11 ( 7 7-11 .

)
Suh:1 iru ri11~ cqu :1 [i, 11s t :- .75
1

/.. 1 /:\!sin ,, - /.. ./B/ si11 I' 1

k 1 / :\ / , · ,,:,; ,, + ,Z_, /B/ ,·,,s 1j1

vr

DiviJ ing tiy k ), J.\ /-'

. /.:
i B ' k /J ..._k -,k. ,)
/,,,

B 1: 1
CO:--(< Jl - /1) ,_ - - -:. -
(l
- / ~ 1- ! 1\ .. J J,, JJ
I :\ I ,\ , k_.J

which can be reexprcs~ cJ :1~

where

k/ J -k :k ;
r = ,.,,_ k
-h : J

a tion L)f a circk of rad iu, r :1!1<'.

(e \,J'I' .~
Equation (7.80) represen ts the equ ,1 !f3 ,i sin o ::, <:,i. ·: ! r ~
11 lt.. 1

IC'cated at Po on the fl -plane ha, ·ing IP(II cos O and

rtpre:scnted by PP and j{3q.

I

392 SYSTEM PfiOTECTION

Similarly. it i~ pns),ibk to express the equation 111 terms of the alpha

4uantitil:s so that

(7.83)
where

k k + k,k
ex=-,~ _,
0 (7.84)
2k I k 3

(7.85)

Equation (7.83) represents the equation of a circle of radius r and center

located at a 0 011 the ex-plane having lo:c1Icos O a11d ilo: 0 1sin O as coordinates
represented by a" and ja". Table 7.3 gives the values of r and Po for
amplitude and phase comparators for the fl-plane. Similarly, Table 7 .4 gives
the values of r and a 0 for amplitude and phase comparators for the ex-plane.
The electrnmagnctic relays that operate inherently as amplitude com-
parators include balanced beam. hinged armature, plunger , and induction
disk relays with shaded pok-driving magnets. Whereas the electromagnetic
relays that operate inherently as phase comparators include induction cup ,
induction dynamomcter, and induction magnets. The solid-state relays are
capable of producting any desired relay characteristics using phase or
amplitude comparison.

EXAMPLE 7.4
Assume that an amplitude comparator has a threshold characteristic whose
center and its radius an.! given by equations (7.62) and (7.63) . Determine
the properties of this characteristic for the following values of the constants.

(a) When k 1 = kJ.

(b) When k, :;c kJ.
(c) When k 1 = kJ and k: = -J.:~.

TABLE 7.3 V1alues ot Rand Po for Amplitude and Phase Comparators

on p-Plane

Quanti:y Amplitude Comparato r Pha:,c Comparator

klk4 - k2k3
r 2k 2 k 4

k,k4 + k2kl
2k2 k 4
 C,[N[F< AL [uUA Tl() N (Jr- ' •[ J

. d d Phase Com para tor s

ltu e an
TABL E 7.4 Values of fl and u 0 for Ampl
on t~·Plane

<.)uantitv ,\n •plitucl.: C:0111para1,ir

k,k, - k 1 k,
r k; - k'.
kl , TL /.. ,
k l , -k ,k ,
2k .k,
k! - k;

Solution
(a) From equations (7.63 ) and (7.62 ) the
radiu'> of the circk
location of its cent er can be found as
-k,( k 2 - kJ) - k,
k/.J -k~ k .. =
r= = (k + kJ)(k - kJ) k, + kI
k~ - k~ 2 2

k, (k 2 - kJ) k,
k 1 k~- k _1kJ =
c= = (k 2 + kJ)( k 2 - k J )
2 k2
k2- /.;,~ T /.;,:
4

in the ,B -pl. ,
Ther efor e, the circ:c passes through the origin
ously offse t.
(b) However. when k 1 =I= k 3 , the circle is obvi
(c) When k 1 = k 3 and k 2 = -kJ,

= - - =- 1

Therefore, the characteristic is a straight line pass

ing thro ugh tJ;,.__,l_ t~g-v----
that is, a directional characteristic.

