SUMMER 1975

ÉTÉ 1975
Drift hazards from the large-
scale use of herbicides are under
investigation by Agriculture
Canada scientists. See story on
page 20.

Les dangers de dérive lors de

l'usage extensif des pesticides
font l'objet d'études par les
chercheurs d'Agriculture
Canada. Voir texte en page 20.

AIMADA
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 ROP— THE KEY TO EFFICIENT BEEF PRODUCTION
CANADA PLANT RESPONSES TO NORTHERN ENVIRONMENTS
3

AGRICULTURE A MODIFIED CONTROL PROGRAM FOR CARROT INSECTS

BRUCELLOSIS CONTROL CANADA
IN
9

11

A WEED IDENTIFICATION GARDEN 13

OUR BLOOMING INDUSTRY 15
HOLLOW STEM IN BROCCOLI 19
REDUCING HER&ICIDE SPRAY DRIFT 20
DEGRÉS CELSIUS ET AGRICULTURE 22
BOXED BEEF FOR CANADA? 24
SILICEOUS URINARY CALCULI FROM CATTLE 26
PESTICIDES AND OVERTREE IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS 28
ECHOES/ÉCHOS 30

VOLUME 20 SUMMER 1975 NO. 3

VOLUME 20 ÉTÉ 1 975 N ° 3

JOURNAL OF THE CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-OTTAWA

REVUE DU MINISTERE DE L'AGRICULTURE DU CANADA-OTTAWA
MINISTER, HON. EUGENE WHELAN, MINISTRE DEPUTY MINISTER, L. DENIS HUDON, SOUS-MINISTRE

CANADA AGRICULTURE is La revue trimestrielle CANADA EDITORIAL BOARD

published quarterly to inform AGRICULTURE renseigne les COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION
extension workers and agri- vulgarisateurs et représentants
businessmen of developments du négoce agricole sur les G M Carman
in research and other federal
développements de la Chairman I Président
recherche et des autres E J LeRoux
agricultural responsibilities. C R Phillips
services agricoles du
A. E. Lewis
Any article may be reproduced gouvernement fédéral.
J. F. Frank
without special permission La reproduction des articles J J McConnell
provided the source is given est permise en indiquant C H Kenney
credit. If excerpts only are to l'origine. Pour reproduire des D W
MacDonald
be used, authors' permission passages d'un article, Secretary/ Secrétaire
l'autorisation de l'auteur est
should be obtained. Editor-writer/ Rédactrice
nécessaire.
Reprinted articles must not be L J James
Les articles reproduits ne Editing/ Rédaction
associated with advertising doivent pas servir à des fins G J Lempereur
material. The use of trade de réclame. La mention de D M. Guertin
names published in this journal marques de fabrique ne
implies no endorsement of the signifie pas que la revue Graphic Design / Graphique
A J. McAllister
products named nor any garantit ces produits ni qu'elle
criticism of similar products déconseille d'autres produits
not mentioned. non mentionnés.
Les articles en anglais ou en
Contributors may submit français doivent être adressés
articles in either English or
au secrétaire du Comité de
French to the Secretary, rédaction. Division de
Editorial Board, Information
Division, Canada Department
of Agriculture, Ottawa.
l'information, ministère de
l'Agriculture du Canada,
Ottawa.
* Agriculture
Canada
 ROP—THE KEY TO
EFFICIENT BEEF
PRODUCTION

W.A.GILLIS

Par le Contrôle d'aptitudes, la Division

des bestiaux du ministère de l'Agricul-
ture du Canada a mis au point un pro-
gramme d'évaluation des bovins de
boucherie qui permettra une améliora-
tion génétique rapide du secteur cana-
dien des bovins reproducteurs Le fait
que le nombre d'éleveurs participants
au programme de contrôle d'aptitudes
se soit multiplié par 1 2 au cours de la
dernière décennie montre bien l'intérêt
croissant des producteurs pour l'amélio-
ration génétique

In the past decade, few other indus-

tries of equal size and scope have
changed more the basic concepts of
in

production, processing and the nature

of the product than the Canadian beef
.%
Hi > *ï!SÉk.-«SL
cattle industry. The infusion of new With the infusion of many new breeds into the
breeds, increased use of artificial inse- Canadian population, there is an increasing
mination, changes in consumer de- awareness of the importance of performance
testing
mand for leaner beef, and more com-
petitionamong beef producers have
brought the concept of performance dual's performance compared with its actual mechanics of administering the
testing to the forefront of the industry. contemporaries. In the latter case, an program and for subsequent extension
Increased recognition of the impor- individual is evaluated genetically by activity.The overall governing body of
tance of the national Record of Per- the performance of its progeny com- the R.O.P. program is the National Ad-
formance program (R.O.P.), which was pared with progeny of other bulls or visory Board. This Board is comprised
initiated in 1956, and advanced sta- cows. The individual performance test of federal and provincial government
tistical methodology has led to a signif- is generally favored for traits that can personnel, purebred and commercial
icantly larger and more sophisticated be easily measured and have relatively producers, researchers and representa-
system of genetic evaluation. high heritability. The individual per- tives from other segments of the beef
The objective of a national perform- formance test also allows more rapid cattle industry such as the meat pack-
ance testing program is to genetically genetic evaluation. The progeny test is ing industry.
improve the population for traits of useful for the evaluation of imported or
greatest economic importance. Per- other untested bulls and of traits of low
formance testing is a mechanism that heritability. Home Testing
distinguishes genetic differences The national P.. O.P. Program for
among animals by measuring the per- Beef Cattle encompasses three levels The home test is a performance test
formance of an individual or an indivi- of testing: (1) home testing; (2) station of animals in a producer's herd. This
dual's offspring. In the former case, testing of bulls; and (3) progeny test- program provides producers with an
genetic differences are identified by ing. It is a federal— provincial program objective basis for within herd selec-
the relative difference of the indivi- with the federal government assuming tion of both male and female breeding
responsibility for national coordination stock. In smaller herds,it pertains pri-
Dr W A Gill is is Head of Beef Cattle Production.
and data processing. The provincial marily to the selection of females, as
Livestock Division. Production and Marketing
Branch. CDA. Ottawa governments are responsible for the male selection is much more limited.
 ROP BEEF

The traits that are recorded and

evaluated on the home test program
are as follows:

Maternal and Reproductive Traits Producer receives initial

calving interval form to record birth data.
gestation period
cow defects
calving ease
calf condition at birth

Provincial weighmen record

Growth Traits weaning weights of calves
birth weight and send forms to Ottawa
adjusted 200 day weight or Edmonton for processing.
average daily gain (birth to
weaning)
average daily gain (on 1 65 day
feeding period) sent to breeder,
adjusted 365 day weight Weaning report provincial and federal
field staff, and
The home test program includes breed associations
evaluations of both maternal and re-
productive traits, and growth traits.
Growth traits are the most useful in a
performance test due to high heritabil- Provincial weighmen record
ity and accuracy of measuring the yearling weights of calves
traits. The maternal and reproductive and send forms to Ottawa
traits are the most important in com- or Edmonton for processing.
mercial beef production, but do not re-
spond well to selection and are difficult
to quantitate. However, they enable
producers to improve management sent to breeder,
practices and are extremely important Herd summary provincial and federal
for progeny testing of A.I Sires. . field staff, and
The flow chart (right) illustrates how breed associations
the program operates.
The breeder receives two processed
reports— a Weaning Report and a Herd
Summary. All reports contain summa-
rized data foreach individual animal,
each sex-group of animals, and each
herd sire. These records provide the
necessary data to assist producers in
making selection decisions. In addi-
upon request a "Cow Production
tion,
Certificate" that includes the records
of a particular cow's progeny is pro-
vided. This certificate is especially use-
ful for culling unproductive cows in the
herd. The producer also receives an
 ROP BEEF

annual report on all cattle tested under on smaller numbers and does not eval-
the program. uate bulls across herds under the same
In the 1973-74 test year, approxi- environmental conditions.
mately 1 1 3,000 calves were tested in Bulls are placed in stations when
over 3,000 herds. The program has weaned about 200 days of age.
at
grown by about 1 268 percent over the They are then given a 28 day warm-up
past 10 years, with the most growth in period to adapt to their new environ-
the past 5 years. ment before being tested over a 140-
day feeding period. Average daily gain
is the only trait evaluated as it is de-
Station Testing void of pre-weaning influences.
The 14 stations in Canada tested
Centralized station testing of bulls over 2,000 bulls in the 1973-74 test
allows the determination of genetic dif- year. Station operation and data pro-
ferences in growth rate under a rigidly cessing are carried out at the provin-
controlled feeding and management cial level. Each station is governed by
situation. Station testing also allows the provincial R.O.P Advisory Com-
accurate genetic evaluation among mittee, which also advises the National
large contemporary groups of bulls Advisory Board.
from many herds and sires. Combined
Semen from A I bulls is stored in nitrogen tanks
with the standardization of feeding
and management, producers can pur- Progeny Testing
chase these bulls with confidence. A and to provide a means for producers
superior performing bull in a test sta- Progeny testing enables producers to to progeny test individual bulls in an
tion is more likely to improve a herd evaluate the genetic potential of a bull inexpensive, accurate and rapid
than one purchased out of a small or cow based on progeny performance. manner.
tested herd, as the latter test is based It is particularly useful for evaluating The advent of this program has been
mature, unproven, imported bulls for a "Canadian first". No other beef sire
carcass traits and traits of low heritabil- appraisal program employs these ad-
itysuch as the various maternal and vanced statistical procedures. The
reproductive traits. Progeny testing is "Direct Sire Comparison Procedure"
the most accurate type of test provid- employs a statistical technique known
ing there are sufficient numbers of pro- as "best linear unbiased prediction
geny. However, it is also more expen- (B.L.U.P.)" procedures. This allows a
sive and time-consuming. Progeny relatively large proportion of the non-
testing of young, performance-tested genetic variation associated with a
bulls allows optimum genetic bull's performance in a particular trait
evaluation. to be identified, yielding an accurate
In November of 1974, Agriculture genetic evaluation of that trait. Most
Canada announced a new program animal geneticists consider this statisti-
called "The National Sire Monitoring cal procedure superior to other proce-
Program". Under this progeny-testing dures in use. It is the only beef sire ap-
program, performance data is collected praisal program that employs this
on sires used in R.O.P. herds on a con- procedure and is a classic example of
tinual basis. Because data is collected, putting theory into practice. This
on a large number of progeny, many procedure was implemented through
sires can accurately be evaluated. This the cooperative effort of staff at the
applies primarily to A.I. bulls. Again, University of Guelph and Agriculture
To evaluate average daily gam. bulls' weights are the objective of this program is to rou- Canada, and under the direction of the
recorded over a 40-day feeding period
1 tinely evaluate widely used beef sires R.O.P Beef Technical Committee.
 ROP BEEF

For an A.I unit or producer to partic-

.

INTEGRATION OF R.O.P. PROGRAMS ipate in this program, there are several

guidelines:
bull and heifer replacements • Bulls must be sampled in 5 or more
R.O.P. herds.

HOME TEST A.I.

