Benchikh Le Hocine Alla Eddine PHD 2019

UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE
Faculté de génie
Département de génie mécanique
Modélisation numérique d’une hydrolienne à

axe horizontal de type Darrieus en eau peu
profonde
Thèse de doctorat
Spécialité : génie mécanique
Alla Eddine Benchikh Le Hocine
Sherbrooke (Québec) Canada
Mars 2019
MEMBRES DU JURY
R. W. Jay Lacey
Directeur
Sébastien Poncet
Codirecteur
Hachimi Fellouah
Évaluateur
Julien Favier
Évaluateur
Bruce MacVicar
Évaluateur
RÉSUMÉ
Avec en toile de fond la question du changement climatique, les contraintes énergétiques

sont de plus en plus importantes : population et consommation mondiales croissantes, fluc-
tuations des prix des énergies fossiles et diminution des ressources disponibles et exigences
environnementales toujours plus contraignantes. Dans un contexte mondial où la question
énergétique est donc devenue centrale, le besoin de se tourner vers des alternatives renou-
velables est devenu primordial. L’énergie électrique produite par des hydroliennes est l’une
des sources alternatives les plus exploitées. Parmi ces hydroliennes, les turbines de type
Darrieus à axe vertical qui ont été largement considérées dans la littérature. Au contraire,
la configuration horizontale pour des applications de faible puissance en rivière n’a jamais
été étudiée jusqu’à présent. Cette thèse a donc pour objectif d’optimiser une hydrolienne
de rivière à axe horizontal de type Darrieus, tant sur le profil hydrodynamique que sur
le nombre de pales utilisées, et de quantifier ses performances pour différentes conditions
(hauteur d’eau) opérationnelles réalistes.
Un benchmark numérique de modèles de turbulence RANS (Reynolds-Averged Navier-

Stokes) à deux équations et de modèles de sous mailles LES (large Eddy Simulation,
simulation des grandes échelles) a d’abord été effectué dans le cadre d’un écoulement
turbulent autour d’un obstacle fixe et submergé en forme de D. Une comparaison a été
faite entre les résultats numériques et expérimentaux obtenus par PIV (Particle Image
Velocimetry) 2D et 3D stéréoscopiques. Le modèle k-ω SST à bas nombre de Reynolds
prédit le mieux la couche de cisaillement au-dessus de l’obstacle. Par contre, le modèle
k- à haut nombre de Reynolds est plus performant dans la zone de recirculation en
aval de l’obstacle. Les résultats produits par la LES Wale sont meilleurs que ceux du
modèle Smagorinsky qui s’avère trop dissipatif. L’analyse spectrale ne montre aucun pic
distinct dans la région de sillage. La méthode POD (Proper Orthogonal Decomposition)
a finalement été appliquée dans le sillage de l’obstacle pour en étudier la dynamique en
extrayant les différents modes dominants.
Dans la seconde étude sur l’hydrolienne de type Darrieus à axe horizontal, une approche
2.5 D RANS instationnaire a été adoptée en utilisant un maillage très raffiné et le modèle
k-ω SST à bas nombre de Reynolds. La turbine est placée dans un canal ouvert sans surface
libre. Quatre profils de pales ont été testés. L’approche numérique a été validée avec moins
de 13 % d’erreur par rapport aux résultats expérimentaux obtenus sur une éolienne. Le
profil S1046 a permis d’accroître les performances produites par le NACA0018. Dans les
régions de décrochage dynamique et de transition, le S809 a été le moins performant.
Pour des hautes vitesses de rotation, le FXLV152 est le plus performant. En variant le
nombre de pales sur l’hydrolienne de type Darrieus équipée du profil S1046, les meilleures
performances ont été produites à basses et hautes vitesses de rotation pour un nombre de
pales égal à 4 et 2, respectivement.
Dans la dernière étude, des simulations 2.5 D multiphasiques ont été accomplies en utilisant
le modèle VOF (volume of fluid ) afin de quantifier l’influence de la hauteur d’eau sur les
iii
performances de l’hydrolienne de type Darrieus à axe horizontal. Deux configurations ont
été considérées : hydrolienne partiellement (configuration 1) ou complètement submergée
(configuration 2). L’approche VOF a été validée avec une erreur moyenne de 0.6 % par
rapport aux résultats expérimentaux obtenus dans le cadre de la rupture d’un barrage.
Pour une turbine totalement immergée, le coefficient de puissance est supérieur de 36.8
% à la configuration partiellement immergée. Le nombre de Froude calculé en amont de
la turbine croît progressivement pour des hautes vitesses de rotation. Quand la turbine
est complètement submergée, elle extraie les plus grandes quantités de mouvement à des
hautes vitesses de rotation. L’aptitude de la turbine à produire de la puissance dans les
deux configurations assurera son efficacité dans les rivières peu profondes.
Mots-clés : Hydrolienne, Darrieus, Modélisation numérique, Turbulence, LES, POD.
ABSTRACT
Numerical modeling of a Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine in shal-

low water
Energy constraints are becoming increasingly important as global consumption continues
to increase day by day. The price of oil fluctuates continuously tending yet is predicted to
increase substantially under more stringent environmental requirements. The idea of turn-
ing to and developing renewable alternatives has become paramount. The electric energy
produced by hydrokinetic turbines is one of the most exploited alternative sources. Among
these hydrokinetic turbines, the Darrieus vertical axis hydrokinetic turbine DVAHT has
been largely considered. On the contrary, the horizontal Darrieus configuration for river
applications has never been studied numerically. Moreover, no geometrical optimization
of blade profile has been carried out to improve its performances and no research on the
influence of the water height has yet been done. To answer these problems, three different
studies are performed increasingly progressively the complexity of the flow configuration.
A numerical benchmark of the RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes) turbulence clo-
sure models with two equations and LES (large eddy simulation) subgrid scale models is
first carried out on the turbulent flow around a bed mounted D-section. A comparison is
made between the numerical results and 2D planar and 3D stereoscopic PIV (particle im-
age velocimetry) measurements. In comparison with the other models, the low-Reynolds
k-ω SST model correctly reproduces the shear layer above the D-section. On the other
hand, the high-Reynolds number k- model is more accurate in the recirculation region
downstream the obstacle. The results produced by the Wale LES model appear better
than those obtained by the Smagorinsky model which is more dissipative. Spectral anal-
ysis shows no distinguishable peaks in the wake region. The POD (proper orthogonal
decomposition) is applied in the wake region in order to extract the different modes.
In the second study, a Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine DHAHT is modeled
using unsteady 2.5D RANS simulations based on the low-Reynolds k-ω SST turbulence
model. Four blades profile are tested for the fully submerged configuration. The numerical
approach is first validated and shows less than a 13 % error against experimental data
published on a wind turbine. The S1046 profile produces higher performances than the
NACA0018 profile. In the dynamic stall and transition regions, the S809 profile showed
the poorest performance. For high tip-speed ratios, the FXLV152 produces the highest
power coefficient. The effect of blade number N on the DHAHT with the S1046 has also
been investigated. For N = 4 and 2, the best performance is obtained at low and high
tip-speed ratios, respectively.
In a last study, instantaneous 2.5D multiphase simulations are run using the VOF (vol-
ume of fluid) method in order to quantify the influence of the free surface and water level
on DHAHT performance. The DHAHT is tested in two configurations: partially (con-
figuration 1) or completely submerged (configuration 2). The VOF model is validated
with an average error of 0.6 % against experimental results for the breaking of a dam.
v
The total immersion of the DHAHT in configuration 2 increases by 36.8 % the power
coefficient compared with configuration 1. The calculated Froude number downstream
of the turbine increases gradually with increased tip-speed ratios. The quantification of
the momentum loss shows that the DHAHT in configuration 2 extracts higher values of
momentum loss with higher tip-speed ratios. The ability of the turbine to produce power
in both configurations will ensure its efficiency in shallow rivers.
Keywords: Hydrokinetic turbine, Darrieus, Numerical modelling, Turbulence, LES,
POD.
«Le génie est fait d’un pour cent d’inspira-
tion et de quatre-vingt-dix-neuf pour cent de
transpiration.»
Thomas Edison
REMERCIEMENTS
Je voudrais tout d’abord remercier grandement mes directeur et co-directeur de thèse, Jay
Lacey et Sébastien Poncet, pour toute leur aide et confiance. Je suis ravi d’avoir travaillé
en leur compagnie car outre leur appui scientifique, ils ont toujours été là pour me soutenir
et me conseiller au cours de l’élaboration de cette thèse. Leur disponibilité et simplicité
ont permis d’avoir un excellent climat de travail.
J’adresse tous mes remerciements à Monsieur Hachimi Fellouah, de l’honneur qu’il m’a
fait en acceptant d’être rapporteur de cette thèse.
Je tiens à remercier Julien Favier du laboratoire M2P2 de l’Université d’Aix-Marseille
pour avoir accepté de participer à mon jury de thèse et pour sa participation scientifique
sur la méthode POD.
Je remercie également Bruce MacVicar de l’Université de Waterloo pour l’honneur qu’il
me fait d’être dans mon jury de thèse.
Je tiens à remercier mes deux amours Asma et Hacene, pour leurs encouragement, soutien
et présence car sans eux je n’aurai jamais accompli ce travail. À l’amour de ma vie Asma,
je te remercie pour ta patience, présence et tes sacrifices pour moi et Hacene.
Un énorme merci à ma mère Soraya Boumghar et mon père Raouf qui m’ont instruit et
gravé en moi la persévérance et la science depuis mon jeune âge. Cet accomplissement
vous est offert.
À ma petite sœur Nihad (Ninou), pour ton support et encouragement.
Un grand merci à mes beaux-parents Lahcene et Fatima pour leurs confiance et encoura-
gement.
À tout mes collègues de travail (Sergio, Yu, Ibai, Junior, Kamel, Nidhal) et de sport
(Sébastien, Hachimi, Hacene, Taoufik ...) pour leur soutien et encouragement. À Amrid,
pour nos longs débats scientifiques.
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction générale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectifs de la thèse et originalités . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Plan de la thèse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Turbulent flow over a D-section bluff body : a numerical benchmark 5

2.1 Avant-propos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Numerical modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.1 Geometrical modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Turbulence modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.3 Numerical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.4 Experimental database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 Mean flow field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.2 Coherent structures in the wake flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.3 POD analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Numerical modeling of a Darrieus Horizontal Axis shallow-Water Tur-

bine 33
3.1 Avant-propos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Water Turbine (DHAHT) . 37
3.5.2 Numerical method and turbulence closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5.3 Boundary conditions and numerical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Validation of the flow solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.7.1 Comparison between blade profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7.2 Influence of the blade number N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Multiphase modeling of the free surface flow through a Darrieus hori-

zontal axis shallow-water turbine 57
4.1 Avant-propos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
xi
xii TABLE DES MATIÈRES
4.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine (DHAHT) 61

4.5.2 Numerical method and turbulence closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5.3 Boundary conditions and numerical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.6 Validation of the flow solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.7.1 General performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.7.2 DHAHT’s influence on flow regime and momentum loss . . . . . . . 75
4.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 CONCLUSION FRANÇAISE 83
6 ENGLISH CONCLUSION 89
LISTE DES RÉFÉRENCES 95

LISTE DES FIGURES
1.1 Nombre d’installations hydroélectriques par région. Adapté de [75]. . . . . 3
2.1 Sketch of the computational domain (not to scale), and views of the D-
section bluff body with its main dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Mesh distributions for the different approaches. Coarse grid for the high-
Reynolds number models (top) and fine mesh for the low-Reynolds number
models and the LES (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 2D maps around the D-section obstacle in the channel midplane of the mean
velocity components u∗ and v ∗ and turbulence kinetic energy k ∗ . Compa-
risons between the PIV measurements, three two-equation RANS models
and two LES models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Distributions of the two main mean velocity profiles (a,c) u∗ and (b,d) v ∗
along the streamwise direction X/D. Results obtained at (a,b) Y /D = 1
and (c,d) Y /D = 0.5 in the median plane of the channel. . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Distributions of the mean streamwise velocity component u∗ along the span-
wise direction 2Z/b. Results obtained at Y /D = 0.5 for two X/D locations :
(a) X/D = 0.8 and (b) X/D = 1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 2D views of the instantaneous vorticity around the D-section body obtained
by the LES Smagorinsky (a,c,e) and the LES Wale (b,d,f) models. (a,b)
Side views in the mid-plane of the channel (2Z/b = 0) ; Top views at (c,d)
Y /D = 0.5 and (e,f) Y /D = 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 Side and top views of the Q-criterion (Q=0.029) distribution over the D-
section obstacle colored by the normalized averaged longitudinal velocity
(u∗ ). Results obtained by the LES Wale (a,b) and the LES Smagorinsky
(c,d) models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 PSD distributions (m2 /s) of the mean velocity components u and v downs-
tream of the D-section obstacle at four positions X/D. Comparison bet-
ween the results obtained by PIV and the LES Wale model at (Y /D = 0.5,
2Z/b = 0). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Relative and cumulative energy contributions of the POD modes obtained
by the LES Wale model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.10 First six POD modes from (a) to (f) extracted from the instantaneous LES
Wale results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.11 Velocity field reconstructed (m/s) using : (a) only the first mode ; (b) modes
2 to 10. Results obtained by the LES Wale model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12 Contour map of longitudinal velocity field reconstructed Ũ /U0 using the first
mode with the (a) minimum and (b) maximum time coefficients. Results
obtained by the LES Wale model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.2 2D cross-sections of the four blade profiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
xiii
xiv LISTE DES FIGURES
3.3 2D sketch of the computational domain with its main dimensions and the
boundary conditions.Note that for the current numerical experiments the
turbine rotates in the counter-clockwise direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Boundary layer velocity profile imposed at the inlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 2D views of the numerical mesh distribution of a) entire domain, b) rotor
domain, and c) turbine blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6 Performance curve of a three-blade H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine versus λ.
Comparison with former CFD [24, 41, 84] and experimental results [24]. . . 45
3.7 Comparisons of the averaged power coefficient CP versus λ for the S1046,
S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade
turbine (N = 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8 Comparison of the averaged torque coefficient CT for the S1046, S809,
FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade tur-
bine N = 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.9 Comparison of the instantaneous torque coefficient CTi of one blade over
one rotation (degrees) between the S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018
profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8. . . . 48
3.10 Polar distributions of the instantaneous torque coefficient CTi . Results ob-
tained for the 3 blade turbine N = 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11 Distributions of the mean streamwise velocity U ∗ along the vertical direction
Y /H for the 3 blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8. Results obtained for four
X/D locations : (a) X/D = 1, (b) X/D = 2, (c) X/D = 3 and (d) X/D = 4. 52
3.12 Influence of the blade number N on the averaged (a) power CP and (b)
torque CT coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.13 Influence of the blade number N on the polar distributions of the instanta-
neous torque coefficient CTi for four tip speed ratios λ. . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.2 2D sketch of the computational domain with its main dimensions and the
boundary conditions. The turbine rotates in the counter-clockwise direction.
Note that the water level HW and the height of the air layer Ha are fixed
to HW = 0.65 m, Ha = 1.14 m and HW = 0.82 m, Ha = 0.97 m for
configurations 1 and 2, respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 (a) Example of a 2D view of the mesh distribution for configuration 1 (F r =
0.625) ; (b) 2D views of the numerical mesh distribution in the rotor region
and around the blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 VOF validation against the experimental data of Koshizuka et al. [57]. (a)
Normalized evolution of the water level H ∗ versus time t∗ . (b) 2D sketch of
the configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5 Performance curve of a three-blade Darrieus vertical axis wind turbine
(VAWT). Comparison between the present predictions and the experimen-
tal results of Castelli et al. [24]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
LISTE DES FIGURES xv
4.6 Distributions of the averaged power coefficient CP as a function of the tip

speed ratio λ for configurations 1, 2 and the single-phase (slip wall) case.
The multiphase configurations are calculated with (w/) and without (w/o)
correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.7 Distributions of the averaged torque coefficient CT as a function of the tip
speed ratio λ for configurations 1, 2 and in the single-phase (slip wall) case. 72
4.8 Instantaneous snapshots of the water volume fraction α around the DHAHT
during the first 3 rotations. Results obtained for λ = 1.8 in configuration 1. 74
4.9 Instantaneous snapshots of the water volume fraction α around the DHAHT
at the 15th rotation. Results obtained for λ = 1.8 in configurations 1 and 2. 74
4.10 Instantaneous vorticity fields around the blade for θ = 90◦ (a,b,c), 150◦
(d,e,f) and 210◦ (g,h,i). Comparisons between configuration 1 (a,d,g), 2
(b,e,h) and the single-phase (slip wall) case (c,f,i). Results obtained for
λ = 1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.11 Comparison of the polar distributions of the instantaneous torque coefficient
CT for configurations 1 and 2 for four tip speed ratios λ. . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.12 Froude number F r distributions downstream (X/D = 11D) the DHAHT
for configurations 1 and 2, with the corresponding linear regressions. . . . . 78
4.13 Distributions of the momentum loss LM for configurations 1 and 2, with
the corresponding linear regressions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xvi LISTE DES FIGURES
LISTE DES TABLEAUX
2.1 Mesh grid parameters for the high- and low-Reynolds number models and
the LES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 Main geometrical and operating parameters for the flows through the DHAHT. 38
3.2 Mesh grid parameters for the three-bladed configuration. . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Instantaneous vorticity fields for θ = 90◦ , 150◦ , 210◦ , 270◦ , 330◦ . Compari-
sons between the S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles for the 3
blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1 Main geometrical and operating parameters for the flows through the DHAHT. 62
4.2 Mesh grid parameters for the three-bladed configuration. . . . . . . . . . . 67
xvii
xviii LISTE DES TABLEAUX
CHAPITRE 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction générale

La demande mondiale en énergie ne cesse de croître, alors que les ressources en énergies
dites fossiles ne cessent de décroître. Afin de faire face à ce problème, il est nécessaire
d’améliorer les rendements des différents procédés alimentés par des énergies fossiles, ou
se tourner vers l’exploitation des énergies renouvelables. L’exploitation d’une seule source
d’énergie renouvelable ne permet souvent pas de répondre à la demande de consommation,
la solution consiste à faire un mix de ressources énergétiques. Couplées à une solution de
stockage d’énergie, les énergies renouvelables offrent également une alternative intéressante
aux régions isolées des réseaux électriques principaux. Il existe quatre principales sources
naturelles pour produire de l’énergie électrique : solaire, biomasse, l’éolien et l’hydrolien.
La situation géographique du Canada et celle du Québec, en particulier, favorisent plu-
tôt l’exploitation des énergies éolienne et hydraulique. L’hiver pouvant durer jusqu’à 6
mois, l’énergie solaire n’est pas une source fiable, à cause de l’accumulation de neige sur
les panneaux solaires, ce qui peut réduire notablement la production d’énergie électrique.
Néanmoins, le potentiel solaire reste toujours une source non-négligeable durant l’été. En
ce qui concerne l’énergie éolienne, plus de 12 796 MW sont produits sur tout le territoire ca-
nadien, grâce aux 297 parcs éoliens [73]. Cette production d’énergie couvre autour de 6% de
la demande totale du Canada, ce qui représente la consommation de 3.8 millions de foyers.
L’intermittence du vent cause cependant une discontinuité dans la production d’électricité
par les éoliennes. Cette limite n’existe pas avec l’énergie hydraulique, qui est une source
continue soit via des hydroliennes dans les rivières, des barrages hydroélectriques et des
hydroliennes ou centrales marémotrices près des cotes maritimes. Le potentiel canadien en
énergie hydraulique est immense dû au fait que toutes les provinces ont accès à au moins
une de ces ressources hydrauliques. Cela favorise la production hydroélectrique avec 63
% (76 000 MW) de la production canadienne totale, et un potentiel non exploité de 160
000 MW et autour de 4 400 MW dans la région du Québec [74]. Avec cette dépendance à
l’énergie hydroélectrique, le Canada est le troisième au monde en nombre d’installations
hydroélectriques (Fig.1.1) et au deuxième rang en termes de production avec 9.6 % de la
production mondiale [50]. Cette énergie est majoritairement produite par des hydroliennes
dans des barrages avec retenue ou au fil de l’eau.
1
2 CHAPITRE 1. INTRODUCTION
L’entraînement des turbines dans la majorité des stations hydroélectriques au Canada est
assuré par l’effet potentiel dû à une chute d’eau. Dans quelques endroits fluviaux, où les
profondeurs d’eau sont importantes, comme dans le fleuve St-Laurent, des turbines sont
installées dans le fond et entraînées par les courants d’eau. Des milliers de réseaux de
rivières peu profondes restent néanmoins inexploités mais ils se trouvent la plupart du
temps dans des régions reculées non raccordées au réseau électrique principal à cause du
coût prohibitif d’un possible raccordement. L’idée d’installer des turbines dans ces cours
d’eau peu profonde permettra d’assurer une production électrique continue pour un utili-
sateur local (ex : chalet). Le choix du modèle de turbine est une tâche complexe car les
conditions d’écoulement dans ces rivières sont instables : hauteurs d’eau faibles et inter-
mittentes, faibles vitesse d’écoulement (1-3 m/s), présence de rochers sur le lit des rivières,
débris de végétation ou glaces en surface . . . autant d’éléments qui perturbent l’écoulement
en amont des turbines. Peu de turbines peuvent être utilisées dans ces conditions d’écou-
lement. Néanmoins la turbine de type Darrieus à axe vertical permet de surmonter une
partie de ces limites, par son indépendance à la direction de l’écoulement et son efficacité
à des faibles vitesses d’eau et de rotation.
Depuis 1926, la turbine de type Darrieus à axe vertical DVAT (Darrieus vertical axis
turbine) a été largement étudiée. De nombreuses études ont été faites pour optimiser
ses performances et réduire son bruit dans le cas d’éoliennes. Appliquer ces turbines en
rivières (DVAHT) est plus problématique du fait des faibles niveaux d’eau généralement
observés et des variations de ces niveaux potentiellement importantes. Elles ont donc reçu
peu d’attention dans la littérature [26]. Néanmoins, le placement de la turbine de type
Darrieus dans une position horizontale permettrait d’obtenir un meilleur rendement même
pour des faibles hauteurs d’eau. C’est dans ce cadre que s’inscrit cette thèse : optimiser
les performances d’une turbine DHAHT (Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine)
existante et simuler ses performances dans des conditions réalistes d’écoulement.
1.2 Objectifs de la thèse et originalités

