CE 6403 APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

UNIT - II
GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
Dynamic equations of gradually varied and spatially varied
flows - Water surface flow profile classifications: Hydraulic
Slope, Hydraulic Curve - Profile determination by Numerical
method: Direct step method and Standard step method,
Graphical method - Applications.

BY.
MR.KUMAR.G M.E. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SRIPERUMBUDUR – 602 117
 Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow
Objective: get the relationship between the water surface slope and other
characteristics of flow.

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the equation

1. The flow is steady.
2. The streamlines are practically parallel (true when the variation in depth along
the direction of flow is very gradual). Thus the hydrostatic distribution of
pressure is assumed over the section.
3. The loss of head at any section, due to friction, is equal to that in the
corresponding uniform flow with the same depth and flow characteristics.
(Manning’s formula may be used to calculate the slope of the energy line)
4. The slope of the channel is small.
5. The channel is prismatic.
6. The velocity distribution across the section is fixed.
7.. The roughness coefficient is constant in the reach.
Consider the profile of a gradually varied flow in a small length dx of an open
channel the channel as shown in the figure below.

The total head (H) at any

section is given by:

V2
H=Z+y+
2g

Taking x-axis along the bed of the channel and differentiating the equation with
respect to x:

dH dZ dy d V 2 
= + +  
dx dx dx dx  2g 
• dH/dx = the slope of the energy line (Sf).
• dZ/dx = the bed slope (S0) .
Therefore,
dy d V 2 
− S f = − S0 + +  
dx dx  2 g 

Multiplying the velocity term by dy/dy and transposing, we get

dy dy d  V 2  dy  d V 2  
+   = S0 − S f or  1+    = S0 − S f
dx dy dx  2 g  dx  dy  2 g  

dy S0 − S f
=
dx d V 2 
1+  
dy  2 g 

This Equation is known as the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow. It

gives the variation of depth (y) with respect to the distance along the bottom of
the channel (x).
The dynamic equation can be expressed in terms of the discharge Q:

dy S0 − S f
=
dx Q2 T
1−
g A3

The dynamic equation also can be expressed in terms of the specific energy E :

dy dE / dx
=
dx Q2 T
1− 3
gA
 Depending upon the type of flow, dy/dx may take the values:
dy
(a) =0 The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope.
dx (the water surface is parallel to the channel bed) or the flow is
uniform.

dy
(b) = positive The slope of the water surface is less than the bottom slope (S0) .
dx (The water surface rises in the direction of flow) or the profile
obtained is called the backwater curve.

dy
(c) = negative The slope of the water surface is greater than the bottom slope. (The
dx water surface falls in direction of flow) or the profile obtained is
called the draw-down curve.
Notice that the slope of water surface with respect to horizontal (Sw) is different from the
slope of water surface with respect to the bottom of the channel (dy/dx).

A relationship between the two slopes can be obtained:

• Consider a small length dx of the

open channel.
• The line ab shows the free
surface,
• The line ad is drawn parallel to
the bottom at a slope of S0 with
the horizontal.
• The line ac is horizontal.
bc cd − bd
The water surface slope (Sw) is given by Sw = sin φ = =
ab ab
Let q be the angle which the bottom makes with the horizontal. Thus
cd cd
S0 = sin θ = ≈
ad ab
The slope of the water surface with respect to the channel bottom is given by

dy bd bd
= ≈
dx ad ab

dy This equation can be used to calculate the water

S w = S0 − surface slope with respect to horizontal.
dx

dy
= S0 − Sw
dx
Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow)

• Engineers often require to know the distance up to which a surface profile

of a gradually varied flow will extend.

• To accomplish this we have to integrate the dynamic equation of gradually

varied flow, so to obtain the values of y at different locations of x along the
channel bed.

•The figure below gives a sketch of calculating the M1 curve over a given
weir.
 Direct Step Method
• One of the most important method used to compute the water profiles is the
direct step method.

• In this method, the channel is divided into short intervals and the computation of
surface profiles is carried out step by step from one section to another.

