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Stratégique .
1oe édit i 0 n
1oe édit i 0 n
GERRY JOHNSON
RICHARD WHITTINGTON
KEVAN SCHOLES
DUNCAN ANGWIN
PATRICK REGNÉR
FRÉDÉRIC FRÉRY
www.strategique.biz
PEARSON
Le présent ouvrage est la traduction adaptée de EXPLORING STRATEGY Text and
Cases 10e Edition, publié par Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Copyright © Simon &
Schuster Europe Limited 1998, © Pearson Education 2002, 2011, © Pearson Education
Limited (papier et électronique) 2014.
This translation of EXPLORING STRATEGY Text and Cases 10 Edition is published
by arrangement with Pearson Education Limited, United Kingdom.
Mise en page : APS-Chromostyle, Tours
Publié par Pearson France

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ISBN : 978-2-3260-0042-1
© 2014 Pearson France
Aucune représentation ou reproduction, même partielle, autre que celles prévues à

l'article L.122-5-2 2° et 3°a) du code de la propriété intellectuelle ne peut être faite sans
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des modalités prévues à l'article L.122-10 dudit code.
Sommaire
1 Introduction à la stratégie 1
a t•
Le diagnostic stratégique
2 L'environnement 35
3 La capacité stratégique 83
4 L'intention stratégique 127
5 Culture et stratégie 167
Partie Il
Les choix stratégiques
6 Les stratégies par domaine d'activité 231
7 La diversification et la gestion d'un portefeuille d'activités 275
8 Les stratégies internationales 315
9 L'innovation et l'entrepreneuriat 349
10 Fusions et acquisitions, alliances et partenariats 387
Partie Ill
Le déploiement stratégique
11 L'évaluation des stratégies 429
12 Les processus stratégiques 469
13 Stratégie et organisation 501
14 Gérer le changement stratégique 537
15 La pratique de la stratégie 577
Table des matières
Liste des illustrations XVII

Liste des controverses académiques XIX
Liste des schémas et tableaux xx
Crédits photographiques XXIII
Stratégique: mode d'emploi XXIV
Préface XXVII
Les auteurs xxx
1 Introduction à la stratégie 1
0.0 Introduction
O.f) Qu'est-ce que la stratégie? 2
O.f).D Défi ni tions de la stratégie 2
O.f).f) Les trois niveaux de stratégie 7
D .H .m Le vocabulaire de la stratégie 8
0.~ Le modèle de Stratégique 10
D.m.D Le diagnostic stratégique 11
D .m.H Les choix stratégiques 12
D.m.m Le déplo iem ent stratégiq ue 13
0.19 La stratégie comme métier 15
o.~ L'étude de la stratégie 17
0.[11 L'influence du contexte et les prismes stratégiques 19
0.[1).0 La stratégie dans di ffé rents co ntextes 19
O.[l).f) Les prism es stra tégiq ues 20
Résumé 22
Trava ux pratiques 22
Lectures recommandées 23
Références 23
Étude de cas : Yahoo ! se cherche 24
• TABLE DES MATIÈRES
P ri
Le diagnostic stratégique
2 L'environnement 35
H.D Introduction 35
f).f) Le macroenvironnement 36
111.111.0 L'analyse PESTEL 37
111.111.111 La construction de scénarios 40
H.R L'industrie 43
111.8.0 Le modèle des 5( + 1) forces de la concurrence 44
La menace des entrants potentiels 45
La menace des substituts 49
Le pouvoir de négociation des acheteurs 51
Le pouvoir de négociation des fournisseurs 52
Le rôle des pouvoirs publics 53
L'intensité conwrrentielle 54
Les types d'industries 55
Implication s du modèle des 5(+1) fo rces 58
Questions clés sur le modèle des 5( +1) forces 60
111.8.111 La dynamique de la concurrence 61
Le cycle de vie d'une industrie 61
H.D Les concurrents et les marchés 63
111.19.0 Les groupes stratégiques 63
111.19.111 Les segments de marché 66
111.19.8 L'approche Océan Bleu 66
H.~ Les menaces et opportunités et les facteurs clés de succès 69
Résumé 73
Travaux pratiques 73
Références 74
Étude de cas : Une nouvelle page pour la publicité 77
3 La capacité stratégique 83
R.D Introduction 83
R.H Les fondements de la capacité stratégique 85
8.111.0 Les ressources et compétences 85
8.111.111 Les capacités dynamiques 87
8.111.8 Les capacités seuils et les capaci tés distinctives 89
R.R Le VRIO d'une capacité stratégique 91
8.8.0 V- La valeur d ' un e capacité stratég ique 91
8.8.111 R- La rare té d ' une capacité stratégique 91
8.8.8 I- L'inimitabilité d ' une capacité stratégique 92
La complexité 93
L'ambiguïté ca Lisa le 93
La culture et l'histoire 94
m.m.l9 0 - L'organ isa tion p erm et d 'exploi ter la capacité stratég ique 94
8.8.111 Les co nnaissances o rganisationnelles et l' avantage concurrentiel 95
m.l9 Le diagnostic de la capacité stratégique 97
TABLE DES MATIÈRES 1
m.l9.0 L'étalonnage 97
m.l9.f) La ch aîne de valeur et la filière 99
La chaîne de valeur 99
La filière 102
m.l9.m La cartograp hi e des activités lOS
m.~ Le management de la capacité stratégique 108
m.llJ Le SWOT 110
Résumé 116
Lectures recommandées 11 7
Références 11 7
Étude de cas: Rocket Internet: le cloneur sera-t-il clon é? 121
4 L'intention stratégique 127
19.0 Introduction 127

19.6 Mission, vision, valeurs et objectifs 128
19.m Les propriétaires et les dirigeants 131
19.m.O Les stru ct u res de possession 132
19.m.fl Le go uvernement d'entreprise 134
19.m.m Les différents modèles de gouvernement d'entreprise 138
Le modèle de gouvernement centré sur l'actionnaire 138
Le modèle de gouvernement étendu à de multiples parties prenantes 139
19J~).I9 L' influence des conse ils d'admin istration sur la stratégie 141
19.19 Les attentes des parties prenantes 144
19.19.0 Les types de parties prenantes 144
19.19.f) La ca rtographie des parties prenantes 146
9.9.m Le pouvoir 149
19.~ La responsabilité sociale de l'entreprise et l'éthique ISO
9.~.0 La responsab ilité sociale de l'entreprise 151
9.~.f) L'éthique des individus et des managers 155
Résumé !56
Travaux pratiques IS8
Lectures recommandées 1S8
Références 1S9
Étude de cas: Nature & Découvertes et le commerce vertueux 161
5 Culture et stratégie 167
~.0 Introduction 167

~.f) L'influence de l'histoire 168
~.f).O La d épen dan ce de sentier 169
~.f).f) L'an alyse historique 172
~.8 La culture organisationnelle 174
~.m.O Les cu ltures nationales et régionales 174
• TABLE DES MATIÈRES
~.~.111 Le champ sec toriel 175

~.~.~ La culture organisationnelle
~.~.9 Les so us-cultures organ isa tion nelles
178
180
~.~.~ L' influence de la culture sur la stratégie 18 1
~.~.m L'ana lyse de la culture : le ti ss u culturel 182
~.~.6 Co nduire une analyse de la cu lture 185
~.19 La dérive stratégique 189
~.9.0 Les stra tég ies évoluent de mani ère in crémen tale 189
~.9.111 Le risque de d éri ve stratégique 190
~.9.~ Une période de fluctuation s 193
~.9.9 Transforma tion o u dispa riti on 193
Résumé 195
Références 197
Étude de cas : Le Club Med : des bron zés aux bobos 200
Commentaires sur la partie 1 207

Les prismes stratégiques et le diagnostic stratégique 207
Étude de cas : Nokia au travers des prismes 220
Références 222
Partie Il
6 Les stratégies par domaine d'activité 231
~.D Introduction 231

~.f) La segmentation stratégique :l'identification des DAS 233
m.111.0 Une méth ode pratique de segmentatio n stratégique 233
Les critères de segmentntion externes 234
Les critères de segmentntion internes 235
1!1.111.111 Limites et utilité de la segmentatio n stratégique 236
~.~ Les stratégies génériques 238
m.~.O La stratégi e de prix 239
m.~.111 Les stratég ies de différenciation 242
m.~.~ Les stratégies de foca lisa tion 245
m.~.9 «Co in cé au milieu,? 247
m.~.~ L'horloge stra tégique 249
m.~.m Le ve rrouill age du marché 25 1
~.19 Les interactions stratégiques 252
m.9.0 Les interact io ns de prix et de valeur 252
m.9.111 Les interactions stratégiques et l'hypercompétition 256
m.9.~ Les stratégies de coopération 257
1!1.9.9 La th éo rie des jeux 260
Résumé 264
Trava ux pratiques 266
Références 266
Étude de cas : L'odyssée d 'Iliad 268
7 La diversification et la gestion d'un portefeuille d'activités 275
6.0 Introduction 275

