Quaternaire, 25, (4), 2014, p.

383-390

HOLOCENE RELATIVE SEA-LEVEL CHANGES

FROM SUBMERGED TIDAL NOTCHES:
A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

Niki EVELPIDOU1 & Paolo A. PIRAZZOLI1

ABSTRACT

Underwater geomorphological survey may reveal evidence of submerged tidal notches. In this paper, we present the metho-
dology with the aim to reveal past temporary standstills of relative sea-level. Some examples of tidal notch development and tec-
tonic movements are provided from fossil submerged notches mainly from Greece. A vertical movement causes a displacement of
the intertidal bioerosion zone. For this reason the tidal notch profile reflects changes that occurred in the relative sea-level. If the
movement is rapid a new tidal notch will be formed. On the contrary, if the movement is slower than the intertidal bioerosion rate,
the height of the notch will increase. For this reason underwater marks on carbonate cliffs may provide evidence of recent vertical
shoreline displacements of gradual or co-seismic origin.

Keywords: tidal notches, sea-level changes, intertidal bioerosione

RÉSUMÉ

VARIATIONS HOLOCÈNES DU NIVEAU RELATIF DE LA MER D’APRÈS LES ENCOCHES DE MARÉE SUBMERGÉES :
APPROCHE MÉTHODOLOGIQUE
Des relevés géomorphologiques sous-marins sont susceptibles de révéler l’existence d’encoches de marée submergées. Cet
article propose une méthodologie pour déterminer des périodes temporaires de stabilité du niveau relatif de la mer dans le passé.
Quelques exemples de développement d’encoches de marée fossiles en fonction de mouvements tectoniques sont fournis, princi-
palement en Grèce. Un mouvement vertical provoque un déplacement de la zone de bioérosion intertidale. De ce fait, le profil de
l’encoche de marée témoigne des variations du niveau relatif de la mer. Si le mouvement est rapide, il aboutit à la formation d’une
nouvelle encoche de marée. Au contraire, si le mouvement est moins rapide que la vitesse de la bioérosion intertidale, il provoque
une augmentation de la hauteur de la même encoche de marée. De ce fait, des traces préservées dans des roches carbonatées
peuvent indiquer des changements récents de la ligne de rivage correspondant à des déplacements verticaux graduels ou d’origine
co-sismique.

Mots-clés : encoches de marée, changements du niveau de la mer, bioérosion intertidale

1 - INTRODUCTION cator, because it provides information about the former

In the midlittoral zone, parallel vegetational belts are
more developed. Eroding Cyanobacteria, patellaceous
gastropods (limpets) and chitons are more abundant
(Laborel & Laborel-Deguen, 2005) contributing to the
erosion of the underlying rock, by grazing the vege-
tational belts (Torunski, 1979), and in sites sheltered
from strong wave action, they enable the development
of a reclined U-shaped or V-shaped intertidal notch.
The bioerosion rate is generally higher near the Mean
Sea-level (MSL) where the vertex of the tidal notch is
developed and gradually decreases towards the upper
and lower limits of the intertidal range (fig. 1). The
profile of a tidal notch is an excellent sea-level indi-
MSL position, the approximate duration in which MSL
remained at the level of the notch vertex and it deter-
mines whether the vertical displacement was gradual
or rapid, possibly co-seismic (Pirazzoli, 1986, 2005;
Evelpidou et al., 2011b).
Micro-erosion measurements have shown that the
deepening rate of a tidal notch profile may be very
variable in the Mediterranean, since it ranges from less
than 0.1 mm.yr-1 to more than 1 mm.yr-1, with averages
of the order of 0.2 to 0.3 mm.yr-1 at some sites (Pirazzoli,
1986; Furlani et al., 2011a,b; Evelpidou et al., 2011b).
This high variability may depend on seasonal changes in
the environment (temperature, salinity, air pressure) that
influence not only the intertidal vegetation and grazing

1
Laboratoire de Géographie Physique, 1 place Aristide Briand, FR-92195 MEUDON cedex, France.
Courriels: evelpidou@geol.uoa.gr, paolop@noos.fr

