Etinc Wataik 1bac Sc-Math

SVT Guide

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Etinc Wataik 1bac Sc-math Svt Guide

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% Utile

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GRHFB fu prkabssbur

Dutburs

Dhmnd JDVDEB Adthcd _knrd

Prkabssbur B]]DLDIH BI NKR]]DHEH
fu mymib sbmkefdhrb qudihffldet Prkabssbur fu mymib sbmkefdhrb qudihffldet

BVHEMBIIB
Guhfb fu prkabssbur
 ]mhbembs fb id vh b bt fb id tbrrb
 4 JDM
smhbembs cdtnècdthqubs
Fèpöt iègdi ? :048CK=7>8
H]JE ? 1-:=-7>>-88:0-87>
H]]E ? 6>:7-:220

 Vkus frk hts rè sbr vès

FDEGBZ

Hi bst strhmtbcbet hetbrfht fb

rbprkfuhrb mbt kuvrdgb cïcb
M
pdrthbiibcbet, f'be adhrb fbs
IB

mkphbs ku fb ib rbtrdescbttrb PNKVKMKPHIIDGB

VRB IB IHQZB
pdr qubiqub ckybe qub mb skht,
èibmtrkehqub ku cèmdehqub, sdes
« ib pnktkmkphiidgb, m‘bst i‘usdgb djusha bt mkiibmtha
i'dutkrhsdthke èmrhtb fb i'èfhtbur.
fb id pnktkmkphb sdes dutkrhsdthke fbs dutburs bt
fbs èfhtburs.
Idrgbcbet rèpdefu fdes ibs ètdjihssbcbets smkidhrbs,
ib pnktkmkphiidgb cbedmb i‘dvbehr fu ihvrb, mdr hi cbt be
fdegbr ske èquhihjrb èmkekchqub. Hi prhvb ibs dutburs
f‘ueb èquhtdjib rècueèrd0ke.
Be fbnkrs fb i‘usdgb prhvè fu mkphstb, tkutb
rbprkfum0ke tktdib ku pdr0biib fb mbt kuvrdgb bst
hetbrfhtb. ¼

Dvdet-prkpks
Mb ihvrb fu prkabssbur bst ue mkcpiècbet pèfdgkghqub quh dmmkcpdgeb
ib adsmhmuib fb mkurs Bthembiib ]QV  fb id 4 deeèb fu jdmmdidurèdt smhbembs
cdtnècdthqubs kpthke ardeçdhs. Hi pbrcbt dux besbhgedets, be mknèrbemb dvbm
ibs fhffèrbets pèrhpnèrhqubs fb id mkiibmthke, fb fhspksbr f‘heakrcdthkes uthibs,
hccèfhdtbcbet dmmbsshjibs, bt fbs mkesbhis fhfdmthqubs bt cètnkfkikghqubs pkur
trdvdhiibr, pkur prèpdrbr bt rèdihsbr iburs mkurs, pkur id chsb be ŝuvrb fu prkgrdccb
f‘ètufbs bt kffrb fbs suggbsthkes pkur ibs dhfbr à mkembvkhr fbs bxpèrhbembs
f‘dpprbethssdgb.
Ekus dvkes dppkrtè ue skhe pdrthmuihbr à i‘èmrhturb fbs tbxtbs.
Ke trkuvbrd dhesh ?
 D i‘betrèb fb mndqub pdrthb< ibs mkcpètbembs vhsèbs bt ibs hestrumthkes k﬍mhbiibs,
‣

dussh id prkgrbsshke bevhsdgèb pdr ibs dutburs dmmkcpdgeèb f‘ueb prkgrdccdthke

nkrdhrb rèdihstb<
 pkur mndqub mndphtrb, ue rdppbi fbs kjobmthas fu prkgrdccb bt ibs mdpdmhtès
‣

à fèvbikppbr susmbpthjibs f‘ïtrb dttbhets<

 pkur mndqub dmthvhtè, ib mkccbetdhrb prèmhs fb tkus ibs fkmucbets prèsbetès,
‣

id mkrrbmthke fb tkutbs ibs phstbs f‘bxpikhtdthke<

 pkur mndqub mndphtrb, id mkrrbmthke fbs bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke bt fbs fbvkhrs
‣

survbhiiès.
Ekus akrcuikes ib skundht qub i‘besbhgedet trkuvb eke sbuibcbet fb i‘hetèrït,
cdhs dussh fu pidhshr, à krgdehsbr ibs dpprbethssdgbs à pdrthr bt dutkur fb mb guhfb quh,
mkccb ske ekc i‘hefhqub, sbrt à i‘dmmkcpdgebr fdes ske dmtb f‘besbhgebr bt à jdihsbr
ib prkmbssus f‘besbhgebcbet / dpprbethssdgb.
Ekus vkus skundhtkes jbdumkup fb okhb, fb summîs bt fb rèusshtb furdet vktrb uthihsdthke
fb mb guhfb.

I‘dutbur 

]kccdhrb
Pdrthb Ibs mkccuehmdthkes nkrckedib bt ebrvbusb
4

!  Mndphtrb 4 ? Zèdihsdthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub f‘ue demhbe jdsshe sèfhcbetdhrb   >

Dmthvhtè 4 ? Mdrdmtîrbs bt midsshfflmdthke fbs sèfhcbets fdes fhffèrbets chihbux fb fèpkt.....................>
Dmthvhtè : ? Ètufb stdthsthqub fb id mkcpkshthke f‘ue sèfhcbet........................................................................ >
Dmthvhtè = ? Ètufb ckrpnksmkphqub fb id mkcpkshthke f‘ue sèfhcbet........................................................... 40
Dmthvhtè 6 ? Ètufb fbs fflgurbs sèfhcbetdhrbs bt iburs shgehfflmdthkes ...............................................................40
Dmthvhtè 2 ? Fyedchqub fb trdespkrt fbs èiècbets sèfhcbetdhrbs ................................................................. 44
Dmthvhtè 1 ? Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux mkethebetdux..................................................... 4:
Dmthvhtè 7 ? Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux hetbrcèfhdhrbs.................................................. 4=
Dmthvhtè > ? Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux cdrhes .................................................................. 4=
Dmthvhtè 8 ? Zbmkestrumthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub fu jdsshe pnkspndtè du Cdrkm ............46
Dmthvhtè 40 ? Zbmkestrumthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub fu jdsshe fu mndrke du Cdrkm ...........46
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke ......................................................................................................................................................42
!  Mndphtrb : ? Id strdthgrdpnhb bt ibs sujfhvhshkes fu tbcps gèkikghqub ................................... 4>
Dmthvhtè 4 ? Id fdtdthke rbidthvb ? Prhemhpbs fb strdthgrdpnhb .......................................................................... 4>
Dmthvhtè : ? Id fdtdthke rbidthvb ? Prhemhpb f‘hfbethtè pdièketkikghqub ...................................................... 4>
Dmthvhtè = ? Id rbmnbrmnb fbs sufhvhshkes gèkmnrkekikghqubs ? Fhsmkrfdemb, idmuebs bt mymibs  
sèfhcbetdhrbs ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Dmthvhtè 6 ? Id rbmnbrmnb fbs sufhvhshkes gèkmnrkekikghqubs ? Ib strdtktypb, id jhkzkeb, ibs mrhsbs bt 
ibs pndsbs krkgèehqubs............................................................................................................................ 48
Dmthvhtè 2 ? I‘èmnbiib strdthgrdpnhqub.......................................................................................................................... :0
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke .................................................................................................................................................... :0
!  Mndphtrb = ? Zbmkesththke fb i‘nhstkhrb gèkikghqub f‘ueb règhke fkeeèb ................................ ::
Dmthvhtè 4 ? Id mdrtb gèkikghqub ? jhide syetnèthqub fbs ètufbs strdthgrdpnhqubs................................. ::
Dmthvhtè : ? Id rèdihsdthke fb id mkupb gèkikghqub .............................................................................................. ::
Dmthvhtè = ? Zbmkesththke fb i‘nhstkhrb gèkikghqub f‘ueb règhke fkeeèb ...................................................... :=

Recherche
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke .................................................................................................................................................... :=

Fbvkhr ]urvbhiiè e°4 ............................................................................................................................................................ :6

Fbvkhr ]urvbhiiè e°: ........................................................................................................................................................... :1

Télécharger maintenant !

6 Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

Pdrthb I‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub ? edturb, cèmdehscb

: f‘bxprbsshke bt Gèehb gèeèthqub

!  Mndphtrb 4 ? Id edturb fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub ..................................................................... =0

Dmthvhtè 4 ? Ikmdihsdthke fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub fdes id mbiiuib .............................................................. =0
Dmthvhtè : ? Vrdesabrt fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub f‘ueb mbiiuib à ueb dutrb .............................................. =0
Dmthvhtè = ? Edturb mnhchqub fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub .................................................................................. =:
Dmthvhtè 6 ? ]trumturb bt mkcpkshthke fb i‘DFE ...................................................................................................... ==
Dmthvhtè 2 ? Mnrkckskcb, mnrkcdtheb bt DFE mnbz ibs Bumdryktbs ............................................................ ==
Dmthvhtè 1 ? Cèmdehscb fb id rèpihmdthke f‘DFE. .................................................................................................. =6
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke .................................................................................................................................................... =2

!  Mndphtrb : ? Cèmdehscb fb i‘bxprbsshke fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub ètdpbs fb id syetnîsb fbs 

prktèhebs.................................................................................................................... =7
   B
   H
Dmthvhtè 4 ? Mdrdmtîrb, gîeb bt diiîib ? ekthke fb cutdthke ............................................................................... =7    V
   Z
Dmthvhtè : ? Zbidthke mdrdmtîrb-prktèheb bt gîeb-prktèheb ............................................................................... =>    D
Dmthvhtè = ? Cèmdehscb fb i‘bxprbsshke fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub ? pndsb fb trdesmrhpthke ........... =8  
   P

Dmthvhtè 6? Zbidthke DZE-prktèheb ? ib mkfb gèeèthqub ...................................................................................... =8

Dmthvhtè 2 ? Cèmdehscb fb i‘bxprbsshke fb i‘heakrcdthke gèeèthqub ? pndsb fb trdfumthke ................ 60
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke ....................................................................................................................................................64