For prismatic channels:

Consider a short length of channel, dx , as shown in the figure.

dx
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and 2 , we write:

V12 V22
S0 dx + y1 + = y2 + + S f dx
2g 2g

or S0 dx + E1 = E2 + S f dx

E2 − E1
or dx =
S0 − S f

where E1 and E2 are the specific energies at section 1 and, respectively.

This equation will be used to compute the water profile curves.
The following steps summarize the direct step method:
1. Calculate the specific energy at section where depth is known.
For example at section 1-1, find E1, where the depth is known (y1). This section is
usually a control section.

2. Assume an appropriate value of the depth y2 at the other end of the small reach.
Note that:

y 2 > y1 if the profile is a rising curve and,

y 2 < y1 if the profile is a falling curve.

3. Calculate the specific energy (E2) at section 2-2 for the assumed depth (y2).

4. Calculate the slope of the energy line (Sf) at sections 1-1 and 2-2 using Manning’s
formula

1 2/3 1 2/3
V1 = R1 Sf1 and V2 = R2 Sf2
n n
Sf 1 + Sf 2
And the average slope in reach is calculated S fm =
2
5. Compute the length of the curve between section 1-1 and 2-2

E2 − E1 E2 − E1
L1,2 = dx = or L1,2 =
S0 − S fm  Sf 1+Sf 2 
S0 −  
 2 

6. Now, we know the depth at section 2-2, assume the depth at the next section,
say 3-3. Then repeat the procedure to find the length L2,3.

7. Repeating the procedure, the total length of the curve may be obtained. Thus

L = L1, 2 + L2 , 3 +....... + Ln −1,n

where (n-1) is the number of intervals into which the channel is divided.
1. A river 90 m wide and 3 m deep has stable bed and vertical banks with a bed
slope of 1 in 2500. Estimate the length of back water curve produced by an afflux of
2 m. Assume Manning’s in N = 0.035.
Given data
Wide (b) = 90 m
Deep (d) =3 m
Bed slope ( ib ) = 1 / 2500 = 4 x 10 -4
Afflux (h2 - h1 ) = 2 m
Manning’s N = 0.035
Find out Length of back water curve ( L ) = ?
Solution
h2 - h1 = 2 m
Area (A1 ) = b x d = 90 x 3 = 270 m²
Wetted Perimeter (P1 ) = b + 2h1 = 90 + ( 2 x 3 ) = 96 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m1 ) = A1 / P1
= 270 m² / 96 m = 2.813 m
Manning’s formula

