3

Channels and harbour basins

3.1 Channels and waterways

p
a
3.1.1 General
c
From a general point of view, channels or waterways can logically be
classified into the following four groups:
(
{a) Group A: main traffic arteries which have satisfactory day and night tl
navigational aids and where given depths are guaranteed. rr
(b) Group B: same as group A, but with navigational aids for day
navigation only. n
(c) Group C: important routes, which may have navigational aids and d
where depths are checked by regular surveys, but not guaranteed. d
(d) Group D: local routes which have no navigational aids and where d
only estimates of depths are given. u:
Channels or waterways can again be subdivided into unrestricted, pi
semi-restricted and fully restricted channels: 01

{a) Unrestricted channels are channels or waterways in shallow water

of width at least 10-15 times the beam of the largest ship using the
3.
channel, but without any dredging.
T
(b) Semi-restricted channels are dredged channels in shallow water.
si:
See Fig. 3.1.
ef
(c) Fully restricted channels are channels where the entire channel area is
zc
dredged, as shown in Fig. 3.1. In general the layout and the alignment
of the channels should be such that the channel can be navigated with {a
reasonable safety according to into which group the channel is classified (1:
taking account of tide, current, prevailing wind and wave action. {c

78

.~~
·;>,;;.,·
 Channels and harbour basins

Semi·restricted channel
Water level

"'"""""'"""'""'
. Dredged channel
;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
/""m"'"'"'"'"'"'

Fully restricted channel

Water level

Fig. 3.1. Semi- and fully restricted channels

If possible, the angle between the resultant effect due to the
prevailing wind direction and current and the channel axis should be
a minimum. The angles of deflection and the number of curves in the
channel should also be kept to a minimum.
be
An example of a fully restricted channel or canal is the Panama
Canal, where the maximum dimensions for ships using the canal are:
~ht the overall length 294m; the width of beam 32.31 m; and the
maximum draft 12 m.
lay The channels should preferably be located in areas of maximum
natural water depth to reduce the cost of initial and maintenance
nd dredging. Areas which are exposed to excessive siltation and littoral
:d. drift should be avoided if possible. However, to maintain a minimum
:!re depth, as shown on navigational charts, maintenance dredging is
usually necessary. The volumes to be dredged can vary widely from
ed, place to place, depending on the extent of the site, its location and
other natural influences such as tides, current and weather conditions.
ter
he 3.1.2 Straight channel
The minimum width of a straight channel will primarily depend on the
:er.
size and manoeuvrability of the ships navigating the channel and the
effects of wind and current. The channel width is divided into three
a is
zones or lanes, as shown in Fig. 3.2 for one-way and two-way traffic:
!fit
ith (a) the manoeuvring lane
ied (b) the bank clearance lane
(c) the ship clearance lane.

79
Port designer's handbook

Single-lane channel
Bank Manoeuvring Bank
clearance lane clearance

1. Channel width .. I 1

1
Two-lane channel
1
Manoeuvring Manoeuvring
Bank lane Ship lane Bank
clearance clearance clearance

b = Ship width
B =Ship width

·'
Channel width
1--
Fig. 3.2. Channel width

The width of a restricted channel should be measured at the bottom

of the dredged bed and should be the sum of the lanes.
The width of the manoeuvring lane will generally vary from 1.6-2.0
times the beam of the largest ship using the channel, depending on
wind, current and the manoeuvrability of the ship. The very high super-
structures on containerships, car carriers, passenger ships and tankers in
ballast present considerable windage area and may therefore require
more channel width than their beam would suggest.
Allowance for yaw of the ship must be made if the channel is exposed
to cross current and/or winds. The angle of yaw can be between so -10°.
For a large ship, an angle of yaw of so can add an extra width, equivalent
to half the beam, to the manoeuvring lane.
Ships displaced from the channel centreline towards the banks of the
channel will experience a bank suction effect due to the asymmetrical
flow of water round the ship and this will cause a yawing movement.
To counteract this effect on the ship an additional bank clearance

