L9SG' Dl9Shptdr 9Kfnqhsglhptdr: Eq M BNHR Adqfdqnm

L9SGD̀L9SHPTDR
9KFNQHSGLHPTDR
Eqˆmb́nhr Adqfdqnm
Ghudq 1.06
Université du Québec à Montréal

Département de mathématiques
Case postale 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville
Montréal (Québec) H3C 3P8
1
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0 Pd̀btqqdmbd) mnlaqdr ds enmbshnmr mtld̀qhptdr 6

0-0 Dmshdqr+ ds oqdtudr o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
0-1 Enmbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
0-2 Cd̀ffmhshnmr qd̀btqrhudr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/
0-3 Sntqr cd G‘mn—ıΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 02
0-4 Nod̀q‘shnmr cd a‘rd ‘udb kdr dmshdqr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 02
0-5 Onkxm] nldr dm w - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 04
0-6 Tm oqnakıdld mnm qd̀rnktΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 05
0-7 Bndflbhdmsr ahmnlh‘tw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 07
0-8 Dmshdqr lnctkn m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 08
0-0/ Kd sgd̀nqıdld c&Dtkdq,Edql‘sΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
0-00 K‘ bqxosnfq‘oghd ı ‘ bkd̀ otakhptdΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
0-01 Eq‘bshnmr bnmshmtdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
0-02 Mnlaqdr cd Ehanm‘bbh ds mnlaqd c&nq - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17
0-03 Tm dwdlokd c&‘m‘kxrd c&‘kfnqhsgldΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2/
0-04 B‘kbtk ‘ooqnbgd̀ cd yd̀qnr ’qd̀dkr( cd enmbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2/
0-05 Tm inkh bnto c&ndhkΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
0-06 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24
1 Dmrdlakdr ds enmbshnmr 30
1-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
1-1 Dmrdlakdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
1-2 Rntr,dmrdlakdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32
1-3 Nod̀q‘shnmr cd a‘rd rtq kdr dmrdlakdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33
1-4 Oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35
1-5 Qdk‘shnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36
1-6 Enmbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37
1-6-0 Ahidbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4/
1-6-1 Hmidbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40
h
hh S9AKD CDR L9SHDQDR
1-6-2 Rtqidbshnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42
1-7 Bnlosdq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43
1-8 Dmrdlakdr+ cd̀bhc‘ahkhsd̀+ ds bnlokdwhsd̀ c&‘kfnqhsgldrΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45
1-0/ Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47
2 FqVogdr rhlokdr 52
2-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52
2-1 Fq‘ogd rhlokd- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52
2-2 Unhrhm‘fd ds cdfqd̀ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 56
2-3 Bgdlhm c‘mr tm fq‘ogd- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 58
2-4 Nod̀q‘shnmr rtq kdr bgdlhmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6/
2-5 Bxbkdr g‘lhksnmhdmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60
2-6 Bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60
2-7 Oktr bntqs bgdlhm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 63
2-8 Bxbkdr dtkd̀qhdmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 63
2-0/ Ltkshfq‘ogd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65
2-00 Hrnlnqoghrld cd fq‘ogdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 66
2-01 L‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 67
2-02 Bnmsq‘bshnm c&‘q]dsdr ds lhmdtqrΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
2-03 Fq‘ogdr ok‘m‘hqdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70
2-04 B‘qsdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70
2-05 Bnknq‘shnm cd fq‘ogdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 74
2-06 Bgdlhmr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd S · SΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 77
2-07 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 78
3 Rsqtbstqdr Vqanqdrbdmsdr 82
3-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 82
3-1 ?qaqdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 82
3-2 ?qanqdrbdmbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 84
3-3 ?qaqdr ahm‘hqdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 86
3-4 ?qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 87
3-5 ?qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0//
3-6 Enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldmsΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/0
3-7 Enq]dsr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/2
3-8 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/2
4 FqVogdr nqhdmsd̀r 0.6

4-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/6
4-1 Fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0/6
4-2 Dmcnenmbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 00/
S9AKD CDR L9SHDQDR hhh
4-3 Bgdlhmr c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 000

4-4 Fq‘ogdr ‘bxbkhptdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 002
4-5 Fq‘ogdr u‘ktd̀ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 005
4-6 L‘sqhbdr annkd̀dmmdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 007
4-7 Kd cdlh,‘mmd‘t sqnohb‘k - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 008
4-8 Ekns c‘mr tm qd̀rd‘t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 010
4-0/ Bgdlhmr ds lnsr Γ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 012
4-00 Bg‘]ımdr cd L‘qjnuΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 014
4-01 NqcqdrΓ·( - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 015
4-02 Idtw hlo‘qsh‘tw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 018
4-03 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 021
5 Lnsr) kVmfVfdr) ds VtsnlVsdr 024

5-0 Hmsqnctbshnm- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 024
5-1 Lnsr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 025
5-2 K‘mf‘fdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 027
5-3 Fq‘ll‘hqdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 03/
5-4 ?tsnl‘sdr cd̀sdqlhmhrsdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 030
5-5 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 032
6 ?kfd̀aqdΓ·( 034
6-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 034
6-1 ?kfnqhsgld cd F‘trr,Inqc‘m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 034
6-2 ?kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd ontq onkxm] nldr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 035
6-3 A‘rdr cd Fq—namdq - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 036
6-4 Odqlts‘shnmr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 038
6-5 Ch‘fq‘lldr cd Edqqdqr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 04/
6-6 ?kfnqhsgld QRJ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 040
6-7 Kd oqnakıdld ct lns ontq tm fqntod - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 043
6-8 Dwdqbhbdr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 044
?oodmchbdr 047
? Tm rntob́nm cd knfhptd 048
A ?vhnlVshptd cd kV sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr 050
B Mnshnmr çVkfd̀aqd 054

B-0 Onkxm]
nldr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 054
B-1 Fqntod ds ‘mmd‘tw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 055
B-1-0 ?mmd‘tw ds hcd̀‘tw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 056
hu S9AKD CDR L9SHDQDR
B-1-1 ?mmd‘t Dtbkhchdm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 057
C BVkbtk enqldk 058

C-0 Hmsqnctbshnm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 058
C-0-0 L‘okd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 058
C-0-1 R‘fd - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 063
D MnsVshnmr 064
Hmsqnctbshnm
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b chuhrd a ds a. rrh b chuhrd q ds a. ’/-1(
Bdbh rd cd̀lnmsqd e‘bhkdldms dm dwoknhs‘ms k&d̀f‘khsd̀ ’/-0(+ ds hk r&dmrths hlld̀ch‘sdldms pt&nm ‘
} a. a 〉 ; } q. a 〉. ’/-2(
0- Cˆmr kdr sdvsdr lˆsgd̀lˆshptdr+ nm tshkhrd kˆ mnsˆshnm } N. a 〉 okts]
ns ptd kˆ mnsˆshnm Ofbc’N. a( çhmrohqˆshnm oktr
hmenqlˆshptd-
S9AKD CDR L9SHDQDR 2
B&drs kı
‘ k&d̀s‘od cd a‘rd cd k&‘kfnqhsgld- Nm k‘ qd̀oıdsd itrpt&ı‘ bd pt&hk rnhs e‘bhkd cd cnmmdq tmd
qd̀onmrd+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd knqrptd q ; /- Hkktrsqnmr o‘q tm dwdlokd- Ontq a ; 512201 ds a ; 2310457+ nm
‘ rtbbdrrhudldms
2310457 ; 4 · 512201 ) 2/4//7. ds cnmb } 512201 . 2310457 〉 ; } 2/4//7. 512201 〉.
512201 ; 1 · 2/4//7 ) 02185. ; } 02185. 2/4//7 〉.
2/4//7 ; 11 · 02185 ) 01385. ; } 01385. 02185 〉.
02185 ; 0 · 01385 ) 7//. ; } 7//. 01385 〉.
01385 ; 04 · 7// ) 385. ; } 385. 7// 〉.
7// ; 0 · 385 ) 2/3. ; } 2/3. 385 〉.
385 ; 0 · 2/3 ) 081. ; } 081. 2/3 〉.
2/3 ; 0 · 081 ) 001. ; } 001. 081 〉.
081 ; 0 · 001 ) 7/. ; } 7/. 001 〉.
001 ; 0 · 7/ ) 21. ; } 21. 7/ 〉.
7/ ; 1 · 21 ) 05. ; } 05. 21 〉.
21 ; 1 · 05 ) /. ; } /. 05 〉.
Nm bnmbkts cnmb ptd 05 drs kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd 512201 ds 2310457+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
} 512201 . 2310457 〉 ; 05.
r‘mr ‘unhq dt ı
‘ e‘bsnqhrdq bdr mnlaqdr-
Nm ‘tsnl‘shrd k‘ qd̀onmrd dm nardqu‘ms ptd kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq
cd a ds / drs a- Nm ‘ cnmb dm enqltkd 9
} /. a 〉 ; a. ’/-3(
ds snts k&‘kfnqhsgld rd cd̀bqhs ‘knqr ∗ qd̀btqrhudldms " cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd

’rtoonr‘ms ptd a ≤ a( 9
?kfnqhsgld .-0 ’c&Dtbkhcd(-
!
} q. a 〉. rh a ; p · a ) q. ‘udb a 6; /.
} a. a 〉 ; ’/-4(
a. rh a ; /.
Dtbkhcd c&?kdw‘mcqhd
Oqnfq‘lld̀ cd bdssd e‘b́nm+ tm nqchm‘sdtq b‘kbtkd oqdrptd hmrs‘ms‘md̀ldms ’dmuhqnm ,24/(
kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq rthu‘ms 9
} 0250018356572642742742387318616/61734712. 015654/5//1171183/03856/21/4264 〉 ; 0/12.
Nm odts fd̀md̀q‘khrdq kd b‘kbtk ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq ı ‘ tm dmrdlakd ’ffmh( cd m dmshdqr 9
a0 . a1 . . . . . am + cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd- Ontq rhlokhffdq+ nm rtoonrd ptd / ≤ a0 ≤ a1 ≤ . . . ≤ am + ds
nm onrd
?kfnqhsgld .-1 ’c&Dtbkhcd fd̀md̀q‘k(-