GENERAL EQUATION OF RELA VS

, k • k.1, an d \L'i
most relays, at least one of the design cons tants k 1 2
~ y ,~ .
tical ca-.,e_ L:i. ~
two of them are often equal. The refo re, the prac ~
here arc no mor e than twu I) ~ L- ~ - ~'?
C. Ch
. I
yeIy s1mp e.
For exam p Ie, 'f
1 t
d, it can be show~ that the oper atio n of most rcla~s can
:
b~·
I
a. J.-0 te. olJcf -r
e of the followmg general relay (torque) equations
394 SYSTEM PROlECTION

where k", k,,, k c= scalar ronstants

k.1 = adjustabk s ·
,. . . · pnng cnn st :1 11 1 1cprl''il'11ti11g 11H·rh:111kal
n:stram111~ torque
IAI, IUI == t\vo l.'!crtriral q11a11titics hl·i11g roinp:tr\•d
<l> == phase angle bct wl'l'll A and n
0 = relay characte.ristic a11gk (v:ilue of m:1xi11111111 t11rq11l' in
ck·ctromagnct1c rl'lay or m:1xi11111111 uutput i11 sl a lic.: relay)

Of course, at the threshold of operation unlkr skady-st:tk w11di1in11s,

(7.X7)
It represents all the circular and straight -line ch:1r:1ctl'ristic:s th:11 r:111 be.:
obtained from any two-input rda y.\ lf the two q11 :111titics, arc c1irrL'111 I :tllll
voltage \' then

Herc. the current winding produces a torque k.,1 1/2 and the pllll'nt ial windi11r.
a torque kblVI~, whereas the torque due to intnactiu11 of currL· nt and
potential windings will be \II cos(<l> - 0) .
In single-quantity relays. k _, is a constant and is used :is :i kvl'I indicato r.
Whereas in relays using two input quantities, its v:tlu c is rL·ducl'd to :tL·m.
Therefore, setting k _, = 0 and dividing equation (7.~~) by kn ll l!, '.

k., - -
- 1v,~+ 1v1
-- - - ---
k.,cos(<l> _0
0) -
(7 .89)
kb l I k ,,
Ifkc=l,

= I~
2
V 1 _ , V I cos( ti_> - 0) 11
I" (7.90)
I I I k.,, k.,.

adding jll2knl~ on both sides of the rquation,

IVI I~ - IVI I cos( LI>kb- 0) + I~ = Ik.,./~" I+ IJ-1

_k.,.
_/,;,/>
~ 12 (7.91)

It represents a circle on the R-X complex plane (polar Jiagram) having

IV/II cos <1, and jlV/II sin <11 as coordinates, as shown in Figure 7.39. Tb<.:
adius of the circle is

,. Vl + 4k.,kb (7.92)
r= 2k
b

center is located at ~ /2k 1, from the origin at an angle O from th<.:

 X
,-- -·-
/ ; ... ~~ ,,Ir ,,,

7.17 DIST t'\rJCE nELA YS

( A d1')t a11c.:c r<.:l ;1y rc:•,pr;rH.h tr) ir:put r._; ·J:i:-,::• 1 c , ~; ; _;-:.: .·,-
1.:',

circuit <l 1')tc1nc.c bc:twc:i:.:n thc: rc: l;;iy lr;<..: t1r,:1 ;::;,,J ·:.i; ;-:r,.:-;: ,_:
;I_,.;:; ,..., _ _ _

impedanc e cl a tran •,mi'.\ir;n lin t i\ r,rr,;-,r,rtJ',:-.c l t'J 1: \ _;: ·.-=· d~ -; ,_·:✓ I- .I_

mea!>ure;m c:nt it h '-iUitt.1bk tr, c:-:1r,lr<; a c :·,~c:::-,',':; ri:: :<-:• ·-,,:

measurl·n,,& th,.,_, imp ·c.:'·,nr,. r r ·1 , , ..., , . u .... trJ ::.. !:;,:;.' ,.- r',.., - · ••
J
1
- ,,,.. - - . , .. ' • •• - , , "4 f - • • ,,1 • • ~ ~ •