• The bull must have at least 50 pro-
PROGRAM geny in total.
• Two in each herd must be
sires
used— one the test sire and the other a
top bulls well-known, widely-used sire. This is
heifer replacements
at weaning necessary to ensure that all herds and
sires "con-
are directly or indirectly
herd sire
I
replacements nected" each other.
to

I
• Random mating must be used.
Iherd sire • Accurate and complete records
'replacements
must be kept.
The above guidelines ensure an ac-
UNTESTED AND curate progeny proof on a sire with
STATION TEST herd sire replacements
COMMERCIAL A.I
and
PROGRAM little cost in a short period of time.
HERDS
To date, 968 bulls have been eval-
uated under this program. Of these,
118 have been publicly listed as
proven. They were evaluated for wean-
top bulls ing weight, gain on feed and yearling
heifer replacements
at weaning top gaining bulls
and yearling weight. Eventually, they'll also be eval-
uated for calving ease and carcass
merit allowing a comprehensive eval-
uation of bulls for traits of greatest eco-
SIRE MONITORING nomic importance.
PROGRAM
Integration of R.O.P.
Programs
top progeny
sampled in tested bulls The three levels of testing are part of
R.O.P. herds for all traits
an overall testing scheme for Canada,
and are integrated to provide optimum
selection in the Canadian beef popu-
lation.
IMPORTED BULLS '[ A.I. STUDS is an opportune time for increas-
It

ing beef cattle performance testing.

With the infusion of many new breeds
into the Canadian population, and an

WEANING WEIGHT PROOF (BREED- -CHAROLAIS) increasing awareness of the impor-

tance of "performance" in beef cattle
Standard production, it is now a question of
Reg. No of No. of No of Predicted error of getting on with the job. The Livestock
no. Name herds males females difference prediction
Division's objective is to develop, pro-
FMC 228 Domino 9 40 45 + 45 + 9 mote and carry out a beef cattle test-
FMC 122 Cadet-Roussel 82 144 179 + 25 + 4 ing program that will rapidly improve
FMC 108 Camarade 20 22 29 - 8 + 8
the Canadian seedstock industry.
 PLANT RESPONSES
TO NORTHERN
ENVIRONMENTS

R. E. HARRIS of the Peace is superior to the southern Crop Response

prairies. This is reflected in higher
yields of cereals (see table), higher However, the superiority of one cli-
À plusieurs égards, le climat agricole de content and better quality of oil in mate over another is not important.
la région de la Rivière-de-la-Paix l'em- seeds, and better survival of her- What is important is how crops re-
porte sur celui des Prairies du sud Tou- baceous perennials. Some of the supe- spond to differences in the
tefois, beaucoup de plantes ne s'adap- rior aspects of the agro-climate of the environment.
tent pas à l'environnement du nord du Peace compared to that of the south- Many plants do not respond to the
fait qu'elles ont été créées en fonction ern prairies are as follows: environment according to some gener-
d'une longueur du jour différente ou de • long days resulting in more hours ally held beliefs:
climats à températures plus élevées et of light during the killing-frost-free pe- • short day plants, such as onions,
saisons de croissance plus longues Les riod (-2.2° C). develop normally in long days.
chercheurs de la Station de recherche • higher precipitation (except at • minimum temperatures during the
de Beaverlodge pensent qu'il faut em- Morden). winter are not the primary cause of
ployer de nouveaux régimes d'exploita- • less wind and lower evaporation re- winter injury in woody plants.
tion et de nouveaux cultivars particuliè- • the cool temperatures do
sulting in a lower moisture deficit. fall not
rement mis au point en fonction des • higher soil temperature during the result in early hardening.
conditions du Nord pour accroître la winter. • tomatoes do set fruit during the
production • higher mean air temperatures dur- day, and even in continuous light.
ing the three coldest months of the • the earliest maturing crops on the
Because of its northerly location year. southern prairies are not always the
(55°13'N most Canadians
latitude), • fewer degree-days required to ri- earliest in the North.
expect the Peace River region to have pen crops. Some reasons for these differ-
of the
a much less favorable climate than the ences response are partially under-
in
southern prairies. Reports of difficult MANITOBA stood, but many are still the subject of
harvesting seasons, a short frost-free considerable speculation. There can be
PEACE RIVER REGION
season and lower summer tempera- little doubt that a great part of the
LOCATION IN THE MANITOBA
tures, and theories on plant-climate problem is that most of the plants
• LOCATION IN THE PEACE RIVER REGION
relationships based on more southerly grown in the North were developed for
findings indicate a rather low agricul- warmer, entirely different climates.
tural potential for this region. Results FT. VERMILION Short growing seasons and low tem-
obtained at the Beaverlodge Research
©
SWAN RIVER peratures are often blamed for the
Station suggest that this is not a true poor performance of a crop. Although
picture of the situation. Furthermore, itis often said that little can be done to
many of the results point to an even lengthen the growing season, poor
greater potential than is presently crop performance is often caused by
realized. PINE FALLS® more specific factors that can be
The Peace River region is large, with modified.
an area roughly equivalent to the en- For example, on heavy textured soils
WINNIPEG®
tire agricultural area of Manitoba (See in the Peace River region sweet corn
map). no surprise, therefore, that
It is
STEINBACH® matures, on the average, only 1 year in
BEAVERLODGE
in many years one part of the region SLAVE LAKE 7, and bush beans also usually pro-
GRANOE PRAIRIE
may suffer adverse weather condi- duce poor crops. The major factor lim-
tions. However, adverse conditions A COMPARISON OF THE AGRICULTURAL AREAS OF MANITOBA itingthe production of both crops is
rarely occur over the whole region in AND THE PEACE RIVER REGION low soil temperature in spring. This
any one year. limiting factor can be overcome with
In many respects, the agro-climate clear polyethylene mulches. With mul-
ches, the reliability of corn production
Dr Harris Head. Environment and Special Crops
is

section. CDA Research Station. Beaverlodge. is increased to 9 years out of 10 and

Alberta good crops of beans can be produced
 THE NORTH

every year. The factor limiting sweet

corn production in the 10th year is the
inability of cultivars developed for
warmer climates to mature beyond the
milk stage at low temperatures. A cur-
sory examination of a few genotypes
showed that at least one of the less
improved' cultivars did mature at
lower temperatures than any of the
others tested. By breeding it should be
possible to transfer this ability to ma-
ture at low temperatures to other culti-
vars. A approach has been used
similar
to reliability of tomato and
improve the
strawberry production in the Peace
River region.

Climatic Factors

Contender beans grown in polyethylene mulch Contender bush beans with and without poly- At present, production and weather
ethylene mulch. records are being studied to identify
factors wheat production in
limiting
the Peace River region. Between 1934
COMPARISON OF SOME ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AT BEAVERLODGE (55
!

13'N), and 1 954 Thatcher wheat required an

MORDEN (49° 'N) AND SWIFT CURRENT (50° 24'N).
1 1
average of 103 days to ripen at Swift
Current and 121 days at Beaverlodge.
Beaver- Swift
Wheat at Beaverlodge took 5 days
lodge Morden Current
longer to reach the heading stage and
Ave. yield from exp. plots most of the difference occurred be-
Marquis wheat (1967-73) q/ha 308 22.2 13.5
tween seeding and emergence. How-
Victory oats (1968-73) q/ha 35.8' 34.4 19.0
Conquest barley (1 967-73) q/ha 41.4 2
370 13.1 ever, the stage from heading to ripe
No hours between
of light took 1 3 days longer at Beaverlodge.
date of and first killing
last
frost (-2.2° C) 2406 2366 2236 Weather records show that during this
Wind-mean daily k/hr 12.6 NA. 3
24 8 stage precipitation is lower, and wind,
Precipitation, May—
August mean cm 23.1 26 9 190 temperature (air and soil), evaporation,
Potential evaporation mean yearly cm 47.0 65.0 73.2
mean May 1 —Aug. 3 1 cm 37.8 48 .5 51 8 and hours of sunshine are higher at
Soil temperature— Jan. mean C - 3.8 - 5- - 9.2 Swift Current than at Beaverlodge.
— lowest recorded C -106 -15 4
-19.4
Similarly, in the 6 earliest ripening
Air temperature
Meanof 3 coldest months C - 98 -13 8 -11.3 years at Beaverlodge, the average pre-
Degree-days to ripen Thatcher wheat 1783 2041 2008 cipitation was lower, while average
wind, evaporation, hours of sunshine,
'1971-73only and air and soil temperatures were
'1970-73 only
3
Not available higher than for the 6 latest ripening
'Not available for Morden. Glenlea Research Station data used instead years. Thus, low precipitation, high
wind, evaporation, air and soil tem-
peratures, and long hours of sunshine
appear to promote early ripening.
A number of the above climatic fac-
tors, however, are interdependent. A
 THE NORTH

comparison of the of each

climate otypes with this ability must be identi-
early ripening year with each late ri- fied. Since most cultivars were devel-
pening year revealed only one consis- oped for warmer climates, the genetic
tent difference in climate between late potential for ripening at lower tem-
and early ripening years. In the early peratures has probably been reduced,
ripening years, daily maximum tem- or even eliminated. It may, therefore,
peratures during the 6 weeks before ri- be necessary to go back to more primi-
pening were consistently higher than tive cultivars or even collect wild types
in the late years. from regions with cool ripening
weather to provide the genetic poten-
tial from which to breed new cultivars
New Cultivars Required for the North.
If the agricultural production poten-
• determine the major specific fac-
to
tors limiting plantdevelopment.
• to identify genotypes less affected
by these limiting factors, and
• to breed new high performance
cultivars better adapted to the combi-
nations of environmental factors en-
countered in the North.
If Canada is getting colder, as many
meteorologists suspect, the develop-
ment of new concepts, management
practices, and cultivars specifically for
northern conditions is not only
'far'

The long term solution is to breed tials ofthe Peace and other northern necessary for a productive agriculture
cultivars withthe ability to ripen at regions are to be achieved, a much in the North, but also may be vital for a

lower temperatures, but first the gen- greater effort must be made: continuing Canadian agriculture.

A MODIFIED
CONTROL
PROGRAM FOR
CARROT INSECTS
A.B.STEVENSON
secticide use. Agricultural producers "market garden'' where more than
know that pesticides are essential to 350 farms primarily produce vege-
En étudiant le cycle biologique de la
successful crop growth. Wiser use of About 75 percent of the carrots
tables.
mouche de la carotte, les chercheurs de pesticides will not only reduce pres- produced in Ontario are grown in the
la Station de recherche de Vineland ont
sure on the environment, but also will Holland Marsh.
mis au point des calendriers de pulvéri-
save farmers money, and perhaps pro- Carrot growers in the marsh must
sation qui ont permis de combattre effi-
vide more effective pest control. deal with 3 major insect pests: the car-
cacement ce ravageur et de réduire les With mind, a program was es-
this in rot rust fly and carrot weevil, which
quantités d'antiparasitaires nécessaires tablished at Vineland Research
the tunnel in the carrot roots in their larval
Station to study the control of insects stages; and the aster leafhopper which
research and the fu-
In recent years, affecting carrots in the Holland Marsh, transmits the "aster yellows" disease.
ror over pesticides has forced all con- and to more effectively use insecti- More pesticide is applied annually for
cerned with pest control to evaluate in- cides on this $6 million crop. Problems control of carrot rust fly than for other
Dr A B Stevenson is a research scientist at the
associated with pesticide use are par- insects.
i

CDA Research Station. Vineland. Ontario ticularly important in this 7,000-acre The carrot rust fly has two gener-
 CARROT INSECTS

ations a year in the Holland Marsh, The second generation flies usually tion obtained by monitoring plots
and sometimes a partial third gener- persist forabout 2 months, requiring proved very effective against second
ation in late autumn. Experiments con- up to eight sprays to prevent damage. generation rust fly in both 1 973 and
ducted on the marsh and elsewhere However, the levels of rust fly attack 1 974. In 1 973, on plots on six farms,

showed that the first generation can be vary widely throughout the Marsh, re- the number of sprays required ranged
controlled by the use of carbofuran quiring fewer sprays on some farms from two to five, and averaged 3.3.
granules applied in the seed furrow at than others. To help time these sprays The rust fly injury on carrots from
planting. As this treatment also ap- more effectively, a monitoring program these plots ranged from to 9 percent
pears effective for control of the carrot for rust fly adults was set up. Cages and averaged 2.3 percent, an accept-
weevil and leafhoppers, it appears were placed on sites infestedby the able level of damage. In 1974, four
likely that this single insecticide appli- preceding generation to determine the plots were monitored, and zero, zero,
cation will control the main insect times and peaks of adult emergence. one, and two sprays were recom-
pests until the second generation rust Simple sticky traps were designed to mended, respectively. However, the
fly appears near the end of July. monitor the activity of rust fly adults first two plots were each sprayed once

Spraying with either parathion or diazi- on individual farms. The information in error. The average damage at har-

non is the only known method of effec- obtained was used to make general vest was 4 percent, but most of this in-
tively controlling the second gener- recommendations for the area. jury was not serious enough to make
ation flies. Spray schedules based on informa- the carrots unmarketable.
The prospects for reducing the
amount of insecticide on carrots ap-
pear very bright. The control program
for insects, however, must be inte-

grated with controls for foliar diseases.