} q. a0 . a1 . . . . . am 0 〉. rh a0 6; / ds am ; p · a0 ) q. ‘udb / ≤ q , a0
} a0 . a1 . . . . . am 〉 ; } a1 . a2 . . . . . am 〉. rh a0 ; / ds m / 0.


a0 . rh m ; 0.
’/-5(
B&drs bd sxod c&‘ooqnbgd ptd mntr ‘kknmr cd̀udknoodq c‘mr bdr mnsdr+ dm cd̀bqhu‘ms cdr ∗ ‘kfn,
qhsgldr " hmsd̀qdrr‘msr rnhs ontq kd b‘kbtk cd enmbshnmr+ k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm c&dmrdlakdr+ k‘ rnktshnm
c&d̀pt‘shnmr+ nt dmbnqd k‘ qd̀rnktshnm cd oqnakıdldr rtq kdr fq‘ogdr- K&dlog‘rd rdq‘ cnmb lhrd rtq
k&‘rodbs b‘kbtk‘snhqd cdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ ontq dm cd̀lnmsqdq k‘ othrr‘mbd+ l‘hr ‘trrh kdr khlhsdr- Nm
‘cnosdq‘ rntudms tmd ‘ooqnbgd qd̀btqrhud ı ‘ k‘ rnktshnm cd oqnakıdldr bnmrhcd̀qd̀r ’nt ı
‘ k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm
cd mntud‘tw naidsr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr(- Hmenqldkkdldms+ tmd sdkkd ‘ooqnbgd bnmrhrsd dm k‘ cdrbqhoshnm
cd k‘ e‘b́nm cd
‘( qd̀rntcqd kd oqnakıdld c‘mr kdr b‘r rhlokdr+
a( q‘ldmdq sntr kdr ‘tsqdr b‘r ı
‘ cdr b‘r pth rd q‘ooqnbgdms cdr b‘r rhlokdr-
B&drs ‘trrh rhlokd ptd c&‘ooqdmcqd ı
‘ l‘qbgdq 9 ∗ nm e‘hs tm o‘r+ ds nm bnmshmtd ı
‘ l‘qbgdq "-
PdlVqptdr rtq bdr mnsdr cd bntqr
?u‘ms c&dla‘qptdq c‘mr mnsqd ‘udmstqd+ tm ‘udqshrrdldms c&nqcqd fd̀md̀q‘k drs oqna‘akdldms md̀bdr,
r‘hqd dm bd pth bnmbdqmd k‘ m‘stqd cdr cd̀ffmhshnmr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr- Dm dΨds+ c‘mr k&d̀k‘anq‘shnm c&tm
rtids l‘sgd̀l‘shptd hk drs bqtbh‘k c&‘unhq cdr cd̀ffmhshnmr bk‘hqdr ds oqd̀bhrdr cdr naidsr ı ‘ l‘mhotkdq-
Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ tmd anmmd cd̀ffmhshnm cnhs odqldssqd cd cd̀sdqlhmdq pt‘mc cdtw naidsr rnms d̀f‘tw+
dm oktr c&hmchptdq bnlldms hk e‘ts oqnbd̀cdq ontq bnmrsqthqd cd sdkr naidsr- Hk e‘ts ‘ooqdmcqd ı‘ khqd
ds tshkhrdq sqıdr ‘ssdmshudldms kdr cd̀ffmhshnmr oqnonrd̀dr+ dm m&ntakh‘ms o‘r ptd kd bqhsıdqd tkshld c&tmd
anmmd cd̀ffmhshnm drs k‘ e‘bhkhsd̀ ‘udb k‘ptdkkd dkkd odqlds kd cd̀udknoodldms cdr mnshnmr ‘anqcd̀dr-
Bdk‘ cdl‘mcd tmd ‘ssdmshnm bnmrs‘msd ı ‘ k‘ qhftdtq ds k‘ oqd̀bhrhnm ct chrbntqr- Bdodmc‘ms+ ‘ffm cd
bnmrdqudq tmd oqd̀rdms‘shnm ‘fqd̀‘akd ds hmsdkkhfhakd+ hk drs md̀bdrr‘hqd cd mntqqhq k‘ bnloqd̀gdmrhnm ‘udb
cdr hkktrsq‘shnmr oktr hmsthshudr- C‘mr bdqs‘hmr b‘r+ bdr cdtw naidbsher rnms chflbhkdr ı ‘ qd̀bnmbhkhdq+ ds
mntr md qd̀trrhqnmr odts,]dsqd o‘r md̀bdrr‘hqdldms sntintqr ı ‘ kd e‘hqd-
K‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr rdqs cd k‘mf‘fd cd a‘rd ontq kdr cd̀ffmhshnmr ds kd chrbntqr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr-
Tmd dwbdkkdmsd l‘]ısqhrd cd bdkkd,bh drs cnmb drrdmshdkkd ontq ahdm oqnfqdrrdq c‘mr k&d̀stcd cdr mnshnmr
‘anqcd̀dr-
Kdr rdbshnmr+ dwdqbhbdr ds bg‘ohsqdr l‘qptd̀r c&tmd d̀snhkdΓ·( rnms oktr ‘u‘mbd̀r+ nt rhlokdldms oqd̀rdmsd̀r
ontq rtrbhsdq k&hmsd̀q]ds bgdy kdr o‘rrhnmmd̀r- Hkr odtudms ]dsqd nlhr dm oqdlhıdqd kdbstqd+ nt bnmrhcd̀qd̀r
bnlld e‘btks‘sher c‘mr tmd hmsqnctbshnm ‘t rtids- Bdqs‘hmr dwdqbhbdr oktr chflbhkdr rnms cd m‘stqd
S9AKD CDR L9SHDQDR 4
dwoknq‘snhqd+ ds bnmrshstd tmd onqsd ntudqsd rtq cdr mnshnmr pth rdqnms ‘anqcd̀dr c‘mr cdr bntqr oktr
‘u‘mbd̀r-
Oktrhdtqr cdr ognsnfq‘oghdr ’ds hmenql‘shnmr ahnfq‘oghptdr( oqnuhdmmdms ct rhsd ghrsnqhptd cd k&Tmh,
udqrhsd̀ R‘hms,?mcqdvr 9
gsso/..vvv’ghrsnqx-lbr-rs’_mc-_b-tj.ghrsnqx.:hnfCmcdw-gslk
Dm fd̀md̀q‘k+ cdr khdmr gxodqsdwsdr rnms ‘rrnbhd̀r ‘tw mnlr cdr l‘sgd̀l‘shbhdmr ‘oo‘q‘hrr‘ms c‘mr
kd sdwsd- Nm odts ‘hmrh bnmrtksdq kdtq ahnfq‘oghd+ l‘hr bdkkd,bh drs dm fd̀md̀q‘k dm ‘mfk‘hr- C&‘tsqdr
hl‘fdr oqnuhdmmdms cd k&dmbxbknod̀chd Vhjhod̀ch‘-
Bgôhsqd 0
Qd̀btqqdmbd) mnlaqdr ds enmbshnmr

mtld̀qhptdr
Kd oqdlhdq bnmsdwsd c‘mr kdptdk mntr ‘kknmr dwoknqdq k‘ mnshnm c&‘kfnqhsgldr drs bdkth cdr mnlaqdr
’rtqsnts dmshdqr( ds cdr enmbshnmr dmsqd dmrdlakdr cd mnlaqdr- Hbh+ k‘ mnshnm cd qd̀btqrhuhsd̀ intd tm
q]
nkd bqtbh‘k- Mntr ‘kknmr cnmb dm chrbtsdq cdr ‘rodbsr enmc‘ldms‘tw oktr dm cd̀s‘hk-
0-0 Dmshdqr) ds oqdtudr oˆq qd̀btqqdmbd
Tmd cdr o‘qshbtk‘qhsd̀r hlonqs‘msdr cd k&dmrdlakd 0 cdr mnlaqdr dmshdqr ’mnm md̀f‘sher(
K ; {/. 0. 1. 2. 3. . . .{
drs pt&hk rdqs rntudms ı