operate only fo r fo u!~-; tazin 6 p!c: c.e: bc:t ·;,t'.:!l :~.::: r::.2._. .. .
selected point. Thr;rc:forc, it ci·.crimin~t,;;<., fr,r,.; fa. •_:::. ~ · :_• .
between diffcrc:n t li:-i-::: '.c:c.tirJn\ by cr1r::;:2ri.-. s t;.'; ,:._~:-'::-.: ;_ - ·_
power. sy~tcm. )to dc:tc:r:ninc whc:tr, u a fa ·.. !t ,.:x!·,:~ ,,, . :.- . -.
ratmg zone ~
Consider the tn, mr.iission linc: ~h r/;m in Fig...r'; -; _:.'J ~- _ -~;,:.,,_:;,
.,:,
-
~ __ __;~_-j
ced-beam -typc ci stancc rela y (in,~i:c:.ttd in t:-.i:: ~.; _; _ - _
number, 21 ) ir; l<Jcctcd at bus P. end rc::.c: i·.,:;) c:. ~-::-- .-
to the prim ilry fault current enc! c:: s,:;ccr.~2.:-y •.',.>.; -
of the faul t current c1ncJ th(; irn,1(:~ c::r.c.~ <;f t~.i:: > .: _
(i.e., VF= IF ZF)- Since the: rclc1y is C(.:\!::J·:c'J ~ ' 1 · ~

Zl
,
IF
ZF
I
r- .,,. - J
·v ..,· ... .__ I
v
I
i
I
!
F I I
,,--
..
___,, i
 Jn; 1...:r...:
t,1rlii..i12,
1n,:rc.1,...: in
\ , .. • •
t i,.,'
1 1 C..,: ' 1l ,i:; \,.

h.: I,)',,;, J

thJ~ t!:-:

J r:1 ;1..:r~ t~rr...,

it r-.J,~1b!..: t,·

•• - , . . . ""',.....
~- ,- ~•J•' -~ ·.. -:
__ . ,. _ _.-r: ': : .. - ... • · - -. , l _ ,.- ,,-t - - , •· --.... ..,;
l ••• r ._t.... u.•·'- .... .:) ~- .... ,1-..:> ... ,..).;: ..... li1
. r,w.c:- ',\,1;1_; -...
t-... ~.:'). Ji1 J
·---· - £..- ..- -~ ,-,·v ..·•.. -- v◄
•l..., - - ..> , , •1.1.~.,
c- ---. -
., ,... ,,. :
. .... ~ - .,,. ... L • ...! : '- - •••,
• • .... ·,
t ':~~ ,4... t'~rfJrnL: ...::: unJ -.:r '.'i u.:h
-: :?. , .. ,. ~ '- •..:· - •.. ,_ . :. ..... .:...~ c-....:.-\, '"'·'
\... ' • - . ..: - • • _. :.. , - - :'\ C'
\.. . . .
OJ-5~f\~u~ .

;.. :...i ..:::-.~ ::-.:.~ t:.~ ::: b a f_·_'.:. .::.t t~.~ 1:.:.j c~ t::~ Ii .. .:: sJ th.it It c.rn h:
H:;:: .:.:.:;:-.: ;:.:: b:; a S!::C;:' '.:! im?c~:!r-.::c bop to \\ r.i .:!1 a ,·oltJ_;~ V hJ~ bc~n
G;:-;li~::. ::..s s~_c,·.;.;--, l:i F:; -~:~ :-. ..: ~(.?). n~~ ,~:~~;~ l ' r:1J)' be ci~hcr a \\\C () f J

Li.--~
·1

• A /-
~ ,(
R

( .;)