L’objectif principal de cette thèse est de mettre en place un guide méthodologique numé-
rique pour optimiser et étudier la sensibilité des performances des hydroliennes et plus
précisément la turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal. Pour atteindre cet objectif, des
sous-objectifs allant par ordre croissant de difficulté ont été également définis :
1. Modélisation numérique de l’écoulement autour d’un obstacle fixe (en forme de D)

et submergé.
1.2. OBJECTIFS DE LA THÈSE ET ORIGINALITÉS 3
Figure 1.1 Nombre d’installations hydroélectriques par région. Adapté de [75].
• Comparaison entre plusieurs modèles de turbulence RANS et de sous-mailles LES

avec des mesures PIV.
• Identifier le ou les modèles RANS et/ou LES offrant le meilleur compromis préci-
sion/coût de calcul.
• Identification des différentes structures tourbillonnaires instationnaires qui se forment
autour de l’obstacle (vorticité, critère Q) et compréhension de leur dynamique
(méthode de décomposition en modes propres).
2. Optimisation des performances de la turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal com-

plètement submergée avec confinement.
• Modélisation numérique monophasique (eau) autour de la turbine de type Darrieus
submergée.
• Validation du modèle de turbulence choisit à partir du benchmark (objectif 1).
• Étude paramétrique de plusieurs profils de pales afin d’optimiser les performances
de la turbine.
• Étude de l’influence du nombre de pales sur la turbine de type Darrieus à axe
horizontal équipée avec le profil le plus performant.
3. Étude de l’interaction entre la surface libre et la turbine de type Darrieus à axe

horizontal dans deux configurations : 1) partiellement submergée ; 2) complètement
submergée
• Modélisation numérique multiphasique de la turbine de type Darrieus équipée avec
le profil le plus performant sélectionné à partir du deuxième objectif.
• Validation de l’approche multiphasique sur la déformation de la surface libre.
• Étude de l’influence de la hauteur d’eau sur les performances de la turbine et les
mécanismes de détachement tourbillonnaire autour des pales.
4 CHAPITRE 1. INTRODUCTION
L’originalité de cette thèse consiste à accomplir des simulations numériques d’une turbine
de type Darrieus à axe horizontal, afin de quantifier et optimiser ses performances mais
aussi de comprendre l’interaction de la surface libre avec la turbine et son influence sur
les différents coefficients.
1.3 Plan de la thèse

Le manuscrit de cette thèse de doctorat est présenté sous format d’articles. Chaque chapitre
est un article qui répond à un des objectifs énumérés ci-dessus. Dans le second chapitre,
un benchmark numérique des modèles de turbulence RANS et des modèles de sous mailles
LES est accompli pour un écoulement turbulent autour d’un obstacle fixe en forme de D.
Par la suite, dans le troisième chapitre des simulations numériques monophasiques ont été
faites autour de la turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal en testant plusieurs profils
de pales afin d’accroître ses performances. Dans le quatrième chapitre, des simulations
numériques multiphasiques ont été accomplies sur l’interaction de la surface libre et la
turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal, et aussi sur l’influence de la hauteur d’eau sur
ses performances. La thèse se termine par des conclusions sur les principaux résultats et
des perspectives de recherche.
CHAPITRE 2
Turbulent flow over a D-section bluff body :

a numerical benchmark
2.1 Avant-propos
Auteurs et affiliation :
A. E. Benchikh Le Hocine : étudiant au doctorat, Université de Sherbrooke, Faculté de
génie, Département de génie mécanique.
R. W. J. Lacey : professeur, Université de Sherbrooke, Faculté de génie, Département de
génie civil.
S. Poncet : professeur, Université de Sherbrooke, Faculté de génie, Département de génie
mécanique.
Date d’acceptation : 6 octobre 2018
État de l’acceptation : version en ligne publiée
Revue : Journal of Environmental Fluid Mechanics
Référence : Benchikh Le Hocine et al. [13].
Titre français : Écoulement turbulent autour d’un obstacle en forme de D : benchmark
numérique
Contribution au document : Cet article constitue la première étape de validation né-
cessaire vers la simulation d’une hydrolienne de rivière et consiste à simuler, dans un
premier temps, l’écoulement autour d’un obstacle fixe submergé. Le but est de mettre en
place une ligne directrice sur le choix des approches numériques grâce à un benchmark
des modèles de turbulence de type RANS et LES validés par des mesures expérimentales
obtenues par PIV. D’autre part, cet article permet une compréhension détaillée des struc-
tures tourbillonnaires qui se forment autour d’obstacle submergé en utilisant différentes
approches pour le post-traitement comme le calcul du critère Q et la POD, qui permettent
d’identifier les structures cohérentes et de caractériser leur dynamique, respectivement.
Résumé français : Un benchmark numérique des différents modèles de turbulence a été
réalisé pour étudier l’écoulement turbulent derrière un obstacle submergé en forme de D.
Les modèles de fermeture incluent des modèles RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes)
à deux équations et des modèles de simulation des grandes échelles (LES). Ils sont com-
parés aux mesures PIV planes et stéréoscopiques. Le modèle k-ω SST à bas nombre de
5
CHAPITRE 2. TURBULENT FLOW OVER A D-SECTION BLUFF BODY : A
6 NUMERICAL BENCHMARK
Reynolds s’avère mieux adapté pour capturer la couche de cisaillement intense au-dessus
de l’obstacle par rapport aux autres modèles à deux équations. Pourtant les modèles k-
et k-ω SST à haut nombre de Reynolds présentent des performances supérieures dans la
région de recirculation derrière l’obstacle. Des LES ont également été réalisées sur l’écou-
lement autour de l’obstacle afin de déterminer l’influence des modèles de sous mailles sur
la prédiction des structures tourbillonnaires. Le modèle Wale combiné avec un schéma aux
différences centrées a montré un meilleur accord global par rapport au modèle standard
de Smagorinsky, qui est plus dissipatif. Une analyse spectrale a été réalisée dans la région
du sillage, mais aucune fréquence distincte n’a pu être trouvée. Une décomposition ortho-
gonale aux valeurs propres (POD) a été appliquée aux résultats de la LES pour extraire
la dynamique de l’écoulement et les structures cohérentes.
2.2. ABSTRACT 7
2.2 Abstract
A numerical benchmark of different turbulence closures was performed to investigate the
turbulent wake flow behind a submerged D-shaped bluff body. The numerical models in-
cluded steady two-equation Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models and Large
Eddy Simulations (LES), which were compared to planar and stereoscopic particle image
velocimetry (PIV) measurements. The k-ω SST low-Reynolds number model was found
to be better adapted to capture the intense shear layer at the top of the D-section com-
pared to the other two-equation models. However, the k- and k-ω SST high-Reynolds
number models demonstrate higher performance in the recirculation region. LES was also
completed over the D-section to determine the influence of the sub-grid scale models on
the prediction of the vortical structures. The Wale model together with central difference
schemes showed a better overall agreement over the standard Smagorinsky model, which
appears too dissipative. A spectral analysis was performed in the wake region, yet no dis-
tinct shedding frequencies could be found. A proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) was
applied to the LES results to extract the mean flow dynamics and the coherent structures.
2.3 Introduction
Fishways allow fishes to travel across anthropogenic obstructions [53].The flow in fishways
has interested researchers for decades [15, 18, 22, 71, 93, 95, 108, 120, 124], yet the flow
structure is complex because of the three dimensional geometry, the elevated turbulence
intensity, and the interactions between the coherent vortices produced by successive obs-
tacles. The fish’s progress through passes depend on a multitude of mean and turbulent
flow variables [121] and an accurate flow description is required for the improved design of
future fishways. The objectives of the present work are to perform a numerical benchmark
of different turbulence closures for the flow behind a D-shaped bluff body and to display
the capability of more advanced large eddy simulations (LES) in predicting the coherent
structures appearing in the wake. The present flow configuration represents a first step
towards a more realistic flow simulation of fishways and a better understanding of flow
structures shedding from bluff bodies. An indepth study of flow over a wall mounted bluff
body also has implications for other fields such as : shape optimization in the automobile
industry [38], the prediction of microclimate in urban [119] and mountainous regions [21],
and the prediction of dust emissions due to industrial stockpiles [33].
Experimental and numerical approaches have been performed to understand the flow in
fish passes and to correlate the flow features with fish behavior. Different numerical studies
were performed for fishways without any experimental validation [2, 71, 95]. Sometimes,
the numerical tool is clearly used as a black box [43]. When experimental validation is
possible, the numerical predictions are not always satisfactory and/or not carefully valida-
ted. Bombac et al. [18] compared the results of an experimental and numerical study for a
vertical slot fishway. A 2-D depth-averaged shallow-water numerical model PCFLOW2D
coupled with three different turbulence models was used for comparisons with physical
acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) measurements. All turbulence closures provided sa-
tisfactory results. However, as all the comparisons were performed at cross-sections where
flow complexity is reduced, it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions on model perfor-
mance. Tran et al. [120] conducted a numerical and experimental study in which rocks
of the natural fishway were replaced by cylinders while keeping the same arrangement.
An ADV was used to measure the velocity and the turbulent kinetic energy and results
were compared to a depth averaged model obtained with the Telemac-2D software. A
large discrepancy between the numerical and experimental results was found upstream
and downstream of the cylinders, which was attributed to the numerical approach and
the choice of the k-ε turbulence model. Many other numerical studies of turbulent flow
and optimization of fish passes demonstrate that the choice of the appropriate flow sol-
ver and/or turbulence closure remains an open question in the literature [15, 29, 108].
Research is needed to develop and validate an optimal flow solver on a simple (though
relevant) geometry where wake flow characteristics are similar to the those in fishways.
Compared to a systemic approach used to optimize fish passes, it is believed that a better
understanding of the flow dynamics and vortical structures produced by the wake of a
single obstacle will in the not too distant future lead to improved understanding of their
interactions with fishes [66]. In addition, computational resources being limited, the ac-
curacy of the calculations with a refined mesh around a single obstacle are improved in
comparison to using larger cells [15, 18, 108].
The turbulent flow around a single obstacle/boulder in a nature like fishway can resemble
flows around more canonical obstacles such as a cube, cylinder or sphere. This resem-
blance is found in the different vortex structures formed in the near wake region [12],
in the shear-layer developed at the top of the obstacles and in the separation and recir-
culation zones observed both upstream and downstream. The stability and transition to
unsteadiness in the wake behind bluff bodies have received much attention up to the 90’s
as shown in the review of Williamson [129] and Sumner [115]. For a wall-mounted cube,
Hussein and Martinuzzi [49] performed lased Doppler anemometry (LDA) measurements
to determine the turbulence kinetic energy (k) budgets in the wake. More recently, the
effect of the free-stream turbulence (FST) on the characteristics of the wake flow behind
bluff bodies has been considered experimentally. For example, Khabbouchi et al. [54] in-
2.3. INTRODUCTION 9
vestigated the influence of the FST on the development of a separating shear layer in
the near wake of a circular cylinder for Reynolds numbers based on cylinder diameter
up to ReD = 4.7 × 104 by hot-wire measurements. The shear layer shedding frequency
and its harmonics became broader as FST level increases to finally disappear for a FST
level equal to 6.2%. The authors suggest that the shear layer behavior can be regarded
as a mixing layer for FST intensities lower than 6.2%. Using multiple ADVs, Lacey and
Rennie [61] studied the turbulent wake past a submerged bed-mounted cube for a bulk
Reynolds number (based on the cube height h) Reh = 46000 and three water depth to
cube height ratios. By decreasing the water depth, the shedding vortical structures are
more confined and the turbulent shear stresses are modified close to the bed, which af-
fects the local transport of bed sediments. Hearst et al. [42] conducted particle image
velocimetry (PIV) and hot-wire measurements to investigate the influence of the FST on
the flow around a wall-mounted cube at a boundary layer development Reynolds number
Rex = 1.8 × 106 . They showed that the stagnation point on the upstream side of the cube
and the reattachment length in the wake do not depend on the FST. Contrarily, Son et al.
[111] showed that FST level triggers boundary layer instability above a sphere and delays
the separation for Reynolds numbers up to ReD = 2.8 × 105 . The authors found that as
FST intensity increases, the critical Reynolds number known as the drag crisis (where the
boundary layer over the sphere becomes turbulent and drag decreases rapidly) decreases.
The authors demonstrated that the main mechanism for the drag evolution is linked to
the presence of a separation zone which is controlled by the FST level. Khan et al. [55]
conducted Particle image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements around a suspended cube in a
water tunnel to investigate the influence of the Reynolds number, Re, over the range [Re
= 500 to 55000]. Khan et al. [55] found that the recirculation length decreases with in-
creasing Re before reaching an asymptotic value at (Re ≥20000). An asymptotic behavior
was also observed for the wake width at (Re ≥ 2654). Furthermore, the authors show that
the mean vorticity is independent of Re at X/D ≥ 2 downstream of the cube. Sadeque et
al. [104] studied the flow patterns in the near-wake behind bed-mounted cylinders, in a
shallow turbulent channel flow with smooth and rough beds. They focused both on wall
wake similarity and on the region away from the bed, which was found to be well modeled
by a Law of the wall.
Numerically, Richmond-Bryant and Flynn [98] used the discrete vortex method to simulate
the time-averaged flow fields past a circular cylinder at ReD = 1.4 × 105 . Though good
agreement was obtained against literature experimental data [23],the unsteady simulations
don’t converge numerically. Palau-Salvador et al. [92] conducted LES of the flow around
finite-height cylinders for two height-to-diameter ratios H/D = 2.5 and H/D = 5, with
Reynolds numbers based on the both cylinder diameters D were ReD = 22000 and 43000,
respectively. For the shortest cylinder, the vortex shedding is observed close to the ground,
while for the longest one, it appears over the entire height of the cylinder. The length of
the recirculation zone gets larger when H/D increases. Saeedi and Wang [105] performed
LES on a wall-mounted rectangular block with H/d = 4, H/d = 9 and Red = 12000
(where d the width and H the height). They studied the interactions between the tip
vortices produced at the top of the block, the Karman vortices from the side walls and
the developing boundary layer over the bed. Elkhoury [30] compared the performance of
the Scale Adaptive Simulation (SAS) turbulence model with the predictions of both the
Spalart-Allmaras and the k-ω SST models for a square block and a wall-mounted cube
(ReH = 4 × 104 ), though discrepancies over 10% are obtained for the position of the recir-
culation zone compared with physical measurements, the author recommended the use of
the SAS model. To the best of our knowledge, D-shaped bluff bodies have not been consi-
dered so far in the literature and offer a good opportunity to perform a detailed numerical
benchmark of different turbulence closures. Testing various closure models is seldom done
in the literature, yet can have a great impact on the quality/accuracy of the numerical
simulations, especially in complex flows such as those encountered in fishways.
The purpose of the current study is to clarify the advantages and trade-offs of using va-
rious numerical approaches for modeling complex flows around obstacles in order to better
model nature like fishways in the future. In this study, the flow over a bed mounted D-
section is modeled in order to describe the general flow topology. A benchmark of different
RANS turbulence closure models is performed around the D-section while taking into ac-
count the appropriate mesh resolution for each approach. LES is also conducted with 2
different sub-grid scale models and resolution schemes. Numerical results are compared to
PIV measurements for validation purpose. A Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is
finally applied to LES results to extract the most energetic modes within the flow and to
further characterize the bluff-body wake flow structure. To the best of the authors’ know-
ledge, such a careful numerical benchmark validated by PIV measurements for a surface
mounted bluff body has not been done before.
2.4 Numerical modeling
A 3D Navier-Stokes incompressible flow solver based on the finite-volume method was

used. Two levels of turbulence closures were considered to model the turbulent flow over
the submerged D-shaped bluff body, namely steady-state two-equation Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) models and Large Eddy Simulations (LES).
2.4. NUMERICAL MODELING 11
2.4.1 Geometrical modeling

A sketch of the computational domain is shown in Figure 2.1. It consists in an open channel
flume whose dimensions are : length L = 1.4 m, width b = 0.15 m and height H = 0.1
m. A D-section bluff body was positioned at mid-width of the channel with the flat side
face way downstream at a distance of 0.22 m (' 1.8Dh , Dh the hydraulic diameter, Dh =
2Hb/(H + b)) from the inlet. The D-section diameter, height and width are respectively
D = 0.025 m, h = 0.025 m and w = 0.0125 m (Fig.2.1). During the experiments, the mean
flow depth (H = 0.1 m) and mean inlet streamwise velocity (U0 = 0.175 m/s) were kept
constant leading to a bulk Reynolds number equal to ReH = 17500.
Figure 2.1 Sketch of the computational domain (not to scale), and views of the
D-section bluff body with its main dimensions.
2.4.2 Turbulence modeling

Three two-equation RANS models were compared to determine which model is more or less
adapted to accurately reproduce the flow structure around the bluff body. The standard
k- model of Jones and Launder [51] was used in its high-Reynolds number formulation
and compared to the Shear Stress Transport k-ω (k-ω SST) model developed by Menter
[82]. The k-ω SST model used in both its high- and low-Reynolds number formulation,
combines the robust and accurate formulation of the k-ω Wilcox model [127] in the near
wall region and the free stream independence of the k-ε out from boundary layer. Blen-
ding functions are introduced in the transport equation of k and ω. When available, a
production limiter is applied to avoid any possible overproduction of the turbulence kine-
tic energy (k) in low velocity regions. Moreover, pressure gradient effects are included in
the resolution of the effective velocity distribution close to the wall. These well-established
models are fully described in the monograph of Wilcox [128] or in the detailed numerical
work of Elkhoury [30].
Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are currently applied in a wide variety of engineering appli-
cations and appear to be a good compromise between accuracy and computational costs
[131]. Compared to direct numerical simulations, the smallest length scales are ignored in
LES via a low-pass filtering of the Navier-Stokes equations. This concept was first intro-
duced by Smagorinsky [110] in 1963, who developed the so-called standard Smagorinsky
model. Subgrid scales, which are any scales that are smaller than a cutoff filter width ∆,
need to be modeled via an empirical turbulent viscosity νt . The turbulent viscosity in the
Smagorinsky model is expressed as follows :
q
νt = (Cs ∆)2 2S¯ij S¯ij (2.1)
where Cs ' 0.18 is the standard Smagorinsky constant and ∆ = (∆x ∆y ∆z )1/3 is the cutoff
filter width. ∆x , ∆y and ∆z are respectively the size of the local mesh element in the x,
y, and z directions, respectively. S¯ij represents the filtered strain tensor defined as :
1 ∂ ūi ∂ u¯j
S¯ij = ( + ) (2.2)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
A dynamic version of the Smagorinsky model has been later developed to overcome the too
dissipative nature of the standard model [35]. However, Poncet et al. [94] showed, for the
turbulent flow in a Taylor-Couette-Poiseuille system, that the dynamic version provided
similar results compared to the Wall-Adapting Local Eddy Viscosity (Wale) model while
requiring about 12% of extra computational time.
Thus, herein the Wale subgrid-scale model developed by Nicoud and Ducros [88] has also
been used for comparison. The Smagorinsky model is based on the second invariant of the
symmetric part of S ij . The main drawbacks are that this invariant is of order O(1) close
to a wall and it is not related to the rotation rate of the turbulent structures. To avoid
that, Nicoud and Ducros [88] developed the Wale model based on the gradient velocity
tensor gij , which is a good candidate to represent the velocity fluctuations at the length
scale ∆. The turbulent eddy-viscosity is then modeled by :
3
2
(Sijd Sijd ) 2
νt = (Cm ∆) 5 5 (2.3)
(S¯ij S¯ij ) 2 + (Sijd Sijd ) 4
where Cm = 0.4929 and S̄ij corresponds to the filtered strain tensor. The Wale model
employs the traceless symmetric part of the square of the velocity gradient tensor gij , as
follows :
1 1 δ ūi
Sijd = (gik gkj + gjk gki ) − gki gik δij gij = (2.4)
2 3 δxj
The Wale model behaves well near the wall with good approximation to the assumed
physics of the flow, and is defined to handle with transitional parietal flows.
2.4.3 Numerical parameters

All calculations have been performed using the software CFX ANSYS 16.2 based on a
finite-volume method. For the RANS calculations, a second-order high resolution advec-
tion scheme was used to avoid dissipation and ensure a better accuracy. For the LES
simulations, a second-order Backward-Euler scheme is employed for the temporal discreti-
zation together with an implicit time-stepping scheme. For the spatial discretization, both
high-resolution and central difference schemes were used. The velocity-pressure coupling
was performed by a Rhie Chow fourth-order coupling algorithm, which guarantees that
the dissipation term vanishes rapidly under mesh refinement.
Concerning the boundaries conditions, the mean streamwise velocity profile imposed at the
inlet corresponds to the PIV measurements, leading to an average streamwise velocity of
U0 = 0.175 m/s at the channel inlet. The imposed turbulence intensity I0 = u0 /U0 = 10%
agrees also with the experimental value and is similar to the value I0 = 0.16(ReDH )−1/8 =
5.5% recommended by Elkhoury [30] (DH the hydraulic diameter). No slip is imposed at
the two side walls and at the bottom wall, while free slip is imposed at the upper boun-
dary to account for the flat free surface in the experiments. The computational domain
being long enough to suppress the sensitivity of the flow to the outlet condition, a simple
pressure outlet condition was selected. A verification was performed by imposing outflow
or convective condition wich lead to similar results.
As discussed previously, steady-state RANS models in their high- or low-Reynolds num-
ber formulation and LES were considered. Two unstructured mesh grids were constructed
using the software Centaur (Fig.2.2). They are composed of tetrahedral elements in the
core of the flow and prismatic layers along the walls. The coarser grid used for the high-
Reynolds number RANS models gathers 12.35 million cells and the maximum value of
the wall coordinate in the whole domain reaches y + = 40. To better account for the flow
dynamics close to the D-shaped bluff body and in the near wall regions, a finer mesh has
been used for the low-Reynolds number models and the LES. The finer mesh is compo-
sed of 22.17 million cells with 10 prismatic layers along the walls to satisfy the condition
max(y + ) = 1 (see Table 2.1). A stretching factor of 1.2 was used to avoid any numerical
dissipation of possible coherent structures. A mesh refinement is also imposed in the wake
of the bluff body to capture the recirculation zone and the vortices in the shear layer.
Figure 2.2 Mesh distributions for the different approaches. Coarse grid for the
high-Reynolds number models (top) and fine mesh for the low-Reynolds number
models and the LES (bottom).
Turbulence closure Number of cells (x106 ) Number of Nodes (x106 ) max(y + ) GCI [%]
High-Reynolds number RANS 12.4 2.8 40 0.011
Low-Reynolds number RANS & 22.2 4.5 0.95 0.0011
LES
Tableau 2.1 Mesh grid parameters for the high- and low-Reynolds number
models and the LES.
The Grid Convergence Index (GCI) provides an uniform measure of convergence for grid
refinement studies [99]. It is based on the estimated fractional error derived from the
generalization of the Richardson’s extrapolation. The GCI value represents the resolution
level and how much the solution approaches the asymptotic value. The GCI can be written
as follows :
|εi+1,i |
GCIi+1,i = FS (2.5)
rp − 1
The safety factor FS selected for this study is fixed to 1.25, according to [99]. The order-
of-accuracy (p) can be estimated by using the following equation :

f3 − f2
p = ln /ln(r) (2.6)
f2 − f1
where fi represents the numerical solution of the ith mesh and r represents the grid refi-
nement ratio. The relative error εi+1,i writes :
fi+1 − fi
εi+1,i = (2.7)
fi
The GCI method has been applied using the low and high Reynolds number meshes and a
third coarse mesh with 22.2, 12.4 and 6.9 million elements, respectively. A grid refinement
ratio of approximately 1.8 was applied between the three grids, while keeping the number
of prismatic layers constant. The GCI is calculated by considering the magnitude of the
mean velocity.
As shown in Table 2.1, the GCI for the finer and coarser meshes are relatively low (below
1), indicating that the dependency of the numerical simulation on the cell size has been
already achieved for both meshes.
The time step in the LES is fixed to δt = 0.0028 s to ensure a CFL number lower than 1.
The convergence is reached when all residuals get lower than 10−8 and the mass imbalance
is lower than 10−6 . The calculations were run using the cluster MP2 provided by Calcul
Québec. The CPU time for the low-Reynolds, high-Reynolds number models and LES was
respectively 26 hours, 18 hours and more than 20 days, using 32 processors for the RANS
models and 96 processors for the LES. The LES calculations have been initialized using
a converged RANS calculations. Then, statistics have been cumulated after the elapse of
two other flow-through times L/U0 and continued until reaching 4.5 flow-through times.
2.4.4 Experimental database