‘ hmcdwdq cdr rthsdr cd mnlaqdr+ cd enmbshnmr+ cd enqltkdr+ dsb- C‘mr bdr chudqr
bnmsdwsdr+ nm drs ‘ldmd̀ ı ‘ enqltkdq tmd rthsd c&d̀mnmbd̀r l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr
O+ . O0 . O1 . O2 . . . .
‘rrnbhd̀r ı‘ bdr rthsdr c&naidsr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ pt&nm bgdqbgd dmrthsd ı ‘ cd̀lnmsqdq- C‘mr bdr bhqbnmr,
s‘mbdr+ k&ntshk cd cd̀lnmrsq‘shnm oqhuhkd̀fhd̀ drs sqıdr rntudms k‘ oqdtud oˆq qd̀btqqdmbd- Rnm rbgd̀l‘
fd̀md̀q‘k bnmrhrsd dm cdtw d̀s‘odr 9
’0( Nm cd̀lnmsqd c&‘anqc ptd k&d̀mnmbd̀ O+ drs uq‘h-
’1( Othr+ dm rtoonr‘ms ptd Om 0 drs uq‘h ’ontq m ptdkbnmptd(+ nm lnmsqd ptd Om r&dmrths-
0- Cˆmr bd bgôhsqd+ mntr ˆkknmr tshkhrdq kˆ mnshnm çdmrdlakd cd eˆb́nm sqıdr hmenqldkkd- Tm onhms cd utd tm odt
oktr qhfntqdtv rdqˆ ânqcd̀ cˆmr kd oqnbgˆhm bgôhsqd-
6
7 BG9OHSQD 0- QD̀BTQQDMBD) MNLAQDR DS ENMBSHNMR MTLD̀QHPTDR
Kd oqhmbhod cd qd̀btqqdmbd ‘rrtqd pt&nm odts ‘knqr bnmbktqd ptd Om drs uq‘h ontq snts m-
Hkktrsqnmr bdbh o‘q tm dwdlokd rhlokd- Bnmrhcd̀qnmr k‘ rthsd c&d̀mnmbd̀r Om ’tm ontq bg‘ptd m c‘mr
K( pth ‘flqld pt&nm ‘ k&d̀f‘khsd̀
m
∑ m ’m ) 0(
j; . ’0-0(
1
j90
?hmrh+
O+ bnqqdronmc ı
‘ / ; ’/ · 0(<1.
O0 ! 0 ; ’0 · 1(<1.
O1 ! 0 ) 1 ; ’1 · 2(<1.
O2 ! 0 ) 1 ) 2 ; ’2 · 3(<1.
O3 ! 0 ) 1 ) 2 ) 3 ; ’3 · 4(<1.
--
-
Kd oqnbdrrtr qd̀btqrhe ontq oqntudq
’∀m ∈ K( Om .
‘tsqdldms chs ptd k‘ enqltkd ( )
m)0 m ’m ) 0(
9;
1 1
cnmmd ahdm k‘ rnlld cdr dmshdqr cd 0 ı‘ m+ ptdkptd rnhs m+ rd cd̀qntkd bnlld rths- Nm bnlldmbd
o‘q lnmsqdq ’nt hbh+ rhlokdldms nardqudq( ptd O+ drs uq‘h+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
/ ; ’/ · 0(<1.
othr+ dm rtoonr‘ms ptd Om 0 drs uq‘h+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd ptd
’m 0( m
0 ) 1 ) . . . ) ’m 0( ; . ’0-1(
1
nm ud̀qhffd+ o‘q kd b‘kbtk rthu‘ms+ ptd Om dm cd̀bntkd ahdm 9
0 ) 1 ) . . . ) m ; ’0 ) 1 ) . . . ’m 0(( ) m.
) *+ ,
’m 0( m
; ) m.
1
m ’m ) 0(
; .
1
Nm ‘ cnmb oqntud̀ ptd
m
∑ m ’m ) 0(
’∀m ∈ K( j; .
1
j90
0-1- ENMBSHNMR 8
0-1 Enmbshnmr
?u‘ms c&‘anqcdq k‘ mnshnm cd enmbshnm qd̀btqrhud+ hk drs tshkd cd bk‘qhffdq k‘ mnshnm lncdqmd cd enmbshnm-
Bdk‘ drs drrdmshdk ı
‘ k‘ anmmd bnloqd̀gdmrhnm cd sntsd k‘ rthsd cd bd sdwsd+ ds hk x ‘ ‘anmc‘msd l‘shıdqd
‘ tmd qd̀fidwhnm ‘ooqnenmchd-
ı
Ahdm ptd k‘ mnshnm cd enmbshnm rnhs k&tmd cdr oktr hlonqs‘msdr
dm l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ bd m&drs pt&ı ‘ k‘ ffm ct chw,mdtuhıdld rhıdbkd
pt&dkkd ‘ oqhr k‘ enqld lncdqmd 1 pt&nm kth bnmm‘]ıs- Tmd qdkˆ,
shnm enmbshnmmdkkd e + cd k&dmrdlakd > udqr k&dmrdlakd A+ drs tmd
qdk‘shnm e ⊆ > · A+ pth onrrıdcd k‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ ptd 9
∗ ∀ w ∈ >+ ∃¸x ∈ A sdk ptd ’w. x( ∈ e " . ’0-2(
?tsqdldms chs+ k&d̀kd̀ldms w c‘mr > b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd tmhptdldms k&d̀kd̀ldms bnqqdronmc‘ms x c‘mr A- Hk drs
g‘ahstdk cd cd̀rhfmdq o‘q e ’w( bds d̀kd̀ldms+ ds nm ‘ cnmb
e ’w( ; x rrh ’w. x( ∈ e . ’0-3(
Enqldkkdldms o‘qk‘ms+ tmd enmbshnm cd > udqr A drs tm sqhokds ’e. >. A(+ nı t e drs tmd qdk‘shnm
enmbshnmmdkkd cd > udqr A- Hk drs g‘ahstdk c&d̀bqhqd e 9 > → A ontq bd sqhokd- ?hmrh+ nm ‘ k‘ enmbshnm
e 9 {a. a. b. c{ → {0. 1. 2{+ sdkkd ptd
e ; {’a. 0(. ’a. 2(. ’b. 1(. ’c. 0({. ’0-4(
Dkkd odts ‘trrh rd cd̀bqhqd rntr k‘ enqld 9
e ’a( ; 0. e ’a( ; 2. e ’b( ; 1. ds e ’c( ; 0.
Hk x ‘ dm e‘hs tm fq‘mc mnlaqd cd e‘b́nmr cd bnmrsqthqd nt cd rod̀bhffdq tmd enmbshnm- O‘q dwdlokd+
tmd enmbshnm e odts ]dsqd cd̀bqhsd o‘q tmd enqltkd pth b‘kbtkd e ’w(+ nt ‘oo‘q‘]ısqd bnlld rnktshnm
c&tmd d̀pt‘shnm chΨd̀qdmshdkkd+ nt dmbnqd ]dsqd cd̀ffmhd qd̀btqrhudldms- K&hlonqs‘ms drs ptd kd bqhsıdqd
‘arsq‘hs ’0-2( rnhs r‘shre‘hs- Cdtw enmbshnmr e 9 > → A ds f 9 > → A rnms d̀fˆkdr rh ds rdtkdldms rh
nm ‘ e ’w( ; f’w(+ ontq snts w c‘mr >- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm bnmm‘]ıs tmd enmbshnm rh ds rdtkdldms rh nm
bnmm‘]ıs r‘ u‘kdtq e ’w( ontq bg‘ptd d̀kd̀ldms w cd >- Nm odts cnmb odmrdq ı ‘ tmd enmbshnm bnlld
d̀s‘ms tm oqnbdrrtr e pth
∗ bgnhrhs tm d̀kd̀ldms e ’w( cd A ontq bg‘ptd d̀kd̀ldms w cd > " -
Ontq tmd enmbshnm e 9 > → A+ nm chs ptd k&dmrdlakd > drs k‘ rntqbd cd E + ds ptd k&dmrdlakd A dm
drs kd ats-
1- Nm md rˆhs sqno pth cnhs ]dsqd bqd̀chsd̀ ontq bdkˆ-
0/ BG9OHSQD 0- QD̀BTQQDMBD) MNLAQDR DS ENMBSHNMR MTLD̀QHPTDR
Ontq cdtw enmbshnmr e 9 > → A ds f 9 A → B+ ‘udb kd ats cd e d̀f‘k ı

‘ k‘ rntqbd cd f+ nm cd̀ffmhs tmd
mntudkkd enmbshnm f ◦ e 9 > → B+ dm onr‘ms+ ontq w c‘mr > 9
’f ◦ e (’w( 9; f’e ’w((. ’0-5(
Nm chs ‘knqr ptd f ◦ e drs kd bnlonrd̀ cd e ds cd f- K‘ rntqbd

cd f ◦ e drs k‘ rntqbd cd e + ds rnm ats drs kd ats cd f- Nm e
> # ! A
‘ cnmb k‘ rhst‘shnm cd k‘ Ehftqd bh,bnmsqd- K‘ bnlonrhshnm #
# # f
cd enmbshnm drs ‘rrnbh‘shud- B&drs cnmb chqd ptd+ ontq sqnhr f ◦ e ##
enmbshnmr e 9 > → A+ f 9 A → B+ ds g 9 B → C+ nm ‘ sntintqr #$
# "
B
’g ◦ f( ◦ e ; g ◦ ’f ◦ e (.
Cd oktr+ ontq bg‘ptd dmrdlakd >+ nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm ‘oodkd̀d hcdmshsd̀+ Hc, 9 > → >+ rhlokdldms
cd̀ffmhd dm onr‘ms Hc, ’w( ; w+ ontq snts w c‘mr >- Ontq sntsd enmbshnm e 9 > → A+ nm ‘ ‘knqr
e ◦ Hc, ; e ; HcA ◦ e .
0-2 Cd̀ mhshnmr qd̀btqrhudr
Oktrhdtqr enmbshnmr rtq kdr dmshdqr ‘cldssdms tmd cdrbqhoshnm qd̀btqrhud- O‘qlh kdr hkktrsq‘shnmr sx,
ohptdr+ nm ‘ k‘ enmbshnm eˆbsnqhdkkd cd̀mnsd̀d m¸+ cd̀ffmhd bnlld 9
!
m · ’m 0(¸. rh m / /.
m¸ ; ’0-6(
0. rh m ; /.
nt dmbnqd k‘ enmbshnm cd Ehanmˆbbh 9

!
E ’m 0( ) E ’m 1(. rh m / 0.
E ’m( ; ’0-7(
0. rh m ; / nt 0.
Bdr cdrbqhoshnmr odtudms ]dsqd chqdbsdldms tshkhrd̀dr ontq ∗ b‘kbtkdq " k‘ enmbshnm cnms hk drs ptdrshnm-
?hmrh+ nm sqntud
4¸ ; 4 · 3¸.
; 4 · 3 · 2¸.
; 4 · 3 · 2 · 1¸.
; 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 · 0¸.
; 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 · 0 · /¸.
; 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 · 0 · 0 ; 01/.
0-2- CD̀EHMHSHNMR QD̀BTQRHUDR 00
C‘mr kd b‘r cd Ehanm‘bbh+ nm b‘kbtkd o‘q dwdlokd ptd
E ’0/( ; E ’8( ) E ’7(.