80
 Channels and harbour basins

Widening on inside
of bend

Fig. 3.3. Channel curve

width usually between 1.0-2.0 times the beam of the largest ship must
be added. A steep-sided channel section produces more bank suction
than a channel with a trapezoidal section. Bank suction also increases
when the underkeel clearance decreases.
To avoid excessive interaction between two ships travelling past one
another, either in the same or in the opposite direction in a two-lane
'T channel, it is necessary to separate the two manoeuvring lanes by a
ship clearance lane. To minimize the suction and repulsion forces
h between the ships, a clearance lane equal to a minimum 30m, or the
h
beam of the largest ship, should be provided.
The recommended total channel bottom width for single-lane
channels should be 3.6-6 times the beam of the design ship depending
on the sea and wind conditions. For oil and gas tankers a minimum
bottom width should be 5 times the beam of the design ship. For a
>m two-lane channel the total channel width will vary between 6.2-9
· times the beam of the design ship.
tO
on
er- 3.1.3 Channels with curves
in As a general rule, curves and sharp turns in a channel should be avoided
ire if possible. Where curves are unavoidable, the minimum width of the
channel in a curve should be larger than in a straight channel due to
the additional manoeuvring width required, because the ship will
deviate more from her course in a bend than in a straight section. In
Fig. 3.3 definitions of the curve radius and deflection angle are illustrated.
In practice, if the deflection angle of the curve is larger than 10°, the
he channel should be widened. It is generally accepted that a widening of
cal the inside of the curve or bend is the most suitable manner to improve
nt. safe navigation in a curve. Depending on the manoeuvrability of the
tee ship and the radius of the bend, the width of the manoeuvring lane

81
Port designer's harulbook

should be increased from around 2.0 times the beam of the largest ship
in a straight channel to around 4.0 times the beam of the largest ship in
curved channels.
In the past it was accepted that for ships without tugboat assistance,
the minimum curve radius should not be less than 3 times the length of
the design ship for a deflection angle of the curve up to 25°. Between
25° and 35° the minimum curve radius should be 5 times the length
of the design ship. For 35o and more the curve radius should be 10
times the length of the design ship. If the curves must have smaller
radii than mentioned above, the channel should be suitably widened.
More recent proposals suggest that the minimum curve radius should
be in the range of 8-10 times the length of the design ship, without
being related to the angle of deflection.
If more than one curve is necessary, a straight section equal to at least Fi.
5 times the length of the design ship or 1000 m, whichever is greater,
should be provided between the two consecutive curves. tl:
fr<
D
3.2 Harbour basin bt
w:
3.2.1 General er
The harbour basin can be defined as the protected water area, which
should provide safe and suitable accommodation for ships. Harbours dt
can be classified as natural, semi-natural or artificial. Harbours have re
different functions, such as commercial (municipal or privately ar
owned) harbours, refuge harbours, military harbours, oil harbours, etc. G
Inside the harbour entrance, the harbour area should be allocated 1.
different functions such as berthing or turning area. If the harbour
receives a wide range of ships, it should for economic reasons be n<
divided into at least two zones, one for the larger and one for the V(

smaller ships. The smaller ships should be located in the inner and ac
shallower part of the harbour. Berths for hazardous cargoes like oil
and gas should be located at a safe dist~nce and clearance from other
berths. These activities should typically be located in isolated areas in 3.
the outer end and on the lee side of the harbour basin. Tl
sp
Tl
3.2.2 Entrance to
The harbour entrance should, if possible, be located on the lee side of b~
the harbour. If it must be located on the windward end of the sh
harbour, adequate overlap of the breakwaters should be provided so wl

