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Environmental systems and societies
Standard level
Paper 1 – resource booklet

Thursday 5 May 2022 (afternoon)

1 hour

Instructions to candidates
y Do not open this booklet until instructed to do so.
y This booklet contains all the resources to answer paper 1.

2222 – 6302
17 pages © International Baccalaureate Organization 2022
 –2– 2222 – 6302

Blank page
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Figure 1: Map showing the location of Costa Rica

Equator
Costa Rica

Figure 2: Fact file on Costa Rica

y Costa Rica covers a total area of 51 100 km2.

y The country lies on a tectonic plate margin and has a number of volcanoes, some of which are still
active.
y The country covers 0.03 % of the world’s surface and contains 5 % of the world’s biodiversity.
y Its high biodiversity makes Costa Rica an attractive location for tourism.
y Major exports include medical equipment, electronic components, beef and cash crops such as
pineapples, bananas, coffee and sugar. (“Cash crops” are produced by intensive commercial
agriculture).
y Costa Rica was ranked first in the Happy Planet Index (2009, 2012, 2016) based on life expectancy,
wellbeing, ecological footprint and level of inequalities within the population.

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 –4– 2222 – 6302

Figure 3(a): Main vegetation zones in Costa Rica

86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W

N Nicaragua Key:
Caribbean Sea Lowland seasonal forest
11°N
Lowland rainforest
Mid-elevation forest
Cloud forest
Highland vegetation
10°N
Unclassified
Capital city, San José

Costa Rica

Panama
9°N
Pacific Ocean

50 km

Figure 3(b): Average annual temperature in Costa Rica

Removed for copyright reasons

 –5– 2222 – 6302

Figure 3(c): Average annual rainfall in Costa Rica

86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W

N Nicaragua Key: Average annual
Caribbean Sea rainfall / mm
11°N 6001+
5001–6000
4001–5000
3001–4000
10°N
2001–3000
1501–2000
1000–1500
Costa Rica

Panama
Capital city, San José
9°N
Pacific Ocean

50 km

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 –6– 2222 – 6302

Figure 4(a): Demographic data for 2018

Population (estimated) 5 million (including 104 000 indigenous people)

Natural increase rate 1.05 %

Crude birth rate 15.3/1000

Crude death rate 4.8/1000

Life expectancy / years 78.9

Total fertility rate 1.89 (Note: In 1973, total fertility rate was 5.6)

Figure 4(b): Age–gender pyramid for Costa Rica in 1990 and

projected pyramids for 2020 and 2050

Costa Rica 1990 population: 3 096 000

100+ Female
Male 95–99
90–94
85–89
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
10 8 6 4 2 0 Age 0 2 4 6 8 10
group
Population / % Population / %

(Figure 4(b) continues on the following page)

 –7– 2222 – 6302

(Figure 4(b) continued)

Costa Rica 2020 population: 5 044 000

100+ Female
Male 95–99
90–94
85–89
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
10 8 6 4 2 0 Age 0 2 4 6 8 10
group
Population / % Population / %

Costa Rica 2050 population: 5 760 000

100+ Female
Male 95–99
90–94
85–89
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
10 8 6 4 2 0 Age 0 2 4 6 8 10
group
Population / % Population / %

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 –8– 2222 – 6302

Figure 5(a): Biodiversity in Costa Rica

Over 25 % of land is protected forest and reserves with over 190 protected sites.
Ecosystems range from coral reefs and mangroves to tropical rainforests and provide a range of goods
and environmental services.

Figure 5(b): Estimated number of species in Costa Rica

Total number of species more than 500 000

Flowering plants 9000

Ferns 800

Mammals 250

Birds 850

Reptiles 220

Amphibians 200

more than 300 000

Insects
(including more than 1200 butterflies and 8000 moths)
 –9– 2222 – 6302

Figure 5(c): Development of protected areas in Costa Rica

1960 1970
86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W 86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W
N Nicaragua N Nicaragua
Caribbean Caribbean
11°N Sea 11°N Sea

10°N 10°N

Panama

Panama
Costa Rica Costa Rica
9°N 9°N
Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

50 km 50 km

1975 2010
86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W 86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W
N Nicaragua N Nicaragua
Caribbean Caribbean
11°N Sea 11°N Sea

10°N 10°N
Panama

Panama
Costa Rica Costa Rica
9°N 9°N
Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

50 km 50 km

Key:
Protected areas
Capital city, San José

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 – 10 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 6(a): Jaguar (Panthera onca)

Classified as “near threatened” on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Figure 6(b): Example of a Costa Rican web

 – 11 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 6(c): Wildlife corridors

Costa Rica has created 128 wildlife corridors to link many of its conservation areas, eg the
Barbilla Corridor. The Barbilla Corridor is part of a larger network across 18 countries (from Mexico to
Argentina) that aims to link the traditional migratory route of the jaguar and other animals.