6.1?) Les orientations stratégiques 277
D.fi.D La pénétration de marc hé 278
O.f).f) Le développement de produ its 279
o.m.m Le développement de marchés 279
0.1?).9 La dive rsification conglomérale 281
6.1!1 Les facteurs de diversification 283
6.19 La diversification et la performance 285
6.~ L'intégration verticale 286
O.lii.D L'intégration vers l'aval et l'intégration vers l'amont 286
O.(il.f) Intégre r ou externaliser ? 287
6.~ La performance parentale 289
O.llJ.O L'ajout ou la destruction de performance par la direction
générale 290
Les activités gén ératrices de pe1jonnance 290
Les activités destructrices de pe1jormance 291
D.llJ.f) Le gestionnaire de portefeuille 293
O.llJ.8 Le gestionna ire de synergies 293
0.1l).9 Le développeur 294
6.6 Les matrices de gestion de portefeuille 296
0.0.0 La matrice BCG 296
O.O.f) La mat ri ce attraits/atouts (McKinsey) 299
0.0.8 La matrice Ashridge 301
Résumé 305
Références 306
Étude de cas : O ü va Virgin ? 308
8 Les stratégies internationales 315
IË).O Introduction 315

IË).f) Les facteurs d'internationalisation 317
IË).I!) Les sources d'avantage géographique 320
m.8.0 L'avantage de localisation : le diamant de Porter 321
m.!J.f) Les filières internationales 323
IË).I9 Les stratégies internationales 325
Il TABLE DES MATIÈRES
m.~ Le choix des marchés et les modalités d'entrée 327

llJ.IlJ.D Les caractéristiques de marché 328
ll).ll).f) Les caractéristiques concurrentielles 333
ll).llJ.m Les modalités d'entrée 334
m.~ L'internationalisation et la performance 337
m.61 Le rôle des filiales dans un portefeuille international 337
Résumé 340
Références 341
Étude de cas : Les Chinois à Hollywood :Wanda rachète AMC 343
9 L'innovation et l'entrepreneuriat 349
~.0 Introduction 349

~.El Les dilemmes de l'innovation 351
(l].f:I.D Innovation poussée par la technologie ou tirée par le marché? 351
(l].f).f) Innovation de produit ou innovation de procédé? 354
(l].f:l.m Innovation secrète ou innovation ouverte? 355
(l].f).9 Innovation technologique ou innovation de modèle
éco nomique? 358
~-~ La diffusion de l'innovation 359
l!l.m.D La vitesse de diffusion 359
l!l.m.f:l La courbe de diffusion 36 1
~.D Innovateurs et suiveurs 363
m.a.o L'avantage au premier entrant 363
(l].9.f) Premier entrant ou second gagnant? 364
(l].9.m La riposte des concurrents établis 365
~-~ L'entrepreneuriat et la collaboration 369
(l].llJ.D Les étapes du développement entrepreneurial 369
lll.llJ.f) Les stratégies entrepreneuriales 371
m.~.m L'entrepreneuriat et la collaboration 372
(l].llJ.9 L'entrepreneuriat social 373
Résumé 377
Références 378
Étude de cas: Rovio, le Disney du smartphone 381
10 Fusions et acquisitions, alliances et partenariats 387
mJ.D Introduction 387

ii!).fJ La croissance interne 388
ii!).~ Les fusions et acquisitions 389
mJ.m.D Les types de fus ions et acquis itions 389
mJ.m.f:l Les motivations des fus ions et acquisitions 390
II!l.8.8 Les motivations des fusions et acqu isitions 391
Les motivations stratégiques des fusions et acquisitions 391
Les motivations financières des fusions et acquisitions 393
Les motivations managériales des fusions et acquisitions 393
II!l.8.9 Les processus de fusion et acqu isition 394
Le choix de la cible 394
La négociation 396
L'intégration de ln cible 396
II!l.B.IlJ L'évolution des fus ions et acqu isitions 399
i]J.9 Les alliances et partenariats 400
II!l.9.D La nature de la collaboration: alliances o u partenariats 40 1
Les alliances 401
Les partenariats 403
II!l.9.f) La forme de la collaboration 404
II!l.9.8 Les processus de co llabo ration 405
i]J.~ Le choix d'une modalité de développement 409
II!l.(;J.D Ach eter, coopérer ou faire soi-même? 409
II!l.(;J.f) Les critères de réussite d'une croissance externe 41 1
Résumé 4 12
Travaux pratiques 4 14
Lectures recommand ées 414
Références 415
Étude de cas : Accor et désaccords 417
Commentaires sur la partie II 423

Les choix stratégiques 423
Partie Ill
Le déploiement stratégique
11 L'évaluation des stratégies 429
m.o Introduction 429

iiJ.f) La performance organisationnelle 430
œ.o.o Les mesures de performance 430
in.f).f) Les référentiels de performance 431
m.EJ.s L'analyse d'écart 432
m.EJ.a La co mplexité de l'analyse de la performance 433
m.~ La pertinence 435
in.B.D Le classement des options stratégiques 436
m.s.o La pertinence vis-à-vis des scénarios 437
in.8.8 La pertinence vis-à-v is de l'avantage concu rrent iel 437
m.s.a Les arbres de décision 439
m.s.llJ L'a nalyse de cycle de vie 441
m.a L'acceptabilité 442
in.9.0 Le risque 442
L'analyse de sensibilité 444
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Le risque financier 444

Le calcul du seuil de rentabilité 444
iiJ.I9.f) Les gains 445
Les analyses de rentabilité 446
L'analyse de la valeur actionnariale 449
L'analyse coût bénéfice 450
Les options réelles 450
iii.I9.EJ Les réaction s des pa rties prenantes 453
m.~ La faisabilité 454
iii.~.O La fa isabilité fina ncière 454
ii).~.f) Les resso urces hum aines 456
m.~.m L' intég ration des resso urces 456
m.~ Synthèse des critères d'évaluation 457
Résumé 459
Références 460
Étude de cas : Carrefour à la cro isée des chem ins 462
12 Les processus stratégiques 469
Œl.D Introduction 469

Œl.H Les processus stratégiques délibérés 470
œ.H.O La personn ificat ion de la stratégie: le rôle d u dirigeant 470
iE.f).f) Les systèmes de planification stratégique 472
iE.f).EJ La stratég ie imposée par l'externe 476
Œl.~ Les processus stratégiques émergents 477
œ.m.o L' inc rémentalism e logiq ue 478
iE.EJ.f) L'infl uence des processus poli tiques sur la st ratégie 480
œ.m.m L'i nflue nce des décisions antérieu res sur la stratégie 481
œ.m.e L'influence des systèmes organisatio n nels sur la stratégie 483
Œl.D Implications pour l'élaboration de la stratégie 486
iE.I9.0 Les processus stra tégiques dans différents co ntextes 487
iE.19.f) Gérer les stratégies délibérées et les stratégies émergentes 489
Résumé 492
Lectures reco mm andées 493
Références 494
Étude de cas : Qui pilote Google? 496
13 Stratégie et organisation 501
iE.O Introduction 501

ŒJ.f) Les types structurels 502
IE.f).O La structure fonctionne lle 504
IE.f).f) La str ucture d ivisionnelle 505
IE.fJ.B La structure matricielle S06
IE.f).l9 Les structures multinationales et transnationales SOS
IE.f).~ Les structu res par projets 5 11
IE.f).[l) Cho isir un e st ru cture Sll
œ.m Les systèmes S14
IE.B.D Les systèmes de plan ification S16
IE.B.fJ Les systèmes culturels S17
IE.B.B Les objectifs de performance SIS
IE.B-19 Les mécanismes de marché S20
&E.9 Les configurations S23
IE.I9.0 Le modèle des 7S de McKinsey S23
IE.I9.f) Les dilemmes organisationnels S24
R ésum é S2S
Travaux pratiques S29
Lectures reco mmand ées S29
Référen ces S29
Étud e d e cas : Sony d ésuni S32
14 Gérer le changement stratégique 537
ŒJ.O Introduction S37

ŒJ.fJ La conduite du changement: rôles et styles S39
ŒJ.f).O Les rô les dans la conduite du changement S39
Les dirigeants 539
Les managers intermédiaires 540
ŒJ.f).f) Les styles de conduite du changement 541
ŒJ.m Le diagnostic de la situation de changement 543
ŒJ.9 Les leviers de changement stratégique S4S
œ.a.o L'analyse de champ de forces 54S
Œl.l9.f) Construire une argumentat ion convaincante sso
ŒJ.I9.8 Co ntester les schémas de pensée établis S50
ŒJ.I9.19 Changer les rout ines organisationnelles 550
ŒJ.I9.~ Les changements symboliques 551
ŒJ.I9.[l) Les jeux de pouvoir et les processus politiques 554
Œl.I9.D Les tactiques de changement ss5
La chronologie 555
Les succès à court term e 557
ŒJ.~ La gestion des processus de changement 55S
œ.~.D L'adaptation sss
ŒJ.~.f) La reconstruction: les stratégies de redressement SS9
ŒJ.~.B Le changement révolutionnaire S60
ŒJ.~.I9 Le chan ge ment évolu ti f S61
L'ambidextrie organisationnelle 562
Les étapes d'évolution 564
œ.~.~ Q uelques leçons su r les échecs des processus de changement S64
Résum é S67
Il TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Références 568
Étude de cas: Sergio Marchionne conduit le changement 57 1
15 La pratique de la stratégie 577
[El.O Introduction 577