82
 Channels and harbour basins

up
in

:e,
of
en
th
10
ler
!d.
tid

Fig. 3.4. A loaded ore tanker. Plwto by Bergesen DY, Norway

1St
er,
that the ship will have passed through the restricted entrance and be
free to tum with the wind before it is hit broadside by the waves.
Due to this overlap of the breakwaters the interior of the harbour will
be protected from the waves. Accordingly, in order to reduce the
wave height within the harbour, and to prevent strong currents, the
entrance should be no wider than necessary to provide safe navigation.
ch The entrance width measured at the design depth will depend on the
.1rs degree of wave protection required inside the harbour, the navigational
ve requirements due to the size of ship, density of traffic, depth of water
!ly and the current velocity when the tide is coming in or going out.
tc. Generally the width of the harbour entrance should be between 0. 7-
ed · 1.0 times the length of the design ship.
our The maximum current velocity through the harbour entrance should
be not exceed approximately 1.5 m/s or 3 knots if possible. If the current
he velocity exceeds this value, the channel cross-section should be
nd adjusted.
oil
ter
in 3.2.3 Stopping distance
The stopping distance of a ship will depend on factors such as ship
speed, the displacement and shape of the hull, and horsepower ratio.
The following stopping distances, as a rough guideline, are assumed
to be sufficient to bring the ship to a complete halt. For ships in
of ballast, 3-5 times the ship's length is required. For a loaded ship, as
he shown in Fig. 3.4, 7 to 8 times the ship's length is required. In harbours
so where the entrance is exposed to weather, the stopping distance should

83
Port designer's handbook

typically be reckoned from the beginning of the protected area to the

centre of the turning basin.

3.2.4 Turning area

The turning area or basin should usually be in the central area of the
harbour basin. The size of the turning area will be a function of
manoeuvrability and of the length of the ship using the area. It will
also depend on the time permitted for the execution of the turning F
manoeuvre. The area should be protected from waves and strong
winds. One should remember that ships in ballast have decreased
turning performance.
a:
The following minimum diameters of the turning area are generally
accepted. The minimum diameter where the ship turns by going tl
ahead and without use of bow thrusters and/or tugboat assistance, h
should be approximately 4 times the length of the ship. Where the sl
rr
ship has tugboat assistance, the turning diameter could be 2 times
the length of the ship. Under very good conditions these diameters
might be reduced to 3 and 1.6 times the length respectively as a gJ
lower limit. With use of the main propeller and rudder and the bow b
thrusters, the turning diameter could be 1.5 times the length of the ship. b
Where the ship is turned by warping around a dolphin or pier and d
usually with tugboat assistance under calm conditions, the turning b
diameter could be a minimum 1.2 times the length of the ship. T
t1

sl
3.2.5 Berthing area
The size of the berthing area and the berth will depend upon the dimen-
sions of the largest ship and the number of ships that will use the
harbour. The berth layout will be affected by many factors such as
the size of the harbour basin for manoeuvring, satisfactory arrivals
and departures of ships to and from the berth, whether or not the
fr
ships are equipped with bow rudder and bow thrusters, the availability
aJ
of tugboats, and the direction and strength of wind, waves and currents.
If the berthing area in front of the berth has to be dredged, the size of
the dredging area should be as shown in Fig. 3.5. The length of the
dredged area should be for ships with tugboat assistance not less than
1.25 times the length of the largest ship to use the berth, and
without tugboat assistance not less than 1.5 times the length. The
width of a dredged tidal berth should be at least 1.25 times the beam
of the largest ship to use the berth. Fi

84
 Channels and harbour basins

:J.e

:J.e
of Length of berth Shore
ill '
ng Fig. 3.5. Dredged area around a berth
ng
ed
Where more than one ship has to be accommodated along the berth,
as shown in Fig. 3.6, a clearance length of at least 0.1 times the length of
lly
the largest ship should be provided between the adjacent ships. If the
ng
harbour basin is subjected to strong winds and tides the clearance
:e,
should be increased to 0.2 times the length of the largest ship. A
'ne
minimum distance of 15m between the ship is commonly adopted.
.es
Berths of the finger pier type, as shown in Fig. 3.7, will provide the
!rS
greatest amount of berthing space per metre of shorefront. For a single-
a
berth pier, the clear water area between two piers should be 2 times the
lW
beam of the largest ship plus 30 m to allow for tugboat assistance. For
ip.
double-berth finger piers the clear water area between two double-
:td
berth piers should be 4 times the beam of the largest ship plus 50 m.
ng
The length of the finger pier for a single berth should, if possible, be
the length of the ship plus 30-50 m. For very long single-berth piers,
as shown in Fig. 3.8, the clear water area between the two piers
should be 2 times the beam of the largest ship plus 50 m.
For harbour basins, as shown in Fig. 3.9, the width required to
n-
permit a ship to swing freely into a berth is 1.5 times the length of
b.e
the ship for berths at 45o, and 2 times the length of the ship for
as
berths at 90°.
1ls
The layout of berthing structures for oil and gas tankers is different
b.e
from the berth layout for general cargo ships. The major components of
ity
an oil and gas berthing structure are as shown in Fig. 3.10 and include
ts.
of
b.e
an
ld
b.e
tm
Fig. 3.6. Clearance between ships at berth