!  Mndphtrb = Ib gèehb gèeèthqub..................................................................................................... 6:

Dmthvhtè 4 ? Prhemhpb fu gèehb gèeèthqub .....................................................................................................................6:
Dmthvhtè : ? Kuthis bt tbmnehqubs fb gèehb gèeèthqub............................................................................................ 6:
Dmthvhtè = ? Dppihmdthke fu gèehb gèeèthqub .............................................................................................................6=
Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke ......................................................................................................................................................6=
Fbvkhr ]urvbhiiè e°= ............................................................................................................................................................. 66
Fbvkhr ]urvbhiiè e°6.............................................................................................................................................................. 62

Pdrthb 4 Id gèkfyedchqub bxtbreb fb id tbrrb

Mkcpètbembs vhsèbs ?
- Dpprkakefhr ibs mkeedhssdembs dsskmhèbs dux pnèekcîebs gèkikghqubs bxtbrebs bt dsshchibr ibur
dppihmdthke du ehvbdu fb id fhvhshke fu tbcps gèkikghqub bt id rèmupèrdthke fb i‘demhbeeb gèkgrdpnhb
bt i'nhstkhrb gèkikghqub, dvbm id rèdihsdthke f‘ueb ibmturb systècdthqub fb id mdrtkgrdpnhb bt fb
i‘dediysb fb i‘nhstkhrb fbs èvèebcbets gèkikghqubs f‘ue ckfîib fkeeè.
- Dsshchibr i‘hcpkrtdemb fu mketdmt fhrbmt dvbm id edturb fdes i‘ètufb gèkikghqub bt id
sbeshjhihsdthke sur i‘ètdt fbs shtbs gèkikghqubs fdes i‘bevhrkeebcbet pkur dfdptbr fbs dtthtufbs
pkshthvbs bevbrs bux.
- Dppihqubr ueb cètnkfkikghb smhbethfflqub be djkrfdet fbs qubsthkes ihèbs à fbs pnèekcîebs
gèkikghqubs bxtbrebs.
- Rthihsbr fbs kuthis fu idjkrdtkhrb bt fbs tbmnekikghbs fb i‘heakrcdthke bt fb mkccuehmdthke
pkur fèfflehr ibs pnèekcîebs gèkikghqubs.

Prbchîrb deeèb fu jdmmdidurèdt

]èrhb smhbembs cdtnècdthqubs

4- Rehtè4 Pnèekcîebs gèkikghqub bxtbrebs

4brbdeeèb mkiièghdib ? ]èdembs

:-
- Ibs rbidthkes betrb ibs ïtrbs vhvdets bt ibur hetbrdmthke dvbm ib chihbu.
Ibs prèrbquhs - Ibs pnèekcîebs gèkikghqubs bxtbrebs.

‣  Zèdihsdthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub f‘ueb règhke ?..............................................

• Ibs ètufbs grdeuikcètrhqubs bt ckrpnksmkphqubs fbs sèfhcbets ?
- Ibs fflgurbs sèfhcbetdhrbs < 44 n
- Fyedchqub bt dgbets fu trdespkrt fbs sèfhcbets <
• Fètbrchedthke fbs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs prhemhpdux
chihbux fb sèfhcbetdthke dmtubis.
 
• Zèdihsdthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub fu chihbu ètufhè.
‣  Zbmkesthtuthke fb i‘nhstkhrb gèkikghqub f‘ueb règhke sèfhcbetdhrb
tdjuidhrb (pidtbdu fb pnkspndtbs) ku f‘ue jdsshe nkuhiibr (jdsshe fb
=- Obrdfd) bt ètdjihssbcbet fbs akefbcbets fb id mdrtb gèkikghqub ........................
Ib mketbeu • Ibs prhemhpbs strdthgrdpnhqubs bt id fdtdthke rbidthvb fbs akrcdthkes
à besbhgebr gèkikghqubs fu pidtbdu ku fu jdsshe ètufhè ? 4= n
bt bevbikppb - Prhemhpb fb supbrpkshthke bt prhemhpb fb mketheuhtè.  
nkrdhrb - Ib mketbeu pdièketkikghqub ? ekthke fb aksshib strdthgrdpnhqub bt
ekthke fu prhemhpb f‘hfbethtè pdièketkikghqub.
• Ib mymib sèfhcbetdhrb ?
- Mkestrumthke fb i‘èmnbiib strdthgrdpnhqub.
- Ekthke fb idmueb strdthgrdpnhqub.
‣  Jhide...............................................................................................................................................
• Id mdrtb gèkikghqub ? Jhide syetnèthqub fbs ètufbs strdthgrdpnhqubs.
• Rthihsdthke fb id mdrtb gèkikghqub pkur id rbmkesthtuthke fb i‘nhstkhrb 01 n
gèkikghqub f‘ueb règhke.
• Zèdihsdthke fbs mkupbs gèkikghqubs.

Bvdiudthke fhdgeksthqub du fèjut fb i‘uehtè....................................................................

=0 cc
Bvdiudthke akrcdthvb bt skuthbe ?
6- Du chihbu fb i‘uehtè................................................................................................................. 62 che
I‘èvdiudthke D id ae fb i‘uehtè........................................................................................................................ 62 ce
bt ib skuthbe
Bvdiudthke skccdthvb ? 10 ce
Du chihbu fb i‘uehtè.................................................................................................................. 10 ce
D id ae fb i‘uehtè bt fkht mkuvrhr i‘besbcjib fb i‘uehtè........................................

Vktdi =6 n

Zèdihsdthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub

Mndphtrb 4 f‘ue demhbe jdsshe sèfhcbetdhrb
Kjobmthas fu mndphtrb ?
- Mkeedåtrb ibs mdrdmtîrbs fbs sèfhcbets fdes ibs pdysdgbs sèfhcbetdhrbs.
- Cbttrb be èvhfbemb id rbidthke betrb fflgurb sèfhcbetdhrb bt dgbets fb trdespkrt bt fb fèpöt fbs sèfhcbets.
- Btufhbr stdthsthqubcbet bt ckspnksmkphqubcbet ibs mkesthtudets fbs sèfhcbets.
- Fètbrchebr ibs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs prhemhpdux chihbux fb sèfhcbetdthkes dmtubis bt
fègdgbr ibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets fèpksès fdes mndqub chihbu.
- Fètbrchebr ibs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ue chihbu fb sèfhcbetdthke demhbe ? jdsshe fbs pnkspndtbs
bt jdsshe nkuhiibr fb obrrdfd.
- Zèdihsbr id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub f‘ueb règhke fkeeèb.
Mdpdmhtès à fèvbikppbr?
- Cdehpuibr bt bxpèrhcbetbr be rbspbmtdet ibs rîgibs fb sèmurhtè.
- Vrdçdgb mkrrbmtb f‘ueb mkurjb, f‘ue nhstkgrdccb.
- Zbmbesbr, bxtrdhrb bt krgdehsbr fbs heakrcdthkes.
- Cdehabstbr ib sbes f‘kjsbrvdthke, fb murhkshtè bt f‘bsprht mrhthqub.
- Vrdfuhrb fbs fkeeèbs bt hetbrprètbr fbs kjsbrvdthkes skurs akrcb f‘ue tbxtb strumturè.
- Mkcprbefrb ib ihbe betrb ibs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke bt ibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets fdes fhffèrbets chihbux.
- Fètbrchebr id edturb f‘ue chihbu fb fèpöt be sb jdsdet sur fhffèrbetbs ètufbs sèfhcbetdhrbs.
Dmthvhtè 4 p ? 40
Mdrdmtîrbs bt midsshfflmdthke fbs sèfhcbets Fkm. =?
Fdes ue chihbu möthbr (ueb pidgb), ibs sèfhcbets sket
fdes fhffèrbets chihbux fb fèpkt
midssès sbike ibur tdhiib fdes ue krfrb fèmrkhssdet fb id
Fkm. 4? mötb vbrs ib idrgb. Mbttb fhstrhjuthke bst mkefhthkeeèb
Wbetwkrtn d midssè ibs fhffèrbets èiècbets skihfbs pdr id fyedchqub fbs vdgubs bt id akrmb fbs cdrèbs.
f‘ue sèfhcbet sbike ibur tdhiib ku ibur fhdcîtrb. - Id mkcpkshthke sèfhcbetdhrb f‘ueb pidgb
Fkm. :? fèpbef dvdet tkut fb id akrcdthke gèkikghqub
Ibs sèfhcbets ﬊uvhdthibs sket fb tdhiibs fhffèrbetbs, cdhs fb id règhke. Be bffbt id pidgb bst bssbethbiibcbet
ke mkestdtb qu‘his sket midssès fb i‘dcket vbrs i‘dvdi ib rèsuitdt fb i‘èrkshke fbs rkmnbs bevhrkeedetbs
sbike ibur fhdcîtrb bt mbmh fdes ue krfrb fèmrkhssdet bt fb i‘dmthvhtè jhkikghqub fbs krgdehscbs cdrhes.
Ke pbut bxpihqubr mbttb rèpdrththke pdr id fyedchqub Fkm. 6?
fb i‘dgbet fb trdespkrt (Mkurdet f‘bdu). Ib sdjib bst ue sèfhcbet fètrhthqub akrcè fb pdrthmuibs
Be dcket ku id pbetb bst rdhfb, id vhtbssb fu mkurdet drrdmnès dux rkmnbs pdr fbs dgbets bxtèrhburs ,(quh
bst akrtb, mb quh prkvkqub ib trdespkrt cïcb fbs tkcjbet, skus i‘bffbt fb id pbsdetbur, besuhtb betrdheès pdr
èiècbets grksshbrs. Be s‘dpprkmndet fb i‘dvdi, id (ibs rhvhîrbs, ibs gidmhbrs ku ib vbet) rbokhgedet fhffèrbets
vhtbssb fu mkurdet s‘dffdhjiht à mdusb fb id pbetb adhjib chihbux fb fèpöt (pidgb ku fèsbrt ku ﬊buvb ……) Fkem, ue
prkvkqudet id sèfhcbetdthke cïcb fbs èiècbets ffles. cïcb sèfhcbet pbut kmmupbr fhffèrbets chihbux fb fèpöt.
Dmthvhtè : p ? 46
Ètufb stdthsthqub fb id mkcpkshthke f‘ue sèfhcbet
Fkm. 4?
Id grdeuikcètrhb mkeshstb be i‘dediysb fb id fhstrhjuthke stdthsthqub fbs midssbs fbs pdrthmuibs
èiècbetdhrbs f‘ue sèfhcbet, bt mbmh grêmb du trh quh sb adht pdr ib tdchsdgb.
Fkm. :?
Fhdcîtrb fbs pdrthmuibs > à 41 6à> :à6 4à: 4/: à 4 4/6 à 4/: 4/> à 4/6 4/41 à 4/>
Pkhfs fu rbaus (beg) 1,:2 44 ,:2 :0 :6,6 :: 4:,:2 :,2 4,=2
Pkurmbet fu rbaus 1,:2% 44,:2% :0% :6,6% ::% 4:,:2% :,2% 4,=2%
Pkhfs mucuièb (beg) 1,:2 47,2 =7,2 14,8 >=,8 81,42 8>,12 400
Pkurmbetdgb mucuièb 1,:2% 47,2% =7,2% 14,8% >=,8% 81,42% 8>,12% 400%

> Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

Fkm. =?
d-
:2  [ Pkurmbetdgb fu pkhfs fu rbaus
 [ Mkurjb fb arèqubemb

:0 [
Nhstkgrdccb fb arèqubemb

 [
42  [
 [
40 [
 [
2  [
 [ Fhdcètrb
   [    [ [ [ [   [    [ [
fbs grdhes
41 > 6 :   4 4/: 4/6 4/> 4/41 be cc

F‘dprîs i‘nhstkgrdccb rèdihsè, ke kjthbet ueb mkurjb uehckfdib fkem ektrb sèfhcbet bst nkckgîeb
j”

Id vdibur mucuidthvb    4

 
   B
400 -    H
   V
   Z
   D
80 -  
   P

>0 - 4mc
4mc
40% ↚

4 hetbrvdiib
↚

fb fhdcîtrb
70 -
10 -
20 -
60 -
=0 -
:0 -
40 -
Fhdcètrb
- - -   - - - - -
fbs grdhes cc
41 > 6 : 4 4/: 4/6 4/> 4/41

Be mkcpdrdet ektrb mkurjb mucuidthvb kjtbeub dvbm ibs mkurjbs mucuidthvbs fb rèaèrbemb, ke
trkuvb qu‘biib rbssbcjib à id mkurjb J, fkem ke pbut suppksbr qub ektrb sèfhcbet vhbet fb
i‘bcjkumnurb f‘ueb rhvhîrb.

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M ” Fètbrchedthke fbs qudrthibs ? T 4 bt T=‘ F‘dprîs ib tdjibdu, ke rbcdrqub qub ektrb vdibur ] 0 
T= 3 I‘djsmhssb mkrrbspkefdetb à i‘krfkeeèb :2 % ≂ =,: bst supèrhburb à : fkem ektrb sèfhcbet bst trîs cdi
T43 I‘djsmhssb mkrrbspkefdetb à i‘krfkeeèb 72 % ≂ 0,12 midssè. Fkem mbid mkefflrcb ektrb nypktnîsb à prkpks
- Mdimui fb i‘hefhmb fb midssbcbet ] 0 ? fb i‘krhgheb fu sèfhcbet ètufhî.
T= =, :
 ] 0  3 3
T4 0, 12 3 :, :4

Dmthvhtè = p ? 4>
Ètufb ckrpnksmkphqub fb id mkcpkshthke f‘ue sèfhcbet
Fkm. 4?
Vypbs ER BI ZC
Grdhes eke usès Grdhes èckussès
Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs grdhes trdespdrbets ku mkikrès à dvbm fbs drrïtbs suj- Grdhes rkefs cdts, à
fb qudrtz akrcb deguibusb(dvbm fbs drrkefhbs bt ueb suradmb suradmb fèpkihb, cdtb.
drïtbs dhgubs) pkihb bt jrhiidetb
Vrdespkrt trîs mkurt
Admtbur fb trdespkrt bt vkhrb djsbet, ib admtbur
Vrdespkrt ikeg ib admtbur Vrdespkrt trîs ikeg
furèb fu trdespkrt bst id gidmb
fb trdespkrt bst i‘bdu ib admtbur fb trdespkrt bst
(gidmhbr)
(nyfrhqub) ib vbet (èkihbe)

Fbs fèpöts gidmhdhrbs f‘krhgheb

Edturb fu chihbu fu fèpöt prkxhcdib fb id rkmnb cîrb
Ibs bcjkumnurbs Ibs fuebs ihnkrdibs
ibs pidgbs ihnkrdibs ku fèsbrthqubs
(be dcket fbs rhvhîrbs)
Fkm. :+=?

- Bmndethiike D ? Fkchedemb fbs grdhes ER

fkem trdespkrt mkurt ku djsbet, fèpöt gid-
mhbr ku prîs fb id rkmnb cîrb.
D M - Bmndethiike J ?  Fkchedemb fbs grdhes BI
fkem trdespkrt ikeg pdr i‘bdu, fèpöt du ehvbdu
f‘ueb bcjkumnurb ku ueb pidgb .
- Bmndethiike M ?   Fkchedemb fbs grdhes ZC
fèpkts du ehvbdu fbs fuebs möthîrbs ku fèsbrthqubs
bt trdespkrt ikeg pdr ib vbet.
J

Bmndethiike D Bmndethiike J Bmndethiike M

ER eke usès BI Bckssès iuhssdets Zkefs cdts ZC

Fkm. 6? f. Gdibts pius ku ckhes spnèrhqubs, èckussès,

d. Gdibts trîs èckussès, prèsbetdet fbs strhbs à suradmb trkuèb pdr fbs pkrbs mdusès pdr id
quh rèsuitbet fu arkttbcbet bt fu mnkm ikrs fb sdihehtè fb i‘bdu fb cbr ↚ c. möthbr
i‘èjkuibcbet gidmhbr  chihbu gidmhbr ↚

j.  Gdibts à piushburs admbttbs, dux drïtbs Dmthvhtè 6 p ? ::

èckussèbs, suradmb cdtb, bt fèpkihb, rb﬊ètdet Ètufb fbs fflgurbs sèfhcbetdhrbs bt iburs shgehfflmdthkes
ue ikeg trdespkrt èkihbe ↚  chihbu fèsbrthqub Fkm. 4?
m. Gdibts à akrcb dpidthb, jhbe drrkefhb, suradmb d-  Ibs rhfbs bt ibs fuebs sket fbs fflgurbs
ihssb bt pkihb rb﬊ètdet ue ikeg trdespkrt pdr sèfhcbetdhrbs kjsbrvèbs fdes ibs fèpöts
i‘bdu ↚ chihbu ﬊uvhdthi prhemhpdibcbet fètrhthqubs
40 Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

* Hi bxhstb : typbs fb rhfbs ? fbs zkebs ku ibs mkefhthkes fyedchqubs fb

- Ibs rhfbs fb vdgubs ? trdespkrt vdrhbet (mndegbcbet fu sbes fbs
biibs sket tkuokurs à ﬊dems sycètrhqubs, rb﬊ètdet mkurdets) mkccb ibs rhvhîrbs (ditbredemb fbs
id fyedchqub f‘ue mkurdet jhfhrbmthkeebi (Id mrubs bt fèmrubs) ibs chihbu cdrhes ihttkrdux
nkuib). (cdrèb ndutb bt cdrèb jdssb)
- Ibs rhfbs fb mkurdet ? - Id prèsbemb fbs abetbs fb fbsshmmdthke à id
  biibs sket tkuokurs à ﬊dems dsycètrhqubs suradmb f‘ueb mkumnb sèfhcbetdhrb, prkuvb qub
rb﬊bttdet id fyedchqub f‘ue mkurdet ib chihbu fb fèpöt ètdht tbrrbstrb bt jkubux.
uehfhrbmthkeebi (mkurs f‘bdu du ehvbdu f‘ueb Id jkub sb rètrdmtb bt sb akef à mdusb fbs
rhvhîrb). vdrhdthkes mihcdthqubs sèvîrbs, mkccb ueb
* Pkur ibs fuebs, ke trkuvb 2 typbs ? akrtb tbcpèrdturb quh prkvkqub i‘dssèmnbcbet
 D ” Jdrlndebs ? fuebs be mrkhssdet, mkevbxbs
fu ski, ibs fflgurbs sket kjsbrvèbs fdes ibs idms
fu mötè fb i‘drrhvèb fu vbet, mkrebs fu mrkhssdet
krhbetèbs fdes ib sbes fu vbet. bt ibs ètdegs………
J ” Fuebs iheèdhrbs ? be akrcb ikeghtufhedibs, Fkm. =?
krhbetèbs pdrdiiîibcbet à id fhrbmthke fu vbet Id rbmkesthtuthke fb id pdièkgèkgrdpnhb f‘ue
M ” Fuebs trdesvbrsdibs ? biibs sket krhbetèbs chihbu fb fèpöt pbut sb jdsbr sur ibs trdmbs
pbrpbefhmuidhrbcbet pdr rdppkrt à id fhrbmthke aksshibs fb i‘dmthvhtè fbs ïtrbs vhvdets.
fu vbet Id jhkturjdthke bst i‘besbcjib fbs pnèekcîebs
F ” Fuebs pdrdjkihqubs ? mkemdvbs fu mötè fb fb pbrturjdthke fbs sèfhcbets pdr i‘dmthvhtè
i‘drrhvèb fu vbet, mkrebs fu pdrdjkib krhbetèbs krgdehqub fbs ïtrbs vhvdets. Ke fhsthegub ?
mketrb ib sbes fu vbet - Ibs trdmbs fb rdmhebs <    4
 