Research on improved timing of sprays
for these diseases is currently being
carried out in the Holland Marsh by
personnel from the University of
Guelph. As information becomes avail-
able, the amount of pesticides used in
carrot production will be reduced ap-
preciably.

Insect damage can cause serious economic

losses to producers: on the left are two healthy
carrots, the centre two carrots have been
damaged by the carrot weevil, the two carrots on
the right have been damaged by the carrot rust fly

10
 BRUCELLOSIS
CONTROL IN
CANADA
G. McKEOWN legislation. By 1 966, all areas in Can- herd of origin is submitted to a blood
ada had been tested and, where neces- test.
sary, retested to reduce the level of Under the Milk Ring
Brucellosis
Depuis 1950. la Direction de l'hygiène infection to below 0.2 percent. Under Testing program,
Health of Animals
vétérinaire a mis sur pied plusieurs pro- this program, testing is compulsory Branch inspectors collect milk and
grammes dans le cadre d'une série d'é- and reactors are ordered slaughtered cream samples four times a year at a
tapes destinées à enrayer et. éventuelle- with compensation to owners paid by receiving depot from herds shipping
ment, à éliminer la brucellose au Agriculture Canada. milk or cream. Negative results indi-
Canada Grâce à la collaboration des Towards the end of the first general cate that a herd is free from brucel-
éleveurs, la Direction a la conviction de test, the Health of Animals Branch in- losis. Where a reaction is found, the
pouvoir enrayer complètement cette troduced two screening procedures, owner's herd is blood tested.
maladie the Market Cattle Testing and the Bru-
cellosis Milk Ring Testing programs, to
Brucellosis is a contagious, costly, monitor the presence of infection and Towards Total Elimination
livestock disease that also affects hu- reduce farm testing. Under the Market
mans. Although the disease can attack Cattle Testing Program, cows destined The Health ofAnimals Branch feels
other farm animals, it is primarily a for slaughter are identified at assembly that there has been undue reliance on
threat to cattle. points by a coded backtag. Federal in- vaccination to provide protection
Abortion the most outstanding
is spectors collect blood samples from against brucellosis. Scientific evidence
symptom of the disease in cattle. This the backtagged animals at the time of indicates that under usual field condi-
usually occurs between the 5th and slaughter and forward them to a fed- tions, the vaccine protects about 60 to
7th month of pregnancy. A common eral laboratory for testing. Negative re- 65 percent of the animals vaccinated,
sequel to abortion is retention of the sults are credited to the owner's herd. although this percentage is reduced
placenta with resulting uterine infec- But when a reaction is uncovered, the where there is a massive exposure.
tion. Milk production may be reduced
approximately 25 percent due to
changes in normal lactation period
caused by abortions and delayed
conception.

Control Programs

The first steps towards eradication of

brucellosis in Canada were taken in
1950 with the establishment of the
Federal-Provincial Calfhood Vaccina-
tion Program. Under this program,
over 10 million calves were vacci-
nated. As a mass control measure, vac-
cination reduced the level of infection
in the cattle population from 9 percent
in 1950 to 4.5 percent by 1956. The
next step towards eradication was the
introduction of the test and slaughter
policy.
The national test and slaughter pro-
gram began in 1957 under federal
Dr G McKeown is Chief of Eradication Programs.
Health of Animals Branch, Agriculture Canada, A Health of Animals veterinarian extracts a blood
Ottawa sample for testing for brucellosis

11
 BRUCELLOSIS

calfhood vaccination has been de-em- ring test, maintaining infected herds
phasized and not eliminated. Ultima- under quarantine until they have
tely, it will be necessary to take this passed two negative tests, and depo-
step to achieve complete eradication. pulation of some herds where the dis-
During the last two years, there has ease cannot be readily eliminated by
been some increase in the incidence of testing procedures and other control
brucellosis. As of March 15, 197 5, measures. The Branch has also stressed
there was a low level of infection in the the need for immediate removal of reac-
Altantic provinces and also in Alberta tors, prompt cleaning and disinfect ion of

and British Columbia. In the four At- the prem ises as well as a prompt retest of
lantic provinces there were 3 quaran- all infected herds.
tined herds, in British Columbia 8 In most cases, herds become in-
herds, and in Alberta 19 herds. In Sas- fected when an owner unknowingly
katchewan the number of quarantined buys a brucellosis infected animal.
herds was 68, in Manitoba 58, in Que- Owners have a responsibility to take
bec 140, and in Ontario 418. precautions to keep their herds free
The Health of Animals Branch has from brucellosis and one of the most
carefully reviewed all aspects of its important safeguards is to purchase
brucellosis eradication program and only brucellosis negative cattle.
has concluded that some modifications The Health of Animals Branch is
were necessary to achieve complete confident that with continued dili-
eradication. These include testing of gence and cooperation from the live-
Health of A nimals Branch inspectors collect milk cattle at auction markets, less toler- stock owners we will achieve our goal
and cream samples at dairies for testing under the
Brucellosis Milk Ring Testing Program
ance on the interpretation of the milk of complete eradication of brucellosis.

The fact that it is not possible on the

laboratory tests to differentiate be-
tween reactions due to vaccination
and those due to natural infection has
resulted in the masking of the infection
in some vaccinated animals with the
perpetuation of the disease in those
herds where this occurs.
Recognizing that total eradication of
brucellosis could not be accomplished
in conjunction with mass calfhood vac-
cination, and with the national infec-
tion rate below 2/ 10 of 1 percent, the
Health of Animals Branch began de-
emphasizing vaccination a few years
ago. Because fewer calves were being
vaccinated, there was an increase in
the number of totally susceptible cattle
and an increase in the disease where
there was residual infection. The se-
quence of events was anticipated at A veterinarian discusses a brucellosis control
the outset. For this reason, brucellosis program with a farmer

12
 A WEED
IDENTIFICATION
GARDEN
A.S. HAMILL farm so that he can discuss suggested
control measures. The large number of
herbicides available at present has led
to increased specialized uses. Many
Le jardin d'identification des mauvaises
herbicide container labels now specify
herbes, établi en 1972 â la Station de
the weeds which can be controlled and
recherche de Harrow, a pour but d'aider
sometimes those which cannot be con-
les agriculteurs et les citadins à identi-
trolled. The high agricultural productiv-
fier lesespèces de mauvaises herbes et
ity of southern Ontario makes it im-
à étudier leur mode de croissance Les
perative that farmers properly identify
chercheurs pourront alors faire de meil-
the weeds in their crops to obtain max-
leures recommandations sur le désher-
bage puisque les espèces de mauvaises
imum effectiveness from their invest-

herbes auront déjà été identifiées par

ment in herbicides.

l'agriculteur
A
survey conducted in the fall of
1971 in Essex, Kent and Lambton
counties of Ontario indicated that only
"Hello" . . .

15 percent of the farmers could iden-

"Yes, speaking" . . .

tify the 28 most common weeds in the

"You have a small weed with sharp
region. This situation gave rise to the
notches for indentations on the
concept of establishing a weed garden
edges of the leaf growing in your
at Harrow which always would be
cabbage field" . . .

available for public viewing and study.

"It very hard to kill"
is . . .

The weed identification garden es-

"It also has small yellow flowers on
tablished at Harrow in 1972, was de-
it" . . .

signed to allow each weed species to

"Last year there was some in your to-
mato field, but you had never seen
it before then"
occupy a plot 60 by 60 cm with a 60
.
cm grass border between plots. The
. .

garden consists of three tiers of 40

"You asked your neighbor the name of
species each, for a total of 120 plots.
the weed and he said around here it
The species are divided into three
is called 'Summer weed' "...
groups on the basis of their life
"What is the proper name and what
cycles— annuals, biennials, and peren-
can you do to control it?"
nials. A further division, where pos-
concentrated on grasses
sible, in one
This type of telephone conversation
area and broadleaved weeds in an-
has occurred often at the Harrow Re-
other. growing species were
Tallest
search Station. In addition, many weed
planted in the third tier, and lower
specimens have been brought to the
growing plants in the front tier. As an
station or arrived by mail for possible
aid to maintenance each plot was sur-
identification. Sometimes the plants
rounded with a plastic lawn strip to
have arrived in good conditions, but
prevent grass encroaching on the
frequently they are dried up, crinkled,
seeded area. Plot labels indicate both
moldy specimens.
the scientific and common names.
Farmers and urban dwellers alike
Special provision was required for
have weeds which they cannot iden-
weeds with creeping root systems.
tify. Farmers have traditionally pre-
These were planted in tiles 90 cm long
ferred to have their problem weeds
and 30 cm in diameter placed upright
identified by a specialist visiting the
in the ground. All species are allowed

Dr Hamill is a weed ecologist at the CDA Re-

to propagate sufficiently to occupy the
search Station. Harrow. Ontario plot areas.