Model validation data was obtained from previous experiments conducted in a small tilting
glass-walled open-channel at Wageningen University (The Netherlands). The experimen-
tal section of the channel was L = 1.4 m long and b = 0.15 m wide. The D-section was
mounted on a sharp-edged flat plate with dimensions of 0.75 m long and 0.15 m wide.
The plate was raised off the bed of the channel by 0.1 m. The D-section was made from
black anodized aluminum. As stated previously the D-section diameter, height and width
was D = 0.025m, h = 0.025m and w = 0.0125m, respectively. During the experiments the
mean flow depth was kept constant (H = 0.1 m) and the mean velocity of the incoming
flow was U0 = 0.175 m/s. The experimental set-up is fully described in [59].
Planar PIV was used to characterize the flow field over different vertical (2 component pla-
nar) and horizontal (3 component stereoscopic) planes. A Nd :YAG laser (Laser Quantum
Ltd, United Kingdom) of 2.3 W continuous wave was used. The field of view (FOV) was
approximately 0.1 × 0.1 m2 , 0.06 × 0.06 m2 for the planar and stereoscopic PIV, respecti-
vely. Perpendicularly to the side of the channel, a high-speed 1 megapixel CMOS digital
camera (FASTCAM 1024 PCI, Photron Ltd., Japan) was positioned, for the planar PIV
measurements. For the stereoscopic PIV configuration, two high-speed CMOS cameras
were positioned above the channel. The acquisition frequency of the camera (both PIV
measurements) was set at 500 frames per second (fps). 3200 images were taken, which cor-
responds to 6.4 s of recording. The duration was limited due to onboard camera memory.
The camera shutter speed was set to 1/4000s, which was sufficient to avoid streaking of
the seeding particles. Silver coated hollow microspheres with a mean diameter of 0.013
mm (Potters Industries, USA) were used to seed the flow.
The software Davis (LaVision Inc., USA) was used to produce the instantaneous velocity
vectors. For the extraction of the velocity field, a multipass algorithm was used. The final
interrogation area (IA) was 16 × 16 px2 with a 50% overlap, while the first and second
IA were composed of 64 × 64 px2 and 32 × 32 px2 respectively. The resulting matrix has
a dimension of 128 × 128 px2 for each velocity vector at each time step. The resolution
of the final IA was 1.63 × 1.63 mm2 for planar PIV and 1.5 × 1.5 mm2 for stereoscopic
PIV. Three filters were applied to the raw vector maps to remove erroneous vectors : 1) a
signal-to noise ratio filter, 2) global histogram operator and 3) a median filter. An interpo-
lation of the nearest neighbor vectors was done to replace identified spurious vectors. An
average of 9% of the raw vector field was replaced by interpolated values for the planar
and stereoscopic PIV.
2.5 Results and discussion

The results presented below have been obtained for an aspect ratio (relative roughness)
h/H = 0.25 and a Reynolds number ReH = 17448. The streamwise u and vertical v
velocity components and turbulence kinetic energy k are normalized by the mean inlet
velocity U0 and its square respectively, such that : u∗ = u/U0 , v ∗ = v/U0 , k ∗ = k/(0.5 ×
U0 2 ). The origin of the reference (X = Y = Z = 0) is set at the bottom wall in the median
plane behind the D-section bluff body.
2.5.1 Mean flow field
The flow around the D-section body contains complex three dimensional turbulent vortical
structures [60]. Two recirculation regions are observed at the front of the D-section and
in its wake (Fig.2.3). The advection of the primary recirculation region induces a complex
horseshoe vortex downstream. Flow separates overtop and along the sides of the D-section
2.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 17
producing a reattachment zone in the lee (Fig.2.3). The shear layer above the obstacle
generates intense coherent structures, which are shed downstream.
According to Figure 2.3, all the RANS turbulence models in their high- or low-Reynolds
number formulations predict the existence of the recirculation zone. Nevertheless, the size
of the recirculation differs from one model to another, reflected in a displacement of the
reattachment region. The prediction of the recirculation length seems to be linked to the
flow field in the near-wall regions. The extent of the recirculation zone for the low-Reynolds
number k − ω SST (Xr /D ≈ 2.4) and the two LES models (Xr /D ≈ 2.5) compare fairly
well with the PIV measurements (Xr /D ≈ 1.9). On the contrary, the high Reynolds
formulations of k − ω SST and k − RANS models, which do not solve the flow field close
the walls, strongly underestimate the length of the recirculation zone behind the bluff
body, Xr /D ≈ 1.2 and Xr /D ≈ 1.3, respectively.
Figure 2.3 2D maps around the D-section obstacle in the channel midplane
of the mean velocity components u∗ and v ∗ and turbulence kinetic energy k ∗ .
Comparisons between the PIV measurements, three two-equation RANS models
and two LES models.
Regarding the subplots of the vertical velocity component v ∗ (Fig.2.3), the two LES mo-
dels and the low-Reynolds number k − ω SST appear to reproduce correctly the negative
vertical velocity (v ∗ ≈ −0.3) region located on the stoss side of the obstacle, where the
horseshoe vortex develops. This region is less apparent with the two high-Reynolds num-
ber models. In general, the two high-Reynolds number models (k − ω SST and k − )
give a poorer representation of the flow structure around the obstacle. Comparisons with
the experimental measurements show differences in the recirculation region. Furthermore,

within the recirculation zone along the back wall of the obstacle, strong regions of elevated
positive vertical velocity (v ∗ ≈ 0.4) are apparent which are not observed in the experimen-
tal data. Possible reasons for the overpredictions could be the coarseness of the grid and
the use of a wall functions. The main difference between the low-Reynolds number k − ω
SST and the LES lies in the abrupt plunging of the shear layer to the bed for the RANS
model, whereas it is much more progressive in the LES and PIV results. This mismatch
could be due to the unsteady nature of the shear layer and the appearance of possible
coherent structures, which can not be captured by steady-state RANS models. All turbu-
lence models predict quite well the vertical acceleration due to the obstacle blockage at
the top of the bluff body.
The flow behind the D-section bluff body is highly turbulent. High values of k are lo-
cated essentially in the shear layer and vortex shedding area according to the PIV and
LES results (Fig.2.3) ; a similar k spatial distribution has been observed in the wake re-
gion of a cube [49, 72]. It is noteworthy that, for the PIV measurements, k has been
calculated using the fluctuating streamwise and vertical velocity components only. The
high k (k ∗ ≈ 0.001 − 0.005) region extends more or less the same distance for the PIV
(X/D ≈ 0.1 − 4), and both LES models (X/D ≈ 0.15 − 4) suggesting a good fit with
the PIV. This good agreement is likely due to both a direct calculation of the large- and
intermediate-scale eddy vortices and to the unsteady nature of the flow, which is accounted
for. The difference between the results obtained via the two LES approaches is not striking
apart from a minor discrepancy in the region X/D ≈ 1.5 − 2. The high-Reynolds number
k − model strongly overpredicts k just after the obstacle (X/D ≈ 0 − 1.8) with very high
values (k ∗ ≈ 0.005), which extend to the back wall of the bluff body (X/D ≈ 0 − 0.2).
This suggests that the dissipation rate is too low in this region. This is perhaps because
the estimated does not account for the rotational motion of the fluid particles and is not
correctly modeled in the near-wall region. The high Reynolds k − ω SST model is much
more dissipative than the k − model though they have comparable wall functions. The
low-Reynolds number k −ω SST is more dissipative than the LES models, yet has a similar
k distribution due a correct near-wall resolution. Therefore, the specific dissipation rate
ω is a better candidate compared to to determine flow structure and the characteristic
scale of turbulence. Moreover, the use of a production limiter improves the predictions
of the turbulence intensities (Fig.2.3,k ∗ ). However, the low-Reynolds number k − ω SST
model in its steady-state version does not capture the high turbulence levels during the
destabilization and the plunging of the shear layer as it is not able to predict the smallest
3D unsteady coherent structures in that flow region.
Figure 2.4 shows the distributions of the dimensionless longitudinal and vertical mean
velocities u∗ and v ∗ along the streamwise direction X/D. The results have been obtained
at two positions Y /D = 1 and Y /D = 0.5 in the median plane of the channel (where Y
is the vertical distance from the bed). At Y /D = 1, the high-Reynolds number models
completely fail to capture the u∗ distribution until X/D ≈ 2, likely because of the use
of a wall functions based on a logarithmic law of the mean velocity [63]. For X/D > 2
, the high-Reynolds models give very good agreement with the PIV results (outside the
shear-layer region). Conversely, the v ∗ profiles predicted by the high-Reynolds models are
in poor agreement with the experimental values over the whole range of X/D positions
considered here. For example, the maximum negative velocity, associated with the plun-
ging shear layer, is v ∗ =-0.175 instead of v ∗ =-0.25 in the experiments. Furthermore, the
position of minimum v ∗ is shifted closer to the lee of the obstacle. The use of wall functions
significantly affects the flow separation and the shear layer formation on the D-section trai-
ling edge and the model is unable to achieve a no-slip condition at the back wall of the
obstacle. The choice of or ω to determine the scale of turbulence has no noticeable in-
fluence on the velocity distributions for this particular position Y /D = 1. The agreement
between the LES results, low-Reynolds number k − ω SST and the PIV measurements is
generally good in terms of the streamwise velocity u∗ distribution (Fig.2.4a). A slight shift
towards higher magnitude u∗ is observed in the LES results and could be attributed to a
misrepresentation of the experimental 3D inlet flow conditions. At the channel entrance,
2D planar PIV measurements were obtained along the centerline, missing then the third
velocity component. So, a 2D PIV velocity profile and a turbulent intensity of 10% were
numerically imposed. In a previous study, Baetke et al. [7] demonstrated the influence
of inlet conditions on flow topology around a cube. The authors showed that a small va-
riation of the inlet boundary layer profile resulted in the appearance/disappearance of a
separation region on the top of the cube and a variation of the recirculation length be-
hind the cube. The low-Reynolds number k − ω SST is the only model able to capture
well the vertical velocity overshoot centered around X/D ' 0.4 (Fig.2.4b). The overshoot
represent the entrainment of the fluid from the recirculation zone by the shear layer. The
LES Smagorinsky and Wale models underestimate the flow acceleration in this region, and
provide a more extended recirculation zone. When the shear layer plunges to the bed, the
LES Wale conforms with the PIV measurements in terms of the peak value v ∗ ≈ −0.24
and peak position X/D ≈ 2.5, compared to v ∗ ≈ −0.25 and X/D ≈ 1.9, respectively. The
Smagorinsky model under and overestimates the peak value v ∗ ≈ −0.2 and its position
X/D ≈ 3.0, respectively. In general, the LES Wale provides a better overall performance
compared to the LES Smagorinsky. The Wale approach is based on a more appropriate
turbulent viscosity definition, which takes into account wall effects. The Smagorinsky mo-
del is less suited for wall bounded flows, the subgrid scale model being unable to reproduce
an asymptotic variation of the turbulent viscosity near the wall. As the flow near the wall
is not correctly modeled, the flow within the shear layer is also affected.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2.4 Distributions of the two main mean velocity profiles (a,c) u∗ and
(b,d) v ∗ along the streamwise direction X/D. Results obtained at (a,b) Y /D = 1
and (c,d) Y /D = 0.5 in the median plane of the channel.
Figure 2.4c,d presents the u∗ , v ∗ velocity distributions at Y /D = 0.5 (half way up the
obstacle). This vertical position in theory coincides with the center of the recirculation
region, as can be observed by the negative values of u∗ . The length of the recirculation
region at Y /D = 0.5 can be estimated by considering the position for which the u∗ is equal
to 0. From the PIV, the extent of the recirculation zone at Y /D = 0.5 is around X/D = 1.8.
The high-Reynolds number k − and k −ω SST models predict a recirculation length equal
to around X/D = 1.3. The low-Reynolds number k − ω SST model and the LES Wale
predict a recirculation length equal to around X/D = 2.5 and the LES Smagorinsky model
equal to around X/D = 2.8. While two high-Reynolds number models show an acceptable
estimation of the u∗ outside the shear layer region X/D > 2.6, they fail to accurately model
the vertical velocity component v ∗ distribution in the near wake. The wall functions used
don’t allow the flow to recover the no-slip condition for v ∗ on the back wall of the obstacle.
The k − ω SST model is based on the k − model in the core region of the flow and the
k − ω in the boundary layer. Using the k − ω SST model in its high Reynolds number
formulation on a coarser mesh makes the influence of the underlying k − ω model less
important. It is thus not surprising that the results are very close to those provided by
the high Reynolds number k − model, while remaining slightly better.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5 Distributions of the mean streamwise velocity component u∗ along
the spanwise direction 2Z/b. Results obtained at Y /D = 0.5 for two X/D loca-
tions : (a) X/D = 0.8 and (b) X/D = 1.6.
Figure 2.5 shows the distributions in the spanwise direction 2Z/b (where b = 0.15m
is the flume width) of u∗ at Y /D = 0.5 and two X/D locations, namely X/D = 0.8
and X/D = 1.6, these latter are inside the recirculation region. As presented in the
methodology, the PIV for the horizontal measurement plane (presented here) is 3C .As
the 3C PIV field of view is equal to 0.06 × 0.06 m2 and the flume width b is fixed to 0.15
m, the PIV profiles do not reach both side walls. As expected, there is a clear deficit in u∗
around 2Z/b ' 0 highlighting the recirculation zone behind the bluff body. By conservation
of mass, u∗ gets higher than 1 closer to the side walls as it accelerates around the obstacle.
The profiles u∗ predicted by the two high-Reynolds number models do not recover a zero
velocity at the side walls, which is inherent to the use of wall functions. Generally, the
high-Reynolds number k − ω SST and k − turbulence models predict acceptable velocity
distributions for both X/D positions. The LES and low-Reynolds number k−ω SST models
estimate more correctly the backward flow in the recirculation region behind the bluff body
at X/D = 1.6 (Fig.2.5b). Outside the wake region (|2Z/b| ≥ 0.25), the flow is accelerated
to reach a peak value u∗ ' 1.23. All models predict well the velocity distribution there at
X/D = 0.8 (Fig.2.5a) ; while at X/D = 1.6, the high-Reynolds number approaches better
predict velocities compared with the low Reynolds and LES models.
2.5.2 Coherent structures in the wake flow
The LES models in general compare more favorably with the experimental results (Fig.2.3).
This is likely because they are able to reproduce the unstationary 3D coherent structures
shed from the obstacle. In order to get a better appreciation for these structures, Figure
2.6 displays 2D views of the instantaneous vorticity around the D-section obtained by the
LES Wale and the LES Smagorinsky models. As can be seen, the flow topology does not
differ significantly between these two sub-grid scale models. The undulation of the shear
layer before the onset of the vortex shedding is more apparent in the Wale model, which
also predicts a slightly longer shear layer and so a delayed shedding position compared with
Smagorinsky model (Fig.2.6a,b). The most noticeable differences between the two subgrid-
scale models are more visible in the plane at Y /D = 0.5 (Fig.2.6c,d). The shear layers
produced on both sides of the bluff body destabilize much faster in the LES Smagorinsky,
resulting in a complex turbulent flow containing vortical structures at X/D ' 2.2. For the
LES Wale, the vortex interactions lead to similarly complex flow structure at X/D ' 3.5.
The vortical structures are advected mainly in the streamwise direction for the LES Wale,
whereas a spanwise velocity component also induces a motion of the coherent structures in
the transverse direction (Fig.2.6c,d) for the LES Smagorinsky. At Y /D = 1, the wake flow
modeled by the LES Wale is more stable, while vortex shedding is much more apparent
for the Smagorinsky model with a larger wake (Fig.2.6e,f).
Investigations of the temporal evolution of the vorticity field (not shown), revealed a
flapping of the shear layer which appears to be related to the interaction between coherent
structures within the recirculation region and the shear layer. In other words, some of the
coherent structures generated within the shear layer are injected in to the recirculation
region, causing a slow interaction with the underside of the shear layer and implying a
flapping movement. This flapping has already been reported by Castro and Robins [25]
for the flow behind a mounted cube and is observed here for both LES models.
The differences between the two subgrid scale models results may be explained by the
different turbulent viscosity definitions. As previously stated in Section 2.4.2, the invariant
used in the Smagorinsky model is not related to the rotation rate of the turbulent structures
contrary to the Wale model, which is based on the gradient velocity tensor. The Wale model
Figure 2.6 2D views of the instantaneous vorticity around the D-section body
obtained by the LES Smagorinsky (a,c,e) and the LES Wale (b,d,f) models.
(a,b) Side views in the mid-plane of the channel (2Z/b = 0) ; Top views at (c,d)
Y /D = 0.5 and (e,f) Y /D = 1.
is then more adapted to the present flow configurations where intense vortical structures
are observed in the wake of the obstacle. It is directly reflected in the maps of the turbulent
viscosity (not shown), which reveal that the Smagorinsky model is much more dissipative
than the Wale one.
The 3D complex vortices surrounding the D-section are visible using the Q-criterion pre-
sented in Figure 2.7, the isovalues are colored by the normalized averaged longitudinal
velocity (u∗ ) on top and side view. A horseshoe vortex is distinguishable in front of the
obstacle for both LES models, and is advected by the mean flow downstream. The horse-
shoe vortex breakdown at X/D ≈ 2 − 3 gives birth to smaller vortices, which merge with
the coherent structures produced within the shear layer. Hairpin vortices are visible in the
wake once the shear layer destabilizes. The horseshoe vortex breakdown and the shedding
phenomenon within the shear layer occur closer to the obstacle with the Smagorinsky
model at X/D ≈ 2 than the Wale model at X/D ≈ 3 (Fig.2.6a,b).
Compared to the central difference schemes used in the present case, LES Wale and Smago-
rinsky models calculations have also been performed using high-resolution 2nd order spatial
schemes (not shown here). The high resolution 2nd order schemes lead to an overprediction
Figure 2.7 Side and top views of the Q-criterion (Q=0.029) distribution over
the D-section obstacle colored by the normalized averaged longitudinal velocity
(u∗ ). Results obtained by the LES Wale (a,b) and the LES Smagorinsky (c,d)
models.
of the numerical dissipation, such that the model captures only the largest vortices. Given
the fair agreement between the experimental values and the results based on the LES Wale
model with central difference schemes, the following analysis and discussion focuses on the
LES Wale model results.
Figure 2.8 presents the power spectral density (PSD) of the u and v velocity components
(autospectra) in m2 /s extracted from the PIV and LES Wale at four X/D locations in
the shedding region (Y /D = 0.5, 2Z/b = 0). The instantaneous velocities obtained by
PIV and LES were acquired at frequencies of 500 Hz and 357 Hz, respectively, for a total
recording time of 6.4 s and 20 s, respectively. In the wake, the PIV u and v component
velocity autospectra contain similar amounts of energy, and in general contain less energy
over all frequencies than the LES velocity spectra. The magnitudes of energy observed via
PIV and LES compare well with energy extracted on the wake flow in a gravel-bed river
[113]. The discrepancy between the energy presented in the PIV and LES spectra at high
and low frequencies is perhaps due to sampling frequency (500 Hz, 357 Hz), duration (6.4
s and 20 s) and sampling volume. The sampling volume of the PIV and the LES is around
4 × 10−9 m3 and 3 × 10−12 m3 , respectively, so the LES autospectra likely contains more
energy from the small turbulent structures due to spatial averaging over the sampling
volume [112]. With distance downstream from the bluff body, increased energy is observed
at higher frequencies - especially noticeable in the LES results and is likely related to
(a) X/D = 0.8 (b) X/D = 1.6
(c) X/D = 2.4 (d) X/D = 3.0
Figure 2.8 PSD distributions (m2 /s) of the mean velocity components u and
v downstream of the D-section obstacle at four positions X/D. Comparison
between the results obtained by PIV and the LES Wale model at (Y /D = 0.5,
2Z/b = 0).
the breakdown/cascade of shedding vortices. Portions of the velocity spectra, for both the
PIV and LES follow a −5/3 slope in the suggested inertial subrange, in agreement with
the theoretical value reported by Kolmogorov [56]. By using the Strouhal number St =
0.2 [126], the predicted shedding frequency is 1.4 Hz. At this frequency, no distinct peak
in energy can be observed on the PIV and LES spectra for the different X/D positions.
The fact that no distinct peak in the energy spectra is observed is due to bottom wall
effects. As the D-section is wall mounted, the wake flow is a 3D, chaotic and non-periodic
due to the interactions between the coherent structures released from the shear layer, the
horseshoe vortex and the wall. The vortices deform by impacting the bottom wall, which
leads to a reduction in flow periodicity. For that reason, no distinguishable peak is observed
compared to a periodic case where the obstacle is suspended. This is supported by Rubin
and McDonald [102] who showed the spectral signature of flow around a bed-mounted,
horizontal cylinder.
2.5.3 POD analysis

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) was applied to the velocity field obtained from
the LES Wale model to determine the different energetic structures composing the flow
around the D-section bluff body. As described in detail in [46], the POD technique de-
composes a velocity or scalar field into a sum of weighted, linear, basis functions or modes
φk (~x). The basis functions are weighted by time coefficients ak (t). A velocity field U (~x, t),
can be decomposed as follows :
∞
X N
X
k k
U (~x, t) = Ū (~x) + a (t)Φ (~x) ' Ū (~x) + ak (t)Φk (~x) (2.8)
k=1 k=1
where Ū (~x) denotes the time-averaged part of the velocity field. The velocity field may
be approximated by a finite number N of modes. The Snapshot POD method proposed
by Sirovich et al. [109] was used since the number of spatial locations Nxy in the velocity
field is greater than the number Nt of instantaneous snapshots.
The POD theorem is equivalent to the matrix eigenvalue problem :
CAk = λk Ak (2.9)
where C is the covariance or the spatial correlation matrix of the velocity field and λk and
Ak are its eigenvalues and eigenvectors, respectively. The C covariance matrix writes :
1
C= (Su SuT + Sv SvT ) (2.10)
Nt
The velocity fluctuations u0 and v 0 calculated with the LES Wale in the middle plan behind
the bluff-body (Fig.2.3) were recorded into Nt × Nxy matrices of snapshots Su and Sv . SuT
and SvT are the transposed matrices of Su and Sv , respectively. The basis functions Φku (x)
and Φkv (x) representing the coherent structures are obtained as follows :
Φku (~x) = SuT Ak (2.11)