B ” Fuebs be ètkhibs ? Akrcbs pyrdchfdibs, - Ibs trdmbs fb fèpidmbcbet (bcprbhetbs fb pdttbs) <    B
   H
mkesthtuèbs pdr ueb mkcjhedhske betrb fbs - Ibs trdmbs fb ikgbcbet (Hmnekadmhîs fbs    V
   Z
jdrlndebs bt fbs fuebs pdrdjkihqubs krgdehscbs suspbeshvkrbs ku ihcehvkrbs) <    D
Biibs rèsuitbet fb id fyedchqub f‘ue mkurdet fb  
   P
- Ibs trdmbs fb eutrhthke, ibs trdmbs fb pêturb
vbet à piushburs fhrbmthkes sket ib rèsuitdt fb id quïtb fb ekurrhturb à id
↚  Fkem id akrcb fbs rhfbs bt fbs fuebs bst
suradmb fbs sèfhcbets.
mkefhthkeeèb pdr id fyedchqub fb i‘dgbet fb
Dmthvhtè 2 p ? :>
trdespkrt (mkurdet fb vbet ku f‘bdu) ? akrmb,
Fyedchqub fb trdespkrt fbs èiècbets sèfhcbetdhrbs
vhtbssb, sbes bt fhrbmthke.
j”  Ibs suradmbs fb sèfhcbets fètrhthqubs eke Fkm. 4?
mkeskihfès, pdrmkurubs pdr ue èmkuibcbet ﬊uhfb F‘dprîs ibs rèsuitdts kjsbrvès fdes ib tdjibdu,
(bdu ku vbet) s‘kjsbrvbet fbs mkestrumthkes fb typb ke mkestdtb qub ?
rhfbs ku fuebs, quh s‘bxpihqubet pdr ib ckuvbcbet - Pius id ndutbur fu suppkrt fb id gkutthîrb
fu sdjib, quh skus i‘dmthke fu mkurdet pdssb fu fks dugcbetb, pius id cdssb fbs sèfhcbets
vbrs ib vbetrb, ib fks fb id fueb bst mdrdmtèrhsè pdr sd rbmubhiihs fdes ib jdm bst grdefb.
pbetb, fkumb à mdusb fb ske bxpkshthke pbrcdebetb à - Pius id ndutbur fu suppkrt dugcbetb, pius id
i‘èrkshke fub à id akrtb vhtbssb fu mkurdet, ibs mkegîrbs tdhiib bt fb fhdcîtrb fbs sèfhcbets rbmubhiihs
fb sdjib dmmucuièbs sur id mrïtb, prkvkqubet ueb dugcbetbet.
dvdidemnb du ehvbdu fb id pbetb rdhfb fu vbetrb, dhesh - Ke bxpihqub sbs kjsbrvdthkes pdr ib adht
fèpöt fu sdjib, ke pdrib fb id admb à sèfhcbetdthke. qub i‘dugcbetdthke fb id ndutbur fu suppkrt
m”Id prèsbemb fbs rhfbs aksshibs à id suradmb fbs mkumnbs hcpihqub ueb akrtb dugcbetdthke fb id vhtbssb
sèfhcbetdhrbs, pbrcbt fb rbmkesthtubr ibs mkefhthkes fb fu mkurdet f‘bdu à mdusb fb id pbetb, mb quh
sèfhcbetdthke bt ibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets, bt hefuht ib trdespkrt f‘ueb cdssb pius hcpkrtdetb
mbmh be dppihqudet ib prhemhpb f‘dmtudihscb fbs sèfhcbets bt cïcb ib trdespkrt fbs
Fkm. :? èiècbets skihfbs fb pius grdefb tdhiib.
- I‘hetèrhbur fbs strdtbs pbut prèsbetbr ueb Fkm. :?
krgdehsdthke ihtèb dvbm fbs fflebs mkumnbs d-  F‘dprîs ib fhdgrdccb fb Nouiströc, ke
kjihqubs pdr rdppkrt dux okhets fb strdthfflmdthke. rbcdrqub qu‘ue èiècbet sèfhcbetdhrb sur id
Mbttb strdthfflmdthke betrbmrkhsèb dppdrdåt fdes suradmb fb id tbrrb pbut dfkptbr = typbs fb

44

mkcpkrtbcbets fhffèrbets. Hi bst skht drrdmnè ku - Reb sèfhcbetdthke sh P : A

èrkfè (èrkshke), skht trdespkrtè, skht sèfhcbetè - Re trdespkrt sh P 4 A
Ibs admtburs quh mkefhthkeebet mb mkcpkrtbcbet sket ?
↚ Id vhtbssb fu mkurdet fb trdespkrt (bdu ku vbet)
- Reb èrkshke sh P bst eègihgbdjib fbvdet A
↚ Id tdhiib ku ib fhdcîtrb fbs pdrthmuibs.
Ib trdespkrt f‘ueb pdrthmuib skihfb pbut sb
j” à pdrthr fb id tdhiib 4 cc adhrb fb = ckfbs fhffèrbets, sbike id tdhiib fb id
m” Id vhtbssb 3 12 mc/s pdrthmuib bt id vhtbssb fu mkurdet?
- Reb rbptdthke ? sh id tdhiib fb id pdrthmuib bst
Fkm. =? hcpkrtdetb, ib mkurdet eb pbut vdhemrb ske pkhfs
- Ib mkcpkrtbcbet f‘ue èiècbet skihfb ke f‘ueb - Re sditdthke ? sh id tdhiib fb id pdrthmuib bst
pdrthmuib bst mkefhthkeeè pdr : akrmbs pnyshqubs ? ckybeeb, tdetöt skuibvèb pdr ib mkurdet, bt
- Id akrmb fb grdvhtè quh fèpbef fb id cdssb fb id pdrthmuib tdetöt fèpksèb.
- Id akrmb fu mkurdet quh fèpbef fb id vhtbssb -Reb suspbeshke ? sh id tdhiib fb id pdrthmuib bst
fu fèjht (dqudthqub ku èkihbe). chehcdib, fkem ib mkurdet eb id idhssb odcdhs sb
Fb mb adht, ke pbut dsshstbr à ? fèpksbr sur tbrrb
Dmthvhtè 1 p ? =:
Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux mkethebetdux
Fkm. 4-Fkm. :-Fkm. =
  u
  b
    h
    i
    h Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fu chihbu Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets
    C

  -
  r Fèpöts èkihbes fb sdjib, skus
  b Chihbu drhfb skuvbet à vdstb
  s akrcb fb fuebs à akrcb bt tdhiib ]djib jhbe midssè bt jhbe trhè.
    è   b supbrfflmhb, adhjib piuvhkcètrhb,
    f   u
  q
  u    h fhffèrbetbs sbike id fyedchqub fu Grdhes fb qudrtz Zkefs cdts.
  b   t akrtb mndibur, ﬊krb rdrb bt adueb
    h
    i mkurdet èkihbe, m‘bst à fhrb id vhtbssb Gdibts à piushburs admbttbs.
    h typhqubcbet dfdptèb.
    C bt ib sbes fu mkurdet fu vbet

  r + Ckrdhebs nètèrkgîebs bt

  b
    h Ibs pbetbs trkp rdhfbs admhihtbet
  m Prèmhphtdthke skus akrcb fb cdi midssès, akrcès f‘èiècbets
  d
    i i‘drrdmnbcbet fbs cdtèrhdux fu
  g ebhgb ,ueb jdssb tbcpèrdturb, fètrhthqubs à fhffèrbetbs tdhiibs bt
  u
sujstrdt rkmnbux pdr i‘dgbet fb
  b ﬊krb rdrhsshcb, bt id adueb bst akrcbs
    h
    i trdespkrt ? id gidmb. trdespkrt mkurt
    h typhqubcbet dfdptèb + Grdhes fb qudrtz ER.
    C vkhrb djsbet
+ Jikms bt gdibts strhès

  b
  r
+ I‘dmthke fbs vdgubs
   t + Gdibts ib ikeg fbs rhvbs
  s Re Mkrps f‘bdu fkumb pbrcdebet + Id prkakefbur fu idm
  u + ]djib fdes id pèrhpnèrhb
  m bemidvè dihcbetè pdr id piuvhkcîtrb, + I‘dppkrt fbs rhvhîrbs
  d
    i + Qdsbs fdes ib mbetrb
  u id abetb fbs ebhgbs bt ibs rhvhîrbs, + Ib mihcdt quh mndegb sbike ibs
  b
    h + Vurjhfhtès fdes ibs prkakefburs
    i
    h Aikrb bt adueb djkefdetbs sdhskes
    C
fu idm.
+ I‘dmthvhtè jhkikghqub

Fkm. 6?
d-
Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs Mkefhthkes
Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets
fu chihbu fb sèfhcbetdthke
Re mkurdet f‘bdu fkumb +Id vhtbssb fu mkurdet f‘bdu quh Grdek midssbcbet fèmrkhssdet
    i
pbrcdebet quh prbef mndegb sbike id tkpkgrdpnhb fb i‘dcket vbrs i‘dvdi
    h
   t edhssdemb à pdrthr fbs skurmbs + I‘ditbredemb fbs pèrhkfbs + Gdibts dpidths bt pkihbs.
  d
    h
  v fb edppbs ku fb id abetb fbs f‘èrkshke bt fb sèfhcbetdthke + ]djib Cdi ku jhbe midssè.
  u
    ﬊ ebhgbs. sbike ibs sdhskes (pbefdet i‘nhvbr + Grdhe fb qudrtz ER ku BI
  u
  b
    h Reb tkpkgrdpnhb fhffèrbetb. id akrtb piuvhkcètrhb fkeeb ueb + Drghib skuvbet djkefdet
    i
    h
  c Adueb bt ﬊krb rhmnbs. akrtb vhtbssb fb mkurdet, f‘kø ueb
èrkshke. Bt ib mketrdhrb pbefdet
i‘ètè).