Manuscrit reçu le 29/11/2013, accepté le 08/06/2014

 384
Fig. 1: Tidal notch profile: the vertex is located near the mean sea-
level (MSL), the base near the lowest tide level and the roof near the
highest tide level.
Fig. 1 : Dans un profil d’encoche de marée, le sommet est situé près du
niveau moyen de la mer, la base près du niveau des plus basses mers et
le toit près du niveau des plus hautes mers.
organisms, but also the sea-level changes over seasonal
or inter-annual scales.
All carbonate rocks are not equally sensitive to tidal-
notch development: the slope of the rock layers and irre-
gularities on the rock structure or surface may locally
prevent the development of a tidal notch (Pirazzoli &
Evelpidou, 2013). During the last two centuries tide
gauges have shown that the global sea-level (sensu
Kemp et al., 2011, or Jevrejeva et al., 2008) was rising
at a faster rate than the possibilities of intertidal bioero-
sion (at least in the Mediterranean). As a consequence,
new tidal notches have not been forming in most places,
where the average tidal range is less than the sea-level
rise during the last couple of centuries (Evelpidou et al.,
2012a).
If raised notches have often been used to estimate
past changes in sea-level and tectonic movements (e.g.
Pirazzoli et al., 1982, 1989, 1994; Liew et al., 1993;
Hantoro et al., 1994; Bard et al., 1996; Stewart et al.,
1997; Stiros et al., 2000, 2009; Morhange et al., 2006),
submerged notches, which are more difficult to observe,
have been studied mainly occasionally by a few authors.
Such underwater observations have been, most of the
time, devoted to the measurement and interpretation
of a single submerged tidal notch (e.g. Pirazzoli, 1980;
Fouache et al., 2000; Benac et al., 2004; Antonioli
et al., 2007; Nixon et al., 2009; Faivre et al., 2010a,b;
Furlani et al., 2011a,b). Nevertheless, Holocene tecto-
nics may include more than a single episode and it may
be useful to extend underwater observations below the
first submerged notch. This seems to have been attempted
only in very few cases e.g. in the Kvarner region (Benac
& Juračić, 1998).
In comparison, by applying the methodology described
in this paper and an accurate analysis of the genesis
of notch profiles, it has been identified more than one
submerged shoreline along most of the northern coast
of the Corinth Gulf (Evelpidou et al., 2011a), along the
coast of Skyros Island (Evelpidou et al., 2012c), along
Skopelos and Alonnisos Islands (Evelpidou et al., 2013a)
and in the SE Cyclades (Evelpidou et al., 2013b). In all
the cases studied, the vertical successions of submerged
notches suggest the occurrence of rapid subsidence
events, potentially of seismic origin.
The aim of this paper is to summarize the methodo-
logy that would be most useful to apply systematically
in order to reveal past temporary standstills and the type
of changes in the relative sea-level that have occurred
in carbonate coastal zones based on submerged tidal
notches.
2 - MATERIALS AND METHODS
Detailed, accurate and systematic survey along the
coastal zone by boat is necessary in order to access all
sites and to establish lateral continuity of observations.
During the survey, the local lithology and tidal range
are taken into account. For each site, the time and the
GPS coordinates are collected. Underwater, the observed
features are measured in relation to the apparent sea-level
and the accuracy in depth measurements due to waves
should be estimated. Finally, the observed features are
photographed and video recorded.
Notch geometries (height, vertex and inward depth)
are measured according to Pirazzoli (1986) (fig. 1). The
accuracy can be improved by multiple measurements,
while depths referred to the apparent sea-level at the
time of the measurement are subsequently corrected
by comparison with tide-gauge records at nearby tidal
stations, also taking into account the real meteorological
conditions (especially air pressure and wind).
The profile of the notches is recorded in detail during
field work and afterwards interpreted as discussed in
next paragraph. Submerged tidal notches cannot be dated
directly, but their age can be indirectly estimated.
After field work, reports from the observations are
delivered first (fig. 2) as they are essential for initial
interpretations and discussions, while, tables including
tide corrections with sizes of submerged notch profiles
may be prepared afterwards, resulting from the primary
analysis of the collected data. These tables should include
the following information: area, site, coordinates, notch
measurements (corrected for tide and air pressure),
genesis and illustrations. The notch measurements should
include data regarding the roof depth from sea-level, the
vertex from sea-level, the height and the inward depth of
vertex. Additional information of the nearby area such
as platforms, bottom, depth, etc, could be also provided.
The described table could also include further infor-
mation deriving from the first order interpretation of
the collected data. This information should include the
 385

Fig. 2: An example of a field work report for a specific studied site.