'Is
L'!
VR = \IL
~I I

(.,-------'
•I
l
Zs -I?.
1/',,-J
.. L •
'-

~
'I

l
f! I
ro'Al.'r i}:.IS:m arr;ar.;:n:.:nt to i.:uJ:,; rd .. ti,111:.t.ir b-.:1-... i.:i.:~ ~~H•ll.i:•t,)-!i::.:
rati0 anJ rdJy H>lt:i;e.
 DISTANCE nnAVS 397

l ·lt.1 ''1'1.'n 1.·111.·uit , ,,11.,!:r nf th1..· p,,wt·r systun, . 1LI. l l ·nding qn the fault type.
t
\I.
Th. di:-t.uh·-.· , d.l\ 1s .
h,l'.1tcd .,1 the pn1111. I' . I ti. ·urrcnt I am J VO It·cl g'·...
'- . · .. .
\'. , 11 c ,tj'pllcd (l1 11. I h1..· 1m1K·d.1 1KCS z,, ,llllt z,, .ire
, ,llll 1c l
• • the ·source u J . .
an< 1inc
"' . . ·I·
imix·d.1 th'l':s . '"'sp1.·ct1\\.'ly, · pos1t1o
due lll th1..·ir .· · ns. ·11 r •s11c:ct to the re .ty
w1 1 c. .
· 1 . It 1-. 11\11.'ll'S
1,,1.·,1111.,1 · · J I ti ll'. SOUIU.:· • 1·,11J"' , ... , l·111•·c Z" .\ • a measur
1s
.e.
1
llll~ Ill lhlll' 11.1 ' ... ,
,,f th\.· f.nilt k,d .11 th1.· 1l.'l.1yin~ p,,int . If the fault inV(llves grou1H.I'. the z_., IS
.,b1.' afkl'~1.·d t,, 1111.· 1111.·tlH,d ,lf S) stc111 grnunding b<:hind the relaying 01_n1.
Th.: lin'-· in q'1.<L1111x z, i:-- ;1 1111.·asun: of the i111pcuancc of the protect ion
r
~..·ft i,,n. Th1..•1d-Hl'. th.: q1ll:ii::c \'" applied to the relay is equal to luZ,. for a
f.iu !t .it tlh' i-.' ,i,h ,,,,1111. Thus.

(7 .93)

V
I = -- - ( 7.9-l)
" Zs+ z,.

(7.95)

(7. 96)

Figure 7.-H( b ) illustra tes this relation ship betwee n the relay voltage VR and
the rat:o Z:JZL. It is applica ble for all types of short circuits .
Howe, er, for phase faults, the voltage V is the line-to- line voltage and
Z 5 1Z, is the ratio of the positive -sequen ce source impeda nce to the positive -
sequen ce lin(' 1mpl!da nce. Theref ore,

vR = [ (Z SI
;zl ) + 1 ]v(L-L)
LI
(7.97)

Wherea s fo r ground faults, the voltage V is the line-to- neutral voltage

and Z 5 /ZL is a compos ite ratio taking into accoun t the positive - , negativ ~-,
and zero-se quence impeda nces. Theref ore,

(7.98)

Zs= Zs1 + Zs2 + Z.rn (7 .99)

z,. = Zu + ZL2 + Z'- 0 (7.100)
 I
T. 1-- -- -- -- -- --
.. .

Z: z-' z~

, :.. 1.l ...

~ I •
, .

. ,·' l 1 ,· ,, ;- -- .._·-_ _ - - , ·; :. · :.. · ,- - -"'. - --o';. •• "-- •

isn ota '.'lol idf a ult (c _o_ ana r~; -, :,f3
• • • • • '- -• ~~ •• J ►
• '••t"" , , L - ..
1 \.. 11 , = i ....,. 1 / • I..;,
::- .,
'. :-: ...'
th-: l.xi J. is :::..:...' :::..: re ::-. _~ ) '.. '.:-..= ·:-_..:
wit h th:::i t of the loa d and the li rie~ tv -- - ...' .-!-.... '- .....,'",
. - ;lL. ......•....•.. ..
"- ..... - , ·ob
~ r.:,.v! , r (':••.- .'- :... ••.

line sec tion . Th~ rc:f ore • the fa ,.I°I '"- -..Art"',-t' .o-,, .._
••---·•
-> \.