; E ’7( ) 1 E ’6( ) E ’5(.
; E ’6( ) 2 E ’5( ) 2 E ’4( ) E ’3(.
; E ’5( ) 3 E ’4( ) 5 E ’3( ) 3 E ’2( ) E ’1(.
; E ’4( ) 4 E ’3( ) 0/ E ’2( ) 0/ E ’1( ) 4 E ’0( ) E ’/(.
; E ’3( ) 5 E ’2( ) 04 E ’1( ) 14 E ’0( ) 00 E ’/(.
; E ’2( ) 6 E ’1( ) 35 E ’0( ) 15 E ’/(.
; E ’1( ) 43 E ’0( ) 22 E ’/(.
; 44 E ’0( ) 23 E ’/(.
; 78.
Nm ‘ kdr u‘kdtqr
m / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0/
E ’m( 0 0 1 2 4 7 02 10 22 44 78
Kdr cd̀ffmhshnmr cd bnmbdosr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr rd cnhudms cd cd̀sdqlhmdq bdr bnmbdosr cd e‘b́nm bk‘hqd ds
oqd̀bhrd- Rntudms+ tm sgd̀nqıdld chs enmcˆldmsˆk ‘rrtqd ptd kdr cd̀ffmhshnmr c&tm bdqs‘hm enql‘s rnms
l‘sgd̀l‘shptdldms ‘bbdos‘akdr- B&drs kd b‘r ct sgd̀nqıdld rthu‘ms ptd mntr ‘kknmr c&‘anqc enqltkdq
cd e‘b́nm rhlokhffd̀d ontq ‘tfldmsdq k‘ bk‘qsd̀ cd mnsqd oqd̀rdms‘shnm-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 0-0 ’Enmcdldms cdr cd̀ffmhshnmr qd̀btqrhudr rhlokdr(- D̀sˆms cnmmd̀d tmd enmbshnm
Q 9 K · V → V.
ds w+ ∈ V) hk x ˆ tmd ds tmd rdtkd enmbshnm
e 9 K → V.
sdkkd ptd 
Q’m. e ’m 0((. rh m ≥ 0.
e ’m( ; ’0-8(
 w+ . rh m ; /.
Nqdtud- K&‘qftldms pth lnmsqd k&tmhbhsd̀ drs sxohptd- Hk bnmrhrsd rhlokdldms ı ‘ rtoonrdq pt&hk x ‘
cdtw enmbshnmr e0 ds e1 pth r‘shrenms ‘tw bnmchshnmr ct sgd̀nqıdld+ ontq lnmsqdq dmrthsd pt&dkkdr rnms
md̀bdrr‘hqdldms d̀f‘kdr- Nm kd oqntud o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd+ dm nardqu‘ms c&‘anqc ptd
e0 ’/( ; w+ ; e1 ’/(.
Nm rtoonrd dmrthsd ptd e0 ’m 0( ; e1 ’m 0(+ bd pth dmsq‘]ımd ptd
e0 ’m( ; Q’m. e0 ’m 0((

; Q’m. e1 ’m 0((
; e1 ’m(.
c&nı
t nm ‘ lnmsqd̀ o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd pt&nm ‘ enqbd̀ldms e0 ; e1 -
Kd e‘hs pt&hk dwhrsd ahdm tmd enmbshnm sdkkd pt&‘mmnmbd̀ drs oqdrptd d̀uhcdms ı ‘ bd rs‘cd- Hk rtfls
c&nardqudq pt&nm r‘hs k‘ b‘kbtkdq o‘q kd oqnbdrrtr ’0-8(+ ontq sntr kdr dmshdqr-
Sdk ptd enqltkd̀+ kd Sgd̀nqıdld 0-0 ‘rrtqd pt&hk x ‘ tmd ds tmd rdtkd enmbshnm pth r‘shre‘hs ’0-6(- Nm
odts cnmb bnmrhcd̀qdq ‘udb okdhmd ‘rrtq‘mbd pt&nm ‘ ‘hmrh cd̀ffmh tmd mntudkkd enmbshnm l‘sgd̀l‘shptd-
Bdodmc‘ms+ hk md r&‘ookhptd o‘r sdk ptdk ı‘ k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cd k‘ enmbshnm E cd Ehanm‘bbh dm ’0-7(+ pth
e‘hs ‘trrh ‘oodk ı
‘ k‘ u‘kdtq cd E ’m 0( ds cd E ’m 1(- Hk drs e‘bhkd c&x qdld̀chdq dm enqltk‘ms ’ds
oqntu‘ms( tmd enqld oktr fd̀md̀q‘kd ct sgd̀nqıdld- Kdr mns‘shnmr rnms tm odt oktr ∗ sdbgmhptdr "+
l‘hr nm x f‘fmd ı ‘ k‘ knmftd+ ds k‘ oqdtud drs snts ı‘ e‘hs rdlak‘akd ı
‘ bdkkd cd ’0-0(-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 0-1 ’Enmcdldms cdr cd̀ffmhshnmr qd̀btqrhudr(- Ontq snts j ffwd̀) d̀sˆms cnmmd̀d tmd enmbshnm
Q 9 K · V j → V.
ds w+ . . . . . wj 0 cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd V) hk x ˆ tmd ds tmd rdtkd enmbshnm
e 9 K → V.
sdkkd ptd 
Q’m. e ’m 0(. . . . . e ’m j((. rh m ≥ j.
e ’m( ; ’0-0/(
 wm . rh / ≤ m , j.
Nm chs o‘qenhr ptd bd sgd̀nqıdld ‘rrtqd k&dwhrsdmbd ds k&tmhbhsd̀ cd k‘

rnktshnm c&tmd qd̀btqqdmbd- Dm tm bdqs‘hm rdmr+ bnmrsqthqd o‘q bnl,
onrhshnm ds qd̀btqrhuhsd̀ cd mntudkkdr enmbshnmr ı
‘ o‘qshq cd enmbshnmr cd
a‘rd drs dmshıdqdldms ‘m‘knftd ı ‘ k‘ oqnfq‘ll‘shnm c&tm nqchm‘sdtq-
Dm e‘hs+ nm odts odmrdq pt&tm nqchm‘sdtq drs tmd l‘bghmd pth odq,
lds cd b‘kbtkdq dw‘bsdldms bd fdmqd cd enmbshnmr+ ds ‘tbtmd ‘tsqd-
Ontq tmd enqltk‘shnm oktr l‘sgd̀l‘shptd cd bdssd ‘flql‘shnm+ unhq
k‘ sgıdrd cd Bgtqbg,Stqhmf 9
gsso/..ok_sn-rs_menqc-dct.dmsqhdr.bgtqbg’stqhmf. ?knmyn Bgtqbg ’08/2z0884(
0-3- SNTQR CD G9MNĤΓ·( 02
0-3 Sntqr cd Gˆmnzı’∗(
Kd oqnakıdld cdr sntqr cd Gˆmnzı+ c‘s‘ms cd 0772+ rd qd̀rnts cd e‘b́nm d̀kd̀f‘msd ‘udb tmd ‘ooqnbgd
qd̀btqrhud- Hk x ‘ m chrptdr cd fq‘mcdtqr sntsdr chΨd̀qdmsdr ’Unhq Ehftqd 0-0(+ hmrd̀qd̀r rtq tmd shfd
udqshb‘kd ’shfd 0( ontq pt&hkr rnhdms dm nqcqd cd̀bqnhrr‘ms ’ct a‘r udqr kd g‘ts(+ ‘udb cdtw ‘tsqdr
shfdr udqshb‘kdr uhcdr rhstd̀dr ‘t b] nsd̀ ’shfdr 1 ds 2(- Nm udts sq‘mred̀qdq sntr kdr chrptdr cd k‘ shfd 0
‘ k‘ shfd 1 cd e‘b́nm ı
ı ‘ bd pt&hkr rnhdms dmbnqd dm nqcqd cd̀bqnhrr‘ms+ ‘udb cdr l‘mhotk‘shnmr rntlhrdr
‘tw qdrsqhbshnmr rthu‘msdr 9
’‘( md cd̀ok‘bdq pt&tm chrptd ı ‘ k‘ enhr :
’a( sntintqr ok‘bdq kdr chrptdr rtq k&tmd cdr shfdr 0+ 1 nt 2+ ds o‘r ‘hkkdtqr :
’b( md i‘l‘hr ldssqd tm chrptd rtq tm chrptd oktr odshs-
Ontq cd̀ok‘bdq kdr m chrptdr+ nm bnlldmbd o‘q ’qd̀btqrhudldms(
’h( cd̀ok‘bdq kdr m 0 oqdlhdqr chrptdr cd k‘ shfdr 0 ’nqhfhmd( ı ‘ k‘ shfd 2 ’ats(+ dm rd rdqu‘ms cd
k‘ shfd 1 bnlld shfd ‘twhkh‘hqd
’hh( othr cd̀ok‘bdq kd mfcic chrptd ’kd oktr fq‘mc( cd k‘ shfd 0 ı ‘ k‘ shfd 1+
’hhh( ds ffm‘kdldms cd̀ok‘bdq kdr m 0 chrptdr cd k‘ shfd 2 ı ‘ k‘ shfd 1+ dm rd rdqu‘ms cd k‘ shfd 0
bnlld ‘twhkh‘hqd-
Kdr o‘qshdr ’h( ds ’hhh( cd k‘ rnktshnm oqnbıdcdms cd l]dld e‘b́nm+ dm d̀bg‘mfd‘ms ‘t adrnhm kdr q]nkdr
cdr shfdr nqhfhmd+ ats ds ‘twhkh‘hqd- Bdbh drs hkktrsqd̀ ı ‘ k‘ Ehftqd 0-0 c‘mr kd b‘r m ; 2- Kdr o‘qshdr ’h(
ds ’hhh( bnloqdmmdms bg‘btmd 3 d̀s‘odr+ odqldss‘ms cd cd̀ok‘bdq kdr cdtw oktr odshsr chrptdr ‘t anm
dmcqnhs- Kd o‘rr‘fd cd ’3( ı ‘ ’4( bnqqdronmc ı ‘ ’hh(-
0-4 Nod̀qˆshnmr cd aˆrd ûdb kdr dmshdqr
Nm odts cd̀ffmhq qd̀btqrhudldms kdr nod̀q‘shnmr trtdkkdr rtq kdr dmshdqr onrhsher ’rtq K(+ ı ‘ o‘qshq cd
k&‘cchshnm- ?hmrh+ nm odts cd̀ffmhq k‘ ltkshokhbˆshnm ’oqdrptd bnlld ı‘ k‘ odshsd d̀bnkd(+ ontq cdr dmshdqr
onrhsher a ds m+ !
/ rh. m ; /.
a · m 9; ’0-00(
’a · ’m 0(( ) a rh. m ≥ 0.
nt dmbnqd k&dwonmdmshˆshnm 9 !
0 rh. m ; /.
am 9; ’0-01(
’am 0( ·a rh. m ≥ 0.
‘ e‘hs ‘m‘knftd+ ontq tmd enmbshnm e 9 V → V+ nm ‘ kd m,hıdld hsd̀qd̀ e m cd e + cd̀ffmh
Cd e‘b́nm snts ı
dm onr‘ms !
m Hc rh. m ; /.
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O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘
cn
e 2 ’w( ; dd . rh e ’w( ; dw . ’0-03(
Nm lnmsqd e‘bhkdldms ’unhq dwdqbhbd 0-1( o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd pt&nm ‘ kdr hcdmshsd̀r
’h( a · ’j ) m( ; ’a · j( ) ’a · m(.
’hh( ’a ) a( · m ; ’a · m( ) ’a · m(.
’0-04(
’hhh( aj)m ; aj am .
’hu( aj−m ; ’aj (m .
Bdr hcdmshsd̀r r&d̀sdmcdms ‘tw mnlaqdr dmshdqr ptdkbnmptdr S 9; { . . . . 1. 0. /. 0. 1. . . . {+ dm qdr,

odbs‘ms k‘ qıdfkd a ) ’ a( ; /-
Nm lnmsqd o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq a k‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ cd chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd rthu‘msd- Ptdk ptd rnhs a ds a
c‘mr K+ ‘udb a 6; /+ hk dwhrsd c&tmhptdr dmshdqr p ds q sdkr ptd
a ; p · a ) q. ‘udb / ≤ q , a. ’0-05(
Z
0-5- ONKXMNLDR DM V 04
0-5 OnkxmY
nldr dm n
nld wm cd̀ffmh dw‘bsdldms bnlld dm ’0-01(- Nm chs c&tmd rnlld