1 2 1 1 2 1
V = m 3
i 2 V 1 = m 1
3 ib 2
N N
 1 2 1
V 1 = m 1
3 i b
2
N
2 1
1
V1 = (2.813) 3
(4 x 10 -4
) 2
0 . 035
V1 = (1 / 0.035 ) ( 2.813 ) 0.667 ( 4 x 10 -4 ) 0.5
V1 = 1.139 m / sec
2
V1
E 1 = h1 +
2 g
E1 = 3 + [ ( 1.139 ) 2 / ( 2 x 9 .81 ) ]
E1 = 3.066 m
To Find Velocity ( V2 )
Continuity Equation A1 x V1 = A2 x V2
h 2 = 2 + h1 = 2 + 3 = 5 m
A2 = b x h2 = 90 x 5 = 450 m 2
Wetted Perimeter ( P2 ) = b + 2h2 = 90 + ( 2 x 5 ) = 100 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m2 ) = A2 / P2
= 450 m² / 100 m = 4.500 m
A1 x V1 = A2 x V2
270 x 1.139 = 450 x V2
V2 = (307.53 / 450 ) = 0.683 m / sec
2
V2
E 2 =h2 +
2 g
E2 = 5 + [ ( 0.683 ) 2 / ( 2 x 9 .81 ) ]
E2 = 5.024 m
To Find Average Velocity ( Vav )
First Average Depth ( hav ) = [ ( h1 + h2 ) / 2 ] = [ ( 3 + 5 ) / 2 ]
( hav ) = 4 m
Continuity Equation Aav x Vav = A2 x V2
Aav = b x hav = 90 x 4 = 360 m 2
Vav = [ ( A2 x V2 ) / Aav ] = [ ( 450 x 0.683 ) / 360 ]
Vav = 0.854 m / sec
Average Hydraulic Mean Depth ( mav ) = [ (m1 + m2 ) / 2 ]
= [ ( 2.813 + 4.500 ) / 2 ]
( mav ) = 3.657 m
To Find Energy Line Slope ( ie )
1 2 1
Vav = m av
3 ie 2
N
2 1
1
0.854 = (3.657) 3
(i e ) 2
0 . 035
0.854 = (1 / 0.035 ) ( 3.657 ) 0.667 ( ie ) 0.5
0.854 = 67.848 ( ie ) 0.5
( ie ) 0.5 = ( 0.854 / 67.848 )
( ie ) = ( 0.854 / 67.848 )2
( ie ) = 1.584 x 10 -4
L=
E 2 − E1 5.024 − 3.066
Length of back water curve L=
ib − ie 4 ×10−4 − 1.584×10−4
( L ) = 8104.305 m = 8.104 Km
Answer
* Length of back water curve ( L ) = 8104.305 m = 8.104 Km
2.The normal depth of flow of water, in a rectangular channel 1.5 m wide, is
one metre. The bed slope of the channel is 0.0006 and Manning’s roughness co-
efficient N = 0.012. Find the critical depth. At a certain section of the same
channel the depth is 0.92 m while at a second section the depth is 0.86 m. Find
the distance between the two sections. Also Find whether the section is located
downstream or upstream with respect to the first section.
Given data
Wide ( b ) = 1.5 m
Normal Depth ( dn ) = 1 m
Bed slope ( ib ) = 0.0006 = 6 x 10 -4
Manning’s N = 0.012
h1 = 0.92 m
h2 = 0.86 m
Find out Length of back water curve ( L ) = ?

Solution
Area (A) = b x dn = 1.5 x 1 = 1.5 m²
Wetted Perimeter (P ) = b + 2dn = 1.5 + ( 2 x 1 ) = 3.5 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m ) = A / P
= 1.5 m² / 3.5 m = 0.429 m
 2
1 1
V = m 3
ib 2
N
2 1
1
V = (0.429) 3
(6 x 10 -4
) 2
0 . 012
V = (1 / 0.012 ) ( 0.429 ) 0.667 ( 6 x 10 -4 ) 0.5
V = 1.161 m / sec
Q=AxV
Q = 1.5 x 1.161 = 1.742 m³ / sec
q = Q / b = 1.742 / 1.5 = 1.161 m² / sec
Critical Depth ( yc )
1 1
 q 2
 3  1 . 161 2
 3
y =   y =  
yc = ( 0.137 ) 0.333 c
 g 
c
 9 . 81 
Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.516 m
2
V1
E 1 = h1 +
2 g
V1 = Q / A1 = 1.742 / b x h1
= 1.742 / 1.5 x 0.92
V1 = 1.262 m / sec
 2
V 1
E 1 = h 1 +
2 g

E1 = 0.92 + [ ( 1.262 ) 2 / ( 2 x 9 .81 ) ]

E1 = 1.001 m
V2 = Q / A2 = 1.742 / b x h2
= 1.742 / 1.5 x 0.86
V2 = 1.350 m / sec
2
V 2
E 2 = h 2 +
2 g

E2 = 0.86 + [ ( 1.350 ) 2 / ( 2 x 9 .81 ) ]

E2 = 0.953 m
Average Height
( hav ) = [ ( h1 + h2 ) / 2 ] = [ ( 0.92 + 0.86 ) / 2 ]
( hav ) = 0.890 m
Average Hydraulic Mean Depth ( mav ) = [ A / P ] = [ ( b x hav ) / ( b + 2 hav )
= [ ( 1.5 x 0.890 ) / ( 1.5 + 2 x 0.890 ) ]

( mav ) = 0.407 m
To Find Energy Line Slope ( ie )