13
 WEEDS

MM
•a

s
"''<

BIENNIALS
3 M^-^^%"
The Harrow weed identification garden is divided Weeds with creeping root systems are planted in
based on the life cycles
into three sections of the tiles to prevent their spread to surrounding areas
weeds— annuals, biennials and perennials

The weed garden has served as an dichotomiflorum Michx.) has long been the minor problems which have oc-
excellent aid to farmersand city dwell- considered a late germinating grass, curred. Public response has exceeded
ers for identification of weed species particularly in atrazine-treated corn expectations. During the summer
and the study of their growth habits. fields. In the weed garden, the germi- months, many people visit the garden,
Farmers use it to obtain correct identi- nation time of fall panicum has been including people from the U.S.A. and
fication of their problem weeds before similar to other annual grasses, indicat- other provinces of Canada.
requesting information on control ing partial control from atrazine treat- The weed identification garden at
measures. ment or a prolonged germination Harrow is becoming recognized as an
To the research scientists, the gar- period. important addition to the weed re-

den has provided the opportunity to The establishment and maintenance search program underway.
devote more time to basic research of the weed identification garden has
projects and less time to weed identi- not been without problems. The
fication and extension activities. When spread of weed seeds must be care-
extension information is requested, the fully controlled. The soil type, which is
scientist is able to quickly offer better sandy loam and low in organic matter,
weed control recommendations since is not ideal for normal growth of cer-

the weed species have been previously tain species. It might seem rather
identified by the farmer. As an added ironic, but some weed species are ac-
benefit, the garden has provided re- tually difficult to grow in a domes-
search data on the germination and ticated environment.
growth habits of various weed species. The benefits provided by the weed
For example, fall panicum (Panicum garden however, have far outweighed

14
 OUR BLOOMING
INDUSTRY

L.JAMES

La mise au marché massive des fleurs

coupées et en pots en a accru les ven-
tes Toutefois, pour exploiter les possibi-
lités de ce marché, il faut élargir la base
de production, élaborer de nouvelles
méthodes de production, créer de nou-
veaux cultivars et établir de nouvelles
catégories. Les travaux effectués par le

Service fédéral de recherches sur les

plantes ornementales, ont aidé les flon-
culteurs à accroître leur production et à
solutionner quelques-uns de leurs
problèmes

Flower power is sweeping the coun-

try again. But this time it's real flowers
that have caught the public's atten-
tion. "Floriculture is the fastest grow-
ing segment of Canadian agriculture", Cash-and-carry boutiques sell flowers once
handled only by traditional florist outlets
says Tom Bennett, a horticultural econ-
omist in Agriculture Canada's Market-
ingand Trade Division.
These crops were produced in about has had the greatest impact on in-
The power of "mass merchandis-
19 million sq. ft. of greenhouses. The creased consumer utilization of
ing" has made
potted and cut flowers
major producing province is Ontario, flowers.
easily accessible to the average con-
which produced 64 percent of the to-
sumer. Supermarkets, department
tal farm value of floricultural crops in
stores and cash-and-carry boutiques
1973. Most producers in Ontario are Mass Merchandising
are selling flowers once handled al-
located in the Niagara and Leamington
most exclusively by traditional florist
area. About 1 5 ac of new greenhouses The recent trend to purchasing flow-
outlets.
were built in southern Ontario in 1974 ers in mass market outlets indicates
According to industry officials, Can-
for pot plants and flowers, indicating a that Canadians agree that flowers are
ada's floricultural industry sells an esti-
buoyant market. for pleasure. Producers are hopeful
mated $400 million of flowers and re-
Several trends have characterized that this will remove the stigma that
lated services at the retail level each
the growing popularity of flowers. In- flowers are only for weddings, funerals
year. Approximately 37 percent of the
creased affluence has given Canadians and very special occasions.
cut flowers are roses, 28 percent chry-
more disposable income for luxury In 1960, consumers bought about
santhemums and 21 percent carna-
items. Changing lifestyles have re- 25 percent of their commercial flori-
The major pot plants are chry-
tions.
sulted in more leisure time, perhaps cultural needs from non-florist retail
santhemums, poinsettias and
creating a need for pleasing surround- outlets. In 1970, this increased to 35
geraniums.
ings, especially in metropolitan cen- percent and by 1980 it's expected
1973, the farm value of green-
In
ters. An awareness of ecology and ap- that consumers will buy at least 50
house floricultural crops was $69 mil-
preciation for the natural environment percent of their flowers from mass
lion, 8 percent above 1 972 and 88
has been reflected in increased decora- market outlets. At the same time, total
percent above the 1967-71 average.
tion of homes and office buildings with consumer expenditure for these goods
Lois James is an editor-writer. Periodical Services
flowers and ornamental plants. How- and services in 1 980 may double the
Unit, Information Division, CDA, Ottawa ever, the trend to non-florist retailing 1970 level. This indicates rapid

15

growth for both traditional florists'
shops and mass market outlets. But in
relative growth, sales through mass
markets may increase at a faster rate.
On a daily basis, about 25 percent
of the flowers in Canada are
through mass markets, with a much
higher volume during special events
like Christmas and Easter. Most of the
mass markets buy flowers from whole-
salers, although some producers sell
directly to the chain stores.
Three Dutch clock flower auctions
operate in Canada at Toronto, Mon-
treal and Vancouver. About 70 percent
of the flowers sold through the auc-
tions are pot plants. According to in-
dustry officials, the auction system
The power of mass merchandising has made
potted and cut flowers easily accessible to the
consumer.
tends to stabilize the price and provide
a convenient method for small growers
to market their product. They cater to
both the traditional retail florists and
16
BLOOMING
the "cash-and-carry'' buyers who the first production and marketing out-
handle plants at a lower mark-up than look for floricultural crops. In the fu-
conventional florists. About 10 percent ture, Agriculture Canada economist
of Canadian production is marketed Jane Teeter, the floricultural commod-
through the flower auctions. ity specialist, hopes to provide addi-
sold tional information on future prospects
based on sales volume, exports and
Marketing Problems imports, and also assist the industry in
developing a marketing structure.
The marketing of cut flowers and pot With the exception of carnations,
plants is the greatest untapped poten- Mr. Bennett notes that most imports
tial of any agricultural product in Can- are complementary to the Canadian
ada, notes Tom Bennett. Mr. Bennett floricultural industry. However, he
feels that a marketing structure must stresses that because prices are vulner-
be developed along with expansion able to imports and a downturn in the
into the mass markets. However, be- economy, it is important that this situ-
fore the industry can grow further, sev- ation be watched very closely.
eral changes must first be made:
• Traditional selling methods must
give way to innovative, aggressive Trade
merchandising.
• New ways or improved methods In 1973, Canada imported $21.9
should be developed to make flowers million of cut flowers and pot plants.
more easily accessible to the This was an increase of 29.5 percent
consumer. above 1 972. Although exports of floral
• A dependable supply of suitable plants, roots and bulbs to the U.S.
products and a good variety of flowers have increased, the Canadian domestic
must be developed. industry has not been able to meet
• Transportation problems in moving U.S. demand. Exports of floricultural
cut flowers or pot plants from the crops totalled $5.9 million in 1 973.
grower to the retailer must be Many new flower species are im-
eliminated. ported into Canada for propagation
• Personnel in mass retail outlets, and sale. However, to protect Canada
such as supermarkets, must be trained against the entry of diseases and in-
to care for and market flowers. sects, an import permit, issued by Agri-
If the potential of the mass market is culture Canada's Plant Protection Divi-
to be realized, a broader production sion, is required before any rooted
base, new production methods, and plant material enters the country. Be-
new cultivars and grades must be de- cause the United States is relatively
veloped for this special market. In ad- free from diseases and pests foreign to
dition, promotion and production must Canada, plant material with a rooting
medium such as soil or peat has been
proceed in harmony. Promoting prod-
ucts that are not available, or produc- allowed into Canada for several years.
ing a product for which there is no However, until recently, no plants with
market are equally disastrous, says Mr. a rooting medium could be imported
Bennett. from other countries. To allow the en-
The Marketing and Trade Division of try of new species from other coun-
the Economics Branch organized to
is tries, the Plant Protection Division has
help the industry with its problems. In revised its requirements. Under strict
1 974, the Economics Branch provided supervision, plants grown in sterile me-
 BLOOMING

Agriculture Canada's annual chrysanthemum

show in Ottawa delights thousands of spectators
each year

A new white and pink Rieger Begonia has

been produced by the Ornamentals Research
Service as a result of x-ray mutation

diums, such as peat, vermiculite and
synthetics, can now enter Canada. Al-
though these new regulations are open
to any country, only Belgium, Holland
and Denmark have so far undertaken
the sterile method. These new species
should help to increase production
while protecting Canada against for-
eign diseases and insects.
Research Aids Production
Increasing production is not a
simple task. Floricultural production is
characterized by its wide diversity of
crops, highly sophisticated cultural
methods, perishability of products,
large capital investments, labor-inten-
sive requirements, and dependence on
timing of harvest. It also differs from
other segments of agriculture by its
year-round operations and high vul-
nerability to foreign competition.
Research by Agriculture Canada's
Ornamental Research Service (ORS)
has assisted the floricultural industry
to increase production and overcome
some of its inherent problems. New
cultivarsand cultural methods have
been developed to give flowers longer
life.Increased sales of at least several
species such as poinsettias, azaleas
and chrysanthemums are directly at-
tributable to these developments.
Scientists at the Ornamental Re-
search Service, under the direction of
Dr. A. P. Chan, are currently working
on pot plants and cut flowers to de-
velop new varieties which would be
acceptable to the consumer. Alstroe-
meria, a cut flower plant leased from
Holland, is being evaluated by Dr. J.

17
 BLOOMING

M. Molnar, Chief of the Ornamentals crops. Dr. T. Burnett, the only Cana- ers. Tests have proved that it will
Research Section. Dr. Molnar hopes to dian entomologist working full-time on lengthen the vase life of carnations,
find the flowering responses of Alstroe- insect problems in floriculture, hopes snapdragons and roses. A fresh-cut
meria to temperature, day-length and to develop an integrated biological rose kept Flower Care solution will
in

light intensity. Since Alstroemeria is a
cool temperature plant, it could be a
valuable addition to the presently
available cut flowers.
New cultivars of other species are
also being evaluated. Three x-ray
tations of Rieger begonias developed
by the ORS will probably be released
to growers in the near future, if under
trial they continue to exhibit superior
qualities to existing cultivars.
rose mutation is also being propagated
to evaluate its bloom production and
keeping qualities.
The Sidney Research Station has
control program for pests. He is study- live for 10 days, twice as long as its
ing mite and the
the two-spotted usual life-span in water.
greenhouse whitefly, the major pests Flower Care has been patented in
of poinsettias and chrysanthemums. Canada and the United States. Royal-
Dr. A. T. Bolton, a plant pathologist, ties are turned over to Flowers Canada,
mu- hopes to find an effective control for an association of producers, whole-
soil borne diseases, mildew and Bot- salers and retailers, for research. Pack-
rytis, the major disease problems of ets of the preservative are enclosed
floricultural crops. with bouquets of flowers supplied by
A preservative for cut flowers, called members of Flowers Canada. By ex-
A pink Flower Care, has been developed by tending the vase life of flowers, Flower
Dr. Parups and Dr. Chan. The preserva- Care will be an economic boon to
tive inhibits the growth of micro- greenhouse owners and florists.
organisms that impair the movement With the assistance of new products
of water in the stem. In addition, sugar like Flower Care and the introduction

also made a collection of fuchsias that and iso-ascorbic acid are taken up by of new varieties and production meth-
is in Canada.
the largest the flowers to help keep them fresh ods, Canada's floriculture industry
Improving crop management tech- and healthy. should continue to find favor among
niques is a major part of the research Flower Care benefits most cut flow- Canadians.
program at the ORS. A method of pro-
ducing more compact plants with
shorter stem length through the use of
growth regulators is being evaluated
by Dr. Molnar. Research has shown
that high intensity lamps are twice as
efficient as fluorescent lights. Dr. Mol-
nar hopes to determine the best com-
bination of sodium and mercury lamps
for floriculture. Watering systems for
gloxinia are also being evaluated. Dr.
Molnar has found that gloxinia grown
on sub-irrigation mats grow more
uniformly than plants watered with the
spaghetti watering system.
Dr. E. V. Parups is working to de-
velop a chemical spray to disbud lat-
eral shoots on chrysanthemums. He
emphasizes that the spray has not
been completely successful, but that it
could have some practical application
for growers. But first, timing, dosage,
varietal responses and methods of ap-
plication must be determined.
The Ornamental Research Service is
one of the few centers in Canada Alstroemeria a cut flower plant leased from Holland could
studying pests and diseases on flower be a valuable addition to the presently available cut flowers