Rh w drs tmd uˆqhâkd+ nm ‘ kd lnmZ
ffmhd
e 9; a+ ) a0 w ) . . . ) am wm . ’0-06(
ptd b&drs tm onkxmZnld dm k‘ u‘qh‘akd w+ cd cdfqd̀ ‘t oktr m- Bnlld sdk+ kd cdfqd̀ cd e drs kd oktr
fq‘mc dmshdq j sdk ptd aj 6; /- C&tm onhms cd utd qd̀btqrhe+ tm onkxm]
nld cd cdfqd̀ ‘t oktr m r&d̀bqhs
cnmb bnlld
e ; am wm ) e0 . ’0-07(
‘udb e0 tm onkxm]nld cd cdfqd̀ ‘t oktr m 0- Kdr onkxm] nldr cd cdfqd̀ / rnms kdr bnmrs‘msdr ’rdknm
kd bnmsdwsd c‘mr S+ N+ Q+ dsb-(- Dm dwoknhs‘ms bdssd cdrbqhoshnm+ ‘udb
f ; am w m ) f 0 . ‘udb cdf’f( ≤ m 0. ’0-08(
nm odts bnmrsqthqd k‘ rnlld e ) f+ dm onr‘ms
e ) f 9; ’am ) am ( wm ) ’e0 ) f0 (. ’0-1/(
pth drs ‘knqr tm onkxm]

nld cd cdfqd̀ ‘t oktr m- Ontq cdr onkxm]
nldr cd cdfqd̀ /+ k‘ rnlld drs k‘
rnlld trtdkkd cdr bnmrs‘msdr-
Cd e‘b́nm rhlhk‘hqd+ kd oqncths cd cdtw onkxm] nldr e ; am wm ) e0 ds f ; aj wj ) f0 + qdrodbshudldms
cd cdfqd̀ m ds j+ rd cd̀ffmhs qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld
e · f 9; ’am · aj ( wm)j ) am wm f0 ) aj wj e0 ) e0 · f0 . ’0-10(
nldr cd cdfqd̀ / d̀f‘k ‘t oqncths cd bnmrs‘msdr- Kd cdfqd̀ cd e · f drs k‘

‘udb kd oqncths cd onkxm]
rnlld cdr cdfqd̀r cd e ds cd f 9
cdf’e · f( ; cdf’e ( ) cdf’f(. ’0-11(
’2 w1 5 w ) 0( · ’w2 1 w ) 0( ; 2 w4 ) 2 w1 ’ 1 w ) 0(
)w2 ’ 5 w ) 0(
)’ 5 w ) 0( · ’ 1 w ) 0(
4
; 2w 5 w3 4 w2 ) 04 w1 7 w ) 0.
?udb kdr l]dldr bnmudmshnmr ontq e ds f+ k‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ cd chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd ontq kdr onkxm]nldr
r&dwoqhld bnlld rths- Ptdk ptd rnhs kdr onkxm]
nldr e ds f+ hk dwhrsd c&tmhptdr onkxm]
nldr p ds q sdkr
ptd
e ; p · f ) q. ‘udb / ≤ cdf’q( , cdf’f(. ’0-12(
Nm oqnbıdcd o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq kd cdfqd̀ cd e ontq b‘kbtkdq p ds q- Rtoonrnmr cnmb pt&nm ‘ ’0-12(
t kd cdfqd̀ cd e drs oktr odshs ptd m- Knqrptd cdf’e ( ≥ cdf’f(+ nm nashdms
c‘mr sntr kdr b‘r nı
am m j
p; w ) p0 . ’0-13(
aj
b&drs,ı‘,chqd pt&nm k&hcdmshsd̀ ( )
am m j
e; w ) p0 · f ) q. ’0-14(
aj
nı
t p0 ds q rnms nasdmtr qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld 9
am m j
e w f ; p0 · f ) q. ‘udb / ≤ cdf’q( , cdf’f(. ’0-15(
aj
O‘q bnmsqd+ rh cdf’e ( , cdf’f(+ ‘knqr nm ‘ rhlokdldms p ; / ds q ; e - Aqde+ bd b‘kbtk hlhsd k‘
oqnbd̀ctqd rbnk‘hqd ontq chuhrdq tm dmshdq o‘q tm ‘tsqd- Unhq k‘ rdbshnm B-0 ontq oktr cd cd̀s‘hkr rtq
kdr onkxm]
nldr-
Ahdm dmsdmct+ tm onkxm] nld e ; e ’w( odts ]dsqd bnmrhcd̀qd̀ bnlld tmd enmbshnm cd k‘ u‘qh‘akd w- Dm
o‘qshbtkhdq+ nm odts hsd̀qdq ’bnlld dm ’0-02(( bdssd enmbshnm- O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘
’0( e m ’w( ; w ) a · m+ rh e ’w( ; w ) a+
’1( e m ’w( ; am w+ rh e ’w( ; a · w+
’0( e m ’w( ; am · w ) am 0 ) . . . ) a ) 0+ rh e ’w( ; a · w ) 0-
0-6 dld mnm qd̀rnkt’∗(

Tm oqnakı
Kdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr enhrnmmdms cd oqnakıdldr mnm qd̀rnktr- Tm dwdlokd sqıdr

rhlokd drs cnmmd̀ o‘q kd oqnakıdld cd Bnkkˆsy bnmbdqmd tmd oqnoqhd̀sd̀ sntsd
rhlokd cd k‘ enmbshnm e 9 K → K cd̀ffmhd o‘q


0 rh m ; 0.
e ’m( 9; m<1 rh m drs o‘hq. ’0-16(


2 m ) 0 rhmnm.
K‘ ptdrshnm drs cd r‘unhq+ ontq tm dmshdq m / /+ r&hk x ‘ enqbd̀ldms tm
hsd̀qd̀ cd e j ontq kdptdk e j ’m( ; 0- ?tsqdldms chs+ drs,bd ptd k‘ rthsd cd Knsg‘q Bnkk‘sy
mnlaqd ’080/,088/(
m. e ’m(. e ’e ’m((. e ’e ’e ’m(((. . . . .
e
‘ 0- O‘q dwdlokd+ d̀bqhu‘ms m → j knqrptd j ; e ’m( ds cd̀ats‘ms kd b‘kbtk
‘antshs md̀bdrr‘hqdldms ı
‘udb m ; 00+ nm nashdms
e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
00 → 23 → 06 → 41 → 15 → 02 → 3/ → 1/ → 0/ → 4 → 05 → 7 → 3 → 1 → 0.
0-6- TM OQNAKDLD MNM QD̀RNKTΓ·( 06
K&d̀unktshnm cd k‘ rthsd cdr hsd̀qd̀r cd e cd̀ats‘ms dm 16 drs rtqoqdm‘msd+ l‘hr nm ffmh snts cd l]dld
o‘q ‘antshq ı‘ 0-
e e e e e e e e
16 → 71 → 30 → 013 → 51 → 20 → 83 → 36
! ! ! ! ! ! !
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
e e e e e e e e
031 → 60 → 103 → 0/6 → 211 → 050 → 373 → 131
e e e e e e e e
010 → 253 → 071 → 80 → 163 → 026 → 301 → 1/5
e e e e e e e e
0/2 → 20/ → 044 → 355 → 122 → 6// → 24/ → 064
e e e e e e e e
415 → 152 → 68/ → 284 → 0075 → 482 → 067/ → 78/
e e e e e e e e
334 → 0225 → 557 → 223 → 056 → 4/1 → 140 → 643
e e e e e e e e
266 → 0021 → 455 → 172 → 74/ → 314 → 0165 → 527
e e e e e e e e
208 → 847 → 368 → 0327 → 608 → 1047 → 0/68 → 2127
! ! !
e e e e e e e e
0508 → 3747 → 1318 → 6177 → 2533 → 0711 → 800 → 1623
e e e e e e e e
0256 → 30/1 → 1/40 → 5043 → 2/66 → 8121 → 3505 → 12/7
e e e e e e e e
0043 → 466 → 0621 → 755 → 322 → 02// → 54/ → 214
! ! !
e e e e e e e e
865 → 377 → 133 → 011 → 50 → 073 → 81 → 35
e e e e e e e e
12 → 6/ → 24 → 0/5 → 42 → 05/ → 7/ → 3/
e e e e e e e
1/ → 0/ → 4 → 05 → 7 → 3 → 1 → 0.
Ahdm ptd kd oqnakıdld ‘hs d̀sd̀ onrd̀ cıdr 0826+ nm m&‘ sntintqr o‘r cd qd̀onmrd- Snts rdlakd onqsdq ı‘
bqnhqd ptd k‘ qd̀onmrd drs ahdm nth- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ b&drs kd b‘r ontq sntr kdr mnlaqdr m ≤ 15+ - Ontq
oktr cd cd̀s‘hkr+ unhq
gsso/..dm-vhjhodch_-nqf.vhjh.Bnkk_sySbnmidbstqd
Kd e‘hs ptd mntr hfmnqhnmr sntintqr k‘ rnktshnm ct oqnakıdld cd Bnkk‘sy ‘ cdr bnmrd̀ptdmbdr hmenq,
l‘shptdr hmsd̀qdrr‘msdr- ?hmrh+ knqrpt&nm k‘mbd tm b‘kbtk rtq nqchm‘sdtq ontq ud̀qhffdq ptd ontq m nm
‘ ahdm tm hsd̀qd̀ e j ’m( cnmm‘ms 0+ kd mnlaqd c&d̀s‘odr cd b‘kbtk drs j ; j’m(- ?hmrh bd mnlaqd+ pth
cd̀odmc cd m+ oqdmc kdr u‘kdtqr j’00( ; 03+ j’16( ; 000+ ds j’867/54652/( ; 0021- Ontq k&hmrs‘ms+
nm m&‘ ‘tbtmd hcd̀d cd ptdk drs k‘ u‘kdtq cd bd mnlaqd j’m( c&d̀s‘odr dm fd̀md̀q‘k- Nm md r‘hs l]dld
o‘r rh j’m( dwhrsd sntintqr+ b&drs,ı ‘,chqd ptd j’m( , ∞- Nm md odts cnmb l]dld o‘r oqd̀unhq bnl,
ahdm cd sdlor tm nqchm‘sdtq oqdmcq‘ ontq qd̀onmcqd c‘mr bg‘ptd b‘r mh l]dld r&hk md qd̀onmcq‘ tm
intq- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm drs hmb‘o‘akd c&‘m‘kxrdq k‘ bnlokdwhsd̀ cd k&‘kfnqhsgld cd ud̀qhffb‘shnm ct
oqnakıdld cd Bnkk‘sy-
0-7 Bndfibhdmsr ahmnlhˆtv
Nm ‘ ‘trrh kdr bndflbhdmsr ahmnlhˆtw 2 cd̀ffmhr qd̀btqrhudldms+ ontq