A 2 1
Q = m av
3 i e
2
N
2 1
1.5 x 0.890
1.742 = (0.407) 3
(i e ) 2
0 . 012
1.742 = (1.335 / 0.012 ) ( 0.407 ) 0.667 ( ie ) 0.5
1.742 = 61.080 ( ie ) 0.5
( ie ) 0.5 = (1.742 / 61.080 )
( ie ) = (1.742 / 61.080 )2
( ie ) = 8.134 x 10 -4
Distance between the two sections

E 2 − E1 0 .953 − 1 .001
L = ∆x = L = ∆x =
ib − i e 6 × 10 − 4 − 8 . 134 × 10 − 4
L = ∆ x = 224 . 930 m
Water Surface Slope ‫ ܑ ܡ܌‬b − i e
=
‫ ܠ܌‬૚ − ۴‫ ܍‬2

‫܄‬ av
2

۴‫ ܍‬2 =
܏‫ ܐ‬av

Average Velocity
( Vav ) = [ ( V1 + V2 ) / 2 ] = [ (1.262 + 1.350 ) / 2 ]
( Vav ) = 1.306 m / sec
Fe2= (Vav2 / g hav)
Fe2= [(1.3062) /( 9.81 x 0.890 )] = 0.195

‫ܡ܌‬ 6 × 10 −4 − 8.134 × 10 −4
=
‫ܠ܌‬ ૚ − ૙. ૚ૢ૞
(dy / dx) = - 2.651 x 10 -4

Since (dy / dx) is negative, the second section is downstream.

3. A rectangular channel with a bottom width of 4 m and a bottom slope of
0.0008 has a discharge of 1.5 m³ / sec. In a gradually varied flow in this
channel, the depth at a certain location is found to be 0.3 m. Assuming N =
0.016, determine the type of gradually varied flow profile.
Given data
Width (b) = 4 m
Depth (y) = 0.3 m
Bed slope ( ib ) = 0.0008 = 8 x 10 -4
Discharge (Q) = 1.5 m³ / sec
Manning’s N = 0.016
Solution
Calculating ( yn ) using Manning’s Formula
2
A 1
Q = m 3
ib 2
N
Area (A) = b x yn = 4 x yn = 4yn
Wetted Perimeter (P) = b + 2 yn = 4 + ( 2 yn )
Hydraulic mean depth (m) = A / P
= 4yn / 4 + ( 2 yn )
Substituting all values
2
A 1
Q = m 3
i b
2
N

4yn  4yn  3
2 1
1.5 = ×  (8 x 10 -4 2
)
0.016  4 + 2yn 
5
1.5 x 0.016
=
[4y n ] 3
2
0 . 028 [4 + 2y n ] 3

0 . 857 =
[4y n ] 3
2
[4 + 2y n ] 3

2 5
0 .857 [4 + 2y n ] = [4y n ] 3 3
 5 2
[4y n ]
3 − 0 .857 [4 + 2y n ] = 0
3 (i)

The above equation will be solved by Hit and Trail methid.

(i) Assume yn = 0.400 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as

5 2
L . H .S = [1.6 ] − 0 . 857 [4 .8 ]
3 3

L.H .S = 2.189 − 2.439 = −0.250

(ii) Assume yn = 0.500 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as
5 2
L . H . S = [2 ] − 0 . 857 [5 ]
3 3

L.H .S = 3 .175 − 2 .506 = 0 .669

where yn = 0.400 m, L.H.S. is – ve. But when yn = 0.500 m, L.H.S. is + ve.
Hence value of yn lies between 0.400 m and 0.500 m.
(iii) Assume yn = 0.410 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as

5 2
L . H . S = [1.64 ] 3 − 0 . 857 [4.82 ] 3

L.H .S = 2.281 − 2.445 = −0.164

(iv) Assume yn = 0.430 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as
5 2
L . H . S = [1.72 ] 3 − 0 . 857 [4.86 ] 3