18
 HOLLOW STEM IN
BROCCOLI

J.A.CUTCLIFFE brid,but the effect of nitrogen on hol-

low stem in Primo was not significant.
The first increment of nitrogen had a
La fréquence des cas de tige creuse du greater effect on the incidence of hol-
brocoli a été considérablement réduite low stem than the second increment.
en diminuant l'écartement des plants, The greatest effect of plant spacing
mais elle a légèrement augmenté avec on hollow stem occurred when spac-
l'accroissement de la fumure azotée ings were reduced from 16.3 x 16.3
L'espacement des plants et la fertilisa- in. to 1 2 x 1 2 in. for Gem Hybrid. For
tion azotée ont eu des effets différents Primo, decreasing the distance from
selon les cultivars utilisés. 20 x 20 in. to 1 6.3 x 1 6.3 in. had the
greatest influence in reducing hollow
Hollow stem generally occurs in 30 stem. Thus, plant spacing did not af-
to 60 percent of the centre heads of fect the incidence of hollow stem sim-
broccoli oleraceae L. var.
(Brassicae ilarly in the two cultivars.

italica plenck) grown

in Prince Edward It appears that plant spacing may
Island. The hollow stem condition be- have a substantial effect and nitrogen
gins following the initiation of the cen- may have some effect on the incidence
tral inflorescence. Gaps that develop in of hollow stem in broccoli, particularly
the tissues gradually enlarge to create where development is rapid as the
a hollow stem. There is ordinarily no crop approaches maturity. Also, our
discoloration of the surfaces of these findings indicate that the effects of
openings at harvest. However, discolo- plant spacing and nitrogen on the inci-
ration and pith breakdown may de- dence of hollow stem may vary be-
velop soon after harvest. tween cultivars.
In our investigation at the Charlotte-
town Research Station, we have di-
rected attention to the effects of plant
spacing and nitrogen fertilization on
the incidence of hollow stem in
broccoli.
Our results indicate that both plant
spacing and rate of nitrogen appli-
cation affect the incidence of hollow
stem. As the distance between plants
increased, the percentage of market-
able heads with hollow stem increased
at all nitrogen levels. As the rate of ni-
trogen increased, the percentage of
marketable heads with hollow stem in-
creased at all plant spacings. Nitrogen
applications ranged from 80 to 240
Ib/ac. Statistical analysis of the results
showed that plant spacing had a sig-
nificant effect on the percentage of
hollow stem in all trials. Nitrogen in-
creased the incidence of hollow stem Stem and center cut shows hollow stem
considerably in the variety, Gem Hy- broccoli

Mr Cutchffe is head of the Horticulture Section.

CDA Research Station. Charlottetown. P E I

19
 REDUCING
HERBICIDE SPRAY
DRIFT

R.GROVER
Les chercheurs de la Station de recher-
che de Regina ont élaboré plusieurs
méthodes destinées à réduire les possi-
bilitésde dérive du brouillard de pulvéri-
sation provenant des pulvérisateurs
agricoles. Pour minimiser les risques de
dérive, ils proposent d'utiliser des esters
à faible volatilité, de réduire la pression
de pulvérisation, de ne pulvériser que si
la vitesse du vent est inférieure à 5 1
mph (24 km/h) et que sa direction ne
risque pas d'endommager les cultures
sensibles avoisinantes
As much as 10 million lb of 2,4-D
and MCPA may be sprayed annually
on cereal crops in the three prairie
provinces. Drift hazards from the large
have al-
scale use of these herbicides
ways been recognized. However, the
present trends in the diversification of
utors to off-target drift (see table). The from 40 to 25 psi, depending on the
relative magnitude of the drift poten- wind speed at the time of the trial. It is
tial for the three commonly used for- apparent that reducing the hydraulic
mulations was 25 to 35 percent for pressure lowered the drift potentials
the high volatile butyl esters, 1 to 15 by about half, but only at the lower
percent for the low volatile /so-octyl es- wind speeds. A similar trend was evi-
ter, and 4 to 6 percent for the rela- dent for the high volume TeeJet
tively non-volatile amine salts. 6501 5 nozzle, although the effect of
These results clearly demonstrated pressure was less pronounced.
the hazard of ester forms of 2,4-D and However, when the volume sprayed
suggest that if ester formulations are was increased from 5 to 10 gpa, the
needed only the low volatile ester drift potential of these nozzles de-
should be used. The use of ester forms creased from 4 to 6 percent to 1 to 4
of 2,4-D should be completely elimi- percent at 40 psi and from 2 to 6 per-
nated where susceptible crops are cent to 1 to 4 percent at 25 psi, again
grown in the vicinity. depending on the wind speed at the
There is no doubt that vapor drift time of spray application (Figure 1).
can be reduced or even eliminated by Thus, the effect of increasing the spray
controlling the use of these formula- volume from 5 to 10 gpa at two pres-
tions. However, the droplet drift, the 4 sures and at varying wind speeds was
to 6 percent fraction, is inherent in all much more pronounced than from re-
herbicide spray operations with the ducing the pressure alone.
existing application equipment.
Recent work at the station has been es

crops and environmental concerns centered on reducing the droplet drift ^i 40-1
TJ 650067
have made it imperative that these potential from the existing farm spray- m 25-1
i= 7
hazards be minimized. ing equipment. During the last two
Since 1969, the Regina Research summers, collaborative field studies H
Station and the Saskatchewan Re- have been carried out at the Regina O
Q-

search Council, Saskatoon, have been Research Station to understand the ef-
carrying out cooperative field trials to wind speed, hydraulic pressure,
fect of
evaluate the drift potential of herbi- and gallonage sprayed per acre on the
cides, especially 2,4-D, the most com- droplet drift potential of the flat-fan
0-
monly applied herbicide in the prairies. spray nozzles that are commonly used O
rr
Typical ground rigs have been used to on the prairies. The nozzles tested Q
evaluate spray drift under actual farm were: (1) low volume (5 gpa), TeeJet
spraying conditions. 650067; (2) high volume (10 gpa),
Studies carried out at the Defense TeeJet 65015, (both nozzles can be
Research Establishment, Suffield, used at pressures ranging from 25 to
Alberta, between 1969 and 1972 40 psi); and (3) TK.75 nozzle, which is

evaluated the relative drift potential a low volume (5 gpa), high pressure
from the ester and the amine salt for-
mulations of 2,4-D. As a result of these
nozzle.
Volume sprayed and hydraulic pres-
rj
studies, it was shown that when the sure affected the droplet drift potential
ester forms of 2,4-D were used, vapor of the two TeeJet nozzles when oper- 5 10 15 20
losses both during and immediately af- ated at various wind speeds (Figure 1 ). WIND SPEED -MPH
ter spraying were the main contrib- The drift potential of the low volume (5
Figure The droplet drift potential of TeeJet
gpa) TeeJet 650067 nozzle was low- 1

Dr Graver is Head. Herbicide Behavior in the Envi- 650067 gpa) and TeeJet 65015 (10 gpa)
(5
ronment Section, CDA Research Station, Regina, ered from 4 to 6 percent to 2 to 6 per- nozzles when operated at two pressures and vary-
Saskatchewan. cent when the pressure was lowered ing wind speeds

20
 HERBICIDES

J$ 8
1

1 TJ 650067
< TJ 65015
TK .75

10 15 20
WIND SPEED MPH Figure 3 Researchers at the Regma Research
Station evaluate spray drift potential under actual
Figure 2 The droplet drift potential of TeeJet farm spraying conditions
650067. TeeJet 65015. and Tk 75 (5 gpa) noz-
zles when operated at recommended pressure of
40 psi and at varying wind speeds

At low wind speeds, the drift poten-
tialfrom the TK.75 nozzles was equal
to that from the high volume 65015
nozzles (Figure 2). Both nozzles per-
formed better than the low volume
650067 nozzles. At high wind speeds,
ment, should be undertaken. Some of
the highlights that can be publicized
are:
• Use ester formulations only when
necessary and then only the low vola-
tile esters should be used.

their performance was as follows: • Do not spray any ester formulation

TK.75> TJ6501 5> TJ650067. when susceptible crops are in the
vicinity.

Minimizing Drift • Do not spray less than 1 gpa with

nozzles that are designed to deliver 10
RELATIVE DRIFT POTENTIAL OF Herbicide drift can be minimized by gpa at tractor speeds of about 4 m.p.h.
VARIOUS 2,4-D FORMULATIONS understanding the factors relating to • Reduce the spray pressure from 40
Formulation Drift potential as formulation types, environmental con- to25 or 30 psi (the height of the spray
Droplets Vapor
ditions, and operational characteristics boom should be adjusted to obtain
of the existing farm spraying equip- proper spray overlap).
percent ment. An intensive educational cam- • Spray only when wind speeds are
butyl esters (4-6) 25-35
10-15 paign to inform the farmers of the haz-
/so-octyl ester (4-6) less than 1 5 m.p.h.
amine salt (4-6) ards of drift and the measures they can
High volatile esters follow to minimize these hazards, even • Spray only when the wind direction
Low volatile ester with the existing farm spraying equip- is away from the susceptible crop.

21
 DEGRÉS CELSIUS ET
AGRICULTURE

C. E.OUELLET 50 °C généralement considérée

est
comme pour la plupart des
léthale
plantes et des animaux. Notons aussi
The section of the Celsius temperature que les points de congélation et
scale that is relevant to -agriculture is d'ébullition de l'eau à la pression at-
the spread between —50 to 100°C. mosphérique normale de 76 cm de
However, most plant growth occurs be- mercure correspondent respective- 40
tween 0° to 50°C with the most rapid ment à Oet 100°C.
growth between 15 and 30°

Depuis le premier avril 1 975, les ré- De-50àO°C 30

seaux de communication utilisent
l'échelle Celsius de température dans Le secteur de —50 à 0°C peut être
leurs prévisions atmosphériques et considéré comme celui du gel des
agricoles. Voilà l'occasion de faire la plantes et de la congélation des ali-
liaison entre cette échelle et l'agricul- ments. La période de végétation est 20
ture, surtout pour les cultures. Le pré- souvent définie comme l'intervalle en-
sent article servira à rationaliser tre la dernière date au printemps et la
l'usage de cette échelle et à établir des première à l'automne où survient une
points de repères facilitant la compa- température de —
2°C. Cette tempéra-
raison entre les différents niveaux de ture gèle le feuillage de nombreuses 50 10
température. plantes et met fin à leur croissance.
de l'échelle Celsius qui
L'intervalle Beaucoup considèrent la température
comporte le plus d'applications en de — 4°C comme celle marquant l'ar-
agriculture va de —50 à 1 00 °C. Rares rêt de toute végétation. Si les plantes
sont les années où la température vivaces cultivées au Canada peuvent
baisse au-dessous de —
50 °C dans le survivre à des températures beaucoup
territoire agricole du Canada. Sauf les plus basses en hiver, c'est qu'elles su-
températures de cuisson, les tempéra- bissent un endurcissement au froid à
tures de traitement dépassant 100°C l'automne, dont le degré varie avec les -10
sont aussi rares. plantes et le climat. Ce secteur de tem-
pérature est aussi celui où se situent
les températures de conservation des
De— 50 à 100°C, trois
aliments congelés, qui ne doivent pas
secteurs être plus élevées que — 1 8°C environ. -20
On peut diviser cet intervalle en trois
secteurs d'égale grandeur: —50 à De0à50°C
0°C, à 50°C et 50
100°C. La rai-
à
-20
son principale en est que la croissance Le secteur de à 50 °C est sans -30
végétale s'effectue entre et 50 °C doute le plus intéressant et le plus im-
suivant les plantes et les phases de portant en agriculture, puisqu'il con- -30
croissance. Des plantes arctiques et al- cerne croissance des plantes. Afin de
la

pines croissent à 0°C et certaines mieux en saisir l'aspect biologique, di- -40
-40
plantes bulbeuses commencent à croî- visons-le en trois sous-secteurs: à
tre juste au-dessus de cette tempéra- 15°C,15à30 o Cet30à50°C.
ture. Par ailleurs, la température de La germination et la première crois-
sance des plantes s'effectuent généra-
M C E Ouellet est écochmatologiste à l'Institut lement entre et 1 5°C, températures
de recherches chimiques et biologiques, Agricul-
ture-Canada. Ottawa qui prévalent surtout au printemps et à