by. Th; ;~. r:.rc i:, f..: :- ::-::~ r-=..: , .: :-: 2

:-:~
is. Als o . it shr ir.k s the rea .:h c f r~ e re
-iot be b;.;ilt \, :,;-; .1 r.~:-..:.-.:-.: ~::>r. : .::e:-:
partly due to the fact tha t the rel.::.:, car.. :..: r. :·.:--:-
accuracy. a sec ond distJ.nc e-rn:::as
urir._; u:-.i, is t.:s::c to p;-o \ is.:.:- ;:-:-c :e:::
r b1.1s . A lso. a tr:i :-c u:-: i: :s l:, p:.:~:::,
t>.:.:i
e far end of the line nea r the r.ex se..:: ::2: -..
firs: !\\u 1.cr.irs in tr:e r:::x: 1: :-.e
provide bac k-u p pro tec tion fo :- the
· shown in Fig ure 7.42.
re b:s t!-:Jr res r..: :-:J t J :1 r2ti u cf
e term dis tan ce is use d for a fa rr: ily of
~dJ r,ce o r a cOu .j:' 0 i'1eG , of 1;--:;:-~-
e to cur ren t and the re fo re to ir..p
orc in; to t!-:.:ir r,'!2 r d:2.r .2..::t~ris -
. Th e dist anc e rela ys are classifie d_acc
the m-? tb1 J b~ \\r'.: .: ~ t!-:e
num bcr of inp uts they have . and
n is ma de. The corn rnon t> pcs
co mr :irl' l\\ O iG;:--.;: l,t:.:i_:-; ::rie.-- i:.
::.1ic-; th..1t ,ire e ithe r ~t r::i1 ; r. t
itud c or pha se to obt ain ch::irac teri
lcs ,;.hen plo tted on an R- .r d iaf
ram . T h.: b..1::,1,._· ci, ;2i1 . : -? rdJ y
itu n-.:c ( l1r mhL' l. l ..; ) offset
imp eda nce , (2) re Jcta ncc . (3 ) adm
>~-
"fled imp eda nce ) . a nd ( 5) ohm rc b

a!ll , ,ni...·tcr-? l. .inJ

itudc com par ato r (e.g .. hJla :1-:L"J bL'
t l: ;tl --·-r 1..: 1.111 I 7 ~:, ) i,
t the thre sho ld of llp aat itrn , d
 ·, i ~TP-iCE PHAYS 39g
0. ·;

if tht· t:or1,tanh ;1 rc , q . 1 di· 11 1 ,

· ' ' cu ,o th ;1 t the 1..,,,r,u t -.1p~a.-, arc

S, == 1-' ,V (7 . l<JI )
S •,-= t- t l ( 7 J(J:~ J

i. _ .
t ha l .., k, · k; · <J • A == V, ,rn c B == J \uh ', ti I u t Ir.:! c ~ u ;,.it 10 n., ( 7. J(Jl ) "n (.,
( 7 . I () _) Hll!J c ,1u:1t l()(l (7 ')H) u

k 2l
I
\'l2 ~ f.:''1 ' ·'
-11 I

or

V k -1
I - k ~ co mt;int k (7 )()~ I
I

Z = C' lf1 \ tar t •.· ( 7. JI J.1

Therefore. the: impc.d a r:C'.: rcla 1 does n ot consic.'cr t r:c pr. ,1s12 an;;k bctv.c-~ :1
the curre nt <1 nd rhc vr., lt age ap •oJj,,d
...., to
.. it ~1 --r1
• • LJ\..- :;•,,~
...., ..,.\,,.1. ,1 - c··
,, •1
, 11· ,-,, i•~ ;,....,p t.;.:....
~ l "" Ui.'t n. _ ....,
J.ilJ

charactt:ri \ tl C whc: n rloti.cd on ct!l R - X dic1 t:;t' ;',1r.l

• i -• ( r•' · I,a-....· ,,,. ,. 1·•·
• ~,. ·, t<_, ( C.:. r, • l-, !~ 1. l [
4 J J •