[El,f) Les stratèges 579
ŒJ,f).O Les dirigeants 579
Œl.f).f) La direction de la stratégie 580
Œl.fJ.D Les managers in terméd iaires 582
ml.f).D Les consultants en st ratégie 584
ml.f).(;J Q ui impliquer dans la fabrication de la st ratégie? 585
[El.r!) Les activités stratégiques 588
Œl.D.D L'anal yse stratégiq ue 588
ml.D.f) La promotion de problèmes stratégiq ues 589
Œl.D.D la prise de décisions stratégiques 592
ml.D.D La communication de la stratégie 594
ml.D.llJ Le désordre de la stratégie au quotidien 595
[El.l9 Les méthodes stratégiques 595
ml.D.D les séminaires de réflexion stratégiq ue 596
ml.D.fl Les projets stratégiques 598
ml.D.D Les tes ts d'hypothèse 599
Œl.D.D Les rapports et les plans stratégiques 599
Résum é 604
Références 605
Étude de cas: Microsoft 2.0 608
Commentaires sur la partie III 613

Le déploieme nt stratégique 613
Lexique 615
Bibliographie francophone 627
Index des noms 631
Index des concepts 637

LISTE DES ILLUSTRATIONS 1
Liste des illustrations
1.1 I.:Op inion, premier qu otidien bimédia 4

1.2 Le voca bulaire de la stratégie dans différents contextes 9
1.3 Des stratèges 16
2.1 Le pétro le en eaux troubl es 38

2.2 Q uatre scénarios pour l'industrie textile à l' horizo n 2025 42
2.3 Les barrières à l'entrée 47
2.4 Consolidation dans l' industrie sidérurgique 56
3.1 La ca pacité stratégique : quelques exe mples 86

3.2 Capacités dynamiques (et rigidités) dans la téléphonie mobil e 88
3.3 Quell es capacités di stinctives pour Gro upon? 96
3.4 Thomso n mute en Technicolor 104
3.5 La cartographie des activités de Geelm uyden.Kiese 106
3.6 L'an alyse SWOT de Renault 112
4.1 La mission de Mozilla : au-delà de Firefox 130

4.2 News Corporation: scand ale dans la presse à sca ndale 137
4.3 Pas de glasnost chez ENRC 142
4.4 Luttes de pouvoir chez Airbus 148
4.5 H &M se lance dans la mode d urable 152
5.1 La Cornu e distille son héritage 170

5.2 Le managemen t à la chino ise 176
5.3 Débat stratégique dans un cab inet d'a ud it 179
5.4 La mutation culturelle de Canal+ 186
5.5 Kodak dans le flou 191
6.1 La segmentation stratégiq ue de Valeo 237

6.2 Une municipalité low-cost 244
6.3 U ne stratégie de so phistica tio n réussie: BMW 246
6.4 Les McCa fés défient Starbucks 255
6.5 Bruxelles sanctionn e le ca rtel du fret aé rien 259
6.6 Jeux de guerre en Afrique du Sud 261
7. 1 Axel Springe r dev ient numérique 280

7.2 Zodiac dégonfle son portefeuille d 'activités 282
7. 3 L'armée fr ançaise expérimente l'externalisa tion 288
7.4 Bolloré : un conglomérat florissant 295
7.5 Kerin g change de périmètre 302
• LISTE DES ILLUSTRATIONS
8.1
8.2
8.3
La distribution en Ch ine: globale ou locale? 318
Boeing et le ca uchemar du Dreamliner 324
Le N IP fait sas 328
8.4 Vale face à la distance culturelle 331
8.5 Quelles stratégies pour la base de la pyramide ? 332
9.1 L' innovation frugale: l' ingé niosité des plus démunis 353
9.2 Le nuage change la donne 357
9.3 Dernière séance pour les vidéoclubs 360
9.4 Somfy déroule sa stratégie 368
9.5 Métissage entreprene urial chez Trace TV 374
10.1 Disney peut-il absorber des super-héros? 392

10.2 De la Na no à Jaguar 397
10.3 Apple et l'avantage collabora tif de l' iPad 402
10.4 Co nfiance et coévolution au sein de l'Alliance internationale VIH/s ida 406
10.5 Fission dans le nucléaire : le divorce entre Areva et Siem ens 408
11.1 Qu'est-ce qu' un e m auva ise performance? 434

11.2 Classem en t des option s chez HAL Consei l 438
11.3 L'arbre de décision stratégique d' un cabinet d'experts-co mptables 440
11.4 L'analyse de sensibilité 443
11.5 Le calcul du seuil de rentabilité de plusieurs o ptions stratégiques 445
11.6 Un projet de réseau d 'égo uts 451
11.7 L'évaluation des options réelles pour le développement de yaourts
en Chine 452
12.1 L'influence des dirigeants sur l'élaboration de la stratégie 472

12.2 Le cycle de planification dans un e multinationale 474
12.3 Une vision incrém entaliste d u m anagement stratégiqu e 479
12.4 Jeux de pouvoirs chez H ewlett-Packard 482
12.5 Le développem ent de l'activité microprocesseurs chez Intel 485
13.1 Erreur de structure : Netflix rem bobine Qwikster 503

13.2 Recl<itt Benckiser nettoie sa structure 510
13.3 « Occupy Wall Street >> : orga niser l'a narchie 515
13.4 Un tabl ea u de bord prospectif chez Philips 520
13.5 Banquier voyou o u banque vé reuse? 522
13.6 La dévirtualisation de Benetton 525
14.1 Les styles de conduite du changement 544

14.2 Le ministère de la Défense britannique résiste aux réfo rm es 547
14.3 Une analyse de champ de forces pour décentraliser la stratégie 549
14.4 La modification des routines et des symboles 552
14.5 Tesco est-il ambidextre? 563
15.1 Offre d'emploi au sein d' un e direction de la stratégie 581

15.2 Stratégie o uverte chez IBM 587
15.3 Le dîner de consultants 591
15.4 Deux séminaires de réfl exion stratégique 597
15.5 Test d'hypothèse dans une banqu e 600
LISTE DES CONTROVERSES ACADÉMIQUES 1
Liste des controverses académiques
Chapitre 2 Quel est l'impact de l'i ndustrie? 72

Chapitre 3 L'approche par les ressources est-elle inutile? 115
Chapitre 4 À quoi sert une entreprise? 156
Chapitre 5 Peut-on analyser la culture d' une organisation? 194
Chapitre 6 Être o u ne pas être différencié? 265
Chap itre 7 L'entreprise n'est-elle qu'une défaillance du marché? 304
Chap itre 8 Global, local o u rég ional? 339
Chapitre 9 Les grandes entreprises sont-elles plus o u moins innovantes
que les petites? 376
Chapitre 10 À qui profitent les fusions? 413
Chapitre 11 Quelle est la meilleure approche pour éva luer les décisions
d 'investissement? 458
Chapitre 12 Stratégie délibérée ou stratégie émergente? Le cas de Honda 490
Chapitre 13 La stratégie et la structure : l'œuf et la poule ? 527
Chapitre 14 Peut-on gérer le changement? 566
Chapitre 15 Les consultants en stratégie sont-i ls bons à quelque chose? 603
Il LISTE DES SCHÉMAS ET TABLEAUX
Liste des schémas et tableaux
Schéma 1.1 Définitions de la stratégie 3

Schéma 1.2 Les trois horizons de la stratégie 5
Schém a 1.3 Le mod èle de Stratégique 11
Tableau 1.1 Les qu atorze questions stratégiques 14
Schéma 1.4 Les trois branch es de la stratégie 18
Schém a I.i Le diagnostic stratégique 31
Schéma 2.1 Les strates de l'environ nem ent 36

Schéma 2.2 L'environnement politique 37
Schéma 2.3 Le cube des scénarios: comment choisir les variab les pivots 4 1
Schéma 2.4 Le modèle des 5( + 1) forces de la concurrence 45
Schéma 2.5 L'hexagone sectoriel: les consoles de jeux vidéo en 20 13 59
Schéma 2.6 Le cycle de vie d ' une industrie 62
Schéma 2.7 Indicateurs perm ettant de construire des groupes stratégiques 64
Schéma 2.8 Les gro upes stratégiques : l'industrie pharmaceutique indienne 65
Tableau 2. 1 Quelques critères de segmentation des marchés 67
Schéma 2.9 Le canevas stratégique de fab ri cants d'équipements industriels 68
Tableau 2.2 La hiérarchie des 5(+1) forces détermine les FCS 71
Schéma 3. 1 La capacité stratégiqu e :les points clés 84