22
 CELSIUS

l'automne. Les sensibles au

plantes De50à 100°C Échelle Celsius et degrés-jours
froid, comme tomate et le melon,
la

doivent se cultiver durant la période
sans gel (au-dessus de 0°C). On consi-
dère la température de 5°C comme
celle à partir de laquelle la majorité des
plantes manifestent une croissance si-
gnificative. Aussi, le calcul des degrés-
jours de croissance est-il ordinairement
Le dernier secteur, 50 à 100°C est
celuioù se pratique le traitement à la
chaleur de différents produits. On
mentionne 82°C pour la désinfection
du terreau utilisé pour le tabac jaune.
Les températures maximales pour le
séchage des grains de céréales desti-
Ainsi compartimentée, l'échelle Cel-
sius de température peut devenir d'un
usage simple et logique. Elle peut être
reliée facilement aux phénomènes bio-
logiques et seules les températures au-
dessus de 0°C sont à considérer pour
la croissance. L'intervalle de tempéra-

basé sur cette température. On men- nés soit à l'industrie de transformation ture entre les points de congélation et
tionne généralement comme tempéra- ou soit à l'alimentation animale sont d'ébullition de l'eau a été divisé en
ture minimum de germination dans le de 54 et 77° C respectivement. Notons 1 00 pour l'échelle Celsius et 1 80 pour

sol: que dans le cas de grains de céréales l'échelle Fahrenheit. Ceci explique
2°C pour la laitue et l'oignon; destinés aux semences, la température pourquoi la valeur des degrés-jours de
3°C pour l'avoine, l'orge et le blé de séchage ne doit pas excéder 43°C, croissance Celsius est presque deux
de printemps; et cela afin de conserver leur pouvoir fois celledes degrés-jours Fahrenheit.
4°C pour la betterave, le chou et la de germination. Comme on le sait, la Ainsi, 800 degrés-jours Celsius équiva-
carotte; stérilisation des denrées s'effectue gé- lent à 1440 degrés-jours Fahrenheit,
1 0°C pour le maïs et la tomate. néralement à des températures excé- soit 800 degrés-jours Celsius x ,8. 1

La croissance rapide de la plupart dant 100°C. Reste le problème de conversion à la

des plantes s'effectue entre 1 5 et ferme. Le plus simple est d'utiliser un
30 °C, températures qui prévalent or- thermomètre Celsius. Dans les autres
dinairement en été. Le maïs, par exem- cas, les tables de conversion disponi-
ple, demande une température de 19 bles à la Division de l'information
Graphique indiquant l'intervalle de l'échelle
à 27 °C pour une croissance normale d'Agriculture Canada devront être uti-
Celsius de température et les secteurs les plus
et la température optimale pour la to- utilisés en agriculture. lisées.
mate est de 24°C. Soulignons qu'il
existe généralement un écart considé-
rable entre les températures du jour et
de la nuit. Ainsi, en juillet, l'écart STERILISATION
moyen varie entre 1 3 et 16 degrés C
DÉSINFECTION
selon les stations dans les provinces
des Prairies et entre 9 et 16°C en SÉCHAGE
Ontario.
+ 122 F
Une du taux de crois-
réduction
sance, suivie de sa cessation complète TEMP. LETHALE
CROISSANCE DÉCROÎT
et même de la mort de la plante aux
températures plus élevées, se produit
entre 30 et 50°C. Théoriquement, la
VEGETATION CROISSANCE RAPIDE
température optimale de croissance
des céréales (avoine, orge, blé et sei-
gle) peut aller jusqu'à 31 °C. En prati-
CROISSANCE S'ACCROIT
que, des températures trop élevées GERMINATION
s'accompagnent souvent de sécheres-
ses sérieuses, qui sont nuisibles à la + 32 F

croissance. Une croissance trop rapide GEL POSSIBLE DES

peut retarder la fructification, produire PLANTES
des plants de faible structure, suscepti-
CONGELATION DES ALIMENTS
bles aux insectes, maladies et autres
fléaux agricoles.

23

CAROL PAULSON
Les techniques améliorées d'emballage
du bœuf pourraient amener à une plus
grande centralisation de l'emballage et
plus d'efficacité dans le contrôle de la
qualité, la distribution et la mise en mar-
ché de la viande Les agents du minis-
tère de l'Agriculture du Canada croient
que l'adoption industrielle de ce pro-
cédé ne devrait pas entraîner une baisse
de la qualité de la viande
Boxed beef could be the biggest
change in beef merchandising since
retailers quit killing cattle in the back
of the store. Yet, although pork and
lamb are handled in this way, the beef
industry is cautious about switching.
Boxed beef is the process that
makes a centralized system of meat
breaking, packaging, transportation
and retailing possible. In the process,
primal and subprimal cuts are
trimmed, packed in dry ice or a vac-
uum bag, and then placed in cartons
or containers; hence, the name,
boxed'. The kind of cuts boxed de-
pends on the buyer and can include
the subprimal cuts or any retail cut,
such as oven-ready ribs, ribeye rolls,
boneless stew beef, minced beef and
tenderloin.
Proponents of centralized process-
ing and boxed beef point out the fol-
lowing benefits.
For the Packer
• The by-products of meat cutting,
such as fat, bone and meat scraps, are
centrally located and easily accessible
to Tenderers.
• A trade in cuts can be established
and the demands of the hotel, restau-
rant and institute business can be met.
Carol Paulson is an editor-writer. Periodicals Ser-
vices Unit. Information Division. CDA. Ottawa
24
BOXED BEEF FOR
CANADA?
This trade has traditionally been
unable to obtain the volume of cuts it
needs from Canadian packinghouses
and has had to buy from sources in the
United States.
For the Retailer
• Freight costs are reduced because
only the useful parts of the carcass are
shipped and, due to boxing, are
packed in the highest density possible.
• There isminimum of contaminat-
a some
ion because the meat is handled
directly at only one location. One study
showed that in present fresh beef pro-
cessing procedures, the meat is han-
dled by 1 9 people.
• The product retains its quality
longer and ages in the bag.
• The carcass does not shrink at the
plant, in transit, in the warehouse or at
the store because of the vaccum bag.
Shrinkage in the present system of
merchandising amounts to about 5
percent.
• Custom cuts and high volume
items can be ordered in quantity.
• Inventory is reduced because slow-
moving items are not ordered.
• Valuable butcher time is utilized to
best advantage because it takes less
time to turn boxed beef into retail cuts
than to process halves and quarters.
• If a store chooses to order boxed
retail cuts, backroom facilities can be
reduced to a refrigerator-freezer unit.
• At the loading dock, boxes are eas-
ier to handle than half or quarter
carcasses.
Many of these benefits mean a cost
saving to the entire meat industry, and
the consumer.
Handling Requirements
Only a small proportion of the beef
sold inCanada is boxed. According to
C.G. Bowes, a North American mer-
chandising specialist, caution in adopt-
ing this practice originates in some
early experiences. Some retailers no-
ticed a different odor from opened
bags of vacuum-packed beef. In most
cases, the odor disappears when the
meat has been exposed for a few min-
utes to air and it leaves no residue in
the meat.
However, in some incidences, the
odors remained. Commonly, packers
broke and boxed carcasses that, for
reason, were not sold to a fresh
meat were
distributor. Also, carcasses
often bought from the packer and
shipped to a breaking plant elsewhere.
In both of these procedures, the meat
has aged and possibly started to dete-
riorate. When it is finally boxed, the de-
cay process continues and builds up
offensive odors. Consequently, car-
casses should be boxed as soon after
slaughter as possible.
The second problem with boxed
beef is the juices in the bag. This, too,
is a management problem and is
mostly due to inadequate refrigeration
somewhere along the transportation
and handling chain. Boxed beef should
be kept just at freezing in the ware-
house, on the loading dock, on the
truck and at the store. There is no
problem with juices in meat that has
been shipped in carbon dioxide rather
than in the vacuum bag.
Agriculture Canada's
Involvement
boxed beef becomes a major mar-
If
ket commodity, Agriculture Canada of-
ficials are confident that meat quality
for the consumer will be maintained.
Mr. G.L. Locking of Agriculture Can-
ada's Livestock Division points out that
the current beef grading standards are
well adapted to the boxed beef system
of marketing. A carcass graded A1 in
the packing plant retains its grade
through to the consumer.

CHUCK
SHANK
Allprimal cuts are used for boxed beef Four of
these— chuck, rib. loin and hip— are also broken
and trimmed for boxing
There is some pressure to develop a
supplementary grade standard for pri-
mal and subprimal cuts. However, con-
sidering the very specific standards es-
tablished for whole carcasses, this may
not be necessary.
The Health of Animals Branch main-
tains inspection at slaughter houses as
well as at breaking plants, so stan-
dards of quality and cleanliness are al-
ready established. Should the industry
switch to boxed beef, the Health of
Animals Branch would be ready.
Although there has been talk over
the past 5 to 1 years about switching
to a boxed beef system, Canada's
meat trade is geared to transporting
whole carcasses from western Canada
to the breaking plants in Ontario and
Quebec. In fact, the railway companies
have spent millions of dollars reas-
earching and developing the present
system. Dr. C.K. Hetherington of the
Meat Inspection Division, Health of
Animals Branch, emphasizes that Can-
SHORT LOIN
ada has the finest, most sanitary box-
cars and the best inspection system in
the world!
Several Canadian supermarket
chains recognize value of the
the
boxed beef process and operate cen-
tral cutting plants in which purchased
carcasses are broken into subprimal
cuts, boxed, then distributed to the
chain's stores for breaking into retail
cuts. Several other chains are inter-
ested in adopting this procedure. How-
ever, after many discussions with
people in the meat industry, D.L.
MacLachlan of Agriculture Canada's
Food Systems Branch believes that the
best service and efficiency to the total
system can be obtained when boxing
is done at the packer (slaughterhouse)
and not at a retailer-owned central
packaging plant.
Few facts have been collected about
the status and implication of boxed
beef in Canada. But the Agricultural
Economics Research Council, under di-
BOXED BEEF
rection of Agriculture Canada's Re-
search Branch, is currently studying
some of the important factors. These
include:
• Current status of boxed beef, its
technology and potential;
• the way that boxed beef could best
be implemented;
• implications of such a system to
producer, processor, retailer, and
consumer.
Dr. A.S. Johnson, also with the Food
Systems Branch, anticipates that if a
few major packinghouse companies
adopt the boxed beef process, the
meat merchandising industry will uti-
lize it. Then the retail companies can
concentrate on what they do best— re-
tailing— and can leave the processing
up to the specialists. Fortunately, Can-
ada's grading and inspecting proce-
dures would continue to ensure that
consumers receive the high quality,
uniformly graded meat that they've
become accustomed to.
25
 SILICEOUS
URINARY CALCULI
FROM CATTLE
C. B.BAILEY In concentrated solution, silicic acid amorphous, and white laminar mate-
polymerizes to form small particles. rials were highest in silica and lowest