85
Port designer's handbook

_,
X
It)
~

ci
+

X
<:

Fig. 3. 7. Layout of single piers

the following elements: the mooring structures, the breasting structures,

the loading platform and the access bridge with the pipeway. For the
safety of the tanker and the tugboats it is important that there is
enough manoeuvring space provided for the tugboats around the
tanker during its berthing and mooring.
F

I . ~.ro·r~ \\

b
Sl

' c
lc
sl
c

'
Fig. 3.8. Layout of long piers F

86
 Channels and harbour basins

l L l
' •

:.2 XL
es,
he
is
he
Fig. 3.9. Layout of berths

The berth should, if possible, be oriented so that the predominant

wind, wave and current have the least effects on the operation of the
berth. The berth should be so oriented that the mooring loads are as
small as possible. Usually, this means aligning the berth axis with the
current direction. Where the currents are weak, it is advisable to
locate the berth parallel to the prevailing wind direction. Berths
should not be broadside on to strong prevailing winds, waves and
current.

Access bridge -•m Pipeway

Mooring
Loading platform dolphins
Breasting dolphin

Stern line

Fig. 3.10. Typical berth for tankers

87
Port designer's handbook

The loading platform and the breasting structure can either be built

I
as one structure or as two separate structures. The breasting structures
should be designed to withstand the berthing impact from the tanker
during berthing and from the wind, wave and current forces when
moored. The mooring structures should be designed for the mooring
and environmental forces.
To ensure contact with the parallel sides of the ship, the breasting
structures should be set apart as described in Chapter 4. Walkways
should be provided between the mooring structures and the central
structures. Although one breasting structure on each side of the
loading platform is adequate for safe berthing of a tanker, it is recom-
mended that two breasting structures be provided on each side in
case one of the breasting structures is damaged during berthing.
The safety distance betwe~n two moored tankers or a moored tanker
and a passing ship, will depend upon the overall layout of the harbour, F
the number of tugboats assisting in the berthing or unberthing opera- S;
tion, the environmental conditions and the population in the area.
The distances also vary from country to country depending on the
safety philosophy in each country. The safety distance may be found tl
to vary between the following ranges: f~

For oil tankers: e:

(a) The distance between two moored oil tankers may be from 30- fr
100m. a
(b) The distance between a moored oil tanker and a passing ship may t<
be from 50-150m. t<

For gas tankers: b

u
(a) The distance between two moored gas tankers may be from 50-
3
150m. For liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers a minimum clearance
a]
of one ship's length between ships or 250-300m is recommended.
rr
The distance between LNG tankers will also depend on the tugboat
capacity when berthing and unberthing the tanker.
aJ
(b) The distance between a moored gas tanker and a passing ship may
sl
be from 60-250 m. For a LNG tanker it shall at least be 300m.
ti
(c) It is generally accepted that for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) the
distance may be at least 150m to other installations and for LNG it
aJ
should be at least 300 m.
rr
A general fairway outside an oil and gas terminal, should preferably la
be outside the turning basin in front of the oil or gas berth, so that tl