Tableau 3.1 Les composantes de la capacité stratégique 85
Schéma 3.2 Le VRIO 9/
Schém a 3.3 Les so urces de l' inimitab ilité d' une capacité stratégiqu e 94
Tableau 3.2 L'utilisation du modèle VRIO 95
Schéma 3.4 La chaîne de valeur 100
Schéma 3.5 Le différentiel coùt/valeur au sein d ' un e chaîne de valeur 102
Schéma 3.6 La filière 103
Schéma 3.7 L'analyse SWOT 110
Schéma 3.8 La m atri ce TOWS 114
Schéma 4.1 Les influences qui s'exercent sur l'intention stratégique 129
Schéma 4.2 La possession, le managem ent et l' intention stratégiqu e 133
Schéma 4.3 La chaîne de go uvern em ent 136
Schéma 4.4 Les parties prenantes d'une grande organisation 144
Tableau 4.1 Quelques exemples d' objectifs co ntrad ictoires 145
Schéma 4.5 La cartographie des parties prenantes : la matrice pouvoir/ intérêt 147
Tableau 4.2 Les so urces et les signes de pouvoir 150
Tableau 4.3 Les postures face à la responsabilité sociale de l'entreprise 154
Tablea u 4.4 Quelques questions sur la responsabilité sociale des entreprises 154
Schéma 5.1 L'influence de la culture et de l'histoire 168
LISTE DES SCHÉMAS ETTABLEAUX 1
Schéma 5.2 La dépendance de sentier et l'enfermement 173
Schéma 5.3 Les cadres de référence culturelle 175
Schéma 5.4 Les quatre niveaux de la culture organisationnelle 178
Schéma 5.5 L'influence de la culture sur la stratégie 182
Schéma 5.6 Le tissu culturel 183
Schéma 5.7 L'a nalyse du tissu culturel: quelques questions utiles 185
Schéma 5.8 Le risque de dérive stratégique 190
Schéma C.i Le prisme de la méthode 209
Schéma C.ii Le prisme de l'expérience 213
Schéma C.iii Le prisme de la complexité 214
Schéma C.iv Le prisme du discours 216
Tableau T.i Résumé des quatre prismes stratégiques 219
Schéma Il.i Les choix stratégiques 227
Schéma 6.1 Les stratégies par domaine d'activité 232

Tableau 6.1 Les critères de segmentation stratégique 234
Schéma 6.2 Les trois stratégies génériques selon Michael Porter 239
Schéma 6.3 Les économies d'échelle et la courbe d'expérience 241
Schéma 6.4 La différenciation :sophistication ou ép uration 243
Schéma 6.5 L' horloge stratégique 249
Schéma 6.6 Les interactions de prix et de valeur 253
Schéma 6.7 Répondre à des concurrents à bas prix 254
Schéma 6.8 Compétition et collaboration 258
Schéma 6.9 Airbus, Boeing et le dilemme du prisonnier 262
Schéma 7.1 La gestion d'un portefeuille d'activités 276

Schéma 7.2 Les orientations stratégiques: la matrice d'Ansoff 277
Schém a 7.3 La diversification et la performance 285
Schéma 7.4 Les options de diversification et d'intégration pour un constructeur
automobi le 287
Schéma 7.5 Trois logiques parentales 292
Schéma 7.6 La matrice BCG 297
Schéma 7.7 La matrice attraits/atouts 299
Schéma 7.8 Recommandations stratégiques pour la matrice attraits/atouts 300
Schéma 7.9 La matrice Ashridge 301
Schéma 8.1 Les stratégies internationales 316

Schéma 8.2 Les facteurs d ' internationalisation 319
Schéma 8.3 Le diamant de Porter -les déterminants de l'avantage national 321
Schéma 8.4 Quatre stratégies internationales 326
Schéma 8.5 Une comparaison culturelle internationale 330
Schéma 8.6 Les ripostes concurrentielles in ternationales 334
Schéma 8.7 Les modalités d 'entrée sur un marché international 336
Schéma 8.8 Le rôle des filiales dans les organisations internationales 338
Schéma 9.1 La logique innovation /e ntrepreneuriat 350

Schéma 9.2 Innovation de produit et innovation de procédé 355
Schéma 9.3 La co urbe de diffusion d'une innovation 362
Schéma 9.4 L'innovation disruptive 366
Schéma 9.5 Un portefeuille d'options d' innovations 367
Schéma 9.6 Les étapes et les défis du développement entrepreneurial 369
Ill LISTE DES SCHÉMAS ET TABLEAUX
Schéma 10.1 Les modalités de développement stratégique 388

Schéma 10.2 Le processus d 'acquisition 394
Schéma 10.3 La matrice d'intégration d'une acquisition 398
Schéma 10.4 La nature des alliances et partenariats 401
Schéma 10.5 L'évolution des alliances et des partenariats 407
Schéma 10.6 Acheter, coll aborer ou faire soi-même? 410
Schéma 11.1 L'évaluation des stratégies 430

Schéma 11.2 L'analyse d'écart 433
Tableau 11.1 La pertinence, l'acceptabilité et la fa isabili té 435
Tableau 11.2 Évaluer la pertinence grâce aux outils du diagnostic stratégiqu e 436
Tab lea u 11.3 Quelques exemples de pertinence des options stratégiques 437
Tableau 11.4 La matrice Arthur D. Little 441
Schéma 11.3 L'évaluation de la rentab ilité des options stratégiques 447
Tableau 11.5 Les mesures de la valeur actionnariale 448
Tableau 11.6 Sources de financement et phases de maturité 455
Schéma 12.1 Stratégie délibérée et stratégie émergente 470

Schéma 12.2 Le continuum des processus de stratégie émergente 477
Schéma 12.3 Les décisions passées peuvent orienter la stratégie 483
Sch éma 12.4 L' influ ence stratégique des structures, systèmes et routines 484
Schéma 12.5 L'élaboration de la stratégie dans différents contextes 487
Schéma 13.1 Les configurations organisationnelles : stratégie, structures et

systèmes 502
Schéma 13.2 Une structure fonctionne lle 504
Sché ma 13.3 Une structure divisionnelle 505
Schéma 13.4 Deux exemples de structures matricielles 507
Schéma 13.5 Les structures multinationales 508
Tableau 13 .1 Comparaison des structures 512
Tablea u 13.2 Les types de systèmes de contrôle 514
Schéma 13.6 Les styles stratégiques 516
Schéma 13.7 Un exemple de carte stratégique 521
Schéma 13 .8 Le modèle des 7S de McKinsey 523
Schéma 13.9 Quelques dilemmes organisationnels 526
Schéma 14.1 Les éléments clés de la conduite du changement stratégique 538

Tab leau 14.1 Les styles de conduite du changement 542
Schém a 14.2 Le kaléidoscope du changement 545
Schéma 14.3 Les styles de conduite du changement selon le contexte 546
Tableau 14.2 Les rites organisationnels et le changement 553
Tablea u 14.3 Les mécanismes politiques dans les organ isations 554
Tableau 14.4 Ma n œuvres politiques et changement 556
Schéma 14.4 Les types de changements stratégiques 558
Tableau 14.5 Réductio n des coüts et/ou accroissement du chiffre d'affaires 559
Schéma 15.1 La pyramide de la pratique de la stratégie 578

Schéma 15.2 Qui impliquer dans la fabrication de la stratégie? 586
Schéma 15.3 Les canaux formels de promotion des problèmes stratégiques 589
Tableau 15.1 La gestion des conflits 593
CRÉDITS PHOTOGRAPHIQUES 1
Crédits photographiques
p. XXXII PiyachaS/Shutterstock
p.24 Ahmad Faizal Yahya/Shutterstock
p. 29 Richard Drew/ AP/SIPA; Dieter Mayr Photography; Fondation Nature & Découvertes,
www.natureetdecouvertes.com; Ambito/Shutterstock
p. 34 Jenny Sturm/Shutterstock
p. 77 Richard Drew/ AP/SIPA
p.82 hxdb zxy/S hutterstock
p. 121 Dieter Mayr Photography
p. 126 Rui Ferreira/Shutterstock
p. 161 Fondation Nature & Découvertes, www.natureetdecouvertes.com
p. 166 Creati veNature.nl/Shutterstock
p.200 Ambito/Shutterstock
p.220 Simon Dawson/Bioombery via Getty Images
p.225 Sébastien Rabany/P hotononstop; Steve Bel/Rex Features; Ng Han Guan/Press Association
Images; Twin Design/Shutterstock; Ownway/Shutterstock
p.230 AKV/Sh utterstock
p.268 Sébastien Rabany/Photononstop
p. 274 Tobias Bischof/Shutterstock
p.3 08 Steve Bel/Rex Features
p. 314 Lullabi/Shutterstock
p. 343 Ng Han Guan/Press Associatio n Images
p.348 Regien Paassen/Shutterstock
p.38 1 Twin Design/Sh utterstock
p. 386 Alan Bailey/Shutterstock
p.417 Ownway/Sh u tterstock
p.425 Philippe Turpin/Photononstop; 1000 Words/Sh utterstock; Kobby Dagan/Shutterstock;
Getty Images/Alessia Pierdomencio; jStone/Shutterstock
p.428 Federico foto /S h u tterstock
p.462 Philippe Turpin/Photononstop
p.468 Panya7 /S hutterstock
p.496 1000 Words/Shutterstock
p.SOO Glenn W. Walker/Shutterstock
p. 532 Kobby Dagan/Shutterstock
p.536 Henrique de Jesus/Shutterstock
p.571 Getty Images/ Alessia Pierdomencio
p.576 igor. stevan ovic/Sh u tterstock
p. 60S JStone/S h utterstock
STRATÉGIQUE: MODE D'EMPLOI
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Pour aller plus loin, vous trouverez sur www.strategique.biz