These can aggregate into larger units in oxalate. Conversely, calculi that con-
Les chercheurs de la Station de Leth- that settle out of solution. It is not tainsd the highest content of amber
bndge ont examiné les calculs de bou- known whether this process occurs in laminar material, but the minimum of
villons dont les voies unnaires étaient urine or, if it does, by what mechanism the other constituents were highest in
obstruées, dans le but d'en étudier la
the aggregates are transformed into oxalate and lowest in silica. The pre-
formation Ils ont constaté que ces der- calculi. dominant mineral constituent in amber
niers se forment lorsque la silice colloï- laminar material was oxalate and in
dale, produite dans l'urine sursaturée, At the Lethbridge Research Station, the other three types of material was
s'agrège en masses Des couches de si- we examined the fine structure of sev- silica.

lice, et parfois d'oxalate, se forment au-

eral calculi that had been removed The fine structural characteristics of

tour de la silice colloïdale pour produire from steers with blocked urinary tracts the white amorphous material found at
to investigate how calculi are formed. the core of most calculi were strikingly
les calculs
The findings suggest that calculi de- like precipitates produced in solutions
velop when colloidal silica, produced of silicic acid in the laboratory. Such
Range Canadian south-
cattle in the
ern prairies and
adjacent areas of
in
in supersaturated urine, aggregates precipitates form when colloidal silica
into clumps that settle out of solution. particles aggregate into porous masses
the United States are prone to the for-
mation of urinary calculi that can block
These clumps appear to form the nu- due to the formation of siloxane bonds
cleus of most calculi and, in altered between surface silanol groups. It is
the urinary tract. A similar problem oc-
form, the bulk of the material that not unreasonable to suggest that the
curs in Australia in both cattle and
causes their subsequent growth. white amorphous material is produced
sheep. Unless surgery is performed on
affected animals, blockage inevitably
Weexamined 74 calculi that ranged by an analogous mechanism and that
in weight from 20 to 558 mg and in
causes death. In Canada, losses occur
mainly among steer calves and princi-
diameter from 2 to 8 mm. They were
usually roundish to ovoid and from
pally during the period from weaning
in the autumn until the end of the suc-
white to greyish-brown in color. Sur-
face texture varied from hard, smooth,
ceeding winter. The number of ani-
mals affected fluctuates markedly from and shiny to dull and chalky (Fig. 1). A
characteristic external feature noted in
year to year. In a bad year, up to 5 per-
cent of the steers in problem areas can 19 of the calculi was the presence of
be lost. rounded protrusions distributed over
their surface (Fig. 1, No. 17, 18, 20).
Calculi from range cattle are com-
posed predominantly of silica, but they The calculi were predominantly si-
also contain organic matter and cal-
liceous but a few contained appre-
cium oxalate as well as small amounts ciable quantities of calcium oxalate Figure 1 A representative selection of 24 of the
(see table). calculi The grid lines were drawn at 2 cm
of water, magnesium and phosphorus.
Most calculi contained amorphous intervals.
Silica contained in the grasses that
range cattle eat dissolve in the water
material at the center with laminar ma-
terial arranged concentrically around it
of the digestive tract to form a satu-
rated solution of silicic acid. Some of
(Fig. 2). Two distinct types of
amorphous material, white (Fig. 2, a) AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 74 CALCULI (%)
the dissolved silica is absorbed and ex-
and mixed (Fig. 2, b), and two distinct
creted in urine. Due to the activities of Component Mean Range
types of laminar material, white (Fig. 2,
the kidney, the concentration of silicic
c) and amber (Fig. 2, d), were found Silica 50.7 16.7-75.5
acid in urine is usually high and can
among the but the relative
calculi Calcium 4.7 0-17.9
sometimes increase to three or four Magnesium 006 0.01-0.58
times the saturation concentration.
amounts of each varied considerably Phosphorus 25 001-2 24
in different calculi. Calcium oxalate 138 0.01-57 3
Dr Bailey an animal physiologist in the Animal
is
Water 3 0-12.3
Science Section, CDA Research Station, Leth- any combina-
Calculi that contained
Organic matter 26.1 1 5-50.2
bridge. Alberta tion of white amorphous, mixed

26
 URINARY CALCULI

small particles serve as the nucleus for

Figure 2 Cross sections of a group of calculi
selected to show the variation in internal
structure Silica content ranged from a low of
21 3 percent (top left) to a high of 73 3 percent
(lower right)
the further deposition of calculous
material.
The white laminar material appeared
to be composed of the same type of si-
lica particles as the white amorphous
material, suggesting that they were
formed by the same process. Conver-
sion of the porous form to the laminar
could have occurred by rearrangement
of bonds between particles so that
they became more densely packed.
The sharp distinction between indivi-
dual layers in white laminar material
indicates that each was deposited en
masse during a single episode of silica
precipitation. This suggests that high
concentrations of silicic acid in the ur-
ine of range cattle occur intermittently.
Electron micrographs gave no indi-
cation of how the mixed amorphous
material might have formed. Since it

was primarily siliceous, could have

it

been precipitated by aggregation of

colloidal silica particles. Precipitation
presence of insoluble or-
of silica in the
ganic matter could account for the
Figure 3 Fine structural features of calculi; a and
mixed appearance of this component.
b.white amorphous material, c, hole in white
laminar material; d. mixed amorphous material, e Poorly mineralized organic material,
and f. white laminar material Magnification aX which is dark brown in color, is occa-
23.000. b X 1 9.000. c X 8.000. d X 1 3.500. e
X 150. f X 1.750
sionally found in calculi indicating that
insoluble organic matter is sometimes
produced in urine.
By analogy with human calculi for-
mation, deposition of oxalate in cattle
presumably occurs by crystallization
from a super-saturated solution, but no
indication of the processes by which
this occurs was obtained. Nor is there
any knowledge of the origin of the
oxalate.
The results of this study suggest
that most calculi that cause urinary ob-
struction in range cattle form by de-
position of layers of silica, or less com-
monly, of oxalate, on a preformed
fragment of colloidal-silica aggregate.
Formation of the aggregate is thus the
first step in the formation of most cal-

culi.

27
 PESTICIDES AND
OVERTREE
IRRIGATION
SPRINKLERS
A. D.McMECHANand off. On this basis, a spray injection and taminating the supply, it is imperative
A. P.GAUNCE application time of 8 min was used. to install what is known as a reduced-
The spray chemical for each plot was pressure principle, backflow-preven-
mixed in a sprayer tank and injected tion device. This consists basically of

Les chercheurs de la Station de recher-

into the irrigation line. In some plots, two independent check valves with an
allthe pesticide required for the treat- automatic, pressure differential relief
che de Summerland ont évalué une mé-
thode d'irrigation par aspersion pour
ment was injected during one 8-min valve located between them. If for any
cycle; in other plots it was injected in reason the pressure in the supply line
l'application de bouillie insecticide dans
four 8-min cycles, with Vi of the in- dropped below the pressure in the
les vergers à forte densité de plantation
La comparaison entre l'application par
secticide injected during each cycle. In sprinkler system, this device prevented

aspersion et l'application par pulvérisa-

the 4-cycle applications, 30 min was back-siphonage from the sprinkler sys-
allowed between cycles to permit dry- tem to the supply lines.
tion à jet porté a révélé que la première
était moins efficace que la seconde et
ing of the leaves. After each treatment One of the airblast sprayers used
pouvait même contaminer les sources the sprinklers were turned off and was an experimental machine de-
d'irrigation
were left off for at least 7 days. signed specifically for low-volume
Injection of spray chemicals into an spray application in hedgerow plant-
irrigation line is potentially very dan- ings; the other was a commercial, low-
Many of the high density orchards in
gerous. To avoid the possibility of con- volume sprayer.
British Columbia are irrigated through
permanent overtree sprinkler systems.
Some growers are interested in the INSECTICIDE DEPOSITS ON LEAVES
possibility of using these systems for
Year Application method Ave rage depos it on 1

applying pest control sprays, as an al-

leaves at 3 he ghts
ternative to purchasing a sprayer. To 2
in trees (ug/( sm )

evaluate this method, we carried out

3.6m 2.4m 1.2m
experiments at Summerland to com-
pare spray application through over- 1972 Airblast sprayer No. 1 1 58 1 58 1 53
tree sprinklers with application by two
Airblast sprayer No. 2 0.90 1.33 1.39
Sprinklers, 1 -cycle 0.41 0.34 025
airblast sprayers. The experiments Sprinklers, 4-cycle 28 0.23 0.18
were carried out on a mature block of Check (no spray) <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
semi-dwarf apple trees on M 7 root-
1973 Airblast sprayer No. 1 1 30 1.02 082
Airblast sprayer No. 2 1 09 1.33 0.88
stocks. Comparisons were made of Sprinklers, 1 -cycle 034 024 19
spray deposits and pest control ob- Sprinklers, 4-cycle 20 14 0.12
Check (no spray) <0.05 <005 <0.05
tained with the different methods. We 1974 2
Airblast sprayer No 1 0.71
also investigated the safety aspects of Airblast sprayer No 2 0.44 Not
applying pesticides through sprinklers. Sprinklers, 1 -cycle 0.14 Sampled
Check (no spray) <005
Each figure represents the average deposit for three sprays each year.
•Insecticide applied at one-half the rate used in 1 972 and 1 973
Spray Application

The sprinklers used in the experi- AVERAGE INSECTICIDE DEPOSITS ON UPPER AND LOWER SURFACES
ments were Rainbird 20A with 3.18 OF APPLE LEAVES (ug/cm FOR ONE APPLICATION.
2
)

mm nozzle orifices. They were Height Surface Airblast Airblast Sprinklers Sprinklers
mounted on risers 4 m high on a spac- in tree No. 1 No 2 1 -cycle 4-cycle

ing of 9 m by 12 m. Operating pres- 3.6m Upper 080 0.40 0.40 040

sure was 2.8 kg /cm 2
pre-spray
. In Lower 1.65 1.00 0.15 <0.05
trials, about 8 min of operation wetted
2.4m Upper 1.50 50 045 0.35
the leaves without causing much run- Lower 1.20 2.10 <0.05 <0.05
Mr McMechan is an agricultural engineer and Dr 0.25
1.2m Upper 1.05 0.55 0.35
Gaunce is a chemist at the CDA Research Station, Lower 1.90 2 20 <0.05 <0.05
Summerland. B C.

28
 PESTICIDES

In each of the years, 1972, 1973

and 1974, three sprays were applied
by each method for control of the cod-
ling moth. In 1972, an additional
spray was applied for control of the
white apple leafhopper. After each
spray, leaf samples were taken for
analysis of spray deposits. In one ex-
periment, the spray deposits on the
upper and lower surfaces of the leaves
were analyzed separately. Insect con-
trol was checked at appropriate times.

Spray Deposits and Insect

Control

The overtree sprinklers gave much

poorer deposits at all sample heights
than either of the airblast sprayers.
They also gave much poorer deposits
on the lower surfaces than on the up-
per surfaces of the leaves. In 1972
and 1973, the one-cycle sprinkler ap-
plications resulted in as good control
of the codling moth as application by
airblast sprayer No. 2; the four-cycle
applications gave poorer control. The
sprinkler application gave poorer leaf-
hopper control in 1972 and poorer
codling moth control in 1 974 than ap-
plications with the airblast sprayers.
The results indicate that when pesti-
cides are applied through sprinklers at
therecommended rate, the deposits
A pest control spray is applied to an orchard may be high enough to give reason-
through an overtree irrigation sprinkler able control of pests such as codling
moth larvae that are generally found
on exposed upper surfaces of leaves or
fruit, but will not likely give satisfac-
INSECT CONTROL
tory control of pests such as leafhop-
Percent apples infested Leafhoppers per per nymphs that are generally found
with codling moth 100 leaves (1972)
on the lower surfaces of the leaves.
at harvest 1 day 3 days
Spray application through the overtree
1972 1973 1974* before spray after spray
sprinklers was less efficient than appli-
Airblast sprayer No. 1 1.05 0.50 6.80 413 cation by the airblast sprayers. For this
Airblast sprayer No. 2 1.40 1.56 10.10 381
reason, and the potential hazard of
Sprinklers, 1 -cycle 1.54 1.36 37.50 194 88
Sprinklers, 4-cycle 4.20 9.50 226 98 contaminating the irrigation supply,
Check (no spray) 17.30 32.50 70.00 274 249 this method cannot be recommendedB
*lnsecticide applied at one-half the rate used in 1 972 and 1 973.