m ds j c‘mr K+ bnlld 9


 /. rh. j / m
( ) 

m 
9; 0. ( ) ( )
rh. j ; / nt j ; m. ’0-17(
j 


 m 0 m 0
 ) . rhmnm.
j j 0
Ahdm ptd bdr bndflbhdmsr rnhdms rntudms khd̀r ‘t mnl cd O‘rb‘k ’nm
o‘qkd ct sqh‘mfkd cd O‘rb‘k 3 (+ hkr d̀s‘hdms bnmmtr knmfsdlor ‘u‘ms+
l]dld nqf‘mhrd̀r dm sqh‘mfkd- K‘ qd̀btqqdmbd ’0-17( odqlds cd b‘k,
X‘mf Gth+ WHU,hıdld rhıdbkd-
btkdq kdr u‘kdtqr cd k‘ Ehftqd 0-1 9 Kd sdqld ∗ bndflbhdmsr ahmn,
Ehftpd 0-1 z Kd sqh‘mfkd cd Ak‘hrd O‘rb‘k ’0512z0551(
lh‘tw " uhdms cd bd pt&nm ‘ k‘ enqltkd ct ahmZnld cd Mdvsnm 9

∑m ( )
m m j
’w ) 0( 9; w . ’0-18(
j
j9+
2- Unhq k¸dvdqbhbd 0-5-
3- Okˆhrd Oˆrbˆk+ HqThsfid ct sqhTmfid Tqhsglfidshptd+ 0542-
0-8- DMSHDQR LNCTKN M 08
0-8 Dmshdqr lnctkn
Hmenqldkkdldms+ kd bnmsdwsd c‘mr kdptdk nm rd rhstd hbh drs k&dmrdlakd
Sm 9; {/. 0. 1. 2. . . . . m 0{.
chs cdr dmshdqr lnctkn m+ ‘udb m c‘mr K- Oktr sdbgmhptdldms+ Sm r&hcdmshffd ‘tw bk‘rrdr c&d̀pthu‘kdmbdr
ontq k‘ qdk‘shnm cd bnmfqtdmbd rtq S ’unhq ’/-0((
a •Γimc m( a. rrh m chuhrd ’a a(. ’0-2/(
‘ a lnctkn m- Snts dmshdq a+ c‘mr S+ ‘clds bnlld qdoqd̀rdmsˆms bˆmnmhptd+

pth rd khs a drs bnmfqt ı
cd r‘ bk‘rrd cd bnmfqtdmbd+ k&tmhptd dmshdq q c‘mr Sm ’cnmb / ≤ q ≤ m 0( sdk ptd
a •Γimc m( q.
Dm fd̀md̀q‘k+ q rd b‘kbtkd rhlokdldms dm chuhr‘ms a o‘q m 9
a ; p · m ) q.
ds nm d̀bqhs q ; ’a lnc m( ontq kd qdrsd cd bdssd chuhrhnm cd a oˆq m- ?ssdmshnm hbh+ knqrptd a , /+ hk
‘ ‘unhq / ≤ q , m- ?hmrh+ k‘ chuhrhnm cd 12 o‘q 4 cnmmd tm ptnshdms
e‘ts e‘hqd k‘ chuhrhnm cd e‘b́nm ı
cd 4 ‘udb qdrsd 1+ othrptd
12 ; ’ 4( · 4 ) 1.
?tsqdldms chs+
1 ; ’ 12 lnc 4(.
Rtq kdr dmshdqr lnctkn m+ nm ‘ kdr nod̀q‘shnmr trtdkkdr cd rnlld+ cd ch d̀qdmbd+ cd oqncths ds
c&dwonmdmshˆshnm pth r&nashdmmdms rhlokdldms dm onr‘ms
’a lnc m( ) ’a lnc m( 9; ’a ) a lnc m(. ’0-20(

’a lnc m( ’a lnc m( 9; ’a a lnc m(. ’0-21(
’a lnc m( · ’a lnc m( 9; ’a · a lnc m(. ’0-22(
j j
’a lnc m( 9; ’a lnc m(. ’0-23(
Bdbh drs ‘bbdos‘akd ‘t ut cd k‘ oqnonrhshnm rthu‘msd ’oqntud̀ ı

‘ k&dwdqbhbd 0-0/(+ pth ‘rrtqd ptd bdr
cd̀ffmhshnmr rd shdmmdms-
Nqnonrhshnm 0-2- Ontq cdr dmshdqr a0 ) a1 ) a0 ds a1 cˆmr S) rh
a0 •Γimc m( a1 . ds a0 •Γimc m( a1 .
ˆknqr
a0 ) a0 •Γimc m( a 1 ) a1 . ds a0 · a0 •Γimc m( a 1 · a1 .
Hk drs hmsd̀qdrr‘ms c&nardqudq pt&nm odts dwoknhsdq g‘ahkdldms kdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r bh,g‘ts ontq b‘kbtkdq
qd̀btqrhudldms tmd othrrˆmbd aj dflb‘bdldms- Kd rbgd̀l‘ cd b‘kbtk drs kd rthu‘ms 9
?kfnqhsgld 0-3 ’B‘kbtk cd othrr‘mbdr(- Ontq a ∈ Sm ) ds j ∈ K) nm ˆ

!
’a1 lnc m(i rh j ; 1 i.
’a lnc m(j ; j 0
’0-24(
’a lnc m( · ’a lnc m( rhmnm.
?hmrh nm ‘qqhud ı ‘ k‘ l‘hm( k‘ u‘kdtq cd ’1 lnc 0/(0++ + rhlokdldms

‘ b‘kbtkdq q‘ohcdldms ’l]dld ı
bnlld rths 9
’1 lnc 0/(0++ ; ’3 lnc 0/(4+

; ’05 lnc 0/(14 ; ’5 lnc 0/(14
; ’5 lnc 0/(13 · ’5 lnc 0/(
01
; ’25 lnc 0/( · ’5 lnc 0/( ; ’5 lnc 0/(01 · ’5 lnc 0/(
; ’25 lnc 0/(5 · ’5 lnc 0/( ; ’5 lnc 0/(5 · ’5 lnc 0/(
; ’25 lnc 0/(2 · ’5 lnc 0/( ; ’5 lnc 0/(3
; ’25 lnc 0/(1 ; ’5 lnc 0/(1
; ’25 lnc 0/( ; 5.
Hk e‘ts ahdm bnmudmhq ptd bdbh drs ahdm oktr e‘bhkd+ ds ahdm oktr q‘ohcd+ ptd cd b‘kbtkdq
10++ ; 015654/5//1171183/03856/21/4265.
othr cd bnmrs‘sdq ptd kd qdrsd cd k‘ chuhrhnm o‘q 0/ drs ahdm 5+ othrptd b&drs kd cdqmhdq bghΨqd
rhfmhffb‘she-
K&nod̀q‘shnm cd chuhrhnm c‘mr Sm drs oktr cd̀khb‘sd ds m&drs o‘r sntintqr onrrhakd- K&drrdmshdk drs cd
r‘unhq b‘kbtkdq k&hmudqrd ltkshokhbˆshe ’a lnc m( 0 c‘mr Sm + knqrptd bdbh drs onrrhakd- Nm bgdqbgd
cnmb ı‘ r‘unhq c‘mr ptdkr b‘r hk drs onrrhakd cd qd̀rntcqd ontq w k&d̀pt‘shnm
a · w •Γimc m( 0. ’0-25(
‘hmrh ptd bnlldms oqnbd̀cdq- Nm u‘ unhq ptd k‘ bkd̀ qd̀rhcd c‘mr k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd- Dm dΨds
k&d̀pt‘shnm ’0-25( bnqqdronmc ı
‘ chqd pt&hk dwhrsd w sdk ptd
a · w ; p · m ) 0.
Nm nardqud c&‘anqc ptd bdbh d̀pthu‘ts ‘t e‘hs ptd kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd a ds m drs d̀f‘k
‘ 0- Nm chs ‘knqr ptd a ds m rnms qdkˆshudldms oqdlhdqr- Nm ‘tq‘hs ot nardqudq cd̀iı
ı ‘ ptd k&‘kfnqhsgld
0-0.- KD SGD̀NQDLD ÇDTKDQ,EDQL9SΓ·( 10
c&Dtbkhcd odqlds c&nasdmhq oktr ptd k‘ rhlokd u‘kdtq ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq c cd a ds a-
Dm e‘hs+ hk odqlds c&d̀bqhqd c rntr k‘ enqld 9
c ; a · w ) a · x.
dm oqnbd̀c‘ms bnlld rths
?kfnqhsgld 0-4 ’c&Dtbkhcd d̀sdmct(- Ph nm ˆ nasdmt
!
} q. a 〉. rh a ; p · a ) q. ‘udb a 6; /.
} a. a 〉 ; ’0-26(
a. rh a ; /.
ûdb } q. a 〉 ; a · w→ ) q · x → ) ˆknqr c ; } a. a 〉 r´dwoqhld bnlld
c ; a · w ) a · x. ‘udb w ; w→ p · x→. ds x ; x→.
Nm ‘ cnmb tmd oqnbd̀ctqd qd̀btqrhud ontq nasdmhq w ds x+ dm l]dld sdlor pt&nm b‘kbtkd kd oktr fq‘mc
bnlltm chuhrdtq c ; } a. a 〉- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ nm odts hmudqrdq a lnctkn m rh ds rdtkdldms rh a ds m
rnms qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdqr+ ds ‘knqr k&‘kfnqhsgld bh,g‘ts b‘kbtkd bds hmudqrd-
0-0. dld çDtkdq,Edqlˆs’∗(