de nombreux compléments pédagogiques à Stratégique.
Préface
Cette nouvelle édition de Stratégique est l'adaptation française de la dixième édition

de Exploring Strategy, l'ouvrage de management stratégique le plus vendu en
Europe. De son côté, Stratégique est le manuel de stratégie le plus utilisé dans le
monde francophone. Au total, ce sont plus d'un million d'exemplaires de l'ouvrage
qui ont été diffusés dans le monde depuis la première édition (1984). Nous savons
donc que nous comptons beaucoup de lecteurs fidèles. Pour autant, le champ de
la stratégie est en perpétuelle évolution. Pour cette édition, nous avons donc modi-
fié chacun des chapitres, en introduisant de nouveaux concepts, de nouveaux cas
et de nouvelles illustrations. Dans cette préface, nous allons présenter les nouveau-
tés de cette dixième édition, puis rappeler les caractéristiques essentielles de Stra-
tégique.
Les principales innovations de cette éd ition sont ainsi:
• Les structures de possession : du fait du poids croissant des structures familiales,
des structures entrepreneuriales et des entreprises publiques dans le monde,
cette édition traite des conséquences des structures de possession sur les straté-
gies.
• La performance: étant donné la diversité des organisations, cette édition détaille
les différentes manières d'évaluer la performance des stratégies et introduit le
concept d'analyse décisionnelle (business analytics).
• L'émergence des multinationales chinoises ou brésiliennes :certains groupes
originaires des pays émergents tiennent désormais des positions stratégiques
clés dans plusieurs industries.
• Les aspects non marchands de l'environnement : les influences politiques et
réglementaires bénéficient ainsi d' un traitement plus complet.
• Les stratégies entrepreneuriales: beaucoup d'étudiants envisagent de créer leur
entreprise, cette édition leur est donc plus particulièrement destinée. Nous insis-
tons notamment sur les notions de modèle économique, d'innovation frugale,
d'informatique dans les nuages (cloud) et d'entrepreneuriat social.
• L'ambidextrie organisationnelle : alors que l'innovation et l'efficience sont deux
impératifs souvent antagonistes, cette édition explore les approches qui per-
mettent de les réconcilier.
Parallèlement, Stratégique offre toujours une vision aussi concrète que complète
de la stratégie, ce qui implique notamment un accent tout particulier à l'égard de
trois perspectives :
• Les processus. No us pensons que par-delà les considérations économiques, les
processus humains sont essentiels à l'obtention d'un succès organ isationnel
durable. Tout au long de l'ouvrage, nous so ulignons l'importance de la dimen-
Another random document with
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President in the Philippines sufficed fully, it was contended,
for every purpose of temporary or provisional government
there, except in its lack of ability to grant franchises and
to dispose of the public lands. Hence it was freely charged
that the controlling influences which pressed this measure on
the government came from capitalists and speculators who were
reaching after valuable franchises, mining rights and land
grants in the archipelago. Said Senator Daniel in the debate:
"So far as any legislation which looks forward to the opening
of the way to civil government may be involved to the
softening of the conditions which exist, to the amelioration
of the distresses which are upon the Philippine people, I
would give most cheerful acquiescence. But because we desire
to do these things in a good spirit, in a resolute and
patriotic spirit, let us not permit the provocation of
difficult conditions to lead us into enacting any kind of
provision of law that is not necessary to these ends. Let us
not undertake to give to the President of the United States
any power of disposing of the permanent assets of the
Philippine people; let us not put him in the attitude of being
a franchise giver or a franchise seller or a franchise lessor.
The franchises of those islands—their rivers, their ferries,
their streets, their roads, the thousand and one privileges
which are granted by public authority—are as important and as
valuable to that people and as permanently associated with
their happiness and their prosperity as are their fields or
their mines or their fisheries or anything else which belongs
to their country. … It is true there is the reservation of the
right to alter, amend, or repeal, but while that is legally
broad enough for any remedial legislation whatsoever to
follow, we know that practically it is of very small
consequence. If capital goes in and invests itself in
improvements which are in themselves of a permanent nature, if
railroads are constructed, telegraph lines run, telephones
established, ferries built, steamers and boats, gas
establishments, electrical establishments—if those things are
disposed of, the man who once gets in will never be gotten
out. In all such affairs possession is nine points of the law
before they get into court, where it is generally made the
tenth."
Senator Hoar called attention "to the fact that the report of
the Taft commission urges that power be given to sell the
public lands at once, as it is necessary for their
development, and a large amount of capital is there now
clamoring to be invested," and he remarked: "So I suppose that
one of the chief purposes of this is that the public lands in
the Philippine Islands may be sold before the people of the
islands have any chance whatever to have a voice in their
sale." He then quoted the following passages from the report
of the Taft commission:
"The commission has received a sufficient number of

applications for the purchase of public land to know that
large amounts of American capital are only awaiting the
opportunity to invest in the rich agricultural field which may
here be developed. In view of the decision that the military
government has no power to part with the public land belonging
to the United States, and that the power rests alone in
Congress, it becomes very essential, to assist the development
of these islands and their prosperity, that Congressional
authority be vested in the government of the islands to adopt
a proper public-land system, and to sell the land upon proper
terms. There should, of course, be restrictions preventing the
acquisition of too large quantities by any individual or
corporation, but those restrictions should only be imposed
after giving due weight to the circumstances that capital can
not be secured for the development of the islands unless the
investment may be sufficiently great to justify the
expenditure of large amounts for expensive machinery and
equipments.
{401}
Especially is this true in the cultivation of sugar land. …
Restricted powers of a military government referred to in
discussing the public lands are also painfully apparent in
respect to mining claims and the organization of railroad,
banking, and other corporations, and the granting of
franchises generally. It is necessary that there be some body
or officer vested with legislative authority to pass laws
which shall afford opportunity to capital to make investment
here. This is the true and most lasting method of
pacification." "In other words," said Senator Hoar, "the
leading, principal, bald proposal on which this amendment
rests is that before those 10,000,000 people are allowed any
share in their own government whatever their property is to be
sold by Americans to Americans in large quantities, as on the
whole the best means of pacification—that the best way to
pacify a man is to have one foreign authority to sell his
property and another to buy it." An amendment to the
amendment, offered by Senator Bacon, reserving to Congress the
right to annul any grant or concession made, or any law
enacted, by any governmental authority created under the
powers proposed to be conferred on the President; another
offered, by Senator Vest, providing that "no judgment, order,
nor act by any of said officials so appointed shall conflict
with the Constitution and laws of the United States," and
still others of somewhat kindred aims, were voted down; but
the influence of Senator Hoar prevailed with the Senate so far
as to induce its acceptance of the following important
modification of the so-called "Spooner Amendment":
"Provided, That no sale or lease or other disposition of the

public land, or the timber thereon, or the mining rights
therein, shall be made: And provided further, That no
franchise shall be granted which is not approved by the
President of the United States, and is not, in his judgment,
clearly necessary for the immediate government of the islands
and indispensable for the interests of the people thereof, and
which can not, without great public mischief, be postponed
until the establishment of a permanent civil government, and
all such franchises shall terminate one year after the
establishment of such civil government."
With this proviso added, the "Spooner amendment" was adopted

by the Senate on the 26th of February (yeas 45, nays 27, not
voting 16), and agreed to by the House on the 1st of March
(yeas 161, nays 136, not voting 56).
Congressional Record,
February 25-March 1, 1901.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1901 (March).

Organization of provincial governments.
Establishment of a department of public education.
Proposed tariff.
Date fixed for cessation of military regime.
On the 3d of March, the President of the Philippine