Apart from the place name and exact location, date and time are very important in order to correct afterwards the measurements taken by comparison
with the tide-gauge records and the meteorological conditions. In the specific example from Cephalonia Island (Ionian Sea), a double submerged notch
below an elevated one have been identified and measured. Since this figure is an example of the report written during fieldwork, the depth measurements
have not yet been tide and meteo corrected.
Fig. 2 : Un exemple de rapport de terrain pour un site spécifique étudié. En plus du nom et de la localisation précise du site, la date et l’heure sont très
importantes, en vue des corrections ultérieures des mesures en tenant compte des enregistrements marégraphiques et des conditions météorologiques.
Dans cet exemple spécifique de Céphalonie (Mer Ionienne), on a identifié et mesuré une double encoche submergée, au-dessous d’une encoche émergée.
Puisque cette figure est un exemple de rapport établi pendant le terrain, les mesures n’ont pas encore été corrigées pour tenir compte de la marée et de
la météorologie.
 386
possible duration of development (centuries) deduced
from the measurement of the inward depth (e.g. Evelpidou
et al., 2011b; Evelpidou et al., 2012c; Evelpidou et al.,
2013a) and the regional sea-level correlation (cm below
present MSL).
3 - EXAMPLES OF INTERPRETATION
OF NOTCH PROFILES
Data collection during field work constitutes a key
element for this type of studies. The notch geometries
(fig. 1) and the mapping of the notch profile are the data
to be further interpreted.
Various tidal notch profiles for submerged notches
have been graphically summarized in various papers, e.g.
A A
B B
51 cm
Fig. 3: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type a’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type a’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c),
drown after a rapid, probably co-seismic subsidence. After this
abrupt submergence the gradual sea-level rise, which took place
during the last few centuries at a faster rate than bioerosion (indi-
cated with oblique lines), kept submerging the area. b/ Submerged
notch in Corfu Island (Ionian Sea). Its vertex is located at -51 cm and
has an inward depth of 29 cm. The notch profile (type-a’) suggests
the occurrence of a relatively stable sea-level during a period of
3-14 centuries, depending on the rate of bioerosion, to enable its
full development.
Fig. 3 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type a’.
a/ Profil d’encoche du type a’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a,
2012a,c), dessiné après une subsidence rapide, probablement
co-sismique. Après cette brusque submersion, la montée graduelle
du niveau marin qui a suivi pendant quelques siècles, à une vitesse
dépassant la vitesse de la bioérosion (indiquée par des traits obliques)
a poursuivi la submersion de la région. b/ Encoche submergée dans
l’Ile de Corfu (Mer Ionienne). Son sommet est situé à -51 cm et sa
profondeur horizontale est de 29 cm. Le profil (de type a’) suggère
que, pour son développement, le niveau marin est resté relativement
stable pendant une période de 3 à 14 siècles, en fonction de la vitesse
supposée pour la bioérosion.
Evelpidou et al. (2011b; 2012a,b,c) and seven theoretical
schemes of tidal notch profiles under different conditions,
on a vertical carbonate cliff, have been distinguished and
allow to qualitatively discriminate the way of subsidence
e.g. co-seismic event, gradual relative sea-level rise, etc.
A prime (‘) has been added to previously compiled fossil
notch types, i.e. which are not of present-day formation.
Type a’: reclined U-shaped notch profile. The height
of the notch roof (HR) is very similar to the height of
the notch floor (HF) (fig. 3a & b). A rapid subsidence,
greater than the tidal range, resulted to an underwater
preserved former notch. Type b’: two submerged former
notches, which were preserved after two rapid subsi-
dence events, greater than the tidal range (fig. 4a &
b). Type c’: a rapid subsidence, smaller than the tidal
range, preceded and followed by a period of millennium
45 cm
70 cm
Fig. 4: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type b’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type b’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c)
drown after two rapid, probably co-seismic subsidence events followed
by the gradual sea-level rise which took place during the last few centu-
ries, at a faster rate than bioerosion (indicated with oblique lines),
kept submerging the area. b/ Two submerged notches in Keros Island
(Cyclades, Aegean Sea). The upper notch, developed between -20 ± 10
and -65 ± 10 cm, is of type b’ profile, indicating that its submergence
was rapid. The lower notch, between about -190 ± 10 and -260 ± 10 cm,
corresponds to a former sea-level at about 220 ± 20 cm below the
present one.
Fig. 4 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type b’.