the origiil of t he ccnrd ir.ates a n d of radius cqua: .CJ j• .., :;ctti ;i g 1n ohm ,. <! ,
shown in ~ igu re 7 .43(h ). tThe r ,~!ay opcrat~s fo r a11 1r:,pcdancc \.a! ues th.ii
arc less than ih ~ctti n;, that 1s, for all point'> with in tr.c -:.:ross:12~: :-icd c1r,..:l _·. 7.-:i1
It rcstraim for all p o in ts o u tsi d e t he circls)The rc !ay . sho-.;; r, ; :i F igure 7A3. l1-
is located o n bus A and is no ndi rccti onal, t~ a t is. it cr~rc.t~s Eor all faults
ong the vector AB a!1d also fo r all faults be hind the bus A up to an
pedancc A C. Nc te that the Jin~ ABC re r, resen ts the dr, 5 :c by which the
Jt current lags the driving vo itage a n d that A is the ·; c iaymg point. ~
e characteristi c shown in Figure 7.43 indicc1 te<; t ri J t trc rela:-- b no ~
tional. In orde r to make t h e re la y no11rcsron s1vc t ,) tus and lin e fa ult ')
it, directio nal c ontr~ is esse n tial. This can be ac hi e ved h:,. th e
n of a directi o nal u nit~ ig ure 7 .~4 s~ows_a typica_l pcr-ph:ise arran~c-
a three-zone di '. ·,mce relay wi th d1rc ctron al urnt use d fo r rran:-.mb·
proiection [ HiJJ
T h e imped an ce charactc ri~t_i.: ~f the dirc cUtrn:: '. ·
traight line on th e R-X diagram . The cornb1ccd ch_:-, ractcn~11c o t
al and impedance relays is the cro:-,sha tchcd se mi..:1rclc shO \\ n Ill
he three irnpcda r ce uni ts a rc labeled Z,. Z : . and Z ,. The
fl!, a ri~ c aikd zone.\ of pro rcction ., It 1.., usua :!y a stanJJ ~d
1
c zor~c J rela ; for abo ,1 1 80 rcr 1:c11 ! r:.::1cl: . '· to ~o, er :"'
. ., ) . n · r ,·~ st ., ll ·rJL' O l l"' 1_1••r ·1 r•o1: . 1 hi:r1.·r~1rc. tolL'
1n1pC<JailCl' cl. u 1. . u, , , - • ~- ,.
 ~ '. I • •
• t "'
➔ ' •
r-;,'
'-✓

, • l
L d' ·. ,1

'
'
I
'' - ·- - -
t

- •I

.... < 1·1.· r d.I'

-~ t 1l f
, r
7 l

I • It I\
.,
. ( _,, • 1f\ ... 1 •, '" .... '- , h) r 1: , l t'~ r . .·,: 11 t 1 ~ • .: ?
1, . .i1,, ._ , 1. n:. 1' d1-' 1IJ l'1.
\t
, • , 1. , , , 1 f ( I ) I 1111..· rd . ~ -. l' i
l' •, 1

..;J•) J ~ ,l ... t"l 'I ,! ! • '"'. t

-,1 l •l . r c 11 J
I : , I.,, .., . , ! , 1, v Ii 11-. •1t l h1.· , H h _
•1 • c, I ·, J tr ,n,t ,rm , 1 1 '.! ,t tr.1,1 , f, 11 111cr-. t':J t H.' l•u-.,
.1: · t. . •,: t·• r ,_r., l ,f t !,L' Ii! 11. \ \ fl · l •, ! I. /(),I.· 1 L'I .i \ p I l 1\ Id L' , h 1..: 1-.- ll p
rr1 ; :l ' . ' ,., f, f.11.f[' I'\ "d Ill 11 11 1: 1 I I. , , 1. 11 111 , lh rc ;1c11 ,h(,uld
; h ..·! I.'!, ire.
l"\l•:11 · •.,..\llll I 1 11 c r I , ,f 1!,
1• I, 1r q
11 1• l 1 1h.' \L' l'ti1) !1 U IH \· r the
1111 1 11'1 /'
1.·• 1r,dH ,,,,:, 1:,.it ,.iu--.c !~:c n :. 1,1111 i1• 1, . , 1n· 1 _,1 ,' (•f u1Hk11 1.·,•d1. 11,1 rnd ~. ,1, L"'> and
1nkn1 ,•: d:.1 k C IJI ru,! ,.nu rt"c' ' ·r :--: l ,! 1-. 1 [1 ,_- / C) 11 • rd.ty 1, !->l' ! {11r 250
 01STANC£ n£L~' ::,