Φkv (~x) = SvT Ak (2.12)
The time coefficients ak (t) are then given by :
ak (t) = Su Φku (~x) + Sv Φkv (~x) (2.13)
Knowing the basis functions Φku (~x) and Φkv (~x) and the coefficients ak (t), the velocity field
U (~x, t) may be reconstructed using Equation (2.8).
Figure 2.9 represents the contribution of the first 200 POD modes to the turbulence kinetic
energy k. The calculation of the k is based on the both basis functions Φku (~x) and Φkv (~x).
The first 100 modes capture more than the 90% of the k contained within the flow. The
first POD mode taken by it self contributes to 14% of the k, whereas the individual
contribution from higher modes is lower and decreases rapidly. Above 40 POD modes, the
individual contribution is less than 1%, a comparable distribution was observed by Taifour
et al. [116] for a geometry-induced turbulent separated bubble (TSB), where the first mode
contributes to 31% of the k, and above 30 POD modes the individual contribution is less
than 2%.
Figure 2.9 Relative and cumulative energy contributions of the POD modes
obtained by the LES Wale model.
The first sixth normalized Φk=1:6 (~x) modes are represented in figure 2.10. The first POD
mode is dominated by the shear layer and some of the wake region, which are the most
energetic (14% of the k) physical mechanisms. From the second to the sixth modes, the
coherent structures appear clearly, localized in distinct zones. A harmonic behavior can
be distinguishable by passing from one mode to another. This harmonic behavior was also
Figure 2.10 First six POD modes from (a) to (f) extracted from the instanta-
neous LES Wale results.
observed in the first sixth POD modes of a cylinder wake flow by Qingshan et al. [96].
A velocity field reconstruction based on the basis functions Φku (~x) and Φkv (~x) was performed
to further show the flow structures associated with the different modes : 1) using the first
mode ; and 2) using the second to the tenth modes. For comparison, the time-averaged
velocity field Ū (x) was subtracted from the reconstructed velocity field such that coherent
structures could be more clearly discerned. The reconstruction is given by :
N2
X
Ũ (~x, t) − Ū (~x) = ak (t)Φk (~x) (2.14)
k=N1
where N1 and N2 represent the first and last modes considered.
The velocity field reconstructed shows that the first POD mode represents well the shear
layer mechanism ; while the velocity field reconstruction obtained by summing equation
2.14 over modes N1 = 2 to N2 = 10 shows only the coherent part of the field (Fig.2.11)
and contains more than 40% of the k. Thus, the reconstruction of the field over a limited
number of modes allows to separate energetically the main physical mechanisms of the
flow, namely the shear layer and the shedding coherent structures.
Figure 2.11 Velocity field reconstructed (m/s) using : (a) only the first mode ;
(b) modes 2 to 10. Results obtained by the LES Wale model.
Figure 2.12 Contour map of longitudinal velocity field reconstructed Ũ /U0

using the first mode with the (a) minimum and (b) maximum time coefficients.
Results obtained by the LES Wale model.
Figure 2.12 shows the longitudinal velocity field reconstructed Ũ based only on the first
mode (eq.2.8), and normalized by the mean inlet velocity U0 . This reconstruction uses
specific values of the time coefficient in the range [a1min (t),a1max (t)]. This technique has
been successfully used by [48, 117] for separated flows and elucidates the temporal flow
variation. The presented velocity fields can be considered as a conditional average in
time between the expanded recirculation region obtained for a1 (t) = a1min (t) and the
contracted one obtained for a1 (t) = a1max (t). Figure 2.12 shows that the reattachment of
the overlying boundary layer fluctuates temporally between X/D = 3.2 to X/D = 4.0.
This pulsating recirculation dynamic is clearly visible on the instantaneous fields obtained
either through PIV or the LES models (not shown). Between the two extreme values of
the time coefficients (i.e.,a1 (t) = 0), the reconstructed velocity field is approximately the
average velocity field presented in Fig.2.3.
2.6 Conclusion
A numerical benchmark of the most commonly used two-equation RANS models, as well
as, two LES based on the Smagorinsky and Wale subgrid scale models has been performed
to analyse the turbulent flow dynamics behind a D-shaped bluff body. PIV measure-
ments have served as reference data. The flow is characterized by a bulk Reynolds number
ReH = 17448 and an aspect ratio (relative roughness) h/H = 0.25.
All models predict a recirculation region behind the obstacle, as well as, the formation of
a shear layer at the top of the D-section, which destabilizes and plunges towards the bed.
In general, two main conclusions can be drawn from the RANS models approaches : (i)
the specific dissipation rate ω is a better candidate to determine the scale of turbulence
compared to the standard dissipation rate (Fig.2.3) ; (ii) modelling the near-wall regions
around the obstacle using the low-Reynolds number model enables a better prediction of
the horseshoe vortex (negative v ∗ region) at the foot of the obstacle (stoss side) and avoids
the over prediction of v ∗ along the back wall of the obstacle. While none of the selected
turbulence closures provide velocity and turbulence kinetic energy distributions in perfect
agreement with the PIV results at all locations in the wake, the LES Wale has shown to
perform slightly better.
For both LES Smagorinsky and Wale subgrid scale models, a horseshoe vortex is observed
at the stoss side of the D-section, which is advected downstream along the sides of the body
and interacts with the coherent structures released by the shear layer in the wake. These
interactions lead to smaller vortices in the wake. The horseshoe vortex breakdown and the
shedding phenomenon occur farther from the obstacle with the Wale model than the Sma-
2.6. CONCLUSION 31
gorinsky model. No distinct shedding frequencies could be observed via the autospectra of
the u and v velocity components for different X/D positions in the wake, yet the PIV and
the LES autospectra follow the theoretical −5/3 slope in the inertial subrange. The POD
analysis revealed that the first and the most energetic mode represents the shear-layer and
main recirculation dynamics, while the other modes account for more localized coherent
structures within the wake flow. The u component velocity reconstruction based on the
first mode showed a pulsating dynamic in the recirculation region.
In general, the LES Wale model results gave a better agreement with the PIV experiments
than the Smagorinsky model. Given that the LES Wale model is less computationally ex-
pensive than the standard LES Smagorinsky model, the Wale model offers a fair compro-
mise between model accuracy and CPU time. We believe that it would be feasible to use
the LES Wale model on subset fishway configurations (e.g., one or two pool weir sections)
to characterizes the instantaneous turbulence structures. This characterization could aid
in the design of fishway structures and eventually give insight on the interactions between
turbulence and fish behaviour.
Acknowledgements
All calculations have been done using the computational resources of the Compute Canada
network, which is here gratefully acknowledged. The authors would like to acknowledge
Professor J. Favier from Aix-Marseille University for fruitful discussions about the POD
analysis.
CHAPITRE 3
Numerical modeling of a Darrieus Horizontal

Axis shallow-Water Turbine
3.1 Avant-propos
mécanique.
génie civil.
Date de soumission : 22 Août 2018
Revue : Journal of Energy
Titre français : Modélisation numérique d’une hydrolienne de type Darrieus à axe hori-
zontal pour des applications en rivière
Contribution au document : Ce deuxième article représente la deuxième étape vers la
simulation du problème complet. Il consiste de simuler l’écoulement autour d’une hydro-
lienne de rivière de type Darrieus à axe horizontal complètement immergée. Une approche
monophasique URANS 2.5 D est couplée à un modèle de turbulence de type k-ω SST.
Dans cet article, on sélectionne le meilleur profil de pale et le nombre de pales optimal afin
d’optimiser les performances de cette turbine. D’autre part, il apporte une compréhension
détaillée sur la formation et le lâcher des structures tourbillonnaires autour des pales de
la turbine.
Résumé français : Pendant des décennies, les hydroliennes de type Darrieus ont dé-
montré leur avantage par rapport aux autres hydroliennes dans la production d’énergie
hydroélectrique. La plupart des études ont tendance à être effectuées sur une configura-
tion à axe vertical, tandis que peu examinent la configuration à axe horizontal. Dans cet
article, nous effectuons une analyse CFD qui étudie plusieurs profils de pale afin d’amé-
liorer l’efficacité de la turbine Darrieus à axe horizontal à trois pales dans des conditions
d’écoulement réalistes. Un profil de couche limite et un domaine confiné sont imposés pour
modéliser des conditions d’écoulement fluvial. Quatre profils de pales sont étudiés pour
33
CHAPITRE 3. NUMERICAL MODELING OF A DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS
34 SHALLOW-WATER TURBINE
différentes vitesses de rotation. L’approche actuelle basée sur le modèle de turbulence k-ω
SST est tout d’abord validée par rapport aux résultats expérimentaux existants publiés
dans la littérature et révèle une erreur inférieure à 13 %. Le profil de pale S1046 améliore
le coefficient de puissance Cp de 14% par rapport au profil NACA0018. Le profil S809
présente les performances les plus faibles dans les régions de décrochage dynamique et de
transition. Pour des vitesses de rotation élevées, le profil FXLV152 produit le coefficient de
puissance le plus élevé. L’influence du nombre de pales est également quantifiée. Les confi-
gurations S1046 à quatre et deux pales permettent de produire les coefficients de puissance
les plus élevés dans les régions de vitesses de rotation faibles et élevées, respectivement.
3.2. ABSTRACT 35
3.2 Abstract
For decades, Darrieus water turbines have shown their advantage over other water turbines
for providing hydro power. Most studies tend to be conducted on a vertical axis configu-
ration of the turbine while few examine the horizontal axis configuration. The horizontal
axis configuration allows the Darrieus turbine to produce power in shallow water. In this
paper, we undertake a CFD analysis that investigates blade profile alternatives to improve
the efficiency of the horizontal three-blade Darrieus turbine under more natural flow condi-
tions. An inlet boundary layer profile and a confined domain are imposed to model more
realistic river conditions. We consider four blade profiles under various tip-speed ratios.
The present model based on an unsteady k − ω SST turbulence closure associated with a
very fine grid mesh is first validated against existing experimental results published in the
literature and shows less than 13% discrepancy. The S1046 blade profile is shown to im-
prove the power coefficient Cp by 14% compared to the NACA0018 blade profile. The S809
blade profile exhibits the lowest performance in the dynamic stall and transition regions.
For high tip-speed ratios, the FXLV152 profile produces the highest local efficiency power
coefficient. The influence of the blade number is also quantified. The four and two bladed
S1046 configurations achieve the highest power coefficients in the low and high tip-speed
ratio regions, respectively.
3.3 Introduction
The total world energy consumption will rise from 17622 TW in 2017 to 21616 TW in 2040,
and is expected to reach more than 294000 TW in 2060 [100]. In 2016, fossil fuel energy
represented more than 84.7% of the total world energy consumption [75]. The human de-
pendency on fossil fuels causes many environmental problems including oil spill, acid rain,
air pollution and climate change. So the need for new renewable, ecological and durable
sources of energy has become crucial. Several green energy sources have been developed :
solar, wind, and water. Hydropower is a promising alternative as energy can be produced
continuously, without relying too much on short term climatic conditions such as for solar
energy or wind. Moreover, hydropower systems can be operated for several decades due
to a longer life cycle and low failure rates [52].
Hydrokinetic water turbines can be classified according to the orientation of the rotor axis
relative to the direction of the mean water flow. In a river, when the mean water direc-
tion is parallel to the turbine rotation axis, the water turbine is called axial or horizontal.
The vertical water (cross flow) turbine is that wherein the rotation axis is perpendicular
to the flow direction. In situ vertical axis hydro turbines (VAHTs) are popular and have
received much interest due to their ability to extract power independently of the water
flow direction (a necessity for tidal/marine deployment) [123] and of the flow intensity
[106]. VAHTs can as well operate in a larger range of flow conditions than horizontal tur-
bines [83]. VAHTs can be divided into two types, namely the Savonius and the Darrieus.
The Savonius turbine operates under a differential drag between the buckets. However,
the Darrieus turbine is based on lift force. The Darrieus turbines are more widely used
[36, 114] due to their ability to provide maximum power over a large tip-speed ratio range
[40].
Experimental and numerical approaches have been done to investigate the flow around
vertical Darrieus turbines and to determine their efficiency. Gorle et al. [37] investigated
numerically and experimentally a 3 bladed Darrieus VAHT under confined flow (bounded)
conditions. Numerically, 2D unsteady RANS simulations were performed using the k − ω
SST turbulence model, which were compared to phase locked 2D-2C PIV measurements.
The authors validated the instantaneous vortex dynamics and the global performance of
VAHT with a discrepancy of 6% for low tip-speed ratio λ values [1 − 2], and highlighted
the correlation between the coherent structures around the blades and the rotor torque.
McLaren etal. [80] studied numerically the correlation between the tip-speed ratio λ (or
TSR) and the flow physics on a 3 bladed Darrieus vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
using 2D URANS simulations and the k − ω SST turbulence model. A good fit was obser-
ved between the numerical and experimental force coefficients with an error of 15%. The
authors found that low λ results in complex flow/blade interaction mechanisms and dyna-
mic stall causing vortex shedding, vortex impingement and reduction in power production.
The solidity effect on Darrieus VAWT performance was studied by Sabaeifard et al. [103]
numerically using 2D URANS simulations with a standard k − turbulence model. An
experimental assessment of the numerical calculations was performed in a low speed open
circuit wind tunnel. A discrepancy of 10% was observed by the authors between the nu-
merical and experimental power coefficients. The authors also showed that the turbine
power coefficient Cp was maximized with a solidity within the range [0.3 − 0.5]. However,
above this range, Cp decreases drastically. Lee and Lim [64] showed also that increasing
the solidity [0.4 − 0.8] leads to Cp improvement specially for low λ [1.2 − 2]. On the other
hand, an inverse relationship was observed between solidity and Cp at higher values of λ
[2.4 − 3.2]. The effect of the blade number N was also discussed by Sabaeifard et al. [103].
For 2 blades, Cp reaches high values at high λ and for 4 blades, the opposite is observed.
The three bladed configuration recorded the highest power coefficient in comparison with
the 2 and 4 bladed cases. Different studies have been conducted in order to improve the
Darrieus VAWT performance [11, 65, 84, 85, 107]. Mohamed [84] tested numerically 20 dif-
3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS WATER
TURBINE (DHAHT) 37
ferent symmetric and non-symmetric airfoils. The author conducted 2D simulations using
the standard k − turbulence model and a mesh of around 95000 cells. He found that the
use of symmetrical airfoils delays the stall, and allows the wind turbine to operate over
a wider range of operating conditions. Moreover, the S1046 airfoil increases the power
coefficient by 28% over the common NACA 0018 airfoil. Many other experimental and
numerical studies have been done to investigate different Darrieus VAWT mechanisms :
dynamic stall [1, 31, 32, 62], self starting characteristics [4, 6, 47, 101, 122], fluctuating
and skewed inflow conditions [11, 16, 27, 125].
In contrast, Darrieus horizontal axis hydro turbines (DHAHTs) have evoked little interest
among researchers to date [76–79]. The DHAHT was introduced by McAdam et al. [79]
as a variant of the vertical Darrieus turbine, with the advantage to extract power in low
depth flow. McAdam et al. [76, 78] investigated experimentally the effect of Froude num-
ber F r on the power coefficient Cp for a 6 straight-bladed DHAHT in an open channel.
The increase of the Froude number F r [0.10 − 0.17] leads to an improvement of Cp . The
authors observed an overpass of the Betz’s limit when F r = 0.10. The authors also found
that by reducing the solidity and increasing the rotor blockage ratio, Cp could be further
increased. The study of McAdam et al. [77] tested experimentally two configurations of
DHAHTs and showed that truss configuration achieves a 0.72 lower Cp than a straight
configuration.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the present work is the first to present a detailed
investigation on the influence of blade profile and number on performance for a DHAHT.
Numerically, different turbine configurations/blade profiles are considered to improve the
global performance of an existing DHAHT. A 2.5D URANS approach is used based on a
k − ω SST turbulence closure and an unstructured fine mesh. A boundary layer profile and
a confined domain are imposed to model more realistic open channel flow conditions. The
numerical approach is validated using an experimental Cp curve obtained for a Darrieus
VAWT found in the literature. The main performance coefficients and the flow topology
(trailing/leading edge vortices) around the blades are compared between four blade pro-
files. Finally, the influence of the blade number is investigated.
3.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Wa-

ter Turbine (DHAHT)
The DHAHT geometry used in this study was based on an actual full scale 3-blade river
turbine currently in use. From this base, we adjusted the blade profile and curvature
in order to be more generally applicable. Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1 provide the general
specifications of the modeled DHAHT. The solidity σ is calculated according to Araya

et al.’s definition [5] as follows :
Nc
σ= (3.1)
πD
Where N is the number of blades, c the blade chord and D the rotor diameter. In the
present case, σ = 0.13, 0.2, 0.26 for N= 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
Tableau 3.1 Main geometrical and operating parameters for the flows through
the DHAHT.
Rotor diameter D [m] 0.45
Rotor width Wrotor [m] 0.025 (2.5D simulation)
Number of blades N [-] 2 to 4
Blade profile S1046, S809, FXLV152, NACA0018
Blade chord length c [m] 0.094
Rotor solidity σ [-] 0.13, 0.2, 0.26
Tip-speed ratio λ [-] 1.8 to 5
Water speed U0 [m/s] 1.58
Reynolds number ReD [-] 711000
Froude number F r [-] 0.56
Figure 3.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT.
The profiles of the 4 blades used in our study are presented in Fig. 3.2and are a) NACA0018,
b) S1046, c) S809 and d) FXLV152. The NACA0018 was used by Idénergie inc. and the
3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS WATER
TURBINE (DHAHT) 39
three latter profiles were selected following an airfoil comparison by [84] of a Darrieus
VAWT. Of the 20 profiles investigated in the authors study, these three profiles produced
the highest power coefficient Cp . The geometrical features and the mean inlet water speed
(U0 = 1.58m/s) are fixed for the four configurations. However, the tip-speed ratio (TSR)
or λ is varied within the range λ = [1 − 5], in order to evaluate the turbine performance.
The λ is the ratio between the tip blade speed and the free stream water velocity :
ΩD
λ= (3.2)
2U0
where Ω corresponds to the turbine rotation rate (angular velocity) (rad/s).
Figure 3.2 2D cross-sections of the four blade profiles.
The power coefficient Cp and the torque coefficient CT were used to compare the perfor-
mance of the four blade profiles. These two coefficients are estimated as follows :
TΩ
Cp = 1 (3.3)
2
ρAU03
T
CT = 1 (3.4)
4
ρADU02
where A (A = πDWrotor ) is the swept area (m2 ) of the rotor, ρ is the water density
(kg.m−3 ) and T is the instantaneous rotor torque (N.m). The overbar indicates time
averaging. All the water properties are evaluated at 20◦ C. Cp is a ratio of the mechanical
power obtained by the turbine over the water power available, while CT is the ratio of the
torque generated by the turbine over a theoretical value derived from the mean flow.
For the current study, the ratio between the rotor diameter and the flow depth is D/H =
0.55. This elevated ratio causes an acceleration of fluid trough the turbine, which influences
the Cp and CT coefficients. The value of U0 should be adjusted by the solid blockage
correction factor b [20]. The corrected velocity Uc is calculated as follows :
Uc = (1 + b )U0 (3.5)
1D
b = (3.6)
4H

2.5D unsteady-state Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) calculations were used
to model the flow around the DHAHT.

A sketch of the computational domain is shown in Figure 4.2. It is divided into two main
regions : the rotor domain and the rest of the channel. The rotor domain corresponds to the
rotating turbine region, while the outer region is stationary and represents the surrounding
flow. The turbine of diameter D = 0.45 m is composed of N straight blades and rotates
counterclockwise. The domain length and height are fixed to x = 9.5D and y = 1.8D
(mean flow depth of H = 0.8 m), respectively. The center of the rotor domain is located at
x = 2.5D from the inlet and the distance between the bed and the bottom of the rotating
domain, known as the turbine stem height, is 0.64D. The width of the domain in the
lateral (z ) direction is z = 25 mm (2.5D calculations), to satisfy the software constraints.
Figure 3.3 2D sketch of the computational domain with its main dimensions
and the boundary conditions.Note that for the current numerical experiments
the turbine rotates in the counter-clockwise direction.
3.5.2 Numerical method and turbulence closure

All calculations have been performed using the software CFX ANSYS 18.1 based on a
finite-volume method. For the spatial and temporal discretizations, a second-order high
resolution advection scheme, and a second-order Backward-Euler scheme with an implicit
time-stepping scheme were used, respectively. The second-order high resolution scheme
was selected to avoid numerical dissipation. The velocity-pressure coupling was overcome
using a Rhie Chow fourth-order coupling algorithm, which guarantees that the dissipation
term vanishes rapidly under mesh refinement. The gradients were evaluated through the
Green-Gauss Cell-Based method.
The Shear Stress Transport k − ω (k − ω SST) turbulence model developed by Menter
[82] is a commonly used two-equation eddy viscosity model and was used herein in its
low-Reynolds number formulation as the turbulence closure model for the flow around the
DHAHT. The k − ω SST model combines the robust formulation of the k − ω Wilcox
model [127] in the near wall region and the k − ε away from the wall. A blending function
ensures a smooth transition between the two models. The resulting model exhibits then
less sensitivity to free stream conditions, while the shear stress limiter helps the k−ω model
avoiding excessive turbulent kinetic energy levels near stagnation points. Bardina et al.
[10] rated the k − ω SST model as the most accurate model for aerodynamic applications.
Different authors [28, 37] obtained very satisfactory results compared to experimental data
using this turbulence closure for modeling the flows across a Darrieus turbine. Moreover,
in our study, we successfully validated the k − ω SST model against the experimental Cp
results of Castelli et al. [24], as it will be shown hereafter.
3.5.3 Boundary conditions and numerical parameters

The main boundary conditions are shown in Figure 4.2. The velocity profile at the inlet of
the domain was estimated using the law of the wall (log-law) with rough-bed conditions
(roughness height, ks = 0.05 m) (Fig. 3.4). A rough-bed logarithmic profile was used so
that the numerical experiment would be more representative a river flow conditions where
the turbine is meant to be installed. The inlet velocity profile leads to an average (time
and space) streamwise velocity of U0 = 1.58 m/s.
A simple pressure outlet condition was selected, but 2 other conditions (i.e., outflow and
convective) were verified and gave similar results. A no slip condition was imposed on
the turbine blades and channel bed, while a free slip condition was imposed on the top
(upper boundary) of the channel to represent the water free-surface. This simplified free-
surface boundary condition was used, given that modeling the free-surface deformation is
0.8
0.6
Y/H [-]
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u/u0 [-]
Figure 3.4 Boundary layer velocity profile imposed at the inlet.
not the focus of the current study and would require extensive computation resources. A
translation periodicity is applied in the lateral, z, dimension on the channel sidewalls.
An interface is set between the rotor and the outer domain as a ’transient rotor/stator’
condition, which accounts for flux continuity and transient interaction effects between
the rotor and outer domain. This interface condition showed a good agreement with PIV
results for an impeller-diffuser-volute interaction in a centrifugal fan [81] and rotor-stator
interactions in an axial turbine [34].
An unstructured fine grid mesh has been generated using the commercial software Centaur
(Austin, USA) (Fig. 3.5). The mesh is composed of tetrahedral elements in the outer region
and rotor domain, with 20 prismatic layers around the blades. A stretching factor of 1.15
was used to avoid any numerical dissipation of possible coherent structures. The mesh
was refined in the wake of the rotor to capture the wake flow vortices and close to the
walls. For the 3 bladed configuration, the total number of elements is approximately 8.34
million cells and the maximum value of the wall coordinate in the whole domain satisfies
max(y + ) < 0.9 (see Table 4.2). A grid sensitivity analysis was performed, using two coarser
meshes of 2 and 4.1 million cells. Despite the 1% discrepancy of the Cp and CT between
the 8.35 and 4.1 million cell meshes, the finer mesh was selected to model accurately the
flow around the blades.
The selected time step for all simulations corresponds to the time that the DHAHT needs
to rotate by 20 (2π/180). The choice of the time step was based on the former work by
Figure 3.5 2D views of the numerical mesh distribution of a) entire domain,

b) rotor domain, and c) turbine blade
.
Tableau 3.2 Mesh grid parameters for the three-bladed configuration.