29
 j — /^ j i /^\ r" r~^

ECHOES
FROM THE AND LAB FIELD

N.B. LEADS IN HOG QUALITY The central mounts, and operation of the sprayer Schematic MILK RECORDING BOARD FORMED Anew
and western provinces of Canada have always drawings and photographs illustrate various at- organization has been established to coordinate
bowed to the progress of the Maritimes in produc- tachments, pumps and types of sprayers available milk recordingprograms in Canada The Canadian
tion of high quality hogs However, a recent and their proper use A list of tips for successful Milk Recording Board will ultimately coordinate
switch in lead within the Maritimes may have es- spraying is also provided the maintenance, improvement and better utiliz-
caped the attention of producers, note CDA Pro- Publication 1482 may be obtained from Infor- ation of milk recording programs to avoid
duction and Marketing officials in Moncton mation Division, Agriculture Canada. Ottawa. duplication
Grading statistics for 19 74 show that New K1A0C7 At their first meeting, the 23 members of the
Brunswick captured the honors for producing the board agreed to minimum standards for milk
highest graded hogs in Canada from Nova Scotia, NEW GRADE LABELS ON EGG CARTONS recording based on inspection procedures, moni-
the province that has been at the top for a number New grade labels soon start appearing on egg
will toring controls for the quality of inspection,
and
of years Forty-two percent of New Brunswick cartons A maple leaf symbol enclosing the letters and identification of animals D B Lam-
eligibility

hogs indexed 105 and over, while 38 percent of and number that denote the grade has been re- broughton of the Livestock Division. Agriculture
Nova Scotia hogs indexed 105 or better In all of quired on egg cartons and packages since 1 974 Canada, notes that the standards of the federal
Canada, only 19 9 percent of the hogs graded But the government gave the packaging industry ROP program are set well above the minimum
had an index of 05 or better 1 time to gear up for the change and the new sym- standards Agriculture Canada will monitor all pro-
Although governments can probably take some bols are just now appearing on egg cartons. vincialmilk recording programs to maintain the
of the credit, production and marketing officials The three grades bearing the maple leaf label standards.
suggest that there are many contributing factors are A 1 A and B Agriculture Canada doesn't allow
. All milk records from each province will be for-

Management and better utilization of feed due to the maple leaf on grade C. a grade that is not re- warded to the Livestock Division for analysis
feed costs are probably the major factors leased on the retail market. These records will be used for cow indexing and
The three grades indicate the quality of the egg sire appraisal and a summary will be provided to
SUNFLOWERS CROPPING UP? Another and not the size. Grade A1 eggs are of superior the breed associations and A units I

golden crop may soon appear on the horizon of quality with a small air cell and firm yolk and albu- There are currently three provinces. New Bruns-
more farms Saskatchewan and Manitoba A
in
men (white). Grade A eggs have a slightly larger wick, Quebec and Ontario, that operate official su-
$400,000 research and development program is air cell and are slightly less firm Grade B eggs are pervised milk recording programs The programs
under way sunflowers as a major al-
to establish used for baking or the production of processed in other provinces will be recognized officially if

ternative crop forSaskatchewan and Alberta eggs and have thinner yolks and albumen than the they meet the new standards The Canadian Milk
The program, that will continue through 978. 1
two top grades. Recording Board will help to ensure that all provin-
involves the cooperation of university, government The maple leaf symbol will also be used on the cialprograms enable producers to have certified
and industrial agencies as well as farmers who will metal breast tags fastened to fowl They indicate records of performance that will be reliable and on
be contracted to grow sunflowers at specified lo-
the quality of the bird, ensured by government a uniform basis
cations m the two provinces. graders in the packing plants.
The University of Saskatchewan is adminis-
tering the program through its crop development
center Agriculture Canada is providing technical
coordination through the Saskatoon Research
Station and is also covering half the cost of the
project from the New Crop Development Fund
Cooperating industries and the two provincial
departments of agriculture will provide the other
half of the project costs
Sunflower seed oil is in demand in both domes-
ticand foreign markets for cooking and salad oils.
The meal is suitable for livestock feed and the
seed protein may be used in a variety of food
products

FIELD SPRAYERS Chemicals are widely used

on the farm to control weeds, insects and dis-
eases The effectiveness of the pesticide depends
on the use of the proper chemical, application of
the chemical at the recommended rate and at the
proper time, and proper use of the right type of
application equipment
A new Agriculture Canada publication, "Field
Sprayers", contains information on hydraulic field

sprayers, their component parts, and how to use

them There are sections on three adap-
efficiently.
tations — boom-type,
row-crop and utility spra-
yers—commonly used on Canadian farms, sprayer

30
 DES LABOS ET D'AILLEURS

sa place à la ferme La publication 1482 est le ment while avoiding unnecessary short-term
manuel pratique pour l'emploi d'un pulvérisateur adjustment,
Ceux qui désirent s'en acheter un devraient la —to and improve processing ca-
further develop
consulter car elle donne des renseignements d'or- meet the needs of the system,
pabilities to
dre technique qui facilitent le choix de tel ou tel —to improve marketing, distribution and merchan-
modèle Ceux qui en possèdent déjà un devraient dising of meat and livestock and their products,
également la consulter pour l'entretien, les régla- and
ges et calibrages de toutes sortes nécessaires au —to develop and maintain an effective communi-
bon fonctionnement et à la longue vie du pulvéri- cation and information system
sateur La préparation des bouillies de pulvérisa- Each objective is further identified by sub-objec-
d'un chapitre
tion fait aussi l'objet tives pointing out the areas that have to be devel-
Puisque les produits chimiques ont un usage oped to build our meat industry The report also
spécifique ne faut les utiliser que là où ils sont
il contains specialized objectives for the individual
utiles Le chapitre sur la décontamination prend commodities of beef, pork, lamb and poultry
toute son importance quand on pense aux pertes A copy of the report may be obtained from the
de cultures que peut entraîner les restes d'un pro- Food Systems Branch. Agriculture Canada.
duit dans le réservoir, les pompes, les tuyaux etc Ottawa. K1A0C5
sur une autre culture.
Finalement cette publication, outre les données
en système impérial, possède aussi tous les ren- LE CHOU FOURRAGER DANS L'EST DU
seignements en système métrique CANADA M Ghislam Pelletier, spécialiste des
On peut l'obtenir de la division de l'information fourrages à la Station de recherche de Lennoxville.
d'Agriculture Canada. Ottawa. K1 A 0C7 et M Darisse, chercheur à la ferme de
J -F -P
Agriculture Canada
plant breeder. Sylver Smohak, Normandin. ont entrepris d'étudier les aspects
of the Lethbndge Research Station checks a faba- agronomiques, pas assez connus, du chou fourra-
INSECT INDENTIFICATION SERIES The In-
bean test plot ger et de connaître les conditions les plus favora-
formation Division soon be releasing the first
will
bles à son développement
leaflets of a new insect identification series By
Le chou fourrager, famille des crucifères, est
1977. 100 leaflets, each on one of the major
parfaitement adapté au climat de l'Est et fort ap-
pests in fruits, vegetables, field crops and live-
précié des animaux Sa rusticité, sa forte digestibi-
stock, will have been issued The information leaf-
lité (80%) et ses rendements élevés donnent le
lets will be bilingual and will help commercial pro-
FABABEAN PRODUCTION Fababeans m Can-
ducers and hobbyists to identify destructive pests
maximum de protéines digestibles par unité de
ada appear to have great potential for feeding live- surface (1 1 20 kg/ha) (Vi tonne/acre)
The life cycle of the pest, and the damage it

stock Their excellent nutritional qualities, univer- La valeur de l'azote pour de bons rendements
causes the host, are illustrated in color
sal palatabihty and ease of preparation make them The three-color process used by G H Parker of
était déjà connue, mais ce chou accumule facile-
a promising new crop
the Information Division will be used to print the
ment les nitrates et peut devenir toxique si le sol

A new Canada publication. "Grow-

Agriculture est trop fertilisé fumure azotée doit être dosée
La
leaflets The quality of reproduction possible with
ing and Using Fababeans". outlines production pour subvenir aux besoins de la plante sans la ren-
this relatively inexpensive technique is illustrated
methods and the use of fababeans in livestock Canada dre dangereuse pour la consommation animale.
in the flower article in this issue of
and poultry rations This publication is based on Les essais démontrent que le taux de 120 kg
Agriculture
research conducted by staff at the University of
The identification leaflets will be listed in the d'azote à l'hectare (107 lb/acre), a donné les
Manitoba and the Manitoba Department of Agri- meilleurs rendements en matière sèche, la teneur
index of publications and single or bulk quantities
culture, and is published under the provisions of en nitrate est sans danger
of copies will be available on request from the
the Federal-Provincial Regional Cooperative Pub- Simultanément les chercheurs se sont livrés à
Information Division, Agriculture Canada. Ottawa.
lishing Program une expérience sur les dates de semis et de ré-
K1A0C7
The first section of the publication. Growing Faba- colte. Le froid a peu d'effet sur le chou jusqu'à
beans. covers seedbed preparation and planting, — 4°C (20° F), la plante ne s'affaisse pas et con-
weed control, diseases and insects, harvesting, CANADIAN MEAT AND LIVESTOCK OBJEC- tinue même lendemain d'une gelée
à pousser le
and silage The remainder of the publication deals TIVES Representatives from all the major seg- (— 2°C) (28° température est assez
F) si la

extensively with the use of fababeans in livestock ments of Canada's meat industry have worked to chaude Les observations le confirment puisque
and poultry feeds, including examples of rations prepare a newly released report of the objectives une récolte du 8 octobre était 20% plus élevée en
that contain fababeans The publication points out The report was developed as a framework refer- MS que celle du 5 septembre 1

that the value of this crop is directly related to the ence for the components (producers, processors, semble également préférable d'ensemencer
Il

soybeans and other protein sources

price of retailers, consumers, governments, etc of the ) tôt au printemps et de récolter à la date la plus tar-
To obtain this publication, request Publication industry dive, car le niveau de nitrate diminue avec la
1540. 1975. from Information Division, Agricul- The major objectives are maturité
ture Canada. Ottawa. K 1 A 0C7 —to develop potential markets for meat, livestock, L'effet bénéfique de cette plante sur la produc-
poultry and their products, tion du a déjà été démontré, mais une ration
lait

PULVÉRISATEURS AGRICOLES En agricul- —to and improve production ca-

further develop trop élevée peut anémier les ruminants On sug-
ture, l'emploi des produits chimiques est si cou- meet market opportunities and to
pabilities to gère une ration de 1 2 kg de matière sèche par
rant que le pulvérisateur, tout comme la charrue, a promote needed long-term structural adjust- 100 kg de poids vif (1 2 Ib par 100 Ib)

31
 &b :,

INFORMATION Canada Postes

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