Figure 6(d): The Barbilla Corridor within the larger international

network connecting jaguar populations

86°W 85°W 84°W 83°W

N N Nicaragua Caribbean
Atlantic Ocean 11°N Sea

10°N

Panama
Costa Rica
Pacific Ocean 9°N
Pacific Ocean

1000 km 50 km

Key: Key:
Jaguar population
Jaguar population
Barbilla Corridor
Jaguar corridor
Capital city, San José

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 – 12 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 7(a): Variation in forest cover in Costa Rica between 1940 and 2010

Year Percentage of forest cover

1940 76%

1962 54%

1987 22%

1998 43%

2010 53%

Figure 7(b): Forest initiatives in Costa Rica

y Through programmes such as the Payment for Environmental Services Programme (PES) the
government pays landowners to plant trees in deforested areas and to manage their land sustainably.
y In 1996, deforestation of mature forest was banned.
y The goal is to achieve 60 % forest coverage of the country.
 – 13 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 8(a): Economic activity (GDP) in Costa Rica by sector

Key:
Agriculture (5.5 %): eg pineapples, bananas, coffee, beef
Manufacturing industry (20.6 %): eg medical equipment, food processing, textiles
Services (73.9 %): eg tourism, transport, communications, retail

Figure 8(b): Land used in Costa Rica for pineapple production between 1961 and 2013

50 000

40 000
Area harvested / hectares

30 000

20 000

10 000

0
1961 1967 1973 1979 1985 1991 1997 2003 2009 2013
Year

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 – 14 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 8(c): Conversion to cropland from other land uses in

north-eastern Costa Rica (1986–2011)

8000
Key:
Area converted to cropland / hectares per year

Mature forest
Native reforestation
Pasture
6000 Exotic tree plantation
Urban
Bare soil

4000

2000

0
6

1
01
99

00

00

–2
–1

–2

–2

05
86

96

01

20
19

19

20

Time intervals

Figure 8(d): Growth in international tourism in Costa Rica (1988–2016)

3
Value of tourism in 2003 – US$1.2 billion;
Millions of international tourists

2008 – US$2.1 billion;

2016 – US$3.7 billion.
2

0
20 5
19 8
19 9
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
20 9
20 0
20 11
20 2
20 3
20 4

16
1
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

1
1
1
19

Year
 – 15 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 9(a): Electricity generation in Costa Rica by energy source (1990–2016)

Most of the electricity generated in Costa Rica comes from renewable sources (98.2 % in 2016 and
98.56 % in 2018).

12 500
Key:
Electricity generation / Gw h

10 000 Oil
Biofuels
7500 Hydro
Geothermal
5000 Wind

2500

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year

Figure 9(b): Total energy consumption in Costa Rica (including electricity)

between 1990 and 2016

5000
Kilo tonnes oil equivalent / ktoe

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
2016
Key:
Oil products: 2399 ktoe
Oil products Biofuels and waste: 584 ktoe
Biofuels and waste Electricity from fossil fuels: 15 ktoe
Electricity Electricity from renewables: 826 ktoe
Coal Coal: 84 ktoe

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 – 16 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 9(c): Consumption of crude oil in Costa Rica by sector (2016)

Agriculture / forestry
Commercial and public services
Non-energy use
Non-specified
Residential
Industry

Transport
 – 17 – 2222 – 6302

Figure 10(a): Fact file on carbon neutrality

y Costa Rica has pledged to become carbon neutral by balancing carbon dioxide output with carbon
dioxide input to give zero net carbon emissions in the future.
y Since the mid-1980s, national methane emissions have decreased and, following pressure from the
public, a twenty-year ban was placed on oil exploration in Costa Rica in 2002.
y For the year 2017, carbon dioxide emissions per person (1.45 tonnes) were above the regional
average for Central America (1.18 tonnes). The government is now encouraging:
◦ greater use of public transport and adopting vehicles with lower emissions of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxides or particulates
◦ use of electric, biofuel, hybrid and hydrogen vehicles
◦ generation of electricity through renewable resources
◦ carbon off-set schemes that plant trees and improve land management to compensate for
carbon emissions.
y The world’s first certified carbon-neutral coffee producer was established in Costa Rica.