L.H .S = 2 .469 − 2 .459 = 0 .010

The value of L.H.S. =0.010 is negligible in comparison to the value of 0.669.
Therefore value of yn = 0.430 m.
q = Q / b = 1.5 / 4 = 0.375 m² / sec
1 1
 q 2
 3  0 . 375 2
 3

Critical Depth ( yc ) y c =   y c =  
 g   9 . 81 

Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.243 m

Type of profile : since yn > yc, the channel is a mild slope channel. Also given y =
0.3 m such that yn > y > yc. Hence it is a M2 type curve.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS

S .No Channel Symbol Characteristics Remarks

Category Condition
1. Mild slope M yn > yc Subcritical flow at
normal depth
2. Steep slope s yc > yn Supercritical flow at
normal depth
3. Critical slope C yc = yn Critical flow at
normal depth
4. Horizontal bed H ib = 0 Cannot sustain
uniform flow
5. Adverse slope A ib < 0 Cannot sustain
uniform flow
TYPES OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROFILES
S.No Channel Region Condition Type

1. 1 y > yn > yc M1

Mild slope
2. 2 yn > y > yc M2

3. 3 yn > yc > y M3

4. 1 y > yc > yn S1

Steep slope
5. 2 yc > y > yn S2

6. 3 yc > yn > y S3
TYPES OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROFILES

S.No Channel Region Condition Type

7. 1 y > yn = yc C1
Critical slope
8. 3 y < yn = yc C3

9. 2 y > yc H2
Horizontal
bed
10. 3 y < yc H3

11. 2 y > yc A2
Adverse slope
12. 3 y < yc A3
 Classification of Channel-Bed Slopes

The slope of the channel bed is very important in determining the

characteristics of the flow.

Let

• S0 : the slope of the channel bed ,

• Sc : the critical slope or the slope of the channel that sustains a

given discharge (Q) as uniform flow at the critical depth (yc).

• yn is is the normal depth when the discharge Q flows as uniform

flow on slope S0.
The slope of the channel bed can be classified as:

1) Critical Slope C : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to the critical slope.

S0 = Sc or yn = yc
2) Mild Slope M : the bottom slope of the channel is less than the critical slope.
S0 < Sc or yn > yc
3) Steep Slope S : the bottom slope of the channel is greater than the critical slope.
S0 > Sc or yn < yc
4) Horizontal Slope H : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to zero.
S 0 = 0 .0
5) Adverse Slope A : the bottom slope of the channel rises in the direction of the
flow (slope is opposite to direction of flow).
S0 = negative
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles)
• The surface curves of water are called flow profiles (or water surface profiles).

• The shape of water surface profiles is mainly determined by the slope of the
channel bed So.

• For a given discharge, the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc may be
calculated. Then the following steps are followed to classify the flow profiles:

1- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yn is drawn and is

designated as the normal depth line (N.D.L.)

2- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yc is drawn and is

designated as the critical depth line (C.D.L.)

3- The vertical space in a longitudinal section is divided into 3 zones using the
two lines drawn in steps 1 & 2 (see the next figure)
4- Depending upon the zone and the slope of the bed, the water profiles are
classified into 13 types as follows:
(a) Mild slope curves M1 , M2 , M3 .
(b) Steep slope curves S1 , S2 , S3 .
(c) Critical slope curves C1 , C2 , C3 .
(d) Horizontal slope curves H2 , H3 .
(e) Averse slope curves A2 , A3 .

In all these curves, the letter indicates the slope type and the subscript indicates
the zone. For example S2 curve occurs in the zone 2 of the steep slope.
 Flow Profiles in Mild slope