Grid type Unstructured Tetrahedral/Prismatic
Total Number of Cells 8.34 x 106
Total Number of Nodes 3.12 x 106
Number of Cells in the Rotor domain 6.14 x 106
Number of Cells in the Outer domain 2.20 x 106
Stretching factor 1.15
Maximum wall coordinate (y+ ) 0.9
Ma et al. [69] who investigated the power performance of a high solidity VAWT. Ma et al.
[69] tested three time steps corresponding to the time that their VAWT needed to rotate
by 2π/90 (∆t1 ), 2π/180 (∆t2 ) and 2π/360 (∆t3 ). They got identical results using ∆t2 and
∆t3 , such that ∆t2 has been selected in the present case for its good trade-off between
accuracy and computational cost.
The calculations were initialized using converged steady-state RANS calculations and were
run using the Mammouth cluster MP2 provided by Calcul Québec. The CPU time for the
URANS calculations to obtain a single λ value for a given configuration was approximately
10 days using 50 processors (AMD Opteron 6172). Given that approximately 8 TSR values
were obtained per configuration (i.e., blade profile or number), the total calculation time
was over 480 days. In order to shorten this time, multiple calculations with different TSR
values were run simultaneously using Mammouth. More than 10 rotations of the turbine
were necessary for a converged solution, which was attained when 1) the total torque
deviation between two subsequent revolutions was below 0.5% ; 2) all residuals were lower
than 10−8 ; and 3) the mass imbalance is lower than 10−6 . The power and torque coefficients
are then averaged over two additional periods after reaching the convergence.
3.6 Validation of the flow solver
The validation of the numerical model was achieved by comparing with the published
experimental data of Castelli et al. [24] for a VAWT. The authors studied numerically and
experimentally a three-bladed open H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine under a 9 m/s wind
speed. The blade profile was a NACA 0021. The rotor diameter and the blade chord were
fixed to 1030 mm and 85.8 mm, respectively. For our comparison, similar grid criteria and
resolution discussed in Section 4.5.3 were applied to the Castelli et al.’s Darrieus VAWT
geometry. Contrary to Castelli et al. [24], the blockage effect was taken into account in
the present case. Figure 4.5 shows the Cp distribution for different λ. The current study’s
model is compared with numerical/experimental curves obtained by Castelli et al. [24],
and other CFD results by [41, 84]. [41, 84] conducted 2D URANS calculations using a
k − turbulence closure and standard wall functions associated with an unstructured mesh
composed of 153200 [41] and 85000 − 95000 [84] cells elements. In comparison with the
CFD results from previous authors [24, 41, 84], the present CFD results show an excellent
agreement with the experiment values of Castelli et al. [24]. The location of maximum CP
around λ = 2.6 is modeled correctly, while the highest discrepancy with the experiments
is about 13% for λ = 2.5.
0.6
0.5
Power Coefficient, Cp [-]

0.4
0.3
0.2
Experimental (Castelli et al., 2011)

CFD (Castelli et al., 2011)
0.1
Present CFD model
CFD (Mohamed et al., 2018)
CFD (Mohamed, 2012)
0
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
TSR, [-]
Figure 3.6 Performance curve of a three-blade H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine

versus λ. Comparison with former CFD [24, 41, 84] and experimental results
[24].
This good agreement with the published experimental data is due to the accuracy of
the low-Reynolds number formulation of the k − ω SST model [28, 37] and the high
spatial resolution especially in the blade region where the average wall coordinate is around
y + = 0.87. The comparison with Castelli et al. [24] confirms the ability of the present model
to accurately predict the complex flows around a VAWT and provides a validation on the
mesh configuration and size used for Darrieus turbine modeling, which was then used to
investigate the flow around the DHAHT.
The corrected velocity Uc is used hereon for the calculation of Cp and CT and is equal
to 1.8 m/s, which represents an increase of 14% compared to the depth averaged inlet
velocity U0 . The results presented below have been obtained for fixed conditions of the
incoming flow characterized by a Reynolds number ReD = Uc D/ν = 711000 and a Froude
√
number F r = Uc / gH = 0.56. The origin of the axes (x = y = z = 0) is located at the
rotor center.
3.7.1 Comparison between blade profiles

In this subsection, we investigate the effect of turbine blade profiles on CP and CT values
and the characteristics of flow over the 4 blade profiles. The number of blades on the
turbine is fixed at N = 3, which corresponds to a rotor solidity σ = 0.2 (see Eq.4.1).
The S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 straight profiles are compared over a wide
range of λ (λ = [1.8 − 5]). Beyond this range, the power coefficient Cp is usually very
small as attested by preliminary tests. Figure 3.7 shows the distributions of the averaged
power coefficient CP of the selected blade profiles. Their shape is quite comparable to
that obtained for the Darrieus VAWT studied numerically by Maitre etal. [70], yet the
operating λ range is larger for wind turbines ([2 − 10]) due to the difference in working
fluid density. As with the Darrieus VAWT, three regions can be distinguishable in all four
blade profiles [19] :
1. Dynamic stall with high angle of attack (λ < 2) ;
2. Transition region where an equilibrium occurs between the viscous and dynamic stall
effects (2 < λ < 3) ;
3. High TSR region (λ > 3) where the drag forces are dominant.
0.35
S1046
0.3 S809
FXLV152
0.25
NACA0018
0.2
C P [-]
0.15
0.1
0.05
-0.05
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
TSR, [-]
Figure 3.7 Comparisons of the averaged power coefficient CP versus λ for the
S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade
turbine (N = 3).
In the range λ = [1.8−2], the S1046 and NACA0018 profiles provide the highest CP values
compared to the S809 and FXLV152. Maximum Cp is produced for all profiles over the
range of λ = [2.1 − 3]. The S1046, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles peak at a values of
CP = 0.33, 0.30, 0.31 at λ = 2.3, 2.6, 2.4, respectively, while the S809 profile, has a lower
maximum Cp value (CP = 0.25) occuring at a higher λ (λ = 3).The poorer performance
on the S809 is surprising as in Darrieus VAWT applications, the S809 profile produced
one of the highest Cp = 0.5 for σ = 0.1 [84]. The difference with our study, is essentially
due to the density and the solidity variation. In higher values of λ (λ > 4), the FXLV152
profile provides slightly higher CP values compared with the other 3 profiles investigated
and a slight shift is observed between the different profiles. The negative Cp values beyond
λ = 5 are unrealistic as they reflect that the DHAHT provides power to the flow.
The distributions of the averaged torque coefficient CT obtained for the different profiles
are presented in Figure 3.8. The values of CT for each profile follow similar trends as those
discussed above for CP . The S1046 and S809 profiles produce respectively the maximum
(CT = 0.15) and minimum (CT = 0.09) values, respectively. For comparison in Darrieus
VAWT applications (σ = 0.1), the NACA0018 and FXLV152 profiles produced the highest
(CT = 0.07) and lowest (CT = 0.05) values [84], respectively. As for the CP distributions,
the S809 profile exhibits the overall lowest CT . The maximum CT peaks occur at λ = 2.1
for the S1046, NACA0018 and FXLV152 profiles. However, for the S809, this peak is shifted
to λ = 2.6. A shift was already observed for the power coefficient as shown in Figure 3.7.
0.16
S1046
0.14 S809
FXLV152
0.12
NACA0018
0.1
0.08
C T [-]
0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.02
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
TSR, [-]
Figure 3.8 Comparison of the averaged torque coefficient CT for the S1046,
S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade turbine
N = 3.
The instantaneous torque coefficient CTi obtained for the four blade profiles for one com-
plete turbine rotation is presented in Figure 3.9. The origin of the azimuth position (θ = 0◦ )
corresponds to the top blade position (12 o’clock). Qualitatively, the four blade profiles
exhibit similar curves. In general, the curves of CTi of our study compare well with pre-
vious research (e.g., the vertical Darrieus VAHT study of Gorle et al [37]). During the
first quarter of rotation (θ = [0◦ − 90◦ ]), the torque coefficient CTi increases to reach a
maximum as the blade comes near in perpendicular with the oncoming flow. The increase
in CTi is related to the tangential force rise, similar to what is observed for a Darrieus
VAHT and VAWT. The peaks of CTi for the S1046 (CTi ,max = 0.231) and NACA0018
(CTi ,max = 0.225) profiles are reached at θ = 90◦ . However, the S809 (CTi ,max = 0.210) and
FXLV152 (CTi ,max = 0.165) profiles peak earlier for θ between 75◦ and 80◦ and is due to
increased flow separation and stall along the pressure side (inner side) of these two profiles
(see Table 3.3). The second quarter of rotation (θ = [90◦ − 180◦ ]) is characterized by a fast
CT decay, due to the tangential force loss by a complete stall of the four profiles. In the
second half of rotation (θ = [180◦ − 360◦ ]), the torque coefficient obtained for the different
profiles increases again after a minimum CTi ,min = −0.03 at θ = 200◦ . The maximum
CTi ,max ' 0.02 − 0.03 at θ = 330◦ is due to the blade coming parallel with oncoming flow.
0.25
S1046
S809
0.2
FXLV152
NACA0018
0.15
C T [-]
0.1
i
0.05
-0.05
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Azimuth position, [0]
Figure 3.9 Comparison of the instantaneous torque coefficient CTi of one blade
over one rotation (degrees) between the S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018
profiles. Results obtained for the 3 blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8.
The instantaneous vorticity fields around the four profiles for different azimuthal positions
are presented in Table 3.3. The investigation of the flow around the different profiles
allows a better understanding of the curves shown in Figure 3.9. The vorticity fields are
extracted for λ = 1.8. As discussed previously, at θ = 90◦ , the flow is separated along the
pressure side of the S809 and FXLV152 profiles and leads to loss of CT (Fig.3.9). At this
azimuthal position, the NACA0018 and S1046 profiles have only a small separation region
near the trailing edge and thus produced their CP,max . At θ = 150◦ , the flow around the
four profiles is completely separated, thus all profiles are stalled. A leading edge vortex is
clearly distinguishable along the pressure side of the FXLV152 and S809 profiles. On the
contrary, a long shear layer is visible along the inner side of the S1046 and NACA0018
profiles, without any apparent rolling. The presence of the leading edge vortex or the
shear layer along the pressure side leads to a negligible torque production CT ≈ 0 (see
Fig.3.9). At θ = 210◦ , a vortex is apparent in the trailing edge region of the four profiles.
This vortex corresponds to the leading edge vortex which is convected along the chord.
The S809 profile’s vortex occupies a larger region in comparison with the other cases. At
θ = [270◦ − 330◦ ], the flow reattaches along the pressure side for the four profiles, leading
to a re-increase of the torque coefficient CT (Fig.3.9).
The polar distribution of the total instantaneous CTi , for different tip speed ratios λ is
presented in Figure 3.9. The total torque coefficient CTi is obtained by summing the
contribution of the three blades. The four profiles have a comparable polar distribution,
which corresponds to a 3 lobed rosette. The three lobes are located at near θ = 90◦ , 210◦
and 330◦ . The 3 lobed rosette distribution was already observed for a 3 blade Darrieus
VAHT by Maitre et al. [70], and for a Darrieus VAWT by Mohamed [84]. By increasing
λ, the 3 lobed rosette distribution rotates slightly for the S809 and FXLV152 profiles and
CTi values for all profiles decrease consistent with the CTi curve presented in Figure (3.8).
The shift for the S809 profile is on the order of θ = 10◦ between λ = 1.8 and λ = 3.1. This
angular phase shift is probably due to a delay in the stall angle caused by increasing the
flow chord Reynolds number Rec .
The distribution in the vertical direction Y /H of the dimensionless averaged streamwise

velocity U ∗ (U ∗ = U/U0 ), at four X/D locations downstream of the rotation center, namely
X/D = 1, X/D = 2, X/D = 3 and X/D = 4 for N = 3 and λ = 1.8 is shown in Figure
3.11. These X/D locations were selected in order to investigate wake evolution along the
streamwise (longitudinal) direction for the different blade profiles. As presented in Figure
4.2, the Darrieus rotor is located between Y /H = 0.4 and Y /H = 0.9. In the very near
wake (at X/D = 1), the wake width corresponds approximately to the rotor diameter
(Y /H = [0.4 − 0.9]) with U ∗ = 0.35. As the downstream distance from the rotor increases,
the velocity deficit increases due to flow diffusion. The width of the wake increases and a
Tableau 3.3 Instantaneous vorticity fields for θ = 90◦ , 150◦ , 210◦ , 270◦ , 330◦ .
Comparisons between the S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles for
the 3 blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8.
S1046 S809 FXLV152 NACA0018
θ = 90◦
θ = 150◦
θ = 210◦
θ = 270◦
θ = 330◦
90 90
120 0.25 60 120 0.25 60
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
180 -0.05 0 180 -0.05 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(a) λ = 1.8 (b) λ = 2.3
90 90
120 0.25 60 120 0.25 60
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
180 -0.05 0 180 -0.05 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(c) λ = 3.1 (d) λ = 4.0
Figure 3.10 Polar distributions of the instantaneous torque coefficient CTi . Re-
sults obtained for the 3 blade turbine N = 3.
hump/convex-shaped curve appears after the downstream location X/D = 3. At X/D = 4,

the minimum velocity in the wake is located at Y /H ' 0.6−0.7 with a velocity of U ∗ = 0.1.
At the bottom of the turbine (at Y /H = 0.4), and at a downstream distance of X/D = 1,
the flow accelerates to U ∗ = 1.6 due to rotor obstruction of the flow. The traces of the
vortices shedding from the different profiles are revealed by ripples in the velocity profile
at Y /H = 0.5 (X/D = 1). This shedding corresponds to the downstream convection of the
leading edge vortex developed for θ = [150 − 210◦ ] (see Table 3.3). The same phenomena
have been observed in the wake flow of a Darrieus VAWT by Bianchini et al. [17]. The
difference in the ripple distribution (Y /H = 0.5, X/D = 1) between the different profiles, is
probably associated to the difference in the leading edge vortex patterns around θ = 210◦ .
1 1
S1046 S1046
0.8 S809 0.8
S809
FXLV152 FXLV152
0.6 NACA0018 0.6 NACA0018
y/H
y/H
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
* *
U U
(a) X/D = 1 (b) X/D = 2
1 1
S1046 S1046
0.8 0.8
S809 S809
FXLV152 FXLV152
0.6 NACA0018 0.6 NACA0018
y/H
y/H
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
U* U*
(c) X/D = 3 (d) X/D = 4
Figure 3.11 Distributions of the mean streamwise velocity U ∗ along the vertical
direction Y /H for the 3 blade turbine N = 3 and λ = 1.8. Results obtained for
four X/D locations : (a) X/D = 1, (b) X/D = 2, (c) X/D = 3 and (d) X/D = 4.
3.7.2 Influence of the blade number N

The influence of the blade number N on the performance of the DHAHT was investigated
using the S1046 profile only, as it exhibited the best overall performances in the previous
analysis (i.e., Cp = 0.33). Three blade numbers, N = 2, 3 and 4 were modeled. The mesh
was built based on the same criteria as the previous analysis with N = 2, 3, and 4 having
4.2, 6.2 and 8.3 million cell elements in the rotor domain, respectively. The outer domain
for all three cases had an additional 2.2 million cell elements. In addition, the maximum
values of the wall coordinates in the whole domains satisfy max(y + ) < 0.92 (N = 2),
max(y + ) < 0.9 (N = 3) and max(y + ) < 0.89 (N = 4).
The averaged power Cp and torque CT coefficients for the three assessed blade numbers are
presented in Figure 3.12. In general, with increasing blade number, N , maximum CP and
CT values occur at lower values of λ and the peak values of CP are reduced. For example,
the configuration with 2 blades produces the highest CP (CP = 0.34) which occurs at
λ = 3. The 4 blade turbine has a CP = 0.29 at λ = 2.
0.35 0.2
2 Blades
3 Blades
0.25
0.15 4 Blades
0.15
0.1
C P [-]
C T [-]
0.05
0.05
-0.05
2 Blades
3 Blades
0
-0.15 4 Blades
-0.25 -0.05
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
TSR, [-] TSR, [-]
(a) (b)
Figure 3.12 Influence of the blade number N on the averaged (a) power CP
and (b) torque CT coefficients.
The configurations with 2 and 4 blades allows to reach maximum CT values at higher and
lower values of λ, respectively. The 3 bladed turbine has a peak CP = 0.32 at λ = 2.3.
Contrary to the results shown here, the study by [39, 103] on a Darrieus VAWT showed
that between N = 2, 3 and 4, the highest CP was produced with a 3 bladed rotor.
The polar distributions of the total instantaneous torque coefficient CTi for different λ
values is shown in Figure 3.13. The total coefficient CTi is obtained by summing the
contribution of the N blades for each configuration.
90 90
120 0.3 60 120 0.3 60
0.2 0.2
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0 0
180 -0.1 0 180 -0.1 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(a) λ = 1.8 (b) λ = 2.3
90 90
120 0.3 60 120 0.3 60
0.2 0.2
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0 0
180 -0.1 0 180 -0.1 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(c) λ = 3.1 (d) λ = 4.0
Figure 3.13 Influence of the blade number N on the polar distributions of the
instantaneous torque coefficient CTi for four tip speed ratios λ.
3.8. CONCLUSION 55
For the 2 and 4 bladed rotor, a dipole and a circular distribution are obtained, respectively,
while with the 3 blades configuration, a 3 lobed rosette is observed. For λ = 1.8, the
maximum CTi ' 0.3 value is produced for the dipole distribution and is located around
θ = 90◦ and 270◦ . On the contrary, for N = 4, an homogeneous CTi distribution is
insured, with a lower maximum torque value CTi = 0.16 for λ = 1.8. The shape of the
polar distribution for the three configurations are independent of the tip speed ratio.
3.8 Conclusion
This paper reported the first numerical simulations of a DHAHT, using an unsteady RANS
simulation based on the k − ω SST turbulence model. A parametric study was underta-
ken in order to improve the turbine performance, covering four blade profiles, namely the
S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018 profiles. The streamwise flow conditions were cha-
racterized by fixed Froude number F r = 0.56 and Reynolds number ReD = 711000.
The numerical approach was validated against the experimental CP curve of a Darrieus
VAWT equipped with three NACA 0021 blades. A maximum discrepancy of 13% compared
to the experimental values of Castelli et al. [24] has been obtained. This small discrepancy
shows a marked improvement in comparison to the previous numerical results of Castelli
et al. [24] and Mohamed et al. [41, 84], highlighting the importance of well resolving the
flow in the near blade regions.
For the three blade DHAHT, the best performance (CP = 0.33) was obtained by the S1046
profile for λ = 2.3. In the dynamic stall region (low tip speed ratios), the NACA0018 and
S1046 profiles achieved the highest CP and CT values. For high λ values (λ > 3.5), the
FXLV152 had the highest CP values. Poor performance was with the S809 profile over the
whole range of λ values considered here. The low performance of the S809 profile may be
mainly attributed to the early flow separation along the pressure side at θ = 90◦ , followed
by the development of a strong leading-edge vortex at θ = 150◦ which occupies a large
flow region. For the 4 profiles tested, vortex shedding traces were observed in the near
wake region (X/D = 1) as ripples in the U ∗ profiles at y/H = 0.5. An increase of the
velocity deficit and in the wake width was noticed downstream.
The DHAHT sensitivity to blade number (N = 2, 3 and 4) was performed. An inverse
relationship between blade number and CP and CT was observed. Smaller blade numbers
were as well associated with higher λ values. The best performance was obtained by the
2 blade turbine where maximum CP = 0.34 at a λ = 3. The 3 bladed rotor offers the best
overall compromise (homogeneous distribution) comparing to the configurations with 3
and 4 blades.
In general, the 3 straight-bladed DHAH based on the S1046 profile is the suitable configu-
ration for those river flow conditions (F r, ReD ). A 3D LES simulation of the whole DHAHT
would be interesting to investigate in detail the development of the leading edge vortex
and the different 3D vortical structures around the stem. Accounting for the deformation
of the free surface and the possibility that the turbine may be not entirely submerged are
two research perspectives to model even more realistic flow conditions.
Acknowledgements
network, which is here gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for their financial
support (grant 514264-17 with the company Idénergie).
CHAPITRE 4
Multiphase modeling of the free surface flow