4: Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

j- Fdes ue ﬊buvb êgè, ke pbut trkuvbr fbs fèpöts rhvhîrb, mdr i‘drrhvèb fb i‘bdu à akrtb vhtbssb sur
f‘diiuvhkes (sèfhcbets ﬊uvhdthibs) skus akrcb fb ueb rhvb mdusb ske èrkshke, bt ke kjthbet ueb
tbrrdssbs, skht ètdgèbs (rèsuitdet f‘ueb èrkshke rhvb mkemdvb ? rhvb f‘èrkshke bt be admb fb mbttb
quh fkcheb id sèfhcbetdthke) fdes ibs zkebs à fbrehîrb, ke d ueb rhvb mkevbxb à mdusb fb id
akrtb piuvhkcètrhb, skht bcjkhtèbs (rèsuitdet akrtb sèfhcbetdthke fub à id adhjib vhtbssb fu
f‘ueb sèfhcbetdthke quh fkcheb i‘èrkshke) fdes mkurdet f‘bdu. Pius mbttb fyedchqub bst dmthvb
ibs zkebs à adhjib piuvhkcètrhb. pius ib cèdefrb s‘èidrght dugcbetdet dhesh id
m” Id akrcdthke fb id cèdefrb ﬊uvhdthib rb﬊îtb idrgbur fu iht fb id rhvhîrb.
id fyedchqub fu mkurdet nyfrhqub fdes ueb
Dmthvhtè 7 p ? =1
Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux hetbrcèfhdhrbs
4.
  u
  b
    h Mkefhthkes
    i
    h Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fu chihbu Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets
    C fb sèfhcbetdthke

  b - Re ètbefub f‘bdu sdièb, be zkeb

  r
    h
  d + Ibs admtburs mihcdthqubs
  e möthîrb pbu prkakefb, hskièb fb
  u gkuvbrebet ueb akrtb èvdpkrdthke, - Ibs èvdpkrhtbs, ib sbi bt ibs fèpöts
  g id cbr pdr ue mkrfke ihttkrdi,
  d
    i mb quh adht dugcbetbr id fbeshtè , mdrjkeedtès
  u dihcbetè pdr i‘bdu fb cbr grêmb à
  b f‘kø, prèmhphtdthke fbs sèfhcbets. - Biècbets fètrhthqubs
    h
    i ueb kuvbrturb ètrkhtb
    h + I‘dppkrt fb i‘bdu fb cbr    4
 
    C - Adueb bt ﬊krb buryndihebs    B
   H
   V
   Z
    i Reb zkeb fb trdeshthke betrb    D
  d + Ibs skurmbs fbs sèfhcbets + ]djib jhbe trhè
  r
  k
   t
mkethebet bt kmède skuchsb à
+ Ib ehvbdu f‘èebrghb fbs vdgubs + Gdibts dvbm fbs pkrbs.
 
   P
   t
    h fbux besbcjibs fb prkmbssus ?
    i + Id pbetb gèeèrdib fb id pidgb + ]èfhcbets grksshbrs (mkquhiibs
  u prkmbssus mkethebetdux bt ibs
  b
    h + Ib mkurdet èkihbe bt id sdihehtè mdssèbs f‘krgdehscbs bt fb mk-
    i
    h prkmbssus cdrhes.
    C fb i‘bdu rdux)
Zhmnb be adueb bt ﬊krb

- I‘bcjkumnurb bst ue chihbu he- - Fdes ue fbitd ? fèpöt fb sè-

  b tbrcèfhdhrb ku s‘dffrketbet ibs he- + Id mndrgb fu mkurdet ﬊uvhdthib fhcbets fètrhqubs, skus akrcb
  r
  u ﬊ubembs cdrhebs bt ﬊uvhdthibs. Id + Id fyedchqub fu mkurdet cdrhe f‘èvbetdhi (sdjib, drghib, ihcke)
    n
  m adueb bt id ﬊krb sket rdrhsshcbs + ]h id fyedchqub fu ﬊buvb fk- - Fdes ue bstudhrb i‘dppkrt fb pbu
  u
  k
    j vkhrb djsbetbs mdr mbs fbrehîrbs cheb, hi sb akrcb ue fbitd fb cdtèrhdux grksshbrs, fbs sus-
  c eb pbuvbet s‘dfdptbr à dumueb + ]h id fyedchqub cdrheb fkcheb, pbeshkes fflebs bt fbs cdthîrbs be
  b
    ‘
    I fbs fbux mkefhthkes fhvbrgbetbs hi sb akrcb ue bstudhrb skiuthke, ibs drghibs s‘dggikcîrbet
(﬊buvb, cbr) skus akrcb f‘ue jkumnke vdsbux.

:. Ibs admtburs quh fètbrchebet id ckrpnkikghb ↚ Id akrmb fbs mkurdets fb cdrèb
fb i‘bcjkumnurb sket ? ↚  Id mkcpètbemb fu ﬊buvb, ià ku id pbetb
↚ Id fhspkehjhihtè fbs sèfhcbets fbvdht s‘deeuibr
Dmthvhtè > p ? 60
Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fdes ibs chihbux cdrhes
Fkm. 4? Fkm. :?
Ib chihbu cdrhe bst sujfhvhsè be piushburs zkebs Id rhmnbssb be mdrjkedtb du ehvbdu fbs sèfhcbets
sbike ib rbihba, id prkakefbur fbs bdux, bt ibs fu pidtbdu mkethebetdi, s‘bxpihqub pdr id rhmnbssb fb
mdrdmtèrhsthqubs jhkikghqubs bt fyedchqubs quh id vhb jbetnhqub quh mkeshstb à fbs rbmhas mkrdiihbes
rîgebet, ke trkuvb dhesh ? bt fbs vdstbs zkebs f‘dmmucuidthke fb fèjrhs bt
↚  Id zkeb ihttkrdib, ib pidtbdu mkethebetdi, squbibttbs mdimdhrbs f‘krgdehscbs pidemtke
ib tdius mkethebetdi bt ske gidmhs bt id pidheb
djyssdib dvbm ibs akefs cdrhes
4=

  u
  b
    h
    i
    h Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fu chihbu Mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke Mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs sèfhcbets
    C

    i - Re prkikegbcbet fu mkethebet - Id fyedchqub fbs vdgubs + Reb sèfhcbetdthke tbrrhgîeb

  d
   t
  e skus id suradmb fb i‘bdu quh pbut - Id prkakefbur (fdes ue krfrb fèmrkhssdet fb id
  b
  e
    h s‘ètbefrb ousqu‘à :00c fb prkake- - I‘èikhgebcbet fu ihttkrdi mötb vbrs ib idrgb,
   t
  e fbur. - Ib fbgrè f'èrkshke fbs mkethebets + ]èfhcbetdthke mdrjkedtèb (rèmha
  k
  m
  u - Zhmnb be vhb jbetnhqub + jkeeb - I‘dmthvhtè jhkikghqub mkrdiihbe. Fèjrhs bt squbiibttbs
  d
  b
   t kxygèedthke mdimdhrb f'krgdehscbs pidmtke)
  d
    i
    P
- Akrtb iuchekshtè
- Vbcpèrdturb mndufb
    i
  d _keb skus-cdrheb be pbetb, ds- - Ibs dvdidemnbs, ib gihssbcbet fb - Ibs sèfhcbets pius grksshbrs
   t
  e
  b surdet id ihdhske betrb ib pidtbdu cdssb. sdjibs grdvhbrs sket mnbedihsès
  e
    h
   t mkethebetdi bt id pidheb djyssdib. - Ibs mkurdets fb turjhfhtè ku id fdes ibs mdeykes skus-cdrhes
  e
  k
  m - Prkakefbur mkcprhsb betrb 6000 shcpib rbptdthke (ue gihssbcbet - Möebs fb sèfhcbetdthke èekrcbs
  s
  u
    i bt >000c trîs ibet fb id cdssb sèfhcbetdhrb). fdes ib gidmhs mkethebetdi dvbm ue
  d
   t - Djsbemb fb adueb bt fb ﬊krb. grdekmidssbcbet pdradht
  b
    I

  b
    i
- Pdrthb pidtb fb id zkeb djys- - Ib mkurdet kmèdehqub - Pdrthmuibs tbrrhgîebs drghibusbs
  d
  s
  s
sdib kmèdehqub (grdefs akefs cdrhes), - Ib vbet f‘krhgheb mkethebetdib be suspbe-
  y fb prkakefbur betrb 2 000 bt 1 000 - Ib M.M.F shke
    j
  d
  b - Chihbu trîs mdicb, kjsmurb bt rhmnb - Id tbcpèrdturb fb i'bdu - Pkusshîrbs dppkrtèbs pdr ib vbet
  e
    h
  d
    i
be adueb, bt à tbcpèrdturb arkhfb - Id fhspkehjhihtè fu pidemtke - ]èfhcbets mdrjkedtès (squbibttbs
  p f‘krgdehscb vhvdets bt pidemtke
  b
    I

Dmthvhtè 8 p ? 66
fbs dppkrts fètrhthqubs hssus fu fkcdheb mkethebetdi
Zbmkestrumthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub
- Dmthvhtè jhkikghqub hetbesb
fu jdsshe pnkspndtè du Cdrkm
- Prèsbemb fb mkurdets cdrhes dsmbefdets upwbiiheg
Fkm. 4? - Bdu pbu prkakefb tbcpèrèb à mndufb.
Ibs 6 prhemhpdux jdsshes pnkpndtès cdrkmdhes sket ? I‘hcpkrtdemb fbs mkurdets f‘bdu arkhfbs
Kuibf Djfkue, Cdsldid, Gdetkur bt Kubf (upwbiiheg) bst i‘dugcbetdthke fb id prkfumthvhtè
bffdndj fdes ib suf, mbs ghsbcbets sb jhkikghqub, mdr mbs mkurdets sket rhmnbs be
fhsthegubet pdr fbs tbeburs èibvèbs be sujstdembs cheèrdibs eutrhthvbs, mkccb ibs
pnkspnkrb bt pdr adhjib tdux be hcpurbtès. pnkspndtbs bt ibs ehtrdtbs, mb quh pbrcbt
Mbs pnkspndtbs sket mkcpksès f‘èiècbets fb mkcpbesbr id mkeskccdthke jhkikghqub
pnkspndtès à dspbmt fb grdhes ku fb fèjrhs bxmbsshvb quh dppduvrht ibs bdux fb suradmb.
f‘krgdehscbs vbrtèjrès ku hevbrtèjrès ku fb Fkm. 6?
mkprkihtnbs ku grdhes mkcpkshtbs. Fbux tnèkrhbs sket prkpksèbs pkur rbmkesthtubr id
Fkm. :? pdièkgèkgrdpnhb fbs jdsshes pnkspndtès du Cdrkm ?
Ibs sèfhcbets pnkspndtès cdrkmdhes sket - Vrdppb bt Nbrjhg, prkpksbet qub ib mbetrb bt
mdrdmtèrhsès pdr ibur rhmnbssb be aksshibs cdrhes. i‘kubst cdrkmdhes ètdhbet sujcbrgès pdr ueb cbr
I‘ètufb fbs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs fbs aksshibs fu jdsshe èphmkethebetdib be ihdhske dvbm i‘kmède Dtidethqub.
Kuibf Djkue, d pbrch fb rbmkesthtubr ske pdièk- - Jkuok bt sdiuhe ? id cbr fbs pnkspndtbs ètdht skus
bevhrkeebcbet suppksè ueb zkeb sujthfdib pbu akrcb fb gkias fb adhjib prkakefbur be ihdhske dvbm
prkakefb, trîs dghtèb, à bdu tbcpèrèb à mndufb. i‘kmède Dtidethqub
Fkm. =? Dmthvhtè 40 p ? 6>
Id sèfhcbetdthke fu pnkspndtb ku id pnkspnd- Zbmkestrumthke fb id mdrtb pdièkgèkgrdpnhqub
tkgbeîsb du Cdrkm eèmbsshtb fbs mkefhthkes fu jdsshe fu mndrke du Cdrkm
èmkikghqubs bt gèkgrdpnhqubs jhbe prèmhsbs ? Fkm. 4?
- Prèsbemb fb ihdhske fhrbmtb betrb ibs jdsshes - Ib mndrjke fb Obrdfd sb mdrdmtèrhsb pdr sd
mkethebetdux bt ib chihbu kmèdehqub, dvbm adhjibssb rhmnbssb be cdthîrb krgdehqub, nkckgîeb dvbm