a/ Profil d’encoche de type b’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a,
2012a,c), dessiné après deux cas, probablement co-sismiques, de subsi-
dence rapide. Après cette double submersion, la montée graduelle du
niveau de la mer qui a suivi pendant quelques siècles, à une vitesse
dépassant la vitesse de la bioérosion (indiquée par des traits obliques)
a poursuivi la submersion de la région. b/ Deux encoches submergées
dans l’Ile de Keros (Cyclades, Mer Egée). L’encoche supérieure, déve-
loppée entre -20 ± 10 et -65 ± 10 cm, présente un profil de type b’, indi-
quant une submersion rapide. L’encoche inférieure, située entre environ
-190 ± 10 et -260 ± 10 cm, correspond à un ancien niveau marin à
environ 220 ± 20 cm au-dessous du niveau actuel.
 387
of relative sea-level stability, produces a notch higher
than the tidal range (fig. 5a & b). Two vertices appear,
separated by an undulation in the notch profile, indica-
ting the former and the following MSL positions. Type
d’: a gradual relative sea-level rise, at a rate smaller
A A
B B
43 cm
Fig. 5: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type c’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type c’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c).
b/ Submerged notches in Naxos island (Cyclades, Aegean Sea). The
upper one (see arrow) corresponds to type-c’ and suggests a seismic
movement that displaced sea-level from the lower notch (NA2) to the
upper one NA1.
Fig. 5 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type c’.
a/ Profil d’encoche de type c’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c).
b/ Encoches submergées à Naxos (Cyclades, Mer Egée). L’encoche
supérieure, de type c’, suggère un mouvement sismique qui a déplacé
le rivage de NA2 à NA1.
than the bioerosion rate, produces a notch profile much
higher than the tidal range but of limited inward depth
(fig. 6a & b). Type e’: in the case of a gradual relative
sea-level rise during one millennium, followed by rela-
tive sea-level stability of the same duration, the notch
66 cm
Fig. 6: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type d’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type d’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c).
b/ A submerged notch in Kineta area, in the Saronic Gulf. The notch
is located at -66 cm, with a height of 99 cm, much larger than the tidal
range, and corresponds to type d’ suggesting a gradual relative sea-level
rise at a slower rate than the intertidal bioerosion.
Fig. 6 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type d’.
a/ Profil d’encoche de type d’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c).
b/ Encoche submergée dans la région de Kineta (Golfe de Salonique).
Elle est située à -66 cm et a une hauteur de 99 cm (nettement supérieure
au marnage) ; son profil, de type d’, suggère une montée graduelle du
niveau relatif de la mer à une vitesse plus faible que celle de la bioé-
rosion intertidale.
 388
height becomes greater than the tidal range, with HR<HF
(fig. 7a & b). Type e’’: in the case of relative sea-level
stability, followed by a gradual relative sea-level rise
of the same duration, the notch height becomes greater
than the tidal range, with HF<HR (fig. 8a & b).
A
45 cm
Fig. 7: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type e’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type e’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c). b/ A
submerged notch in the north part of Corinth Gulf. This notch is located
between about -40 ± 10 and -85 ± 10 cm, with an inward depth of
about 45 cm. Its profile is dissymmetrical (e’-type), with the roof height
smaller than the floor height. It suggests the occurrence of a gradual
subsidence of about half a meter, followed by a period of relatively
stable sea-level and then by a period of relative sea-level rise.
Fig. 7 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type e’.
a/ Profil d’encoche de type e’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c).
b/ Encoche submergée dans la partie nord du Golfe de Corinthe. Cette
encoche est située entre environ -40 ± 10 et -85 ± 10 cm, avec une
profondeur horizontale d’environ 45 cm. Son profil est dissymétrique
(de type e’), avec une hauteur du sommet inférieure à la hauteur de la
base. Elle suggère une subsidence graduelle d’environ un demi-mètre,
suivie par une période de niveau marin relativement stable, puis d’une
période d’une graduelle montée relative du niveau de la mer.
A
B
62 cm
Fig. 8: Theoretical (a) and observed (b) type e’’ notch profiles.
a/ Notch of type e’’ profile (after Evelpidou et al., 2011a, 2012a,c). b/A
submerged tidal notch in Cephalonia Island. This notch belongs to e’’
type, with a vertex at -62 cm and a height of 145 cm.
Fig. 8 : Profils théorique (a) et observé (b) d’encoches de type
e’’. a/ Profil d’encoche de type e’’ (d’après Evelpidou et al., 2011a,
2012a,c). b/ Encoche de marée submergée à Céphalonie. Son profil est
de type e’’, avec un sommet à -62 cm et une hauteur de 145 cm.