through a Darrieus horizontal axis shallow-
water turbine
4.1 Avant-propos
génie civil.
mécanique.
Date de soumission : 25 Janvier 2019
Revue : Journal of Renewable Energy
Titre français : Modélisation multiphasique de l’écoulement à surface libre à travers une
turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal dans l’eau peu profonde.
Contribution au document : Ce troisième article contribue à mettre en évidence l’in-
fluence de la modélisation de la surface libre en utilisant l’approche VOF sur les per-
formances de l’hydrolienne de type Darrieus à axe horizontal. Cela permet, en outre, de
comprendre l’impact de la turbine sur la déformation de la surface libre et par la suite
l’influence de cette dernière sur les structures tourbillonnaires générées dans le sillage des
pales.
Résumé français : Les turbines de type Darrieus à axe horizontal ont montré leur ca-
pacité à fournir de l’énergie hydroélectrique dans des rivières peu profondes. L’étude des
performances de la turbine de type Darrieus et de son interaction avec la surface libre
est de grande importance ce qui fait l’objet de cette étude numérique. La surface libre
est modélisée en utilisant un solveur multiphasique basé sur la méthode du volume de
fluide (VOF) qui est associée au modèle de turbulence k-ω SST. Un profil de couche limite
développée est imposé à l’entrée du domaine. Deux configurations de submersion de la
turbine sont testées en variant le niveau d’eau : partiellement immergée (configuration
57
CHAPITRE 4. MULTIPHASE MODELING OF THE FREE SURFACE FLOW
58 THROUGH A DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS SHALLOW-WATER TURBINE
1) et complètement immergée (configuration 2). Le solveur a été validé par rapport aux
données expérimentales disponibles dans la littérature pour une éolienne de type Darrieus
à axe vertical à trois pales et pour une expérience de rupture de barrage. L’immersion
totale de la turbine de type Darrieus entraîne une amélioration de 36.8 % du coefficient
de puissance CP par rapport à la configuration 1. Pour des vitesses de rotation élevées, le
nombre de Froude en aval de la turbine augmente. La quantité de mouvement extraite par
la turbine de type Darrieus est également quantifier. La quantité de mouvement maximale
est extraite lorsque la turbine de type Darrieus est complètement immergée
4.2. ABSTRACT 59
4.2 Abstract
Previous research on the Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbines (DHAHT) have
shown their ability to provide hydro-power in shallow rivers. Investigation of DHAHT
performance and interactions with the free surface are of great importance and are inves-
tigated numerically in the present work using a multiphase CFD solver. The free surface
is modeled using the volume of fluid (VOF) method associated with an unsteady k − ω
SST turbulence closure. Fully developed boundary layer conditions are imposed at the
inlet. Two submergence configurations are considered by varying the water level : partially
submerged (configuration 1) and fully submerged (configuration 2). The flow solver has
been carefully validated against experimental data available in the literature for a three-
blade vertical axis Darrieus wind turbine and a dam break experiment. Total immersion
of the DHAHT leads to an improvement in the power coefficient CP by 36.8% compared
to configuration 1. For high tip-speed ratios, the Froude number downstream the DHAHT
is observed to increase. The momentum extracted by the DHAHT from the flow is also
quantified. The submerged DHAHT extracts the most momentum at high tip-speed ratios.
4.3 Introduction
Delivering electricity to remote consumers is an often a costly and arduous endeavor. As
an alternative, the idea of self-generating green power is becoming attractive. Different
natural sources of energy are available depending on the consumers’ location and weather
conditions : solar, wind and water. For locations close to rivers, hydropower offers some
advantages over solar and wind sources by offering continuous power generation. Aside
from dams, hydropower may be produced by placing a water turbine (Darrieus, Savonius,
axial turbine . . . ) [3, 87] directly in a river. The performances of river water turbines are
dependent mainly on the water depth, velocity, and turbulent intensity, which may vary
with time.
Horizontal- (HAHT) and Vertical-Axis Hydrokinetic Turbines (VAHT) (Savonius, Dar-
rieus, pelton) are widely used to extract power from water currents. Different experimental
and numerical studies have been done in order to quantify the effect of the free surface on
the turbine’s performance. Nishi et al. [89, 90] investigated numerically the performance
of a 3 bladed HAHT under variable free surface conditions in a shallow water channel.
For model validation, the authors placed the HAHT in an open channel with a Froude
√
Number (F r = U/ gH)) equal to 0.415, and recorded the output power using a torque
sensor. Numerically, 3D unsteady RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes) multiphase
and single-phase calculations were performed using the k − ω SST turbulence model. The
Volume Of Fluid (VOF) method was used to model the free surface in the multiphase ap-
proach. In the single-phase runs, the flow was assumed to be uniform and the free surface
was considered to be a free slip wall. An excellent agreement was observed between the
multiphase approach and the experimental power coefficient CP , with a discrepancy of 5%
[89, 90]. However, the single-phase approach overpredicted CP and the torque coefficient
CT by a factor of 2. The multiphase approach resulted in an increase and decrease in the
water level, upstream and downstream of the turbine, respectively. Yan et al. [130] also
studied numerically the influence of the distance between the free surface and a 3 bladed
HAHT on the generated power. 3D unsteady RANS runs using the level set method were
performed to model the multiphase flow around the HAHT. The authors validated the
CP and CT values for deep (F r = 0.72) and shallow (F r = 1.22) depths against Bahaj
et al.’s [8] experimental values, and obtained a very good agreement (discrepancy of 3%).
For deep tip immersion, the authors observed an increase of CP and CT values compared
to shallow tip immersion. The same tendency was observed under the influence of waves,
where the CP (resp. Ct ) values increased from 0.3919 (resp. 0.8513) in shallow tip im-
mersion to 0.4144 (resp. 0.8794) in deep tip immersion. Contrary to Nishi et al. [89, 90],
Yan et al. [130] noticed that their single-phase model correctly reproduced the CP and CT
coefficients in the deep tip immersion. Predictably, in shallow tip immersion where the free
surface effect is important, the single-phase model failed to reproduce the hydrodynamic
mechanisms. The influence of the distance between the free surface and the turbine on
the CP and CT coefficients was also investigated experimentally for a 2 bladed Savonius
horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine (SHAHT) (Nakajima et al. [87]). The authors pla-
ced the SHAHT in an open-channel flume with a Reynolds number (ReD = (U0 D)/ν) of
Re = 1.1 × 105 and F r = 0.4. The torque generated by the SHAHT was recorded using a
torque meter for different rotor relative submergence values, and two rotation directions,
clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW). A clearance ratio (HG /D) was introduced
to characterize the rotor position, and is defined as the ratio of the distance rotor-bottom
HG and the rotor diameter D. When the SHAHT rotates in the CCW direction with
flow from left to right, a decrease in the CP values within the range [0.25 − 0.21] was
observed by increasing the clearance ratio from 0.2 to 1.1. However, for the CW rotation
direction, the CP coefficient increases from 0.2 to 0.23. The CCW rotation allows to reach
the maximum CP = 0.25 for a tip-speed ratio (λ = ΩD/(2U0 )) λ = 1.1. The water level
downstream the SHAHT decreases as the rotor is closer to the free surface, and a maxi-
mum difference of 50 mm between the upstream and downstream water levels was reached
for HG /D=1.08. McAdam et al. [76, 78] investigated experimentally the effect of F r on
the power coefficient Cp for a 6 straight-bladed Darrieus Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic
4.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS
HYDROKINETIC TURBINE (DHAHT) 61
Turbine (DHAHT) in an open-channel flow. An improvement of CP from 0.7 to 0.9 is

observed by increasing the Froude number F r from 0.1 to 0.17. Moreover, an overpass of
the Betz’s limit was recorded for F r = 0.1. A comparable behavior was also observed for a
6 truss-bladed DHAHT by [77]. Many experimental and numerical studies have been done
on HAHT [9, 97, 118] and VAHT [37, 44, 58] but without introducing the free surface effect.
In contrast, numerically modeling the interactions between the free surface and the DHAHT
have not been considered so far. In a former paper [14], the current authors investigated
numerically different blade profiles and blade numbers on a DHAHT, in order to maximize
CP and CT coefficients in a water channel without a free surface. The 3 blade configura-
tion associated with the S1046 profile was selected as it led to a 10% improvement of the
CP and CT values. All the runs were performed using a single-phase model without free
surface.
The present study, goes further to model more realistic river conditions, 2.5 D URANS
multiphase (air/water) runs using the VOF method and the k − ω SST turbulence closure
are conducted, in the present paper, on a 3 bladed DHAHT. The DHAHT is confronted
in the river conditions to water depth variations, in order to investigate its influence on
the turbine’s performance, two configurations are tested : (i) 3/4submergence of the rotor
diameter ; and (ii) submerged rotor. The flow solver is first validated against experimen-
tal results for a Darrieus VAWT (Vertical Axis Wind Turbine) and the breaking of a
dam. The values of CP , CT and the flow topology are analyzed for both configurations. A
performance comparison between the single/multiphase model is also performed for the
submerged DHAHT. Finally, a particular emphasis is put on the rotor wake flow for the
two water levels.
4.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Hy-

drokinetic Turbine (DHAHT)
The 3 bladed DHAHT geometry used in this study is based on the former work of Benchikh
Le Hocine et al. [14]. Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1 provide the general specifications of the
modeled DHAHT. The solidity σ is calculated according to Araya et al.’s definition [5] as
follows :
Nc
σ= (4.1)
πD
where N = 3 is the number of blades, c the blade chord and D the rotor diameter. In the
present case, σ = 0.2.
Tableau 4.1 Main geometrical and operating parameters for the flows through
the DHAHT.
Rotor diameter Drotor [m] 0.45
Rotor width Wrotor [m] 0.025 (2.5D simulation)
Number of blades N [-] 3
Blade profile S1046
Blade chord length c [m] 0.094
Rotor solidity σ [-] 0.2
Tip-speed ratio λ [-] 1.4 to 5.7
Water speed U0 [m/s] 1.58
Turbulence intensity I [%] 10
Figure 4.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT.

4.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DARRIEUS HORIZONTAL AXIS
HYDROKINETIC TURBINE (DHAHT) 63
In order to investigate the effect of the free surface on the performance of the DHAHT,
two configurations were tested by changing the water levels HW and keeping the turbine
position constant. In configuration 1, three quarters of the DHAHT are submerged (HW =
0.65 m), and in configuration 2, the DHAHT is completely submerged (HW = 0.82 m).
For the two configurations, the geometrical features and the mean inlet water velocity
(U0 = 1.58m/s) are fixed. However, the tip-speed ratio (TSR or λ) is varied within the
range λ = [1.4 − 5.7]. The coefficient λ is the ratio between the tip blade speed and the
free stream water velocity defined as :
ΩD
λ= (4.2)
2U0
where Ω corresponds to the turbine rotation rate (angular velocity) (rad/s).
The power coefficient Cp and the torque coefficient CT are used to compare the performance
for the different configurations. They are estimated as follows :
TΩ
Cp = 1 (4.3)
2
ρAU03
T
CT = 1 (4.4)
4
ρADU02
where A (A = πDWrotor ) is the swept area (m2 ) of the rotor, ρ is the water density
(kg.m−3 ) and T is the time averaged rotor torque (N.m). All the water properties are
evaluated at 20◦ C. Cp is a ratio of the turbine’s mechanical power over the water power
available, while CT is the ratio of the generated turbine’s torque over a theoretical value
derived from the mean flow.
The ratio between the rotor diameter and the flow depth HW = 0.65 m (respectively
HW = 0.82 m) is D/H = 0.7 (respectively D/H = 0.55). In order to correct the elevated
values of the Cp and CT coefficients due to the influence of the blockage, the value of U0
should be adjusted by considering the solid blockage correction factor b [20]. The corrected
velocity Uc is calculated as follows :
Uc = (1 + b )U0 (4.5)
1D
b = (4.6)
4H

2.5D multiphase unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) calculations are
performed to model the flow around the DHAHT for two different water depths. In addi-
tion, for configuration 2 a comparison is made between the single and multiphase results.

A sketch of the computational domain is shown in Figure 4.2. The computational domain
is divided into two main regions : the rotor domain and an outer region for the rest of
the channel. The rotor domain corresponds to the rotating turbine region, while the outer
region is stationary and represents the surrounding flow (air and water). The turbine of
diameter D = 0.45 m is composed of 3 straight blades and rotates counterclockwise. The
profile of the 3 blades is a symmetric S1046. The domain length and height for the different
configurations are fixed to L = 17.5D and H = HW + Ha = 4D, respectively. The center
of the rotor domain is located at x = 6D from the inlet and the distance between the bed
and the bottom of the rotating domain, known as the turbine stem height, is 0.64 D. The
width of the domain in the lateral (z ) direction is z = 25 mm (2.5D calculations).
Figure 4.2 2D sketch of the computational domain with its main dimensions
and the boundary conditions. The turbine rotates in the counter-clockwise di-
rection. Note that the water level HW and the height of the air layer Ha are
fixed to HW = 0.65 m, Ha = 1.14 m and HW = 0.82 m, Ha = 0.97 m for
configurations 1 and 2, respectively.
4.5.2 Numerical method and turbulence closure

All calculations are performed using the software CFX ANSYS 18.1 based on a finite-
volume method. For the spatial and temporal discretizations, a second-order high resolu-
tion advection scheme, and a second-order Backward-Euler scheme with an implicit time-
stepping scheme are used, respectively. The second-order high resolution scheme avoids
excessive numerical dissipation. The velocity-pressure coupling is overcome using a Rhie-
Chow fourth-order coupling algorithm, which guarantees that the dissipation term vanishes
rapidly under mesh refinement. The gradients are evaluated through the Green-Gauss Cell-
Based method.
The volume of fluid (VOF) method is selected to model the free surface (air/water inter-
face). The VOF method is capable of accurately reproducing the free surface deformation
for different configurations [67, 68, 86, 91]. Moreover, the VOF method has been validated
against the experimental results of Koshizuka et al. [57] for the breaking of a dam with
1% of discrepancy, as it will be shown hereafter. The VOF method consists of explicitly
introducing a volume fraction α for water and air. The conservation property must be
satisfied in each cell of the domain by the two phases’ volume fractions as follows :
2
X
αi = 1 (4.7)
i=1
where the indexes 1 and 2 correspond to air and water respectively. The physical properties
of the fluid are obtained by volume phase averaging :
ρ = αρwater + (1 − α)ρair (4.8)
µ = αµwater + (1 − α)µair (4.9)
where ρ and µ are the density and viscosity, respectively. α corresponds to the volume
fraction of the primary phase, herein water (as an example α = 1 corresponds to 100% of
water within the cell). A single set of momentum and volume fraction continuity equations
is solved for both phases by introducing α in the whole domain. As a result, a shared
velocity field for water and air is obtained. A more detailed description of the VOF method
can be found in [45] .
The Shear Stress Transport k−ω (k−ω SST) turbulence model developed by Menter [82] is
a commonly used two-equation eddy viscosity model and is used herein in its low-Reynolds
number formulation. The k − ω SST model combines the robust formulation of the k − ω
Wilcox model [127] in the near wall region and the k − ε away from the wall. A blending
function ensures a smooth transition between the two models. The resulting model exhibits
less sensitivity to free stream conditions, while the shear stress limiter helps the k−ω model
avoid excessive turbulence kinetic energy levels near stagnation points. Bardina et al. [10]
rated the k − ω SST model as the most accurate model for aerodynamic applications.
Different authors obtained very satisfactory results compared to experimental data using
this turbulence closure for modeling the flows across a Darrieus turbine [28, 37] or the
turbulent flow over a mounted D-shaped bluff body in a water channel [14]. Moreover, a
previous study by the current authors [14], successfully validated the k − ω SST model
against the experimental Cp results of Castelli et al. [24].
4.5.3 Boundary conditions and numerical parameters
The main boundary conditions are shown in Figure 4.2. The inlet corresponds to the
plane (x = 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ HW , z). The water volume fraction is fixed to α = 1 and the
velocity profile is estimated using the law of the wall (log-law) with rough-bed conditions
(roughness height, ks = 0.05 m) on the bottom plane. A rough-bed logarithmic profile
is used to mimic more realistic river flow conditions. The inlet velocity profile leads to
an average (in time and space) streamwise velocity of U0 = 1.58 m/s. The boundary
layer profile height at the inlet varies for each water level condition, in order to maintain
the same value of U0 in all cases. An opening condition (fixed atmospheric pressure) is
imposed for air in the plane (x = 0, HW ≤ y ≤ H, z) as well as at the top of the domain
(x, y = H, z). A pressure outlet condition is imposed in the plane (x = L, 0 ≤ y ≤ H, z).
Preliminary runs showed that outflow or convective conditions at the outlet led to similar
results. A no slip condition is imposed on the turbine blades and the channel bed. On the
lateral channel sidewalls, translation periodicity is applied. For the single phase runs, the
free-surface is replaced by a free slip wall condition, following the set-up carried out in
[14].
Between the rotor and the outer domain, an interface is set as a ’transient rotor/stator’
condition, which accounts for flux continuity and transient interaction effects between the
rotor and the outer domain. This interface condition has led to very satisfactory results
compared to PIV results [34, 81].
An unstructured fine grid mesh was generated using the software Centaur (Austin, USA)
(Fig. 4.3a). The mesh is composed of tetrahedral elements in the outer region and rotor
domain, with 20 prismatic layers around the blades (Fig. 4.3b). A stretching factor of
1.15 is used to avoid any numerical dissipation of possible coherent structures. The mesh
is refined in the rotor wake to capture the wake flow vortices, close to the walls and
around the initial free surface along the whole domain. The total number of elements is
approximately 11.6 million cells and the maximum value of the wall coordinate in the
whole domain satisfies max(y + ) < 0.87 (see Table 4.2). For the single phase approach the
total number of elements is around 8.34 million cells (more details are available in [14]).
A grid sensitivity analysis was performed, using two coarser meshes of 6.1 and 8.4 million
cells. The maximum discrepancy between the 8.4 and 11.6 million cell meshes remains
4.6. VALIDATION OF THE FLOW SOLVER 67
lower than 0.8% on the Cp and CT values. Yet the finer mesh has been then selected to
model accurately the turbulent flow around the turbine.
Tableau 4.2 Mesh grid parameters for the three-bladed configuration.

Grid type Unstructured Tetrahedral/Prismatic
Total Number of Cells 11.59 x 106
Total Number of Nodes 3.42 x 106
Number of Cells in the Rotor domain 6.53 x 106
Number of Cells in the Outer domain 5.06 x 106
Prismatic layers along the blades 20
Stretching factor 1.15
+
Maximum wall coordinate (y ) 0.87
The selected time step for all runs corresponds to the time that the DHAHT needs to
rotate by 2◦ (2π/180). This choice is based on the former work by Ma et al. [69] who
investigated the power performance of a high solidity vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT).
Ma et al. [69] tested three time steps corresponding to the time that their VAWT needed
to rotate by 2π/90 (∆t1 ), 2π/180 (∆t2 ) and 2π/360 (∆t3 ). They got identical results using
∆t2 and ∆t3 , such that ∆t2 has been selected in the present case for its good trade-off
between accuracy and computational cost.
The calculations are initialized using a converged steady-state multiphase RANS calcu-
lation and are run using the Mammouth cluster MP2 provided by Calcul Québec. The
CPU time for the multiphase URANS calculations at a given λ value is approximately 20
days using 90 processors (AMD Opteron 6172). Approximately 8 TSR values are obtained
per configuration. More than 25 rotations of the turbine are generally necessary to get
a converged solution. Convergence is reached when i) the total torque deviation between
two subsequent revolutions gets below 0.5% ; ii) when all residuals are lower than 10−8 ;
and iii) when the mass imbalance is lower than 10−6 . The power and torque coefficients
are then averaged over three additional revolutions after reaching convergence.
4.6 Validation of the flow solver

The validation of the multiphase numerical approach is performed in two steps : i) valida-
tion of the multiphase VOF method ; ii) validation of the turbulence closure model k − ω
SST.
The validation of the VOF model is achieved by comparing the present predictions with the
experimental data of Koshizuka et al. [57] for the breaking of a dam. The authors studied
the fall of a water column under the influence of gravity inside a reservoir. Initially, the
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.3 (a) Example of a 2D view of the mesh distribution for configuration
1 (F r = 0.625) ; (b) 2D views of the numerical mesh distribution in the rotor
region and around the blades.
0.9
0.8
0.7
H*
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 Present CFD VOF model

Experimental (Koshizuka et al., 1995)
0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t*
(a) (b)
Figure 4.4 VOF validation against the experimental data of Koshizuka et al.
[57]. (a) Normalized evolution of the water level H ∗ versus time t∗ . (b) 2D sketch
of the configuration.
4.6. VALIDATION OF THE FLOW SOLVER 69
water column in their experiments was supported on the side by a vertical plate, and
is then drawn up rapidly at t = 0 s. The free surface location is recorded regularly to
track the evolution of the water column. Numerically, the experimental configuration has
been reproduced using an unstructured mesh with 1.2 million cells. In order to capture
accurately the evolution of the water column fall versus time, a time step of 0.012 s is
selected. Figure 4.4 shows the normalized evolution of the water level H ∗ versus time t∗
p
(t∗ = t g/H). The water level is normalized by the initial water column height (H = 0.292
m). An excellent agreement is observed regarding the temporal evolution of H ∗ between
the VOF method and the experimental data, with an average discrepancy of 0.6% which
remains within the experimental error bar. The maximum error of 1% was observed at
t∗ = 0.7.
0.6
0.5
Power Coefficient, Cp [-]
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Experimental (Castelli et al., 2011)