Figure 10(b): Ecological footprint and biocapacity per person

in Costa Rica (1961–2016)

8
Key:
7
Global hectares per person

Ecological footprint per person

6
Biocapacity per person
5
4
3
2
1
0
1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2016
Year

Biocapacity is the amount of biologically productive land, measured in hectares per person.

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References:

Figure 1 Pixabay.

Figure 3a Monge-Nájera, J., Z. Barrientos & M. Zúñiga. 2013. A satellite and ground evaluation of urban vegetation and
infrastructure in the landscape of a tropical city: Heredia, Costa Rica. Cities and the Environment 6 (1): 12.
[online] Available at: http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1124&context=cate. Source
adapted.

Figure 3c With permission from Costa Rica Guide. Source adapted.

Figure 4a Data from: CIA, 2019. The World Factbook: Costa Rica. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/geos/cs.html/ [Accessed 06 November 2019].

Figure 4b Population Pyramid. Costa Rica 1990, 2020 and 2050. [online] Available at: https://www.populationpyramid.
net/costa-rica/1990/, https://www.populationpyramid.net/costa-rica/2020/, https://www.populationpyramid.net/
costa-rica/2050/ Made available under a Creative Commons license CC BY 3.0 IGO: http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0/igo/ [Accessed 06 November 2019].

Figure 5a Data from: González-Maya, J.F., Víquez-R, L.R., Belant, J.L. and Ceballos, G, 2015. Effectiveness of
Protected Areas for Representing Species and Populations of Terrestrial Mammals in Costa Rica. PLoS ONE
10(5): e0124480. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124480 [online]. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124480 This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International (CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ [Accessed 06 November 2019].

Figure 5c González-Maya, J.F., Víquez-R, L.R., Belant, J.L. and Ceballos, G, 2015. Effectiveness of Protected Areas for
Representing Species and Populations of Terrestrial Mammals in Costa Rica. PLoS ONE 10(5): e0124480.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124480 [online]. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/
journal.pone.0124480 This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ [Accessed 06 November 2019].

Figure 6a [Jaguar] Pixabay.

Figure 6b [Jaguar] Pixabay.

[Iguana] Pixabay.

[Red-eye frog] Pixabay.

 [Macao] Pixabay.

[Spider monkey] Pixabay.

[Grasshoppper] Pixabay.

[Brazil nut tree] Pixabay.

[Poinsettia] Pixabay.

Figure 6d The Jaguar Project. Costa Rica Wildlife Corridors. [online] Available at: http://www.thejaguarproject.com/jaguar_
corridor_conservation.html [Accessed 06 November 2019]. Source adapted.

Figure 8a Data from: CIA, 2017. The World Factbook: Costa Rica. [online] Available at: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-
factbook/countries/costa-rica/#economy [Accessed 06 November 2019].

Figure 8b FAO. FAOSTAT Crops and livestock products. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Extracted from: https://www.
fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. Date of Access: 06-11-2019. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-sa/3.0/.

Figure 8c Data from: Fagan, M.E., DeFries, R.S., Sesnie, S.E., Arroyo, J.P., Walker, W. Soto, C., Chazdon, R.L., and
Sanchun, A., 2013. Land cover dynamics following a deforestation ban in northern Costa Rica. Environ. Res. Lett.
[e-journal] (8)034017 http://doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034017. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.

Figure 9a Based on IEA data from IEA (2019) Costa Rica Energy Policy, https://www.iea.org/countries/costa-rica, IEA
(2022), www.iea.org/statistics, All rights reserved; as modified by International Baccalaureate Organization.

Figure 9b Based on IEA data from IEA (2019) Costa Rica Energy Policy, https://www.iea.org/countries/costa-rica, IEA
(2022), www.iea.org/statistics, All rights reserved; as modified by International Baccalaureate Organization.

Figure 9c Based on IEA data from IEA (2019) Costa Rica Energy Policy, https://www.iea.org/countries/costa-rica, IEA
(2022), www.iea.org/statistics, All rights reserved; as modified by International Baccalaureate Organization.

Figure 10b Global Footprint Network. Costa Rica (2022) [online] Available at: http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/. Source
adapted.

All other texts, graphics and illustrations © International Baccalaureate Organization 2022