Commission, Judge Taft, addressed a cable despatch to the U.
S. Secretary of War in which he reported: "Commission has last
three weeks organized five provincial governments—Pampanga,
Pangasinan, Tarlac, Bulacan, Bataan—last two are Tagalog
provinces. Attended each provincial capital in a body; met by
appointment Presidentes, Councillors, and principal men of
towns; explained provisions general provincial act and special
bill for particular province and invited discussion natives
present of both bills. Conventions thus held very
satisfactory; amendments suggested, considered, special bills
enacted, appointments followed. … In three large provinces
natives appointed provisional Governors. In Bataan, on
petition, eight out of nine towns, volunteer officer
appointed. In Tarlac feeling between loyal factions required
appointment American. … In compliance with urgent native
invitations leave March 11 for south to organize provinces
Tayabas, Romblon, Iloilo, Capiz, Zamboanga, such others are
ready. Returning shall organize Zambales, Union, Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte. Military Governor has recommended organization
Batangas, Cavité, Laguna, Nueva Ecija, but shall delay action
as to these until return from northern and southern trips."
On the 18th of March it was announced from Washington that a

number of recent Acts of the Philippine Commission had been
received at the War Department, among them one which
establishes a general department of public instruction, with a
central office at Manila, under the direction of a general
superintendent, to be appointed by the commission, at a salary
of $6,000 a year. "Schools are to be established in every
pueblo in the archipelago where practicable, and those already
established shall be reorganized where necessary. There are to
be ten school divisions in the archipelago, each with a
division superintendent, and there is to be a superior
advisory board, composed of the general superintendent and
four members to be appointed by the Philippine Commission, to
consider the general subject of education in the islands and
make regulations. The English language, as soon as
practicable, shall be made the basis of all public
instruction, and soldiers may be detailed as instructors until
replaced by trained teachers. Authority is given to the general
superintendent to obtain from the United States 1,000 trained
teachers, at salaries of not less than $75 nor more than $100
a month, the exact salary to be fixed according to the
efficiency of the teacher. The act provides that no teacher or
other person "shall teach or criticise the doctrines of any
church, religious sect or denomination or shall attempt to
influence the pupils for or against any church or religious
sect in any public school." Violation of this section is made
punishable by summary dismissal from the public service. It is
provided, however, that it may be lawful for the priest or
minister of the pueblo where the school is situated to teach
religion for half an hour three times a week in the school
building to pupils whose parents desire it. But if any priest,
minister or religious teacher use this opportunity "for the
purpose of arousing disloyalty to the United States or of
discouraging the attendance of pupils or interfering with the
discipline of schools," the division superintendent may forbid
such offending priest from entering the school building
thereafter. The act also provides for a normal school at
Manila for the education of natives in the science of
teaching. It appropriates $400,000 for school buildings,
$220,000 for text books and other supplies for the current
calendar year, $25,000 for the normal school, $15,000 for the
organization and maintenance of a trade school in Manila and
the same amount for a school of agriculture.
{402}
The new tariff for the Islands, which the Commission had been
long engaged in framing, was submitted, in March, to the
government at Washington for approval. "In his letter of
transmittal Judge Taft says that the proposed bill follows
largely the classification of the Cuban tariff, 'but has been
considerably expanded by the introduction of articles
requiring special treatment here by reason of different
surroundings and greater distance from the markets.' Judge
Taft says also that the disposition of the business interests
of the islands is to accept any tariff the commission
proposes, provided only that the duties are specific and not
ad valorem. The question of revenue was kept steadily in view
in the preparation of the schedules, but it was not the only
consideration. Raw materials of Philippine industries, tools,
implements and machinery of production, materials of
transportation, the producers and transmitters of power and
food products are taxed as lightly as possible. … Export
duties are levied on only six articles—hemp, indigo, rice,
sugar, cocoanuts, fresh or as copra, and tobacco. The free
list admits natural mineral waters, trees, shoots and plants,
gold, copper and silver ores, fresh fruits, garden produce,
eggs, milk, ice and fresh meat, except poultry and game. There
is also a list of articles conditionally free of duty. The
importation of explosives is prohibited, but that of firearms
is not."
It is announced from Washington that "Judge Taft and General
MacArthur have agreed upon July 1 as the date for the
establishment of civil government in the Philippines. The
military regime in the islands will therefore cease on June
30, when General Chaffee will relieve General MacArthur of the
command, and Governor Taft will be inaugurated the next day
with considerable ceremony."
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1901 (March-April).

Capture of Aguinaldo.
His oath of allegiance to the United States.
His address to his countrymen, counselling peace.
A stratagem, executed with great daring by General Funston of

the American forces, accomplished the capture of the Filipino
leader, Aguinaldo, on the 23d of March. From intercepted
correspondence, it had been learned that Aguinaldo, then
occupying his headquarters at Palanan, Isabela Province, was
expecting to be joined by some riflemen, whom his brother had
been ordered to send to him from central Luzon. On this,
General Funston conceived the plan of equipping a number of
native troops who should pass themselves off as the expected
reinforcements, several American officers going with them
ostensibly as prisoners, the hope being that Aguinaldo might
thus be reached and taken by surprise. General MacArthur
approved the scheme, and it was carried out with success. The
party was made up of 78 Macabebe scouts, four Tagalogs who had
formerly been officers in the insurgent army, and General
Funston, Captain Newton, Lieutenants Hazzard and Mitchel, who
acted the part of prisoners. They were taken by gunboat from
Cavite to a point above Baler, whence they made their way on
foot, sending a message in advance that the expected
reinforcements were on the way and had captured some prisoners
en route. The following brief narrative of what occurred
subsequently is taken from a newspaper account of the
expedition:
"For six days the expedition marched over an exceedingly
difficult country, covering 90 miles. When the men reached a
point eight miles from Aguinaldo's camp they were almost
exhausted from lack of food and the fatigue of the march. They
stopped at this place and sent a message to Aguinaldo,
requesting him to send food to them. The ruse thus far had
worked with the greatest success, and on March 22d, when
Aguinaldo sent provisions, it was seen that he did not have
the slightest suspicion. With the food he sent word that the
Americans were not wanted in his camp, but instructing their
supposed captors to treat them kindly. On March 23d the march
was resumed, the Macabebe officers starting an hour ahead of
the main body of the expedition. The 'prisoners,' under guard,
followed them. When the party arrived at Aguinaldo's camp a
bodyguard of 50 riflemen was paraded, and the officers were
received at Aguinaldo's house, which was situated on the
Palanan River. After some conversation with him, in which they
gave the alleged details of their suppositious engagement with
an American force, they made excuses and quietly left the
house. They at once gave orders in an undertone for the
Macabebes to get in position and fire on the bodyguard. The
order was obeyed with the greatest rapidity, and three volleys
were delivered. The insurgents were panic-stricken by the
sudden turn in affairs, and they broke and ran in
consternation. Two of them, however, were killed and eighteen
wounded. Simultaneously with the delivery of the volleys the
American officers rushed into Aguinaldo's house. Major
Alhambra, one of Aguinaldo's staff, had been shot in the face.
He, however, was determined not to be captured and he jumped
from a window into the river and disappeared. Two captains and
four lieutenants made their escape in a similar manner.
Aguinaldo, Colonel Villa, his chief of staff, and Santiago
Barcelona, the insurgent treasurer, did not have time to make
an attempt to get away before General Funston and the others
were upon them, demanding their surrender. Seeing that the
situation was hopeless, they gave themselves up. Aguinaldo was
furious at having been caught, but later he became
philosophical and declared that the ruse by which he had been
captured was the only one which would have proved successful
if the Americans had tried for 20 years. One of the Macabebes
was wounded. The party stayed two days at the camp and then
marched overland to the coast, where the Vicksburg, whose
arrival was excellently timed, picked them up and brought them
back to Manila."
On the 2d of April, a despatch from General MacArthur to the

War Department announced that Aguinaldo, on the advice of
Chief Justice Arellano, had taken the following oath of
allegiance to the United States: "I hereby renounce all
allegiance to any and all so-called revolutionary governments
in the Philippine Islands, and recognize and accept the
supreme authority of the United States of America therein; I
do solemnly swear that I will bear true faith and allegiance
to that government; that I will at all times conduct myself as
a faithful and law abiding citizen of the said islands, and
will not, either directly or indirectly, hold correspondence
with or give intelligence to an enemy of the United States,
nor will I abet, harbor or protect such enemy; that I impose
upon myself these voluntary obligations without any mental
reservations or purpose of evasion, so help me God."
{403}
On the 19th of April, Aguinaldo issued the following address

to his countrymen: "I believe I am not in error in presuming
that the unhappy fate to which my adverse fortune has led me
is not a surprise to those who have been familiar with the
progress of the war. The lessons taught with a full meaning,
and which have recently come to my knowledge, suggest with
irresistible force that a complete termination of hostilities
and lasting peace are not only desirable, but absolutely
essential to the welfare of the Philippine Islands. The
Filipinos have never been dismayed at their weakness, nor have
they faltered in following the path pointed out by their
fortitude and courage. The time has come, however, in which
they find their advance along this path to be impeded by an
irresistible force, which, while it restrains them, yet
enlightens their minds and opens to them another course,
presenting them the cause of peace. This cause has been
joyfully embraced by the majority of my fellow countrymen who
already have united around the glorious sovereign banner of
the United States. In this banner they repose their trust and
believe that under its protection the Filipino people will
attain all those promised liberties which they are beginning
to enjoy. The country has declared unmistakably in favor of
peace. So be it. There has been enough blood, enough tears and
enough desolation. This wish cannot be ignored by the men
still in arms, if they are animated by a desire to serve our
noble people, which has thus clearly manifested its will. So
do I respect this will, now that it is known to me. After
mature deliberation, I resolutely proclaim to the world that I
cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for peace,
nor the lamentations of thousands of families yearning to see
their dear ones enjoying the liberty and the promised
generosity of the great American Nation. By acknowledging and
accepting the sovereignty of the United States throughout the
Philippine Archipelago, as I now do, and without any
reservation whatsoever, I believe that I am serving thee, my
beloved country. May happiness be thine."
PHŒNICIANS, The:
Modified estimates of their influence upon early
European civilization.
See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
PILLAGER INDIAN OUTBREAK.

INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1898.
PLAGUE, The Bubonic.
For years the plague has "continued to breed in various inner

parts of Asia, and in 1894, coming from the Chinese province
of Yunnan, it invaded Canton, taking there 60,000 victims in a
few weeks. Thence it spread to Hong Kong, reached next year
the island of Haïnan and Macao, invaded Formosa in 1896, and
in the autumn of the same year appeared at Bombay. In the big
city of India it found all necessary conditions for breeding,
unchecked, for several months in succession: famine,
overcrowding, and the absence of all preventive measures; and
from Bombay it was carried by rail and road, to different
parts of India. … Happily enough, the plague is no longer the
mysterious, revengeful being which it used to be for our
ancestors. Its cause and modes of propagation are well known.
It is an infectious disease with a short period of incubation.
From four to six days after infection takes place, a sudden
loss of forces—often a full prostration, accompanied by a high
fever-sets in. A bubo appears, and soon grows to the size of
an egg. Death soon follows. If not—there is a chance of slow
and painful recovery; but that chance is very small, because
even under the best conditions of nursing, the mortality is
seldom less than four out of each five cases of illness. As to
the means of propagation of the plague, they are many. The
poison may infect a wound or a scratch; it may be ingested in
food; it may be simply inhaled. Dust from an infected house
was sufficient to infect healthy rats; and when healthy rats
were shut up in one cage with unhealthy ones, all caught the
disease and died. Already in 1881 Netten Redcliffe and Dr.
Pichon indicated that before the plague attacks men it
destroys mice and rats. This was fully confirmed in 1894 by
the Japanese and French bacteriologists Kitasato and Yersin,
at Hong Kong, and by Dr. Rennie, of the Chinese Customs, at
Canton. Masses of dead rats were seen in the streets of the
infested parts of Hong Kong, and the keeper of the west gates
of Canton collected and buried 24,000 of these animals. Dr.
Rennie also pointed out that among those inhabitants of Canton
who lived in boats on the river there were no cases of plague,
except a few imported from town, so that even rich Cantonese
took to living in boats; and he explained the immunity of the
boat-dwellers by the absence of infection through rats. The
worst is, however, that swine, and even goats and buffaloes,
snakes and jackals, are attacked by the plague. …
"As soon as the plague broke out at Hong Kong, the great
Japanese bacteriologist Kitasato and the French doctor Yersin,
who is well known for his work with Roux on the serum
treatment of diphtheria, were already on the spot. Yersin
obtained from the English authorities permission to erect a
small straw hut in the yard of the chief hospital, and there
he began his researches. Both Kitasato and Yersin had no
difficulty in ascertaining that the plague buboes teemed with
special bacteria, which had the shape of tiny microscopic
sticklets, thickened at their ends. To isolate these bacteria,
to cultivate them in artificial media, and to ascertain the
deadly effects of these cultures upon animals, was soon done
by such masters in bacteriology as Kitasato and Yersin. The
cause of the plague was thus discovered. It was evident that
infected rats and swine—especially swine with the Chinese, who
keep them in their houses—were spreading the disease, in
addition to men themselves. The same bacteria teemed in the
dead animals. As to men, the discharges from their buboes, and
even, in many cases, their expectorations, were full of plague
bacteria. Besides, Yersin soon noticed that in his
'laboratory,' where he was dissecting animals killed by the
plague, the flies died in numbers. He found that they were
infested with the same bacteria, and carried them about:
inoculations of bacteria obtained from the flies at once
provoked the plague in guinea-pigs. Ants, gnats, and other
insects may evidently spread infection in the same way, while
in and round the infested houses the soil is impregnated with
the same bacteria. As soon as the pest microbe became known,
experiments were begun, at the Paris Institut Pasteur, for
finding the means to combat it; and in July 1895 Yersin,
Calmette, and Borel could already announce that some very
promising results had been obtained."
P. Kropotkin,
Recent Science
(Nineteenth Century, July, 1897).
{404}
Of the first appearance of the plague in India, at Bombay, and

the early stages of its spread in that country, the Viceroy,
Lord Elgin, made the following report to the Secretary of
State for India, on the 27th of January, 1897: "The first
official intimation of the outbreak which reached us was in a
telegram from the Government of Bombay, dated the 29th
September 1896. The disease was then reported to be of a mild
type, and at first it showed no tendency to increase. …
Throughout the months of October and November the disease made
little or no progress, and the number of deaths reported a day
averaged nine. Early in December there was a marked increase,
and the number of deaths reported daily from the 2nd to the
23rd (inclusive) was about 32. From the 24th December onwards
there was another marked increase, and the number of deaths
reported from that date to the 14th January (inclusive)
averaged about 51. The next week shows a further increase, the
reported number of deaths averaging 74 a day. The total number
of deaths reported during October was 276; during November,
268; during December, 1,160; and from the 1st to the 25th
January, 1,444. The total number of deaths reported from the
beginning of the outbreak thus amounts to 3,148. We have
reason to fear that all deaths from the plague have not been
reported as such, and that the true mortality from the disease
is higher than is shown by the above figures. … For a
considerable time, except for a few imported cases in some
towns in Gujarat, the outbreak was confined to Bombay itself,
but on the 23rd of December we learnt from the Government of
Bombay that the plague had broken out in Karachi. … The total
number of deaths that have been reported in Karachi, from the
beginning of the outbreak up to the 24th January, is 608. It
will be observed that the disease has been very malignant in
Karachi, and that almost all the cases reported have been
fatal. As soon as the Surgeon General with the Government of
Bombay reported to that Government that he had seen cases of a
mild type of bubonic plague in the city, preventive measures
were adopted and a Committee of medical experts were appointed
to report on the disease and the situation. The Municipal
Corporation have from the outset required the infected
quarters to undergo a thorough and systematic cleaning and
disinfection; and they have also pushed on vigorously other
sanitary measures, such as the improvement of house
connections and the construction of surface drains in quarters
where the drainage was defective. A house-to-house visitation
by medical officers has also been instituted. The Corporation
have sanctioned liberal measures towards these ends, and the
executive officers have displayed great energy in carrying
them out. … We have informed the Government of Bombay that we
consider it necessary that the plan of removing all persons
from infected houses, and thoroughly cleansing and
disinfecting the buildings, should be carried out, and we have
asked His Excellency in Council, if he agrees, to report the
measures that are adopted to bring the plan into general
effect."
To the above suggestion that all persons be removed from

infected houses, the government of Bombay replied, on the 12th
of February: "His Excellency is advised that, to give full
effect to such a proposal, at the lowest computation, 30,000
persons belonging to different races, castes, and creeds would
need to be provided with temporary dwellings. There is no site
within the limits of the Bombay municipality which would
accommodate a tenth of this number. Great difficulty has
attended all attempts at the segregation of healthy inmates of
infected houses hitherto made, and very limited success bas
been achieved. From the beginning of the outbreak of this
disease it has been found that the native inhabitants of the
city are very reluctant to leave their houses or to allow any
member of their family afflicted with the disease to be taken
away. Indeed, their dread of the disease itself appears to be
hardly so powerful as their horror of being removed from their
houses. Ignorance and superstition prevent them from
discerning either that removal to a hospital is good for the
sick or removal [from] infected dwellings good for the
healthy, and they are far more easily moved by fear of the
municipal and police authorities than by any realisation of
the benefits that will accrue from a sensible course of
action. It is estimated that not less than 300,000 persons
have already fled from Bombay, moved so to do, not only by
fear of the plague, but quite as much, if not more, by an
unfounded and unreasonable fear of what might happen to them
at the hands of the police and municipal authorities were they
to remain."
Contending with such obstacles to the use of the most

effective measures for checking the spread of the disease, the
authorities at Bombay and elsewhere, who seem to have worked
with energy, saw little to encourage their efforts for some
time. In a second report to the Secretary of State for India,
made February 10, Lord Elgin was compelled to write: "We much
regret that we are unable to report that the plague shows any
signs of abating. In both Bombay and Karachi there has been an
increase in the daily number of seizures and deaths since the
beginning of the current month." But, a month later, on the
10th of March, the Viceroy reported that "the position of
affairs in Bombay is distinctly better. There has been a
decrease in the reported number of plague seizures and deaths,
and the total daily mortality from all causes shows a marked
diminution. During the week ending the 22nd February, the
average daily number of seizures and deaths was 115 and 117,
respectively; during the following week the daily average fell
to 107 and 99, whilst during the period March 2nd to March 8th
it has been 99 and 84. … Persons are now returning to the
quarters of Bombay, which are comparatively free from plague,
from the more infected outlying suburbs, and the Government of
Bombay have therefore found it necessary to watch persons
entering as well as those leaving Bombay. In the suburbs of
Kurla, Bandora, and Bhiwandi the plague continues to be
severe. Outside Bombay in the Presidency proper the number of
indigenous cases has increased, and the disease shows a
tendency to spread, especially in the Thana and Surat
districts. … Outside Karachi the plague shows no tendency to
spread in Sind, and Sukkur is the only other place from which
indigenous cases have been reported."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications

(Papers by Command: C.-8386, 1897; and C.-8511, 1897).
{405}
From that time there appears to have been a nearly steady

subsidence of the disease until the following September, when
it showed renewed virulence at Poona, and began to be newly
spread, invading districts in the Punjab and elsewhere outside
of the Bombay Presidency. By the middle of November Poona was
substantially empty of inhabitants, except those stricken with
the disease and those who bravely cared for the sick and dying.
In December there was a fresh outbreak in Bombay, which soon
became more deadly than that of the previous winter and
spring. By the beginning of February, 1898, and through March,
the deaths from plague alone in Bombay had risen above a
thousand a week. Then another subsidence occurred, followed by
another recrudescence of the disease in August, and another
decline in October. But the variations in other districts were
not uniform with those in Bombay. At the end of 1898, the
total of mortality from plague in all the afflicted districts
of India, reckoning from the beginning, was believed to exceed
100,000, including 70,000 in the Bombay Presidency and Sind
(28,000 in the city of Bombay), and 2,000 in the Punjab. In
Calcutta there had been but 150 deaths. Although the measures
taken for checking the spread of the pestilence were far less
stringent than they would have been among people more capable
of understanding what they meant and what their importance
was, they alarmed the religious jealousies of both the Hindus
and the Mohammedans, and were resisted and resented with
dangerous fury at a number of times. At Poona, in June, 1897,
two British officials were murdered by young Brahmins, who had
been excited to the deed by native journals, the language of
which was so violent that the government found it necessary to
prosecute several for sedition. At Bombay, in March, 1898,
when the plague was at its worst, there were very serious
riots, in which a number of Europeans were killed, and troops
were called to the help of the police before the frenzied mob
could be overcome.
Again, in 1899, there was a revival of the disease in India,

especially at Bombay, during the winter, with a decline in
April and fresh virulence in September. At the end of the year
the estimate of total mortality from plague in India since the
beginning was 250,000.
Of the wider spreading of the pestilence during 1900 the

following summary of information is given in the annual report
of the United States Secretary of the Treasury, in connection
with details of quarantine measures: "The Surgeon-General
reports that plague has been more widely distributed during
the year than was ever known in history, and for the first
time obtained lodgment in the Western Hemisphere, at Santos,
Brazil, in October, 1899. By this it is not meant that the
disease has been actually more prevalent than before, but that
its points of contact have embraced nearly every civilized
country in the world, though its prompt recognition and
application of modern methods have either entirely prevented
its spread or have caused it to disappear after a short period
of infection. The scientific knowledge of the disease renders
it far less to be dreaded than before, but increase in rapid
communication between different parts of the world facilitates
its transportation. In illustration, the fact is cited that 20
vessels have been reported, arriving at as many principal
seaports in different parts of the world, on which plague was
discovered on arrival or had manifested itself during the
voyage. As heretofore, its chief ravages have been in India,
where preventive measures have been hindered by religious
fanaticism. In India during the year there were 66,294 deaths.
Notable outbreaks of the disease occurred in Kobe and in
Formosa, Japan, at Oporto, Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Honolulu,
Sydney, Mauritius, Hongkong, and Glasgow.
"In December, 1899, on account of the apparent spread of this

disease, 12 commissioned officers were detailed by order of
the President for duty in the offices of the United States
consuls at the principal ports in England and on the
Continent. In June, the disease fortunately not having become
as widespread as anticipated, they were recalled, with the
exception of five, who are still retained for the purpose of
furnishing information and for service at any needed point.
Two of those thus retained, when the plague was announced at
Glasgow, Scotland, on August 28, 1900, were immediately sent
to that point and began inspection of vessels for the United
States and also for Canada, by request of that Government,
thus enabling vessels to be entered at ports on this side
without undue restraint. In the laboratory of the Service,
scientific investigations as to the viability of the plague
bacillus and the methods and efficiency of disinfection have
been conducted, and the results, together with excerpts from
all available literature hearing upon the prevention of
plague, have been published in the Public Health Reports,
forming, for this year, a volume containing most complete
information upon this disease. About 700,000 doses of
Haffkine's prophylactic were also prepared in the laboratory
and sent to the United States quarantine officers at home and
abroad, together with large quantities of Yersin's serum,
purchased early in the year from the Pasteur Institute in
Paris. In these two preparations, the one (Haffkine) a
prophylactic and the other (Yersin) both prophylactic and a
cure, the Surgeon-General says that science has effective
methods of combating the spread of this disease."
United States, Secretary of the Treasury,

Annual Report, December 4, 1900.
The "antitoxin, or serum, first prepared by Professor Haffkine

as a plague inoculation, called Haffkine's prophylactic, is
now being used in Bombay and western India with remarkable
results. This prophylactic is prepared by first taking the
plague bacilli, or the young germs, from a person affected
with the plague and cultivating them. These microbes are
killed by artificial means and a high degree of heat. From
these dead germs and their poisonous excrements is produced a
fluid that is believed to have acquired the power, when
injected into the human system, to render the blood immune
from the attack of plague germs and to neutralize their
effect. The injection of such a poison has the effect of an
antitoxin and prevents the system from nourishing plague. A
dead plague germ being inoculated into a person, plague will
not follow. A person after having one attack of the disease is
rarely liable to a second. The person first inoculated is
subject to symptoms of the plague.
{406}
In vaccination for smallpox
a living germ is dealt with, whereas in plague inoculation
dead seed only are injected. … Inoculation is exceedingly
unpopular among the natives. The government has had great
labor in persuading the Hindoo mind of the efficacy of
Haffkine's prophylactic against plague and at the same time of
its utter harmlessness in every other respect. The Hindoo is
suspicious that the dead germs and their toxic excreta may be
of animal rather than vegetable substance, which would make
the injection of the fluid into their body a religious
offense."
United States Consular Reports,
January, 1900, page 101.
"In the present epidemic, plague-spots are scattered over the

whole face of the globe from Sydney to Santos and Hongkong,
and recently from San Francisco suspicious cases have been
reported. The annual pilgrimage of Moslems to worship at the
shrines of Mecca and Medina is now, as in the past, of all
human agencies, the most active in spreading the pest. … Since
Egypt is nearest, plague first appears there in the seaport
towns, particularly Alexandria. Sanitary conditions have
improved vastly, like economics, under British control; and,
last year, what in other times might have been a devastating
epidemic was limited to relatively a few scattered cases.
Recognizing the danger to themselves, the European powers have
been led to take steps, under the Venice Convention, for their
own protection. An international quarantine, under the control
of the Egyptian Sanitary, Maritime, and Quarantine Council, in
which the powers have one vote each and Egypt three, has
established stations at two points on the Red Sea."
American Review of Reviews,

May, 1900.
PLATT AMENDMENT, The.

CUBA: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY-MARCH).
PLURAL VOTING.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1894-1895.
PLYMOUTH COLONY:
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Liste des illustrations XVII

4 L'intention stratégique 127

19.0 Introduction 127

5 Culture et stratégie 167

~.0 Introduction 167

~.~.111 Le champ sec toriel 175

Commentaires sur la partie 1 207

6 Les stratégies par domaine d'activité 231

~.D Introduction 231

7 La diversification et la gestion d'un portefeuille d'activités 275

6.0 Introduction 275

8 Les stratégies internationales 315

IË).O Introduction 315

m.~ Le choix des marchés et les modalités d'entrée 327

9 L'innovation et l'entrepreneuriat 349

~.0 Introduction 349

10 Fusions et acquisitions, alliances et partenariats 387

mJ.D Introduction 387

Commentaires sur la partie II 423

11 L'évaluation des stratégies 429

m.o Introduction 429

Le risque financier 444

12 Les processus stratégiques 469

Œl.D Introduction 469

13 Stratégie et organisation 501

iE.O Introduction 501

14 Gérer le changement stratégique 537

ŒJ.O Introduction S37

Lectures recommandées 568

15 La pratique de la stratégie 577

[El.O Introduction 577

Commentaires sur la partie III 613

Bibliographie francophone 627

Index des noms 631

Index des concepts 637

Liste des illustrations

1.1 I.:Op inion, premier qu otidien bimédia 4

2.1 Le pétro le en eaux troubl es 38

3.1 La ca pacité stratégique : quelques exe mples 86

4.1 La mission de Mozilla : au-delà de Firefox 130

5.1 La Cornu e distille son héritage 170

6.1 La segmentation stratégiq ue de Valeo 237

7. 1 Axel Springe r dev ient numérique 280

10.1 Disney peut-il absorber des super-héros? 392

11.1 Qu'est-ce qu' un e m auva ise performance? 434

12.1 L'influence des dirigeants sur l'élaboration de la stratégie 472

13.1 Erreur de structure : Netflix rem bobine Qwikster 503

14.1 Les styles de conduite du changement 544

15.1 Offre d'emploi au sein d' un e direction de la stratégie 581

Liste des controverses académiques

Chapitre 2 Quel est l'impact de l'i ndustrie? 72

Liste des schémas et tableaux

Schéma 1.1 Définitions de la stratégie 3

Schéma 2.1 Les strates de l'environ nem ent 36

Schéma 3. 1 La capacité stratégiqu e :les points clés 84

Schéma 6.1 Les stratégies par domaine d'activité 232

Schéma 7.1 La gestion d'un portefeuille d'activités 276