CFD (Castelli et al., 2011)
Present CFD model
0
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
TSR, [-]
Figure 4.5 Performance curve of a three-blade Darrieus vertical axis wind tur-
bine (VAWT). Comparison between the present predictions and the experimen-
tal results of Castelli et al. [24].
The turbulence closure model k − ω SST has been validated in a former work [14] against
the experimental data of Castelli et al. [24] for a three-blade VAWT. The authors studied
numerically and experimentally the H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine under a 9 m/s wind.
The rotor diameter and the blade chord were fixed at 1030 mm and 85.8 mm, respectively,
and the blade profile is a NACA 0021 profile. Figure 4.5 shows the Cp distribution for
different tip speed ratios λ. In the present case, contrary to Castelli et al. [24], the blockage
effect is taken into account. The present CFD results show an excellent agreement with the
experiment values of Castelli et al. [24], and a more accurate prediction of the maximum
CP ’s location around λ = 2.6 compared to Castelli et al.’s numerical results [24]. The
highest discrepancy with the experiments is about 13% for λ = 2.5. This good agreement
with the published experimental data is due to the increased accuracy of the low-Reynolds
number formulation of the k − ω SST model [28, 37] and the high spatial resolution
especially in the blade region where the average wall coordinate is around y + = 0.87.
The comparisons with the experimental results of Koshizuka et al. [57] and Castelli et al.
[24] show the ability of the present model to accurately predict the free surface deformation
and the turbulent flow around rotating blades, respectively. Therefore, the present model
can be used confidently to investigate the interactions between the free surface and the
DHAHT.
4.7.1 General performances
In this subsection, the global performances of the DHAHT in terms of CP and CT coeffi-
cients are compared for configurations 1 and 2. In addition, the influence of the free surface
is investigated by reproducing configuration 2 using a single-phase model, for which the
free surface is replaced by a slip wall condition. The values of CP , CT and λ are calculated
by two different ways : (i) including a correction due to the blockage effect through the
corrected velocity UC ; (ii) without correction by using the average (in time and space)
streamwise velocity U0 . The CP and CT values with correction are more realistic, due
to the high blockage ratio in configurations 1 (0.7) and 2 (0.55). The without correc-
tion values are included here for comparison as several previous published studies present
incorrected values which can lead to an overestimation of CP and CT (e.g., [76]). The
incoming flow is characterized by a Reynolds number based on the DHAHT’s diameter
√
ReD = Uc D/ν = 80.1×104 (resp. 80.7×104 ) and a Froude number F r = Uc / HW g = 0.62
(resp. 0.55) for configuration 1 (resp. 2).
Figure 4.6 shows the distribution of the averaged power coefficient CP for the different
configurations. For configurations 1 and 2, the CP and λ values are calculated with (w/)
and without (w/o) using the blockage correction. Only corrected values are presented for
the single-phase (slip wall) approach, because CP exceeds 1 if the correction is not applied.
The different curves have the same general shape, where the three standard main regions
are distinguishable : dynamic stall, transition and high λ regions. The same distribution
was also observed by Hashem et al. [41] for a DVAWT. The application of the correction
factor shifts the curves towards lower λ values and decreases CP max by 45% and 32% for
configurations 1 and 2, respectively. The curve displacement is due to a higher UC value
compared to U0 .
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
CP [-]
-0.1
Slip wall
-0.2 Configuration 1 w/ correction
Configuration 1 w/o correction
-0.3 Configuration 2 w/ correction
-0.4
-0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
[-]
Figure 4.6 Distributions of the averaged power coefficient CP as a function
of the tip speed ratio λ for configurations 1, 2 and the single-phase (slip wall)
case. The multiphase configurations are calculated with (w/) and without (w/o)
correction.
A difference of 42.4% is observed between the single-phase case (CP max = 0.33) and the
configuration 2 (w/) (CP max = 0.19). In addition, the position of the CP max peak is shifted
from λ = 2.3 to λ = 1.8 between the single-phase case and configuration 2 (w/). The CP
loss is due to the multiphase modeling, where a strong deformation of the free surface
is observed, which affects the flow around the blades. Modeling the free surface has an
important impact in the prediction of the DHAHT’s CP distribution. The overprediction
of the CP values by a single-phase model has already been reported for a HAHT by Nishi
et al. [89], where the single-phase modeling overestimated by 38% the experimental and
the multiphase CP values.
Decreasing the water level HW (configuration 1) leads to a decrease by 36.8% for the
maximum power coefficient (CP max = 0.12) compared to configuration 2, and a shift of its
location to λ = 2.1. For λ = [3 − 4], identical CP values are obtained for both configura-
tions. However, above λ = 4, the DHAHT in configuration 1 is more efficient.
The averaged torque coefficient CT curves for both configurations as shown in Figure
4.7 show similar trends as for the CP comparisons. For λ = 1.8, a loss of 26.6% is dis-
tinguishable between the single-phase case (CT max = 0.15) and configuration 2 (W/)
(CT max = 0.11). For configuration 1 (w/) at lower λ values (λ < 2), the DHAHT pro-
duces a minimum torque coefficient (CT = 0.075) for λ = 1.8, which represents a loss of
32% compared to configuration 2. Similar to the CP distributions, configurations 1 and 2
provide similar CT values in the region λ = [3 − 4], and configuration 1 gets slightly more
efficient for λ > 4. Thus the water level (HW ) has no significant impact on the CP and CT
distributions in the region λ = [3 − 4]. However, in deeper water, the maximum values of
CP max and CT max increase. Similar trends were observed for HAHT by Yan et al. [130].
CP max (resp. CT max ) increases from 0.39 (resp. 0.85) in shallow tip immersion (0.19D) to
0.42 (resp. 0.88) in deep tip immersion (0.55D), respectively.
0.16
Slip wall
Configuration 1 w/ correction
0.12 Configuration 1 w/o correction
Configuration 2 w/ correction
0.08
CT [-]
0.04
-0.04
-0.08
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
[-]
Figure 4.7 Distributions of the averaged torque coefficient CT as a function of
the tip speed ratio λ for configurations 1, 2 and in the single-phase (slip wall)
case.
Positive CP are reported for the DHAHT in configuration 1 (w/) (Fig.4.6) for λ < 3.5,
though its maximum remains 36.8% lower than CP max obtained for configuration 2. The
DHAHT’s ability to produce power in configuration 1 is due to the backwater induced
re-immersion of the whole turbine when rotating, despite the initial conditions, where
only three quarters of the turbine is submerged. In order to understand the mechanisms
of the flow variations around the DHAHT, snapshots of the instantaneous water volume
fraction α field are extracted for λ = 1.8 and at various rotor azimuthal positions (Fig.4.8).
URANS runs are initialized by the water level HW = 0.65m (Fig.4.8a) and a hydraulic
pressure profile.
The major free surface adjustments occur during the primary rotation. At the first half
of a rotation, the blade splashes the free surface and generates a wave. In the immediate
aftermath, the second blade hits the generated wave, and the third blade follows just
after (Fig.4.8b). When the DHAHT starts to rotate, the free surface is unable to reco-
ver the initial water level HW , due to the high tangential velocity of the turbine (3.28
m/s=2.07×U0 ) compared to the incoming flow velocity U0 . At the end of the first rota-
tion, blade 1 is partially submerged (Fig.4.8c). However, beyond the second rotation, the
DHAHT is completely submerged, and a bump in the water surface is formed above the
rotor (Fig.4.8e). As the DHAHT rotates, the bump advects upstream as a wave (Fig.4.8d
to f). The generated wave continues to progress upstream until the inlet region, where
an opening condition is imposed in order to allow its evacuation from the calculating
domain.The same wave generation mechanism is observed in configuration 2 (Fig.4.9b).
The extent of the elevated stage upstream of the DHAHT is partially due to the artificial
lateral confinement of the model and is likely much greater than it would be in a natural
setting where flow could move to the sides of the turbine. For configuration 1, at the first
blade 1’s splash, an air pocket is attracted underneath by the blade motion (Fig.4.8b).
The air pocket is fragmented progressively by interacting with the blades in multiple air
bubbles and then advected downstream in the wake of the DHAHT (Fig.4.8e,f). Downs-
tream of the DHAHT, a continuous decrease in the water level is observed while the rotor
is rotating (Fig.4.8d to f).
Figure 4.9 displays the distribution of the instantaneous water volume fraction α after 15
revolutions for both configurations. The water level continues to decrease downstream of
the DHAHT in configuration 1, and a comparable distribution is observed in configuration
2. A decrease of water level in the wake was also observed for a Savonius HAHT by
Nakajima et al. [87] and a HAHT by Nishi et al. Overtop of the turbine, the water level
increases locally in both configurations, (Fig.4.9a,b), showing the importance of the free
surface modeling in order to correctly model the flow.
The deformation of the free surface considerably influences the produced CP and CT
coefficients, which are directly related to the flow around the blades. In order to gain a more
fundamental understanding, the instantaneous vorticity fields obtained for configurations 1
and 2 and the single-phase case at specific azimuthal blade positions θ = 90◦ − 150◦ − 210◦
(a) θ = 0◦ (t=0s) (b) θ = 180◦ (t=0.2142s)
(c) θ = 360◦ (t=0.4285s) (d) θ = 540◦ (t=0.6428s)
(e) θ = 720◦ (t=0.8571s) (f) θ = 1080◦ (t=1.2857s)
Figure 4.8 Instantaneous snapshots of the water volume fraction α around the
DHAHT during the first 3 rotations. Results obtained for λ = 1.8 in configura-
tion 1.
(a) Configuration 1 (b) Configuration 2
Figure 4.9 Instantaneous snapshots of the water volume fraction α around the
DHAHT at the 15th rotation. Results obtained for λ = 1.8 in configurations 1
and 2.
are shown in Figure 4.10. The three azimuthal positions are selected according to the
authors’ previous investigation [14] without a free surface, where when looking at a single
blade, at θ = 90◦ a maximum torque CT is produced, at θ = 150◦ the inner side of the blade
is completely separated, and at θ = 210◦ the leading edge vortex is shed. At θ = 90◦ , the
vorticity fields are comparable whatever the water level and the presence of the free surface
(fig.4.10 a to c). However, the boundary layer for the single-phase case is slightly thicker in
the trailing edge region. The influence of the free surface deformation in the flow around
the blades is clearly distinguishable at θ = 150◦ − 210◦ . At θ = 150◦ , 40 % and 50 % of the
blade inner side are separated in configurations 1 and 2 (fig.4.10d,e), respectively. Without
free surface modeling, the inner side of the blade is completely separated (fig.4.10f). This
difference is related to the perturbation of the local relative velocity vector by the free
surface plunging in configuration 1 and 2. The perturbation increases when the blade is
close to the plunging region θ = [180◦ − 330◦ ] (not shown). At θ = 210◦ , the leading edge
vortex observed for the slip wall case is replaced by a long shear layer in the wake of the
blade in configurations 1 and 2, (fig.4.10g to i). The wake shear layer in configuration 1 is
uniform and follows the blade motion (arc). However, in configuration 2, the shear layer is
scattered and little uniform pattern is distinguishable. In an animation (not shown here),
the wake shear layer in both configurations is transformed into a periodic vortex shedding,
created by a combination of the underneath flow suction and the blade rotating motion.
The polar distributions of the total instantaneous torque coefficient CT for different tip
speed ratios λ are presented in Figure 4.11. The total torque coefficient CT is obtained
by summing the contribution of each blade. A comparable polar distribution is observed
between configurations 1 and 2, which corresponds to a 3 lobed rosette. The location of
the three lobes is identical in all configurations : θ = 90◦ , 210◦ and 330◦ . Similar polar
distributions were observed in a previous single-phase approach [14] and for the DVAWT
investigated by Mohamed [84]. An important decrease in CT in configurations 1 and 2
is distinguishable with increased tip speed ratio λ (fig.4.11a to c). At λ = 4, the polar
distributions of configuration 1 and 2 are approximately identical, which is consistent with
the averaged CT curve (Fig.4.7).
4.7.2 DHAHT’s influence on flow regime and momentum loss
In order to further investigate the influence of the DHAHT on the flow regime, the Froude
number F r is presented downstream at X/D = 11D (from the center of the rotor) for
various λ values (fig.4.12). F r is calculated by using the local average (in space and
time) mean velocity and water level. Positive relationships are observed between λ and
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
Figure 4.10 Instantaneous vorticity fields around the blade for θ = 90◦ (a,b,c),
150◦ (d,e,f) and 210◦ (g,h,i). Comparisons between configuration 1 (a,d,g), 2
(b,e,h) and the single-phase (slip wall) case (c,f,i). Results obtained for λ = 1.8.
90 90
120 0.25 60 120 0.25 60
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
180 -0.05 0 180 -0.05 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(a) λ = 1.8 (b) λ = 2.3

90 90
120 0.25 60 120 0.25 60
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
150 30 150 30
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
180 -0.05 0 180 -0.05 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

270 270
(c) λ = 3.1 (d) λ = 4.0
Figure 4.11 Comparison of the polar distributions of the instantaneous torque

coefficient CT for configurations 1 and 2 for four tip speed ratios λ.
2.5
2
Fr [-]
1.5
Configuration 1
1 Linear fit configuration 1
Configuration 2
Linear fit configuration 2
0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
[-]
Figure 4.12 Froude number F r distributions downstream (X/D = 11D) the
DHAHT for configurations 1 and 2, with the corresponding linear regressions.
F r for both configurations (fig.4.12). The trend appears quite linear, with coefficients of
determination of R2 = 0.91 and 0.90, for configuration 1 and 2, respectively. The slope
of the regression in configuration 2 (m = 0.05) is lower than that for configuration 1
(m = 0.5), where F r increases drastically with λ. In configuration 1, the flow regime
downstream switches from sub-critical to super-critical at λ = 1.8. For λ > 1.8, the flow
is super-critical and F r continues to increase until a maximum value F r = 2.6 for λ = 5.
The flow in configuration 2 is always super-critical and a maximum F r = 2.15 is achieved
for λ = 5. The transition between the sub-critical regime at the inlet and the super-
critical regime downstream, in both configurations, is due to the restriction imparted by
the rotor. When the flow passes over the DHAHT, it is forced to plunge and passes through
the critical water level (F r = 1), followed by a switch to the super-critical regime.
0.8
0.7
0.6
Configuration 1
0.5 Configuration 2
LM

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
[-]
Figure 4.13 Distributions of the momentum loss LM for configurations 1 and
2, with the corresponding linear regressions.
The quantification of the linear momentum loss LM caused by the presence of the DHAHT
in shallow water is important. The averaged value of LM (kg.m/s2 ) is evaluated between
the inlet and the outlet of the domain as follows :
ρg
LM = (Hw.in Aw.in − Hw.out Aw.out ) + ρ Q(U0 − Uw.out ) (4.10)
2
where Hw.in = HW and Hw.out are the water depths at the inlet and the outlet, respectively.
Aw.in/out is the cross-sectional area at the inlet or the outlet, and Q is the water flowrate
(m3 /s). U0 and Uw.out are the average (in time and space) velocity magnitude at the inlet
and outlet. The distributions of LM for configurations 1 and 2 are displayed presented in
Figure 4.13 as a function of the tip speed ratio λ.
Clear trends between LM and λ are observed in both configurations. Linear regression R2
values are 0.29, 0.23 for configurations 1 and 2, respectively. The evolution of LM follows
a slope of 0.03 and 0.02 for configurations 1 and 2, respectively. In configuration 2, the LM
values are on average × 2.18 higher than in configuration 1, due to a deeper inlet water
level. For λ = [1.4 − 3.5], LM is a combination of the drag and the extracted momentum of
the DHAHT. Above λ = 3.5 the drag forces are more dominant, and contribute essentially
to the momentum loss LM .
4.8 Conclusion
This paper reports numerical results of the interactions between the free surface and a
Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine (DHAHT), using a multiphase unsteady
flow solver based on the k − ω SST turbulence model and the volume of fluid (VOF)
approach. The influence of the free surface on the power and torque coefficient, CP and
CT , prediction was investigated and compared to the single phase (w/o free surface) re-
sults. In addition, the influence of the water level has been investigated by testing two
configurations : a partially and totally submerged DHAHT. The streamwise flow condi-
tions are characterized by a Froude number F r = 0.62 (resp. 0.55) and Reynolds number
ReD = 80.1 × 104 (resp. 80.7 × 104 ) for configuration 1 (resp. 2).
The numerical approach has been validated in two steps against experimental results
available from the literature. The validation of the VOF model has been achieved by com-
parison with the experimental results for the break of a dam obtained by Koshizuka et al.
[57]. The evolution of the normalized water level H ∗ curve was reproduced with a maxi-
mum discrepancy of 1% compared to the experimental values. The k − ω SST turbulence
model has shown its ability to accurately predict the power coefficient CP distribution for
a Darrieus vertical axis wind turbine. The maximum discrepancy is 13% compared to the
measurements of Castelli et al. [24] and the present predictions improve significantly the
previous numerical results of Castelli et al. [24].
The case without free surface provided CP and CT values higher by 42.4% and 26.6%,
respectively, compared to configuration 2. The totally submerged DHAHT (configuration
2) produced maximum CP = 0.19 and CT = 0.11 values compared to configuration 1
4.8. CONCLUSION 81
(CP = 0.12, CT = 0.075). The high counter clockwise rotation of the DHAHT in configu-
ration 1 causes a significant blockage and forces the flow to overtop the turbine despite the
initial water level submerging the turbine by only 3/4. The overprediction of CP and CT
by the single phase model is essentially due to the disregard of the important free surface
deformation around the DHAHT. The free surface plunging influences directly the flow
around the blade, where the leading edge vortex in the single-phase approach without free
surface was replaced by a long shear layer in the blade wake.
A CT polar plot distributions of a 3 lobed rosette was observed for all configurations,
with an identical location of the three lobes (θ = 90◦ , 210◦ , 330◦ ). A linear trend of λ
with Froude number F r was distinguishable downstream the DHAHT. The flow regime
switches from sub-critical at the inlet to super-critical downstream for both configurations
1 and 2 over most values of λ with the exception of λ = [1.4 − 1.8] for configuration 1. The
momentum loss LM was also quantified between the inlet and the outlet, where higher LM
values were recorded in configuration 2 (LM =0.76 kg.m/s2 ) compared to configuration 1
(LM =0.32 kg.m/s2 ). For low λ = [1.4 − 3.5] values, LM is a combination of the DHAHT’s
drag and the extracted power. At higher tip speed ratios, the drag forces become predo-
minant.
Future work should investigate the interactions between the deformable free surface and
the whole DHAHT including its support using large eddy simulation to show in detail
the deformation of the free surface and the blade vortex shedding. Furthermore, the ap-
plication of the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) method around the blade and
in the turbine wake would allow for a better understanding the different modes and their
interactions.
Acknowledgements
network, which is here gratefully acknowledged. A.E.B.L., S.P. and J.L. would also like
to thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for
their financial support (Discovery Grant RGPIN-2015-06512 and RGPIN-2017-31147).
CHAPITRE 5
CONCLUSION FRANÇAISE
Dans cette thèse, plusieurs simulations numériques ont été menées pour des écoulements
turbulents autour d’obstacles fixe puis tournant. Dans le Chapitre 2, un benchmark de
modèles de turbulence a été accompli sur l’écoulement turbulent autour d’un obstacle en
forme de D submergé caractérisé par un nombre de Reynolds égal à ReH = 17448. Deux
modèles de sous mailles LES ont été comparés à des résultats expérimentaux obtenus par
PIV. Concernant l’obstacle tournant, deux études numériques ont été faites sur une turbine
de type Darrieus à axe horizontal DHAHT. Dans le Chapitre 3, 4 profils de pales, S1046,
S809, FXLV152 et NACA0018, ont été testés dans un écoulement monophasique caractérisé
par ReD = 711000 et F r = 0.56. Le modèle de turbulence choisi pour cette étude a été
sélectionné à partir du premier benchmark numérique. Le but de cette étude paramétrique
est d’accroître les coefficients de puissance CP et de couple CT de la turbine Darrieus
DHAHT. Par la suite, l’influence du nombre des pales a été étudié sur la turbine équipée
du profil S1046, qui est le plus performant. Dans le chapitre 4, des calculs multiphasiques
ont été accomplis sur l’interaction de la surface libre et la turbine Darrieus. Deux hauteurs
d’eau équivalentes à F r = 0.62 et 0.55 ont été testées. L’influence de la hauteur d’eau sur
les coefficient CP et CT et ainsi que sur le nombre de Froude en aval et sur les pertes de
la quantité de mouvement a été quantifiée.
Dans le deuxième chapitre, la plupart des modèles de turbulence RANS testé reproduisent
la zone de recirculation et la couche de cisaillement qui se forment en aval et au-dessus de
l’obstacle, respectivement. Néanmoins, les longueurs de réattachement restent différentes
entre les modèles et les données expérimentales. Deux points peuvent être conclus sur
le choix du modèle de turbulence et l’utilisation ou non d’une loi de paroi : le premier
point concerne la modélisation de la dissipation, où l’approche basée sur le calcul de ω
est plus pertinente que celle avec car cette dernière ne prend pas en considération le
mouvement rotationnel des particules fluides ce qui engendre une sur production de k
(Fig.2.3). Le deuxième point concerne la modélisation de l’écoulement proche de la paroi
et l’utilisation ou non d’une loi de paroi. L’approche à bas nombre de Reynolds prédit
mieux le tourbillon en fer à cheval qui se forme au bas en amont de l’obstacle. Cette bonne
prédiction est visible sur le champ de v ∗ . D’autre part, l’approche à bas nombre de Reynolds
a permis aussi d’éviter l’apparition d’une zone de surprediction de v ∗ sur la face arrière de
83
84 CHAPITRE 5. CONCLUSION FRANÇAISE
l’obstacle (Fig.2.3). Parmi les modèles de turbulence RANS, le modèle k-ω SST est celui qui
permet d’avoir une meilleure prédiction globale. Néanmoins aucun modèle est totalement
fidèle aux résultats PIV. Concernant la modélisation des grandes échelles (LES), les deux
modèles de sous mailles ont permis une meilleure prédiction des différents profils par
rapport à la PIV. Le modèle Wale a permis une meilleure prédiction par rapport au modèle
Smagorinsky, qui est trop dissipatif. Ces deux modèles ont prédit correctement la formation
du tourbillon en fer à cheval qui se forme au pied de l’obstacle. Le tourbillon se fait advecter
par l’écoulement et contourne l’obstacle pour interagir par la suite avec les structures
cohérentes générées par la couche de cisaillement, pour donner naissance à de plus petites
structures tourbillonnaires. Un décalage dans la position d’interaction est observé entre
les deux modèles LES, où le modèle Smagorinsky predit une position d’interaction plus
proche de l’obstacle que le modèle Wale. L’analyse spectral n’a pas permis de distinguer
des pic caractérisant une fréquence de lâcher tourbillonnaire pour les différentes positions
X/D en aval de l’obstacle. L’inexistance de ces pics est essentiellement due a une perte
de la périodicité suite à l’interaction entre le tourbillon en fer à cheval, les structures
cohérentes issues de la couche de cisaillement et le lit. Par contre, la courbe théorique en
−5/3 dans la zone inertielle est retrouvée par la PIV et la LES. L’analyse POD a permis
de révéler que le mode le plus énergétique est représenté par la zone de recirculation et la
couche de cisaillement, et les autres modes représentent plutôt les structures cohérentes.
Cette analyse a permis aussi de mettre en évidence le mécanisme de pulsation de la zone
de recirculation en aval de l’obstacle.
Dans le troisième chapitre, le modèle de turbulence k-ω SST à bas nombre de Reynolds
a été utilisé pour simuler l’écoulement autour de la turbine Darrieus à axe horizontal. Ce
modèle a été validé avec 13% d’erreur sur le coefficient CP expérimental obtenu pour une
éolienne de type Darrieus verticale équipée de trois pales NACA0021 par Castelli et al. [24].
Le modèle améliore également nettement les résultats numériques antérieurs de Castelli
et al. [24] et Mohamed et al. [41, 84]. Cela confirme le bon choix du modèle de turbulence et
la nécessité de modéliser l’écoulement en proche paroi. Concernant l’hydrolienne Darrieus
HAHT à trois pales, les profils S1046 et NACA0018 sont les plus performants dans la
région de décrochage dynamique à faibles valeurs de λ. La valeur maximale de CP = 0.33
a été produite par le profil S1046 pour λ = 2.3. Par contre pour des valeurs plus grandes
de λ > 3.5, le profil FXLV152 est celui qui offre les meilleures valeurs de CP et CT .
Contrairement à ce qui a été observé pour le profil S809 sur l’éolienne Darrieus verticale
[84], pour l’hydrolienne, ce profil produit les plus basses valeurs de CP et de CT pour
toutes les valeurs de λ. Cette performance modeste est reliée directement à l’écoulement
autour des pales, où une séparation précoce de la couche limite a été observé sur l’intrados
85
à θ = 90◦ , suivi par la formation d’un large tourbillon de bord d’attaque à θ = 150◦ , et qui
occupe une large région de l’intrados. En plus, un tourbillon secondaire est généré suite au
passage du tourbillon de bord d’attaque dans la région du bord de fuite, ce qui explique
cette perte de performance par rapport aux autres profils où un plus petit tourbillon de
bord d’attaque est observé. Les traces du lâcher tourbillonnaire sur le profil de U ∗ dans
le sillage à X/D = 1 sont observées sous forme de petites ondulations à y/H = 0.5.
L’influence du nombre de pales sur la Darrieus HAHT équipée avec du profil S1046 a
révélé que pour N = 2 les valeurs maximales de CP et CT sont produites à des grandes
valeurs de λ. Par contre, pour N = 4, le contraire est observé. Pour 2.1 < λ < 2.6,
la configuration avec trois pales fournit la meilleure performance. Néanmoins, la valeur
maximale de CP = 0.34 a été produite lorsque N = 2 et pour λ = 3. La distribution polaire
du coefficient de couple CT varie avec le nombre de pales. Pour N = 2, la distribution est
dipolaire avec deux lobes situés à θ = 90◦ et 270◦ . Pour N = 3, la distribution prend la
forme d’une rosette avec trois lobes à θ = 90◦ , 210◦ et 330◦ . Pour terminer lorsque N = 4,
le profil est plutôt pseudo-circulaire avec aucun lobe apparent.
Dans le quatrième chapitre, des simulations URANS multiphasiques ont été accomplies
pour étudier l’interaction de la Darrieus HAHT et la surface libre. Deux hauteurs d’eau
ont été considérées correspondant à une turbine partiellement ou totalement submergées
(nombres de Froude F r = 0.62 et 0.55). La surface d’eau a été modélisée en utilisant le
modèle VOF qui a été validé dans le cas de la rupture d’un barrage. Une erreur moyenne
de 0.6% est observée entre les simulations et les mesures expérimentales de Koshizuka
et al. [57] en termes d’hauteur d’eau normalisée H ∗ . Dans cette étude, le modèle de tur-
bulence k-ω SST a été choisi suite aux résultats des deux chapitres précédents. L’approche
monophasique du troisième chapitre surestime de 42.4% le coefficient de puissance CP et
de 26.6% le coefficient de couple CT calculés par l’approche multiphasique dans le cas
totalement immergé. Cette surestimation est due au modèle monophasique qui ne prend
pas en compte l’importante déformation de la surface libre causée par la turbine dont
l’effet potentiel est important. Cette déformation est caractérisée par une décroissance de
la hauteur d’eau en aval de la turbine, et l’apparition d’une vague. Cette vague remonte
l’écoulement et engendre l’augmentation de la hauteur d’eau localement. La déformation
de la surface libre influence également l’écoulement autour des pales où le tourbillon de
bord d’attaque observé dans le chapitre 3 est remplacé par une longue couche de cisaille-
ment dans le sillage de la pale. Cette dernière est par la suite transformée en un tourbillon
suite à la combinaison de l’aspiration de l’écoulement primaire et le mouvement de la pale.
Le même mécanisme est observé dans les deux configurations. La turbine submergée est
plus performante avec CP = 0.19 et CT = 0.11, ce qui est à comparer aux valeurs obtenues
CP = 0.12 et CT = 0.075 pour la turbine partiellement immergée. Pour une hauteur d’eau
initiale où les trois quarts du diamètre sont submergés, la hauteur d’eau évolue durant la
rotation de la turbine et converge vers un submergement complet de la Darrieus HAHT.
Comme la vitesse tangentielle des pales est 2 fois plus grande que la vitesse de l’écoule-
ment U0 , l’eau est forcée de passer au-dessus de la turbine. Pour les deux configurations,
les distributions polaires du coefficient CT ressemblent à une rosette avec trois lobes situés
à θ = 90◦ , 210◦ et 330◦ . Un changement dans le régime d’écoulement est observé suite au
passage à travers la turbine. Le régime d’écoulement dans la configuration 2 en aval de
la Darrieus HAHT est toujours torrentiel indépendamment de la valeur de λ. Le même
régime d’écoulement est observé dans la configuration 1, sauf dans la région λ = [1.4 − 1.8]
où l’écoulement est fluvial. Une régression linéaire a été appliquée sur la distribution du
nombre de Froude F r en fonction de λ dans les deux configurations, la pente de régression
est plus grande dans la configuration 1 (0.5) que dans la configuration 2 (0.05). La quan-
tification de la quantité de mouvement perdue LM entre l’entrée et la sortie du domaine
permet de mettre en évidence les forces de frottements dues à la turbine et la puissance
extraite par cette dernière. Pour des faibles valeurs de λ = [1.4 − 3.5], LM représente la
majeure partie de la puissance extraite par la turbine Darrieus HAHT. Au-delà de ces
valeurs (λ > 3.5), ce terme est plutôt dominé par les forces de frottement. Les valeurs de
LM sont plus importantes lorsque la turbine est totalement submergée.
Perspectives : Pour compléter ce travail, deux perspectives de recherche sont suggérées