46 Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

ueb tbebur be bdu bt be cdthîrbs vkidthibs trîs ibur beakuhssbcbet bt ibur mkcpdmthke ? id
rèfuhtb bt surtkut pdr ske ditbredemb dvbm fbs mdrjkehfflmdthke (akrcdthke fu mndrjke)
rkmnbs fètrhthqubs. - Zègrbsshke fb id cbr à mdusb fb id tbmtkehqub,
Ke bxpihqub ib rytncb fb fèpöt ditbredtha pbrcbttdet id rèhestdiidthke f‘ueb akrït, dhesh ib
fu mndrjke pdr ib mndegbcbet mymihqub fèpöt f‘ueb auturb mkumnb fb mndrjke, puhs ske
fbs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke bt fb id rbmkuvrbcbet f‘èiècbets fètrhthqubs.
pdièkgèkgrdpnhb fu jdsshe fb sèfhcbetdthke. Mbs ètdpbs pbuvbet sb rbekuvbibr, bt mbmh. Grêmb dux
pnèekcîebs fb id sujshfbemb quh pbrcbt à mndqub
Fkm. :?
hestdet ib mndegbcbet pbrcdebet fu chihbu fb
Ibs fèpöts nkuhiibrs fu jdsshe fb obrdfd sket rhmnbs be
sèfhcbetdthke bt ske pdièkgèkgrdpnhb.
aksshibs vègètdux (rbstbs fb jkhs, spkrb èmrdsèb……). Mbttb
rhmnbssb be cdthîrb krgdehqub. ekus pbrcbt fb fèfuhrb Fkm. 6?
i‘krhgheb jhkikghqub fb mb mndrjke, dussh fb suppksbr qub Ibs mkefhthkes fb sèfhcbetdthke fu mndrjke du
ib pdièk-bevhrkeebcbet ètdht ueb akrït à mötè fb id cbr. Cdrkm bt id pdièkgèkgrdpnhb fb mb jdsshe ?
Fkm. =? ↚ Reb akrït à cdrèmdgbs du jkrf fb id cbr.
Ke pbut rèsucbr id akrcdthke fu mndrjke be trkhs ètdpbs ↚ Akrtb prkfumthvhtè fb id mndheb nbrmyehbeeb
? ↚ Adhjib dppkrt fètrhthqub mkethebetdi
- I‘hestdiidthke bt ib fèvbikppbcbet fbs akrïts ↚ Ckuvbcbet tbmtkehqubs advkrhsdet ib mndegbcbet fu chihbu.
fdes fbs cdrèmdgbs à mötè fb id cbr, puhs fèpöt Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke p22
fbs vègètdux ckrts (cdthîrb krgdehqub) du akef
fb mb jdsshe sèfhcbetdhrb. His sb rbtrkuvbet dhesh Bx. 4?
Ibs pdrthmuibs skihfbs hssubs fb i‘èrkshke sb    4
 
skus ueb mkumnb f‘bdu fdes ue chihbu pduvrb fèpksbet fdes ibs mkurs f‘bdu?    B
   H
be k:  advkrdjib à ibur aksshihsdthke, dprîs ibur ¨ qudef id vhtbssb fu mkurdet dugcbetb .    V
rbmkuvrbcbet pdr fbs sèfhcbets fètrhthqubs ]ur id rhvb D fb mb mkurs f‘bdu?    Z
   D
prkvbedet fb i‘èrkshke fbs mkethebets. ¨ Hi y d èrkshke
 
   P
- Beakembcbet prkgrbssha fu jdsshe pdr
sujshfbemb, prkvkqub i‘dvdemèb fb id cbr quh Bx. :?
begikutht i‘besbcjib fbs sèfhcbets vègètdux,

=
]
B
F 2 1
H A ]
C 6 K B 7
: B P ] F G
] E I ] H Z
4 D M V R D I H ] C B
J D G I B ]
I H B B E
B Z ] V
B

42

Bx. =?
4.

Bmnèiib? 4mc ↚ 2%
Zbaus be % 4mc ↚ 4 hetbrvdiib fb fhdcbtrb
Mkurjb fb arèqubemb
20 -
Nhstkgrdccb fb arèqubemb
62 -
60 -
=2 -
=0 -
:2 -
:0 -
42 -
40 -
2 -
Fhdcètrb
- -   -   - - - - - - fbs cdhiibs
      8       6       8       :       4       2       2       :
      4       0       :       4       1
 ,       >
 ,       2
 ,       6
 ,       =  ,  ,       0
      4  ,       4       0
      0       0       0       0       0  ,  ,
      0
      0       0

Fhdcîtrb fbs cdhiibs 4,48 - 0,>6 0,>6 - 0,28 0,28 - 0,6: 0,6: ” 0,=0 0,=0 ” 0,:4 0,:4 ” 0,42 0,42 - 0,402 0,402 ” 0,01:

Zbaus be % pkefèrdi 0,: 0,6 4,: :2,2 66,= 47,6 8,= 4,2

Pkurmbetdgb mucuiè % 0,: 0,1 4,> :7,= 74,1 >8 8>,= 88,>

41 Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

Bmnèiib ? 4mc ↚ 40%

4mc ↚ 4 hetbrvdiib fb fhdcbtrb
pkurmbetdgb
mucuiè% Mkurjb mucuidthvb
400 -
80 -
>0 -
70 -
10 -
20 -
60 -
   4
=0 -  
   B
   H
   V
   Z
:0 -    D
 
   P

40 -
Fhdcètrb
- - -   - - - - - - fbs cdhiibs
      8       6       8       :       4       2       2       :
      4       0       :       4       1
 ,       >
 ,       2
 ,       6
 ,       =  ,  ,       0
      4  ,       4       0
      0       0       0       0       0  ,  ,
      0
      0       0

:. T4 3 0,482 / T= 3 0,=4 400

400 # 600
  3 :2%
T= 0, =4
 ] 0 3 3
T4 0, 482 3 4, :1 2. Ke mkestdtb id fkchedemb fbs grdhes fb qudrtz ZC
bt BC dvbm 70%, mb quh rb﬊îtb ue ikeg trdespkrt pdr
Fkem 4, := 4  ] 0 4 4, 64  ib sèfhcbet bst jhbe midssè. ib vbet bt ib chihbu fb fèpöt ? fbs fuebs fèsbrthqubs
=. Ke pbut prkpksbr qub ib sdjib ètufhè prkvhbet ku fb pidgb, bt mbid mkefflrcb ektrb nypktnîsb
f‘ueb pidgb ku f‘ue fèsbrt bt qub ske ckybe fb
trdespkrt bst ib vbet
6.d. I‘bdu kxygèeèb bst uthihsèb pkur bxtrdhrb id
cdthîrb krgdehqub
j.I‘dmthke fb i‘dmhfb mnikrnyfrhqub bst id fègrdfdthke fu mdimdhrb
m. Mdimui fu pkurmbetdgb fb id cdthîrb krgdehqub ?
400
600 g - =80g 3 40g $ 40
  #
600 3 :, 2%
Mdimui fu pkurmbetdgb fb id ardmthke drghik ” ihckebusb
400
=80 - =70 g 3 :0g $ : 0 # 600 3 2%

Mdimui fu pkurmbetdgb fb mdimdhrb ?

400
=70 - 400 g 3 :70g $ :7  0 # 600 3 17, 2%

Mdimui fu pkurmbetdgb fb qudrtz ?