4 - AGE ESTIMATION
OF SUBMERGED TIDAL NOTCHES
Submerged tidal notches cannot be dated directly
because of the bioerosion that takes place after the
submergence and destroys fossils. Their age, however,
can be inferred from other sea-level indicators such
as archaeological, stratigraphical (e.g. stratigraphic
column out of coastal cores), or geomorphological (e.g.
beachrocks).
Tidal notches may be dated based on nearby coastal
cores (e.g. Nixon et al., 2009; Evelpidou et al., 2012c).
They may also be indirectly dated based on their profile.
Sequences of tectonic events, including periods of rela-
tively stable sea-level, interrupted by co-seismic vertical
displacements and possibly by other periods of gradual
 389
relative sea-level rise, can be tentatively deduced from
erosion profiles on carbonate cliffs. Especially the inward
depth of the notch may be used to roughly assess the
duration of the relative sea-level standstill. Tidal notches
could be relatively dated if correlated with archaeological
data and especially anthropic constructions functioning
near MSL. For example, it is recognized that fish tanks
may be considered as palaeo-sea-level markers that allow
accurate evaluation of relative sea-level variations during
the last two millennia. Finally, tidal notches may be dated
based on historical earthquake records. When vertical
displacements are of co-seismic origin, they generally
occur at the time of earthquakes with magnitudes larger
than 6.0, which for the Greek region are commonly asso-
ciated with morphogenic faults, and thus produce direct
surface faulting (Ambraseys & Jackson, 1990).
5 - DISCUSSION
In the field, it is relatively easy to confirm the conti-
nuity of emerged shorelines while the confirmation of
the continuity of a submerged shoreline is more diffi-
cult. Submerged shoreline cannot be dated directly in
the absence of other nearby datable sea-level indicators
because bioerosion rapidly destroys submerged fossils,
making the collection of samples to be dated almost
impossible.
It has been shown by Pirazzoli & Evelpidou (2013)
that, if tidal notches can be used to assess interpretations
of relative sea-level change in places where they have
been preserved, the lack of tidal notches cannot be relied
upon to interpret the absence of a sea-level stillstand at
that site, and it should be accepted that coastal archives
may be incomplete. As a consequence, underwater corre-
lation of submerged shorelines must often be based on a
limited number of tidal notch profiles.
In Greece, the study of submerged tidal notches have
clearly shown that subsidence in the Aegean area, far
from being gradual as often believed by modelers, occurs
as subsidence jerks of one or few decimetres, occurring
with a frequency of a few centuries. Despite the lag of
systematic datings, we can provide examples in several
areas where subsidence predominates and inward depth
measurements can permit to obtain estimates of average
durations of development. Based on the reasonable
assumption that bioerosion rate had an average rate of
0.6 mm.yr-1 can be deduced that in the Sporades Islands
six co-seismic subsidences of an average 25 cm occurred
in Alonnisos and seven subsidences of an average 40 cm
in Skopelos, with probable average return times of the
order of four to five centuries (Evelpidou et al., 2013a).
Similarly, in Ithaca Island six co-seismic subsidences of
on average 20 cm have been detected with average return
time of two to three centuries. The last co-seismic subsi-
dence in Ithaca (about one decimetre) occurred in 1953
(Evelpidou, pers. obs.).
In the absence of direct radiocarbon dating this method
could provide some useful information on the tectonic
trend in certain areas while this cannot be applied to areas
where co-seismic uplift movements can also occur, e.g.
Corfu, Cephalonia, Eastern Attica, Karpathos, etc.
6 - CONCLUSION
A methodology is proposed aiming to reveal past
temporary standstills of relative sea-level. This methodo-
logy may be applied in underwater marks of carbonate
rocky areas and specifically in submerged tidal notches,
which correspond to former sea-level positions, or to
recent vertical shoreline displacements of seismic origin,
under the assumption that the eustatic sea-level has
remained almost stable during the last millennia.
The underwater geomorphological survey may reveal
submerged tidal notches and allows the determination of
subsidence rates in the investigated area while the profile
of the notches can allow to qualitatively distinguishing
the way of subsidence. Furthermore, proposals of how to
relatively date submerged tidal notches and thus former
shorelines, are provided.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank two referees, B. Dumas
and M. Kázmér, whose constructive comments helped
improve the initial version of this work as well as Damase
Mouralis and Olivier Moine for the editorial supervision
of this manuscript.
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