ci-dessous :
• Une campagne expérimentale de la turbine Darrieus HAHT en entier est en cours

de préparation dans un grand canal hydraulique (6 × 0.5 × 0.45 m3 ) du département
de génie civil afin d’investiguer l’influence des effets 3D sur les performances de
la turbine. Le couple généré par la turbine à différentes vitesses de rotation sera
mesuré. Plusieurs hauteurs d’eau seront testées afin de confirmer les conclusions du
chapitre 4. Différents diamètres seront testés pour étudier l’influence de la solidité
σ. Le champ de vitesse en aval de la turbine sera étudié en utilisant l’ADV (Acoustic
Doppler Velocimetry) puis par la suite la PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry).
• Une série de simulations 3D URANS multiphasiques de la turbine complète est
envisagée afin de comparer les valeurs de CP et CT avec les résultats expérimentaux.
Par la suite, une comparaison avec les calculs 2.5D est nécessaire afin de mettre en
évidence les possibles effets 3D (structures tourbillonnaires qui se forment le long de
l’envergure des pales).
87
• Des calculs 3D LES sur la turbine Darrieus HAHT permettraient une meilleure
connaissance de l’hydrodynamique et notamment de l’apparition de structures cohé-
rentes de plus petites échelles. Afin d’optimiser le nombre d’éléments, qu’une partie
du canal en amont, et au moins 8 D en aval du rotor sera résolue. La valeur de
λ choisit correspondra au point de fonctionnement optimal issu du calcul URANS
3D et validé par l’expérience. Ainsi, les valeurs de CP et CT du calcul LES seront
comparées aux résultats URANS et aux expériences. L’analyse POD selon plusieurs
plans (XY,XZ) pourra être faite dans le sillage de la turbine Darrieus HAHT, pour
distinguer les différents modes de lâchers tourbillonnaires. Elle pourra être appliquée
également sur un champ plus étroit autour d’une pale pour comprendre plus en détail
le mécanisme de génération des différents tourbillons.
• Examiner les performances d’un groupe de turbines placé dans une ferme. Les critères
de performance à l’échelle d’une seule turbine (CP et CT ) doivent être remplacés par
des grandeurs plus globales qui représentent les performances de toutes les turbines
de la ferme. Par la suite, plusieurs paramètres peuvent être étudiés : espacement
entre les turbines, positionnement dans le canal . . .
• À cause des conditions hivernales extrêmes au Québec (qui représentent jusqu’à 6
mois de l’année), il peut s’avérer intéressant d’étudier l’impact du frasil (couche de
glace superficielle qui se crée sur la surface libre) sur les performances de l’hydro-
lienne. Pour cela, une machine à coulis de glace disponible à l’UdeS sera utilisée pour
produire le frasil et faire varier l’épaisseur de cette couche.
• Finalement, une étude future focalisera sur l’impact d’une seule turbine Darrieus
HAHT ou d’une ferme de turbines sur l’environnement (habitat des poissons et
grenouilles). En effet, avant de commercialiser une turbine, une étude environne-
mentale est nécessaire portant notamment sur l’impact d’une turbine sur le passage
des poissons (taux de blessure ou de mortalité). En deuxième partie, les risques d’in-
nondation causée par la ferme de turbines doivent être analysés car elles engendrent
une augmentation de la hauteur d’eau localement en amont et donc un risque de
débordement.
CHAPITRE 6
ENGLISH CONCLUSION
In this PhD thesis, several numerical simulations were conducted for the turbulent flows
over fixed then rotating obstacles. In Chapter 2, a benchmark of RANS (Reynolds Avera-
ged Navier-Stokes)turbulence models was first performed on the turbulent flow around a
submerged D-shaped obstacle characterized by a Reynolds number equal to ReH = 17448.
Two LES (Large Eddy Simulation) subgrid scale models were compared and validated
against experimental PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) measurements. Concerning the
rotating obstacle, two numerical studies were done on a Darrieus HAHT water turbine. In
Chapter 3, 4 blade profiles, namely S1046, S809, FXLV152 and NACA0018, were tested
in a channel under turbulent flow conditions at ReD = 711000 and F r = 0.56. The turbu-
lence model chosen for this study was selected based on the previous numerical benchmark
for the D-section obstacle. The goal of the Darrieus HAHT (horizontal axis hydrokinetic
turbine) study was to optimize blade shape in order to increase the CP and CT coefficients.
Subsequently, the influence of the number of blades was studied on the Darrieus HAHT
equipped with the most efficient profile (S1046). In Chapter 4, multiphase calculations
were performed on the interactions between the free surface and the Darrieus HAHT. Two
water levels equivalent to F r = 0.62 and 0.55 were tested. The influence of the water
level on the CP and CT coefficients, the Froude number and on the momentum losses was
quantified.
In Chapter 2, a benchmark of different RANS turbulence closure models and LES sub-
grid scale models was performed around a D-shaped bluff body. The results show that
most RANS turbulence models reproduced the recirculation region and the shear layer
formed downstream and above the fixed D-shape obstacle, respectively. Nevertheless, the
reattachment distance was not consistent between these models and the PIV results used
as validation. Two points can be concluded on the choice of the turbulence model and
the near wall treatment : 1) the turbulence model which calculates ω is more accurate
than that of because the latter does not take into account the rotational motion of the
fluid particles, which induces an over production of k (Fig.2.3) ; 2) concerns the modeling
of the near-wall flow explicitly (low Reynolds number) or the use of the law of the wall
(high Reynolds number). The low Reynolds number approach was found to be far better at
predicting the horseshoe vortex that forms on the stoss side of the D-section as can be seen
89
90 CHAPITRE 6. ENGLISH CONCLUSION
on the v ∗ fields where the negative region corresponds to horseshoe vortex location. The
low Reynolds number approach also avoided the overprediction of v ∗ on the rear face of
the D-section (Fig.2.3). Amongst the RANS turbulence models, the k-ω SST (shear stress
transport) model allowed for a better prediction of the overall flow field, yet, no model was
totally faithful to the PIV results. The two LES sub-grid scale models allowed a better
prediction of the different profiles, where the Wale model was closer to PIV results than
the Smagorinsky model. Both models correctly predicted the horseshoe vortex that forms
at the stoss side of the obstacle. The models show that the horseshoe vortex is advected by
the flow and passes to the sides of the obstacle to interact subsequently with the coherent
structures generated by the shear layer giving rise to smaller secondary vortex structures.
An offset in the downstream distance to the interaction region was observed between the
two LES models, where the Smagorinsky model predicted it closer to the obstacle than the
Wale. Contrary to what was expected, the autospectra of the velocity components u and
v, revealed no distinct peak characterizing a vortex shedding for the different streamwise
X/D positions downstream the D-section. The absence of a peak is mainly due to a loss of
periodicity following the interactions between the horseshoe vortex, the coherent structures
released from the shear layer and the bed. On the other hand, the theoretical −5/3 curve
in the inertial region was recovered by the PIV and LES results. The POD analysis has
revealed that the most energetic modes are represented by the recirculation region and
the shear layer, while the other modes represent the coherent structures in the wake. This
analysis highlighted the pulsation mechanism of the recirculation region downstream the
obstacle.
In Chapter 3, the low Reynolds number k-ω SST turbulence model, which gave reasonable
results in the previous chapter, was used to model the flow around a Darrieus HAHT. The
low Reynolds number k-ω SST model was validated with a discrepancy of 13% against the
experimental CP values of a 3 bladed NACA 0021 Darrieus VAWT obtained by Castelli
et al. [24]. A clear improvement in the numerical predictions was achieved by comparing
the actual results with previous numerical results by Castelli and al. [24] and Mohamed
and al. [41, 84]. This improvement supports the choice of the turbulence model and the
low Reynolds number approach used in our study. For the three-bladed Darrieus HAHT
turbine, the S1046 and NACA0018 profiles performed the best in the dynamic stall region
for low tip speed ratios λ. The maximum value of CP = 0.33 was produced by the S1046
profile for λ = 2.3. On the other hand, for λ > 3.5, the FXLV152 profile was the most
efficient attaining higher values of CP and CT . Contrary to what has been observed for a
S809 profile on the Darrieus VAWT [84], the S809 profile produced the lowest values of CP
and CT for all values of λ. This poor performance is directly related to the flow around the
91
S809 profile blades, where an early separation of the boundary layer was observed on the
inner side at θ = 90◦ , In addition, the loss in performance is related to a large leading edge
vortex formation occurred at θ = 150◦ and a secondary vortex was generated following the
passage of the leading edge vortex in the trailing edge region. Traces of vortex shedding
were observed in the vertical, near-wake U ∗ profile at X/D = 1 as small ripples (variations
in U ∗ ) at y/H = 0.5. The influence of blade number N on the Darrieus HAHT with the
S1046 profile revealed that, for N = 2, the maximum values of CP and CT are produced
for large values of λ, whereas, for N = 4, the opposite was observed. For 2.1 < λ < 2.6,
the configuration with three blades provided the best overall performance. However the
maximum value of CP = 0.34 was produced when N = 2 at λ = 3. The polar distribution
of the instantaneous torque coefficient CT varies depending on the blade number. For
N = 2, the distribution is di-polar with two lobes located at θ = 90◦ and 270◦ . For N = 3,
the distribution is a 3-lobed rosette located at θ = 90◦ , 210◦ and 330◦ . Finally, when N = 4
the polar distribution is rather pseudo-circular with no apparent lobes.
Chapter 4 furthers the work of the previous chapters. Multiphase URANS simulations
were performed on the interactions between the Darrieus HAHT and the free surface.
Two configurations 1 and 2, characterized by Froude numbers F r = 0.62 and 0.55 were
considered corresponding to two water levels, totally or partially submerged. The free
surface was modeled using the VOF method which was validated against the experimental
study by Koshizuka and al. [57] for the breaking of a dam. An average error of 0.6% was
observed between the experimental and numerical curves of the normalized water depth
H ∗ . In this study, the low Reynolds number k-ω SST turbulence model was also selected
following the validations in the two previous chapters. The single-phase approach of the
third chapter overestimates by 42.4% the CP values and by 26.6% the torque coefficient
CT calculated by the multiphase approach in configuration 2. The single-phase model does
not indeed take into account the significant deformation of the free surface caused by the
turbine, which has a significant effect. This deformation was characterized by a decrease
in the water level downstream of the turbine, the appearance of a wave or bulking above
the turbine, and an increased water level upstream. The deformation of the free surface
influenced the flow around the blades, where the leading edge vortex observed in Chapter
3 was replaced by a long shear layer in the wake of the blade. The latter was subsequently
transformed into a vortex following the combination of the primary flow suction and the
movement of the blade. Similar flow structure was observed in configurations 1 and 2. The
submerged turbine in configuration 2 was more efficient with CP = 0.19 and CT = 0.11,
compared to the first configuration where CP = 0.12 and CT = 0.075. In configuration
1, the initial water level condition where three quarters of the diameter are submerged,
evolved during the rotation of the turbine and converged to a complete submergence of the
Darrieus HAHT. As the tangential speed of the blades is 2 times greater than the incoming
velocity U0 , the water was forced to pass over the turbine. For both configurations 1 and
2, the polar distributions of the instantaneous CT was a 3 lobed rosette located at θ = 90◦ ,
210◦ and 330◦ . A switch in the flow regime was observed before and after the DHAHT.
The flow regime in configuration 2 downstream of Darrieus HAHT was always supercritical
regardless of the λ values. The same flow regime was observed in configuration 1, except
for λ = [1.4 − 1.8] where the flow was subcritical. Linear regression was applied to the F r
distributions in both configurations, and the regression slope was steeper in configuration 1
(0.5) than in configuration 2 (0.05). The quantification of the momentum loss LM between
the inlet and the outlet highlighted the contributions of drag and extracted power by
the DHAHT. For low values of λ = [1.4 − 3.5], LM represented most of the momentum
extracted by the Darrieus HAHT (based on a comparison of CP values). For λ > 3.5, LM
was dominated by the turbine’s drag. The values of LM were larger when the DHAHT
was placed in configuration 2 because the water level was deeper.
Perspectives : to complement this work, two research perspectives are suggested in the
following :
• An experimental study of the entire Darrieus HAHT is being prepared in a large

hydraulic channel (6 × 0.5 × 0.45 m3 ) in the Civil Engineering Department to inves-
tigate the influence of the 3D effects on the performance of the turbine. The torque
generated by the turbine at different tip speed ratios λ will be measured by a torque
meter. Several water levels will be tested to compare with the results of Chapter 4.
Different turbine diameters will also be tested to study the influence of the solidity σ.
The velocity field downstream of the turbine will be measured by an ADV (acoustic
Doppler velocimetry) and using PIV (particle image velocimetry) measurements.
• Further multiphase URANS simulations of the entire DHAHT (full 3D geometry)
should be performed and compared with the experimental results. A comparison
with the 2.5D calculations is necessary in order to determine the affect of 3D turbine
geometry on the CP and CT coefficients. For example, vortex structures that form
along the blade span.
• In the future, 3D LES calculations should be performed also on the Darrieus HAHT.
In order to optimize the number of elements, only part of the upstream channel,
and at least 8D downstream of the rotor should be solved. The value of λ chosen
should correspond to the optimal operating point resulting from the 3D URANS
93
calculations and validated by the experimental results. Thus, the CP and CT values
of the LES calculation could be compared to the URANS and experimental results.
A POD analysis could be applied on several planes (XY, XZ) in the wake of the
Darrieus HAHT, in order to distinguish the different modes of vortex shedding. The
application of the POD analysis on a narrower field around one blade will allow us
to understand in more detail the generation mechanism of different vortices.
• The electrical power generated by a single turbine being rather limited, it could be
interesting to consider a group of DHAHT placed on a farm. The single turbine
scale performance criteria (CP and CT ) should be replaced by global quantities that
represent the performance of all the turbines on the farm. Thus, several parameters
could be considered (spacing between turbines, positioning on the river), in order to
quantify their influences on the global performance.
• Due to severe winter conditions in Québec, which correspond to approximately half
a year, it may be of interest to quantify the performance of the DHAHT turbine
when ice forms at the river surface and frazil is advected by the river current. To
investigate this, the ice slurry machine available at UdeS could be used to impose a
layer of slush at the top of the water surface and then characterize its impact on the
DHAHT performances for different thicknesses of the frazil/slush layers.
• A final study could focus on the impact of a single Darrieus HAHT or a group of
turbines on the surrounding environment. They may have a large impact on the
biological environment of the river (e.g., fish habitat, frog survival). For example,
to be commercialized, fish mortality due to fish passing accidentally through the
DHAHT should be quantified. Furthermore, the added bed roughness and increased
stage during floods caused by a turbine farm should be quantified.
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UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE

Modélisation numérique d’une hydrolienne à

Alla Eddine Benchikh Le Hocine

Sherbrooke (Québec) Canada

Avec en toile de fond la question du changement climatique, les contraintes énergétiques

Un benchmark numérique de modèles de turbulence RANS (Reynolds-Averged Navier-

Numerical modeling of a Darrieus horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine in shal-

2 Turbulent flow over a D-section bluff body : a numerical benchmark 5

3 Numerical modeling of a Darrieus Horizontal Axis shallow-Water Tur-

4 Multiphase modeling of the free surface flow through a Darrieus hori-

4.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Hydrokinetic Turbine (DHAHT) 61

LISTE DES RÉFÉRENCES 95

1.1 Nombre d’installations hydroélectriques par région. Adapté de [75]. . . . . 3

3.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.6 Distributions of the averaged power coefficient CP as a function of the tip

1.1 Introduction générale

1.2 Objectifs de la thèse et originalités

1. Modélisation numérique de l’écoulement autour d’un obstacle fixe (en forme de D)

Figure 1.1 Nombre d’installations hydroélectriques par région. Adapté de [75].

• Comparaison entre plusieurs modèles de turbulence RANS et de sous-mailles LES

2. Optimisation des performances de la turbine de type Darrieus à axe horizontal com-

3. Étude de l’interaction entre la surface libre et la turbine de type Darrieus à axe

1.3 Plan de la thèse

Turbulent flow over a D-section bluff body :

2.4 Numerical modeling

A 3D Navier-Stokes incompressible flow solver based on the finite-volume method was

2.4.1 Geometrical modeling

2.4.2 Turbulence modeling

2.4.3 Numerical parameters

2.4.4 Experimental database

2.5 Results and discussion

2.5.1 Mean flow field

the experimental measurements show differences in the recirculation region. Furthermore,

2.5.2 Coherent structures in the wake flow

(a) X/D = 0.8 (b) X/D = 1.6

(c) X/D = 2.4 (d) X/D = 3.0

2.5.3 POD analysis

Φku (~x) = SuT Ak (2.11)

Φkv (~x) = SvT Ak (2.12)

The time coefficients ak (t) are then given by :

ak (t) = Su Φku (~x) + Sv Φkv (~x) (2.13)

where N1 and N2 represent the first and last modes considered.

Figure 2.12 Contour map of longitudinal velocity field reconstructed Ũ /U0

Numerical modeling of a Darrieus Horizontal

3.4 Characteristics of the Darrieus Horizontal Axis Wa-

specifications of the modeled DHAHT. The solidity σ is calculated according to Araya

Figure 3.1 CAD geometry of the DHAHT.

where Ω corresponds to the turbine rotation rate (angular velocity) (rad/s).

Figure 3.2 2D cross-sections of the four blade profiles.

3.5 Numerical modeling

3.5.1 Geometrical modeling

3.5.2 Numerical method and turbulence closure

3.5.3 Boundary conditions and numerical parameters

Figure 3.4 Boundary layer velocity profile imposed at the inlet.

Figure 3.5 2D views of the numerical mesh distribution of a) entire domain,

Tableau 3.2 Mesh grid parameters for the three-bladed configuration.

3.6 Validation of the flow solver

Power Coefficient, Cp [-]

Experimental (Castelli et al., 2011)

Figure 3.6 Performance curve of a three-blade H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine

3.7 Results and discussion

3.7.1 Comparison between blade profiles