47

Id strdthgrdpnhb bt ibs sujfhvhshkes fu tbcps

Mndphtrb : gèkikghqub
Kjobmthas fu mndphtrb ?
- Cbttrb be èvhfbemb ibs prhemhpbs strdthgrdpnhqubs bt id fdtdthke rbidthvb fbs akrcdthkes gèkikghqubs.
- Ètdjihr i‘èmnbiib strdthgrdpnhqub bt fètbrchebr id ekthke fu mymib sèfhcbetdhrb.
- Cbttrb be èvhfbemb ibs mrhtîrbs fb sujfhvhshke fu tbcps gèkikghqub.
Mdpdmhtès à fèvbikppbr?
- Dppihqubr ibs prhemhpbs fb strdthgrdpnhb pkur rbmkesthtubr i‘nhstkhrb gèkikghqub f‘ueb règhke fkeeèb.
- Kjsbrvbr bt rdhskeebr pkur ckfèihsbr bt fhsthegubr ib aksshib strdthgrdpnhqub fu aksshib fb admhîs.
- Rthihsdthke fbs mrhtîrbs fb sujfhvhshke gèkmnrkekikghqub pkur ètdjihr ueb èmnbiib strdthgrdpnhqub.
- Btrb mdpdjib fb rbpèrbr ueb fhsmketheuhtè ku ueb sèrhb sèfhcbetdhrb fdes ueb akrcdthke gèkikghqub.
Dmthvhtè 4 p ? 2>
id rkmnb d, mbmh sbike ib prhemhpb f‘hemiushke<
Id fdtdthke rbidthvb ? Prhemhpbs fb strdthgrdpnhb Dmthvhtè : p ? 1:
Fkm. 4? Id fdtdthke rbidthvb ? Prhemhpb f‘hfbethtè pdièketkik-
Ibs tbrrdssbs ﬊uvhdthibs ètdgèbs rbprèsbetbet ghqub
ueb ihchtb f‘dppihmdthke du prhemhpb fb Fkm. 4?
supbrpkshthke, mdr pius ke fbsmbef vbrs id Mndqub aksshib sb mdrdmtèrhsb pdr fbs mrhtîrbs
prkakefbur fu iht f‘ue ﬊buvb, pius ke trkuvb fbs ckrpnkikghqubs spèmhfflqubs quh pbrcbttbet
tbrrdssbs diiuvhdibs pius rèmbetbs dikrs qub ibs fb ib rbmkeedåtrb, ke fhsthegub fbux typbs fb
demhbeebs rbstbet be jkrfurbs. aksshibs, sbike ibur hetèrït ?
Fdes ibs pihs mkumnès, ibs mkumnbs eb sket pius à - Aksshibs strdthgrdpnhqubs ? uthihsès pkur id
i‘nkrhzketdib cdhs fèakrcèbs, pihssèbs ousqu‘du fdtdthke fbs mkumnbs quh ibs mkethbeebet.
rbevbrsbcbet fb i‘krfrb ekrcdi fb id sèrhb. - Aksshibs fb admhîs ? uthihsès pkur fètbrchebr ibs
Fkm. :? mkefhthkes pdièk-èmkikghqubs quh mdrdmtèrhsbet
]bike ib prhemhpb fb mketheuhtè, ibs mkumnbs D , ib chihbu fb sèfhcbetdthke
D‘ ket ib cïcb êgb mdr biibs sket sur ib cïcb Fkm. :?
ètbefub bt ket id cïcb edturb ihtnkikghqub, d.  Ibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs f‘ue jke aksshib
dussh id mkumnb D‘‘ cdigrè ib mndegbcbet idtèrdi strdthgrdpnhqub sket ?
fb ske admhîs, mdr biibs ket ib cïcb cür (iht) bt - Reb grdefb bxtbeshke gèkgrdpnhqub
ib cïcb tkht. Ke bxpihqub id fhffèrbemb fb ske - Reb akrtb djkefdemb bt èvkiuthke rdphfb
admhîs pdr ib mndegbcbet fb id edturb fu chihbu - Reb ètbefub vbrthmdib ihchtèb (mkurtb furèb vhb)
fb fèpöt. j. Ibs dcckehtbs sket fbs ckiiusqubs dppdrubs
Fkm. =? du fèjut fb i‘èrb sbmkefdhrb, bt fhspdrubs
]bike ib prhemhpb fb rbmkupbcbet, ib fflike F à sd ffle, mkeeubs pdr ueb grdefb bxpdeshke
bst pius rèmbet qub id sèrhb fbs mkumnbs M, J, gèkgrdpnhqub, djkefdetbs bt à èvkiuthke rdphfb
D , mdr hi ibs rbmkupb dussh id adhiib B bst pius Fkem fb jkes aksshibs strdthgrdpnhqubs pkur id
rèmbetb quh ib fflike F mdr biib ib rbmkupb, fkem fdtdthke fb i‘îrb sbmkefdhrb (Ib Cèskzkëqub) .
id mnrkekikghb rbidthvb fbs èvîebcbets bst id Ibs trhikjhtbs dussh mkeeus pdr ibs cïcbs
suhvdetb ? mdrdmtèrhsthqubs pbuvbet ïtrb uthihsès pkur id fdthke
↚ Fèpöt fb id mkumnb M puhs J puhs D fu pdièkzkëqub (îrb prhcdhrb) mdr his sket dppdrus du
↚ Hetrushke fu fflike F (cdgcd) mdcjrhbe bt fhspdrus à id ffle fu pbrchbe.
↚ Ckuvbcbet tbmtkehqub mdusdet id adhiib B Fkm. =?
Fkm. 6? d. Ibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs f‘ue jke aksshib fb admhîs sket ?
F‘dprîs id mkupb gèkikghqub, ke rbcdrqub qub - Reb idrgb bxpdeshke tbcpkrbiib
ibs ckrmbdux fb id rkmnb j sket hemius fdes id - Reb fhstrhjuthke gèkgrdpnhqub trîs ètrkhtb bt
rkmnb d. Fkem id rkmnb j bst pius demhbeeb qub ihèb dux mkefhthkes èmkikghqubs
- Reb èvkiuthke trîs ibetb
4> Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

j. Ib eduthib bst ue jke aksshib fb admhîs, mdr hi d skus akrcb fb mkumnbs rbprèsbetdet ue grdek-
ueb ikegub bxtbeshke vbrthmdib (fu mdrjkehaîrb midssbcbet fèmrkhssdet fu jds vbrs ib ndut
 ousqu‘à i‘dmtubi à èvkiuthke trîs ibetb bt pdr mketrb id sèrhb règrbsshvb bst mdrdmtèrhsèb
kmmupbet ibs chihbux cdrhes à prkakefbur quh pdr ue fèpöt fbs èiècbets sèfhcbetdhrbs be
pbut dttbhefrb 100 à >00c. Fb cïcb pkur mkumnbs summbsshvbs midssèbs fu pius ffle vbrs ib
ibs rèmhas mkrdiihbes quh ket fbs bxhgbembs pius grks fu jds vbrs ib ndut.
èmkikghqubs trîs strhmtbs bt mkesthtubet f‘bxmbiibetbs j-
drmnhvbs fu mihcdt bt fu chihbu cdrhe
Fkm. 6? ]èfhcbets grksshbrs
]èrhb
Id mkumnb m fb id mkikeeb D bt id mkumnè fb ]èfhcbets ffles
rbgrbsshvb
id mkikeeb J mkethbeebet ib cïcb aksshib ? ]èrhb
Dcckehtb, quh bst ue jke aksshib strdthgrdpnhqub Mdrkedtbs sèfhcbetdhrb

mdrdmtèrhsthqub fb i‘îrb sbmkefdhrb, fkem ibs

fbux mkumnbs ket ib cïcb êgb. ]bike ib prhemhpb ]èrhb
]èfhcbets ffles trdesgrbsshvb
f‘hfbethtè pdièketkikghqub.
Dmthvhtè = p ? 70 ]èfhcbets grksshbrs
Id rbmnbrmnb fbs sufhvhshkes gèkmnrkekikghqubs ?
Fhsmkrfdemb, idmuebs bt mymibs sèfhcbetdhrbs
Ibs sèrhbs sèfhcbetdhrbs s‘krfkeebet skuvbet
be sèqubembs ihtnkikghqubs quh sb rèpîtbet dvbm
Fkm. 4? ueb règuidrhtè pius ku ckhes strhmtb bt hevbrsè.
d-↚ Fèpöt f‘ueb sèrhb fb mkumnbs nkrhzketdibs. Ke pbut y vkhr ue tèckhgedgb f‘ueb èvkiuthke    4
 
↚  Mketrdhetbs tbmtkehqubs prkvkqudet ue mymihqub fu ehvbdu rbidtha fbs cbrs mketröièbs    B
   H
pihssbcbet fbs mkumnbs pdr i‘bustdthscb, id sujshfbemb cdrheb, ibs    V
↚ Èrkshke mrèdet ue pide fb sèfhcbetdthke ckuvbcbets tbmtkehqubs (fhvbrgbemb bt    Z
   D
↚ Fèpöt f‘ueb dutrb sèrhb fb mkumnbs nkrhzketdibs mkevbrgbemb, bt ibs vdrhdthkes mihcdthqubs. Mbs  
   P
cdrqudet ueb fhsmketheuhtè dvbm id prbchîrb. èvèebcbets hfbethffldjibs à i'uehvbrsbiib ket
j- Ibs sèrhbs D bt J prèsbetbet ueb fhsmkrfdemb pbrchs id mkestrumthke fbs èmnbiibs fbs tbcps.
deguidhrb quh sb cdehabstb pdr i‘hetbrrupthke Dmthvhtè 6 p ? 71
f‘ueb mketheuhtè ekrcdib betrb ibs fbux sèrhb Id rbmnbrmnb fs sufhvhshkes gèkmnrkekikghqubs ?
quh prèsbetbet ue pbefdgb fhffèrbet fkem ibs Ib strdtktypb, id jhkzkeb, ibs mrhsbs bt ibs pndsbs
fbux sèrhbs e‘ket pds ib cïcb êgb. Fb cïcb krkgèehqubs
pkur ibs sèrhb M bt F
]èrhb D 3 nkrhzketdib Fkm. 4?
]èrhb J ? jdsmuièb ku hemiheèb, Pkur qu‘ueb sèrhb sèfhcbetdhrb skht qudihfflèb
]èrhb M ? nkrhzketdib fb strdtktypb, biib fkht ïtrb sdes fèakrcdthke
]èrhb F 3 pihssèb, tbmtkehqub, bt jhbe fèihchtèb m‘bst à fhrb
mkcprhsb betrb : fhsmketheuhtès fhsthemtbs. Biib
Fkm. :? fkht dussh pkssèfbr fbs cdrquburs jhkikghqubs
d-  Ke rbcdrqub qub i‘èpdhssbur fbs mkumnbs fhffîrb (aksshibs mdrdmtèrhsthqubs), gèkmnhchqubs pkur
betrb ibs = mkikeebs, cdhs i‘bffbt ib pius cdrqudet m‘bst pbrcbttrb fbs mkrrèidthkes
i‘djsbemb fb : mkumnbs sèfhcbetdhrbs du ehvbdu fb id
mkikeeb M, ke pdrib f‘ueb idmueb sèfhcbetdhrb qu‘ke Fkm. :?
pbut bxpihqubr pdr ueb djsbemb fb sèfhcbethke füb Id jhkzkeb bst ueb sèrhb fb strdtbs à akrcb
à ue mndegbcbet fu chihbu fb fèpöt prkvkquè pdr id aksshib mdrdmtèrhsthqub quh pbut ïtrb uthihsèb fdes
vdrhdthke fu ehvbdu cdrhe, ku pdr ueb sèfhcbetdthke ibs sujfhvhshkes gèkmnrkekikghqubs. Hi bxhstb
suhvhb f'brkshke. fhffèrbets typbs fb jhkzkebs sbike i‘dppdrhthke
j- Fèpöt fb id mkumnb D puhs J, M bt F, Dprîs ku id fhspdrhthke f‘ue ku fb piushburs tdxkes
ueb èrkshke suhvhb fu fèpöt fb id mkumnb B. - Jhkzkeb f‘kppbi ? ue besbcjib fb mkumnbs
fket ib mketbeu be aksshibs mkesthtub ueb
Fkm. =? dsskmhdthke edturbiib quh ib fhsthegub fbs
d- Reb sèrhb trdesgrbsshvb sb rbmkeedåt pdr ue mkumnbs dfodmbetbs.
fèpöt summbssha fbs èiècbets sèfhcbetdhrbs - Jhkzkeb fb tdxke ? ue besbcjib fb mkumnbs
48