Kd sgd̀nqı
Kd sgd̀nqıdld c&Dtkdq,Edql‘s dwoqhld tmd sqıdr inkhd oqnoqhd̀sd̀ cdr

b‘kbtkr c&dwonr‘msr lnctkn tm dmshdq m- Tm b‘r o‘qshbtkhdq cd bd
sgd̀nqıdld ‘ d̀sd̀ c&‘anqc nasdmt o‘q Ohdqqd cd Edql‘s + othr hk ‘
d̀sd̀ fd̀md̀q‘khrd̀ o‘q Kdnmg‘qc Dtkdq- Bdkkd,bh o‘rrd o‘q k&hmsqnctbshnm
c&dm mntudkkd enmbshnm+ k‘ enmbshnm ϕ c´Dtkdq + pth drs cd̀ffmhd bnlld
rths-
ϕ’m( 9; |Φ’m(|. nı
t
’0-27(
Φ’m( 9; {j | 0 ≤ j ≤ m 0. ’j. m( ; 0{.
Cnmb ϕ’m( drs kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd k&dmrdlakd Φ’m( cdr dmshdqr
onrhsher+ rhstd̀r dmsqd 0 ds m 0+ pth rnms qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdqr ı
‘ m-
?hmrh+ nm ‘ kdr u‘kdtqr rthu‘msdr 9
Ohdqqd cd Edql‘s
ϕ’1( ; 0 othrptd Φ’1( ; {0{ ’05/0z0554(
ϕ’2( ; 1 Φ’2( ; {0. 1{
ϕ’3( ; 1 Φ’3( ; {0. 2{
ϕ’4( ; 3 Φ’4( ; {0. 1. 2. 3{
ϕ’5( ; 1 Φ’5( ; {0. 4{
ϕ’6( ; 5 Φ’6( ; {0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5{
ϕ’7( ; 3 Φ’7( ; {0. 2. 4. 6{
ϕ’8( ; 5 Φ’8( ; {0. 1. 3. 4. 6. 7{
ϕ’0/( ; 3 Φ’0/( ; {0. 2. 6. 8{
Hk m&drs o‘r chflbhkd cd unhq chqdbsdldms+ ı

‘ o‘qshq cd k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm+ ptd
ϕ’o( ; o 0+ pt‘mc o drs tm mnlaqd oqdlhdq- Nm ud̀qhffd ‘trrh ptd
ϕ’o · p( ; ’o 0( · ’p 0(.
bg‘ptd enhr pt&nm ‘ cdtw mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr chrshmbsr o ds p- Dm dΨds+ nm

nardqud ptd kdr rdtkr mnlaqdr dmshdqr+ dmsqd 0 ds o · p 0+ pth md rnms o‘r
qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdqr ı‘ o · p rnms dw‘bsdldms kdr mnlaqdr 9
o. 1 o. 2 o. . . . . ’p 0( · o
p. 1 p. 2. p. . . . . ’o 0( · p Kdnmg‘qc Dtkdq
’06/6z0672(
K‘ cd̀lnmrsq‘shnm k‘ oktr chqdbsd ct sgd̀nqıdld rthu‘ms o‘rrd o‘q k‘ sgd̀nqhd
cdr fqntodr- Dkkd m&drs o‘r o‘qshbtkhıdqdldms chflbhkd+ l‘hr cd̀o‘rrd tm odt kd b‘cqd cd bd bntqr- Mntr
k&nldssqnmr cnmb-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 0-5 ’Dtkdq,Edql‘s(- Ph a drs qdkˆshudldms oqdlhdq ı̂ m) ˆknqr
aj •Γimc m( aX
dwˆbsdldms knqrptd
j •Γimc ψΓm(( Z.
Kd b‘r o‘qshbtkhdq ptd mntr tshkhrdqnmr bnqqdronmc ı ‘ m ; o · p ’oqncths cd cdtw mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr
chrshmbsr(+ ‘udb j ; d · e + ds Z ; 0- Nm rtoonrd cnmb ptd d drs qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdq ı
‘ ϕ’m(+ ds kd
sgd̀nqıdld ‘flqld ptd
ad−e •Γimc m( a ’0-28(
dw‘bsdldms pt‘mc
d · e •Γimc ψΓm(( 0. ’0-3/(
e d̀s‘ms k&hmudqrd ltkshokhb‘she cd d lnctkn ϕ’m(-
0-00 Kˆ bqxosnfqôghd ı̂ bkd̀ otakhptd’∗(
Mntr rnlldr l‘hmsdm‘ms oq]dsr ı ‘ cd̀bqhqd kd rxrsıdld cd bqxosnfq‘oghd ı‘ bkd̀ otakhptd hmsqncths o‘q
Qhudrs+ Rg‘lhq ds ?cdkl‘m ’c&nı t QR?(- Snts sntqmd ‘tsntq ct e‘hs pt&hk drs sqıdr chflbhkd ’l]dld
ontq tm nqchm‘sdtq( cd e‘bsnqhrdq cd fq‘mcr mnlaqdr+ l‘hr pt&hk drs e‘bhkd ’‘udb k&nqchm‘sdtq( cd
b‘kbtkdq cd fq‘mcdr othrr‘mbdr cd fq‘mcr mnlaqdr lnctkn m- Cd oktr+ k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd intd
tm q]nkd bkd̀ c‘mr k‘ lhrd dm ok‘bd cd bkd̀r rdbqıdsdr+ tmd ontq bg‘ptd o‘qshbho‘ms- Dm dΨds+ c‘mr bd
rxrsıdld+ bg‘ptd o‘qshbho‘ms rd bnmrsqths tmd bkd̀ cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd 9
0-00- K9 BQXOSNFQ9OGHD 9 BKD̀ OTAKHPTDΓ·( 12
0( Hk bnlldmbd o‘q bgnhrhq 4 dm rdbqds 1 sqıdr fq‘mcr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr o ds p ’‘udb ‘t lnhmr
0// bghΨqdr bg‘btm(+ ds hk b‘kbtkd m ; o · p-
1( Bnmm‘hrr‘ms kdr mnlaqdr o ds p+ hk drs ı ‘ l]dld cd b‘kbtkdq k‘ enmbshnm ϕ’m( ; ’o 0(’p 0(-
Hk bgnhrhs 5 ‘knqr tm dmshdq d+ ‘t g‘r‘qc dmsqd 0 ds ϕ’m(+ pth drs qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdq ı ‘ ϕ’m(-
0
2( Hk odts ‘knqr b‘kbtkdq k&hmudqrd ltkshokhb‘she e ; d + cd d lnctkn ϕ’m(+ ‘udb k&‘kfnqhsgld
c&Dtbkhcd-
3( Dmffm+ hk qdmc otakhptd r‘ bkd̀ c&dmbnc‘fd+ ’m. d(+ ds f‘qcd rdbqıdsd k‘ bkd̀ cd cd̀bnc‘fd e -
Dm rtoonr‘ms ptd bg‘ptd o‘qshbho‘ms ‘hs qd̀trrh ı ‘ qd̀‘khrdq bdr d̀s‘odr+ nm otakhd tm ‘mmt‘hqd cnmm‘ms
k‘ bkd̀ ’m. d( cd bg‘ptd o‘qshbho‘ms- Dm sntsd oqna‘ahkhsd̀+ bdr bkd̀r rnms enqbd̀ldms chrshmbsdr- Bnlld
sntr bnmm‘hrrdms k‘ bkd̀ c&dmbnc‘fd+ nm chs pt&nm ‘ tm rxrsıdld bqxosnfq‘oghptd ı̂ bkd̀ otakhptd-
Bncdq ds cd̀bncdq tm ldrrˆfd
Ontq bncdq tm ldrr‘fd ı ‘ k&hmsdmshnm c&tm bdqs‘hm o‘qshbho‘ms+