Flow Profiles in Steep slope

 Flow Profiles in Critical slope

Flow Profiles in Horizontal slope

Flow Profiles in Adverse slope

4. A river 45 m wide has a normal depth of flow of 3 m and an average bed
slope of 1 in 10,000. A weir is built across the river raising the water surface
level at the weir site to 5 m above the bottom of the river. Identify the type of
gradually varied flow profile considering the river is prismatic. Take the value
of N is Manning’s Formula as 0.025.
Given data
Wide ( b ) = 45 m
Normal Depth ( yn ) = 3 m
Bed slope ( ib ) = 1 / 10,000 = 1 x 10 -4
Manning’s N = 0.025
y=5m
Find out Identify the type of gradually varied flow profile ?
Solution
Area (A) = b x yn = 45 x 3 = 135 m²
Wetted Perimeter (P ) = b + 2yn = 45 + ( 2 x 3 ) = 51 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m ) = A / P = 135 m² / 51 m = 2.647 m
2
A 1
Q = m 3
i b
2
N
Q = ( 135 / 0.025 ) ( 2.647 ) 0.667 ( 1 x 10 -4 ) 0.5
Q = 103.364 m³ / sec
q = Q / b = 103.364 / 45 = 2.297 m² / sec
1 1
 q 2
 3  2 . 297 2
 3
Critical Depth ( yc ) y c =   y c =  
 g   9 . 81 
Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.813 m
Since yn > yc , the channel is said to be mild slope.
Given y = 5 m, Then y > yn > yc
Hence this profile is M1 type profile.

5. A river 100 m wide and 3 m deep has an average bed slope of 0.0005. Identify
the type of gradually varied flow profile produced by a low dam which raises
the water surface in the upstream by 1.5 m. Assume N = 0.035.
Given data
Wide ( b ) = 100 m
Normal Depth ( yn ) = 3 m
Bed slope ( ib ) = 0.0005= 5 x 10 -4
Manning’s N = 0.035
Increase in water level / Afflux =1.5 m
Solution
y = yn + 1.5 = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 m
Area (A) = b x yn = 100 x 3 = 300 m²
Wetted Perimeter (P ) = b + 2yn = 100 + ( 2 x 3 ) = 106 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m ) = A / P = 300 m² / 106 m = 2.830 m
2
A 1
Q = m 3
i b
2
N

Q = ( 300 / 0.035 ) ( 2.830 ) 0.667 ( 5 x 10 -4 ) 0.5

Q = 383.601 m³ / sec
q = Q / b = 383.601 / 100 = 3.836 m² / sec
Critical Depth ( yc ) 1 1
 q 2
 3  3 . 836 2
 3
y c =   y c =  
 9 . 81   9 . 81 
Critical Depth ( yc ) = 1.145 m

Since yn > yc , the channel is said to be mild slope channel.

Given y = 4.5 m, Then y > yn > yc

Hence the gradually varied flow profile is an M1 type curve.
DETERMINATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW PROFILES
There are three methods
1. Numerical Method
(a) Direct Step method
(b) Standard Step method
2. Graphical Method
3. Direct Integration Method

6. A rectangular channel 10 m wide carries a discharge of 30 cumec. It is laid at

the slope of 0.0001. If at the section in this channel the depth is 1.6 m. How for
upstream (or) downstream from the section being the depth at 2 m. Take
Manning’s N = 0.05. Use direct step method.
Answer
* Length between two section = 1047.3 m
ASSIGNMENT – II PART – A 5 x 2 =10
1. Write down the dynamic equation of Gradually varied flow ?
2. Define the term Afflux ?
3. Write about back water curves ?
4. Define transition depth ?
5. What are the methods used for finding Gradually varying flow profile ?

PART – B 2 ½ X 16 =40
6)(i) What are the assumptions made in the analysis of Gradually varied flow ?(6)
(ii) The bed width of a rectangular channel is 24 m and the depth of flow is 6 m. The
discharge in the canal is 86 cumecs. The bed slope of the channel is 1 in 4000.
Assume Chezy’s constant C = 60. Determine the slope of the free water surface ?
(10)
7)A rectangular channel 8.5 m wide has a uniform depth of flow of 2.5 m and has a
bed slope of 1 in 3000. If due to weir constructed at the downstream end of the
channel, water surface at a section is raised by 0.8 m, determine the water surface
slope with respect to horizontal at this section. Assume Manning’s n = 0.02 ?
(16)
8)Derive an expression for the length of the back water curve ? (8)