88
 Channels and harbour basins

ilt
·es
:er
en
ng

ng
tys
ral
he
n-
in

:er
lr, Fig. 3.11. Statoil, Mongstad Oil Terminal. Plwto courtesy of 0yvind Hagen,
:a- Statoil, Mongstad, Norway
!a.
he
nd the berthing operation will not be disturbed by passing vessels in the
fairway.
Due to safety and risk considerations, it is recommended that, for
example, LNG terminals are placed in sheltered locations remote
)- from other port activities so other ships do not pose a collision risk to
a moored LNG tanker. Furthermore, if a large ship is passing close
.ay to a moored LNG this can cause surging along the gas berth with risk
to the mooring lines of the gas tanker.
The orientation of oil and gas berths should be chosen to provide the
best possible manoeuvring conditions for normal berthing and
unberthing as well as emergency departure, as can be seen from Fig.
)-
3.11. Under calm-weather conditions tankers should preferably be
.ce
able to depart without tugboat assistance, although this is not recom-
!d.
mended as normal procedure.
>at At oil terminals, a portable collecting oil barrier should be placed
around the oil tanker prior to loading or be able to be placed at very
.ay
short notice in order to restrain any oil spillage. Equipment for collec-
tion and disposal of oil spills must also exist.
he
The general area requirements for small craft harbour berthing
j it
arrangements are shown in Figs 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14. The general
measurements will vary as shown in the figures depending on the
)ly layout of the harbour. In places with large tidal variations, or where
tat the harbour is exposed to wind and/or waves, the maximum figures

89
Port designer's handbook

Berth Width of channel Berth

1.5-2.5m L-1.5xL 1.75 X L-2.5 x L l-1.5 x L
I
i
Ill
E
C!
~
I
~
:2
E
Ill
N
~

~
~
E
"l
I
F
+

u
Fig. 3.12. General layout of small craft harbour berthing arrangement tl

must be used. The normal figure for the total water area required per
boat will vary between 100 and 200m 2 per boat. 3
No rules exist for the size of the berthing area for a fishing port, but 1
widths of about 100-150m and lengths of about 200-400m are b
common in existing ports. For safety reasons and depending on the q
p

d
a
S'
d
(1
a
t1
sl
if
a
n
tl

a
sl
a
Fig. 3.13. Small craft harbour b

90
 Channels and harbour basins

Fig. 3.14. Small craft harbour

use of the port facilities, it is not desirable to have more than about
three or four fishing ships berthing side by side along the berth.

>er
3.3 Anchorage areas
ut The anchorage area is a place where ships may wait for their turn at
tre berth, for more favourable weather conditions or be held back for
he quarantine inspection or other reasons. Sometimes special anchorage
places are provided for ships carrying dangerous cargo, such as explosives.
The size of water area required for anchorages will therefore primarily
depend on the number, type and size of ships, which require protection
and the type of mooring systems available. The selection of the mooring
system will depend on the size of ship, degree of exposure to weather,
degree of restraint required and quality of the sea-bottom material
(the anchor holding). As a general rule, the harbour should provide
anchorage areas for small coastal ships while they are waiting for their
turn to call at berth or for protection in bad weather, while larger
ships may be required to anchor or ride out bad weather at open sea
if necessary. The anchorage areas should be located in natural protected
areas or be protected from waves by breakwaters and also be located
near the main harbour areas, but out of the path of the main harbour
traffic.
The water depth at an anchoring area should preferably not exceed
approximately 50-60 m due to the length of the anchor chain of the
ship. The bottom condition must not be too hard, otherwise the
anchor will be dragged along the bottom and not dig into the sea
bottom.

91
Port designer's handbook

0
,)! J-
D L --~-~-~----~----~ -~
(
.I. X L

1: :I R
'c
}
"- ~ Ship's anchor c
----- I -----
----~~ ---...,.,~
t
I I
I l
I
I I
I
s
Fig. 3.15. Free-swinging mooring r

c
When the ship is anchored the following should be adhered to in the t
anchoring procedures in addition to observing all port traffic and c
following the port's regulations: c
t
(a) Maintain a 24-h bridge watch by a licensed deck officer monitoring
5
the radio contacts.
r
(b) Make frequent control checks to ensure that the ship is not dragging
n
the anchors.
(c) When the wind exceeds 20 m/s, put the propulsion plant on
c
standby for the possibility of leaving the area.
v
(d) Provide a 15-min advance notice to the respective pilot station
before heaving the anchors to get underway.
l·