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rbprèsbetdet i‘bxtbeshke tktdib fb id prèsbemb pbrcbttbet id sujfhvhshke fbs îrbs be ètdgbs,

fbs spèmhcbes f‘ue tdxke fkeeè mkccb ?
- Jhkzkeb mkemkchtdetb ? id pkrthke fb mkumnbs ↚ Id mrhsb betrb i‘krfkvhmhbe bt ib shiurhbe
ku ibs pkrthkes mkemkchtdetbs ku mkëemhfbetbs ↚ Id mrhsb betrb ib fèvkehbe bt ib mdrjkehaîrb.
fbs zkebs f‘bxtbeshke fb fbux ku piushburs Ibs mrhsbs jhkikghqubs mkesthtubet fbs cdrquburs
tdxkes fètbrcheès hefhspbesdjibs pkur id sujfhvhshke fu tbcps
- Jhkzkeb f‘hetbrvdiib ? M‘bst i‘hetbrvdiib betrb : gèkikghqub, mdr id fhspdrhthke ku i‘bxthemthke f‘ue
nkrhzkes jhkstrdthgrdpnhqubs fkeeès, id jdsb ku tdxke jhkikghqub eèmbsshtb ue èvîebcbet fb grdef
ib skccbt fb tbiib zkeb pbut ïtrb cdrquè pdr dcpibur quh pbut ïtrb fb fhffèrbetbs krhghebs ?
i‘dppdrhthke f‘ue tdxke bt id fhspdrhthke f‘ue dutrb. - Bxtrd-tbrrbstrb, mkccb ib cètèkrhscb.
Fkm. =? - Vbrrbstrb, mkccb ue vkimdehscb
Ibs mrhsbs jhkikghqubs cdoburbs pbrcbttbet id - Bustdthqub ? tbmtkehqub fb pidqubs
sujfhvhshke fu tbcps gèkikghqub be îrbs, ke be - Qdrhdthkes mihcdthqubs.
fhsthegub =. Fkm. 6?
↚ Reb mrhsb betrb ib prhcdhrb bt ib sbmkefdhrb ? Ib mymib krkgèehqub bst cdrquè tkuokurs
quh d pbrchs id fhcheuthke fb id jhkfhvbrshtè fb à sd jdsb pdr ueb fhsmkrfdemb fkem ueb
200 adchiibs à =00 fhsmketheuhtè quh eb pbut ïtrb bxpihquè qub
↚ Reb mrhsb betrb ib sbmkefdhrb bt ib tbrthdhrb ? pdr fbs èvèebcbets tbmtkehqub cdoburs, f‘kø
pbrcbt ueb bxthemthke ckhes hcpkrtdetb fb 20 ske uthihsdthke mkccb rbpîrb fb sujfhvhshke
adchiibs. gèkmnrkekikghqub.
Ibs mrhsbs cheburbs, fb ckhefrb hcpkrtdemb
Dmthvhtè 2 p ? >0
I‘èmnbiib strdthgrdpnhqub
Fkm. 4?
Bvîebcbets Bvèebcbets
Brbs Id furèb Ibs pèrhkfbs
gèkikghqubs jhkikghqubs
Tudtbredhrb Fbpuhs -4,7Cd Dppdrhthke fb i‘bs-
 ousqu‘à prèsbet pèmb nucdheb
Vbrthdhrb 1=,= C.d. Pdièkgîeb bt Akrcdthke fbs mndhebs Dppdrhthke fbs
(Mèekzkëqub) (Fbpuhs -12Cd Eèkgîeb fbs dipbs bt fbs Pyrè- Euccuihtbs bt fu
 ousqu‘à -4,7C.d) eèbs Pbmtbe
]bmkefdhrb 4>0 C.d - Mrètdmè Dppdrhthke fbs
(Cèskzkëqub) (fbpuhs -:62 C.d - Ourdsshqub fheksdurbs bt fbs
 ousqu‘à-12) - Vrhds Dcckehtbs
Prhcdhrb =02 C.d (Fbpuhs -Pbrchbe Akrcdthke fbs mndhebs - Vrhikjhtbs
(Pdièkzkëqub) -220 C.d ousqu‘à -Mdrjkehaîrb nbrmyehbeeb bt mdièfk- - Fhpikfkmus
-:62) - Fèvkehbe ehbeeb - Pkhsskes kssbux
- ]hiurhbe
- Krfkvhmhbe
-Mdcjrhbe
Zbcdrqub ?
Ib prèmdcjrhbe bst ueb sujfhvhshke fu tbcps Bxbrmhmbs f‘dppihmdthke p>1
gèkikghqub quh d prèmèfè i‘îrb prhcdhrb, bt
quh d furè fbpuhs-6210 Cd ousqu‘à -260 Cd, • Ob tbstb cbs mkeedhssdembs ?
biib bst mdrdmtèrhsè pdr id akrcdthke fu cdssha - Ibs aksshibs strdthgrdpnhqubs sb mdrdmtèrhsbet pdr
mdfkchbe bt pdr i‘dppdrhthke fbs ïtrbs vhvdets ?
uehmbiiuidhrbs. ¨  Reb fhstrhjuthke vbrthmdib trîs ihchtèb
- Tubiib bst id ihchtb gèkikghqub mkrrbspkefdetb à

:0 Guhfb fu Prkabssbur | BVHEMBIIB

i‘bxthemthke fbs fheksdurbs, hi y d 12 chiihkes f‘deeèbs ; biibs ket ib cïcb êgb sbike ib prhemhpb fb mketheuhtè
¨  Id ihchtb mrètdmè ” tbrthdhrb :. A6 3 Dcckehtb bst ue jke aksshib strdthgrdpnhqub, mdr
- betrb qubiibs pèrhkfbs gèkikghqubs sb shtubet hi d ueb rèpdrththke trîs ihchtèb fdes ib tbcps (mrètdmè) bt
ib adcbux ourdsshqub ueb rèpdrththke gèkgrdpnhqub ètbefub.
¨ Betrb ib trhds bt ib mrètdmè A4 ku A: (Zdmhebs f‘drjrbs bt nuhtrbs) sket fb
- Ibs mrhtîrbs fb sujfhvhshke fu tbcps gèkikghqub sket ? jkes aksshibs fb admhîs, mdr his sket mdrdmtèrhsès
¨  Ibs fhsmkrfdembs deguidhrbs pdr ueb ikegub rèpdrththke fdes ib tbcps bt ueb
- Id adhiib A bst rèpdrththke gèkgrdpnhqub trîs ihchtèb.
¨ detèrhburb à i‘èrkshke =.  Ibs mkumnbs J,J‘ bt J‘‘ ket ib cïcb êgb
• O‘dppihqub cbs mkeedhssdembs ? bt puhsqub J mkethbet i‘Dcckehtb fkem ibs =
Bx. 4? mkumnbs fdtbet fu mrètdmè
I‘krfrb mnrkekikghqub fbs èvèebcbets gèkikghqubs 6.  Id fhffèrbemb fb id edturb ihtnkikghqub
quh ket dffbmtès mbttb règhke bst ib suhvdet ? betrb ibs = mkumnbs pbut ïtrb bxpihquèb pdr id
↚ Fèpöt fbs mkumnbs = ↚6↚2↚1 (prhemhpb fb vdrhdthke fbs chihbux fb fèpöts.
supbrpkshthke) 2. Id stdthke 4 ètdht ue chihbu cdrhe mdr id mkumnb
↚  Mketrdhetbs tbmtkehqubs ket prkvkquè ue J mkethbet i‘Dcckehtb
pihssbcbet fbs mkumnbs Id stdthke : ètdht ueb cbr mndufb à adhjib prkakefbur
↚ Adhiib A (prhemhpb fb rbmkupbcbet) mdr id mkumnb J‘ mkethbet fbs rèmhas mkrdiihbes.
↚  Hetrusthke fu cdgcd (grdehtb) bt akrcdthke Id stdthke = ètdht ue chihbu tdetöt mkethebetdi tdetöt
fb i‘durèkib (prhemhpb fb rbmkupbcbet) ihttkrdi m‘bst à fhrb ueb zkeb susmbpthjib fb sujhr fbs
↚ Brkshke vdrhdthkes fu ehvbdu cdrhe, mdr mbttb mkumnb mkethbet    4
 
↚ Fèpöts fbs mkumnbs 7 ↚>↚8 fbs nuhtrbs bt fbs rdmhebs f‘drjrb    B
   H
↚ Hetrusthke bt èrupthke vkimdehqub 40    V
     Z
   D
Bx. :?  
   P

4.  Ibs mkumnbs D, D‘ bt D‘‘ sb trkuvbet sur ib cïcb

ètbefub bt ket id cïcb edturb ihtnkikghqub, fkem