,,. r •••·

•
•
r
-~;
--

I, I J II

z1 = J "')~f' 1C ,:Jnr~ tP ,Jy Ti .: , ,.... rr•Pdr 1 ,~7

7 ,, rY,. 2 rt•c..1 ,.,. P , .. 1.1r 7• _ 1,r11.r i 't' .l , 1:: f' J
3 <1 \'J_, . ,. rrlJv '>{IJ , f"' ,_, Z 't
/ t 10 1 ,.
\ p

/J f1 fP• I•- ••. \ rt ,1 i II l1'" , ., ,., t· t. r• J •

Figure 7.44 Typical pn-phJ\c a rra ni;c111 1."n l fpr t hn:c-,nn..: Ji , t.1n..:c n IJ:, \\ ,1l1
d1 rc1:1ion:.1l u nit [ JO] .

perce nt rc:11:h on trammi~-.iun li ne~ anJ o pcratc~ at a timt.: dt.:lay r 1 uf (l( l

qcks. t ,
In Figure 7.45 , c:, is the angle of max imum torque nf di, C(t. 'fi.il unit . :1ml
1
1 i!-> the !in• impedance anglt.: . This orii;in rcpicscnts t)1c rel.1y l1h.: ation. If
,here is a r 1ctallic (or solid) fault in lht.: tripping dircctinn . the inncd:1111..c
I 1l'~ n;i the 'inc impl'dance locu~ indica ted by th i~ an~h.· 0. Tl1c 7 1 .tnd /. :
t.nits. prtnHk th e primary protectio n for a ~iwn tran~mi,,il>n line ~l'ltHin.
"herc:1s Z : and Z 1 provi<.k !lack-up protection for adjt)inin~: bu,c.., ,:;1d l1n,_
~.L·,..-rllrn'>. Tl:e disauvanlaF,es of the impedance rcl.1~, art :

1. It i.., r•,>n<lir1.:ct1on:1I. Thcrdorc. it will ~cc f.1ulb huth m frnnt lit .ind
bchi11 1 the rdayin~ p(iint. Thu, . it fL'quirL·, a directional u,~,r t, 1
pnn 1dc it with correct Ji..,niminatio n .

i, cn !.1111 .q I Ii, 111, 1n , \i llh ·" .1: ! II\' Ind, . 1t m.1~ l•,· l.'.\ltc·t: .l.h J.'.!.-1•!1 t•1 ,1:•1rd:n, 111
' " · 1d.1, '' ith tlw Lun,· 2 rl'i:!~, l•I th\.' :inthli,111n:.: \111,, !l,,.iu,.: ,11th.: ,!,1::. 1.. ,, •I,
1· ,.,,·1, 1' 1, Iv'"' t'r1••·:d11 111 u,,n~ lhl· lltr1,· , u1111\ 11!t, n 11, ~kd. 1 .tr,·
 +X
Typical line
I impedance locus
I
I Maximum torque direction
I I of d1rect1onal unit
---r-r--·'
Normal
operating point
•

-R I \ \
+R
\ \ 21
\ ---
\ Z2
\
Z3
' '-
-- /
I
I

~
' /
' '- ...__ D,rect,ona l unit
--
/

-- /
character ,st ,c

-X
Figure 7.45. Operatin g and time-dela y character i stics of impedan ce-type distance
relay with d irectional restrain ~.

2. It is affected by arc resi sta nce during arcrng faults on t he protecte d

line.
3. It is highly sensitiv e to power swings. d ue to the large area covered by
its impedan ce circle .

If the impedan ce relays operate due to the change s in line-to-li ne voltages

known as delta volcages, e .g., Vb - V,) and the differen ce between line
rrents (kown as delta currents , e.g. , Ih - Ic) , they are called ph ase relays .
re 7.46(b) shows such "phase" arrange ment , wh ich is a lso called the
connecti on. The phase relays can detect

z .,t, =vI -
<J/>

uh

\'
z h e =~
J
h,

V
z =~
I C<l
ca

must he determi ned from