A ship may be moored either with its own anchors, to a buoy or group
of buoys or by a combination of its own anchors and buoys. Mooring
systems can, therefore, be divided into the free swinging systems and
the multiple-point mooring systems.
When using the free-swinging mooring system, as shown in Fig.
3.15, the ship will swing on its anchor and be located generally parallel
to the wind and current. The anchorage area shall, therefore, have a
water area exceeding the area of a circle with the radius obtained
from Table 3.1 and in accordance with the natural conditions, such
as topography, sealed condition and exposure to weather:
The horizontal distance X in Fig. 3.15 will usually vary between
approximately 6-10 times the water depth. The length of the anchor
chain can be reduced for a single buoy by adding a deadweight near F

92
 Channels and harbour basins

Table 3.1. Approximate radius of anclwrage area

Object of anchorage Seabed soil or wind velocity Radius in Fig. 3.15

Waiting or Good anchoring L+6D

cargo handling Bad anchoring L+6D+30m
Mooring Wind velocity 20 m/s L+3D+90m
during Wind velocity 30 m/s L+4D+ 145m

the buoy, e.g. a concrete block for holding the chain between the buoy
and the anchor down to the sea bottom.
In the multiple-point mooring system shown in Fig. 3.16, the ship is
secured to a minimum of four mooring points and is thereby held in a
more or less fixed position.
To obtain the maximum pullout or anchor resistance, the anchor
chain must not be subjected to a pull angle of more than 3° above.
:he the horizontal near the anchor. The maximum pullout of the anchor,
tnd depending upon the soil condition, is about 7 to 8 times the weight
of the anchor. The anchor weight for a 40 000 dwt ship is about 7
tons, and about 21 tons for a 200 000 dwt ship. If the pullout angle is
ing 5o above the horizontal, the maximum pullout of the anchor is
reduced by about 25 per cent, and if the angle is about 15°, the
ing maximum pullout of the anchor will be reduced by about 50 per cent.
The anchorage area should have enough water area for the possibility
on of drift when releasing the anchor line of approximately 3 times the
water depth. The underkeel clearance of the ship should never be
ion less than approximately 3-4m at the lowest astronomical tide (LAT).

)Up
L 0.2--{).SL
ing
md

Fig.
tllel
•e a
ned
uch

een
:hor
tear Fig. 3.16. Multiple-point mooring

93
Port designer's handbook

As a rule of thumb, the length of the anchor chain of a ship is

approximately 1.5 times the ship's length.

3.4 Grounding areas

In the case of serious damage to ships, emergency grounding areas along
the approach route to or from the harbour should be available. It is very
important to have the possibility of grounding an oil tanker, for example
in a case where the tanker has been damaged to such an extent that
there is a risk of it sinking and thus causing extensive oil pollution.
The water depth at the grounding area should be a little less than the
draft of the ship. The sea bottom should preferably be even and soft.
The manoeuvring should be as easy as possible since a damaged ship
may have reduced manoeuvrabiliry.

Further reading
British Standard BS 6349 (1988) Maritime Structures. Part 2: Design of Quay
Walls, Jetties and Dolphins, London: BSI. I
British Standard BS 6349 (2000) Maritime Structures. Part I: Code of Practice i
for General Criteria, London: BSI.
I
International Navigation Association (PIANC) (1995) Port Facilities for
1
Ferries. Practical Guide. Report of Working Group II.
c
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC)
( 1997) Approach Channels, a Guide for Design, Report of Working Group II-30.
ROM 0.2-90 (1990) Action in the Design of Maritime and Harbour Works,
Ministerio de Obras Publicas, Madrid, April.
Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan (1999) Port and
Harbour Research Institute, Ministry ofTransport, Tokyo, Japan.
Tsinker, G. P. (1997) Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering, London:
Chapman & Hall.

t
r
f
1
t
1

f
s
r

94