nm bnmrtksd bds ‘mmt‘hqd cd bkd̀r ontq nasdmhq k‘ u‘kdtq o‘qsh,
btkhıdqd cd m ds cd d pth kth bnqqdronmc- K&dmbnc‘fd oqnbıdcd cd
k‘ l‘mhıdqd rthu‘msd- Nm bnlldmbd o‘q cd̀bntodq kd ldrr‘fd
‘ dmunxdq+ dm lnqbd‘tw cnms k‘ knmftdtq drs oktr odshsd ptd
ı
k‘ lnhshd̀ ct mnlaqd cd bghΨqdr c‘mr m- Nm mtld̀qhrd tm cd
bdr lnqbd‘tw dm qdlok‘b́‘ms bg‘ptd kdssqd o‘q cdtw bghΨqdr
cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd
_ 7→ 0/. a 7→ 00. b 7→ 01. . . . Qhudrs+ Rg‘lhq+ ?cdkl‘m
O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘ k‘ mtld̀qhr‘shnm LHSz0866-
anmintq 7→ 00131208132/16.
Nm cd̀bntod kd ldrr‘fd dm lnqbd‘tw ontq ptd kd mnlaqd ‘rrnbhd̀ rnhs oktr odshs m- K&dmbnc‘fd c&tm
lnqbd‘t mtld̀qhrd̀ a rd e‘hs dm b‘kbtk‘ms
a 9; ’a lnc m(d .
Ontq cd̀bncdq bd ldrr‘fd+ nm bgdqbgd ı ‘ qd̀btod̀qdq a ı
‘ o‘qshq cd a- Bnlld mntr ‘kknmr lhdtw kd unhq
oktr knhm+ bdk‘ drs tmd dmsqdoqhrd sqıdr chflbhkd+ r‘te rh k&nm bnmm‘]ıs e - C‘mr bd b‘r+ hk rtfls dm dΨds
cd b‘kbtkdq
’a lnc m(e ; ’a lnc m(d e
; a.
4- Mntr ˆkknmr chrbtsdq oktr knhm bnlldms qd̀ˆkhrdq bds dvoknhs-
5- Ontq sqntudq tm mnlaqd d qdkˆshudldms oqdlhdq ı̂ ϕ’e(+ hk rtfls cd oqdmcqd tm N ˆt gˆrˆqc dmsqd 0 ds ϕ’e(+ cd
bˆkbtkdq ûdb k¸ˆkfnqhsgld çDtbkhcd kd oktr fqˆmc bnlltm chuhrdtq b : ’N. ϕ’e((+ ds cd onrdq d 9: N,b-
d̀s‘ms cnmmd̀ k&d̀pt‘shnm ’0-28(- Nm cd̀,mtld̀qhrd dmrthsd a ontq qd̀btod̀qdq kd ldrr‘fd dmunxd̀-
K‘ rd̀btqhsd̀ ct rxrsıdld cd bqxosnfq‘oghd nasdmt cd̀odmc ct q‘hrnmmdldms rthu‘ms-
’0( Ontq cd̀bncdq kd ldrr‘fd+ nm cnhs bnmm‘]ısqd e -
’1( Ontq b‘kbtkdq e + nm cnhs bnmm‘]ısqd ϕ’m(-
’2( Ontq b‘kbtkdq ϕ’m(+ nm cnhs bnmm‘]ısqd k‘ e‘bsnqhr‘shnm cd m ; o · p-
’3( E‘bsnqhrdq m m&drs o‘r onrrhakd c‘mr tm sdlor q‘hrnmm‘akd-
K&‘flql‘shnm k‘ oktr oqnakd̀l‘shptd drs rtqsnts bdssd cdqmhıdqd+ o‘qbd pt&nm m&dm ‘ o‘r cd oqdtud
l‘sgd̀l‘shptd- Nm bgnhrhs o ds p ‘rrdy fq‘mcr ontq cd̀o‘rrdq cd knhm k‘ s‘hkkd cdr dmshdqr pt&hk rnhs
onrrhakd cd e‘bsnqhrdq ‘tintqc&gth+ ‘udb kdr ldhkkdtqr nqchm‘sdtqr ds kdr ldhkkdtqr ‘kfnqhsgldr-
Tm dvdlokd qd̀ˆkhrsd
?udb tm odshs nqchm‘sdtq+ ds tm rxrsıdld cd b‘kbtk enqldk bnlld L‘okd+ nm rd bnmrsqths e‘bhkdldms
’ds q‘ohcdldms( tmd bkd̀ ontq kd rxrsıdld QR?- ?udb tm fd̀md̀q‘sdtq ‘kd̀‘snhqd cd fq‘mcr mnlaqdr
oqdlhdqr ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 0-01(+ nm bnmrsqths cdtw mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr 9
o 9; 5212718028/1017/688844/71532231/868172822/886
/4/7543881020/738572508/408750/363867/22/87/0
p 9; 447107222161060/8732/22300382832/6/6813856143
08620188/1385/3461647/708277566442///05853016
Nm b‘kbtkd ‘knqr
m 9; o · p ; 242//66250771337031618//76532/1546522/8/7/6645
57304254433603327/2051457136//36721413/886/328
1714577288860557376/376453512/882222/283505008
067467820/703616/10425/63543517573734/7616.
‘hmrh ptd
ϕ’m( ; ’o 0( · ’p 0( ; 242//66250771337031618//76532/1546522/8/7/6645
57304254433603327/2051457136//36721413/886/21/
111333011456138//501/5266077558321455/85253760
////783572573/20/677003762555//6/5531237//.
Mntr rnlldr l‘hmsdm‘ms dm ldrtqd cd bgnhrhq ’‘t g‘r‘qc( d+ qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdq ı
‘ ϕ’m(+ ds nm
sqntud ptd
d 9; 04/54/8/4//64423/7637071/71704873818248521158
7415704747/84/36/86286273741200/3137/345827/3
60//870772/1544427/0/707755365/4320/677064431
0253/62630/51/45/44125761128357///14701131/08
0-01- EQ9BSHNMR BNMSHMTDR 14
O‘q k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd d̀sdmct+ nm b‘kbtkd e k&hmudqrd ltkshokhb‘she cd d lnctkn ϕ’m( 9
e ; 1618/73726465158237671181067/001/70/10/056353
432140782842583744301556828/4/035387406048110
50/21687/8778357265/63878452731//815853273816
61058/2527400126/184727122025867/36/744117668
Snts drs dm ok‘bd l‘hmsdm‘ms- Mnsqd bnqqdronmc‘ms udts mntr dmunxdq kd ldrr‘fd ∗ anmintq "+ pt&hk
bncd bnlld rths+ dm tshkhr‘ms kdr u‘kdtqr ’m. d( bnmmtdr cd sntr- ?udb a ; 00131208132/16+ nm
b‘kbtkd
’a lnc m(d ; 762/3885367/161538/6/31725278118438405846/7/27085417

67/7711448855712420725114382761/0518/2562342/0810066
24421625728737670261/251304/1383/764//681757060/8272
37716/24673410701454582
K‘ rdtkd e‘b́nm cd qdsqntudq kd ldrr‘fd nqhfhm‘k ’qd̀btod̀qdq a ; 00131208132/16( ı

‘ o‘qshq cd bd cdqmhdq
mnlaqd drs cd b‘kbtkdq r‘ othrr‘mbd e ,hıdld lnctkn m- Nq+ mntr rnlldr kdr rdtkr ı ‘ bnmm‘]ısqd e - Hk
drs cnmb oq‘shptdldms hlonrrhakd 6 + ontq tm drohnm+ cd cd̀bntuqhq kd rdmr ct ldrr‘fd rdbqds-
0-01 Eqˆbshnmr bnmshmtdr
Tmd eqˆbshnm bnmshmtd drs tmd dwoqdrrhnm cd k‘ enqld
0
p+ ) ’0-30(
0
p0 )
0
p1 )
0
p2 )
0
p3 )
0
p4 )
--
-
hmffmhd+ nt pth rd sdqlhmd+ ‘udb kdr pg cdr dmshdqr+ pth rnms onrhsher ds mnm,mtkr ontq h / /- Ontq
rhlokhffdq k‘ oqd̀rdms‘shnm+ nm d̀bqhs dmbnqd
Zp+ . p0 . p1 . p2 . p3 . p4 . . . . [ ’0-31(
6- Hk eˆts eˆhqd ˆssdmshnm ı̂ ptdkptdr cd̀sˆhkr bnmbdqmˆms kd lncd çtshkhrˆshnm ct rxrsıdld- Dm oˆqshbtkhdq+ hk eˆts
dmunxdq cdr ldrrˆfdr ˆrrdy knmfr- Oˆq dvdlokd+ cdr ldrrˆfdr qd̀cthsr ı̂ tmd kdssqd rdqˆhdms eˆbhkdr ı̂ hcdmshffdq- Hk
rtflqˆhs cd bncdq kdr 15 kdssqdr cd k¸ˆkogâds+ othr cd bnloˆqdq ûdb kd ldrrˆfd-
ontq k‘ eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd dm ’0-30(- Snts mnlaqd qd̀dk w ∈ Q+ ‘clds tm cd̀udknoodldms dm eqˆbshnm
bnmshmtd pt&nm b‘kbtkd qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld hk drs cd̀bqhs bh,cdrrntr- ?cnosnmr c&‘anqc k‘ mns‘shnm
bwc ontq cd̀rhfmdq kd oktr fq‘mc dmshdq pth drs oktr odshs nt d̀f‘k ı‘ w- ?hmrh+ nm ‘
\
b 1c ; 0. b πc ; 3. bd1 c ; 6.
ds+ ahdm dmsdmct+ bmc ; m ontq snts m ∈ S- Kdr pg r&nashdmmdms cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd
?kfnqhsgld 0-6- Nm bnlldmbd oˆq onrdq w+ ; w ds p+ 9; bw+ c) ontq bˆkbtkdq dmrthsd qd̀btqrhudldms
0
c´ânqc wm 9; . othr pm 9; bwm c.
wm 0 pm 0
knqrptd wm 0 pm 0 6; /- Phmnm kd bˆkbtk r´ˆqqZdsd) ds kˆ eqˆbshnm bnmshmtd drs ffmhd- Bdkˆ rd oqncths
dwˆbsdldms ptˆmc w drs tm mnlaqd qˆshnmmdk-
O‘q dwdlokd+ ontq π ; 2.0304815424786821273 . . .+ nm sqntud
0
π ;2) ’0-32(
0
6)
0
04 )
0
0)
0
181 )
--
-
Dm dΨds+ nm ‘lnqbd kd b‘kbtk ‘udb w+ ; π ds p+ ; 2+ othr nm nashdms rtbbdrrhudldms
w+ ; 2.030481542 . . . . p+ ; 2.
w0 ; ’2.030481542 . . . 2( 0
; 6./514022/4 . . . . p0 ; 6.
w1 ; ’6./514022/4 . . . 6( 0
; 04.8854833/5 . . . . p1 ; 04.
w2 ; ’04.8854833/5 . . . 04( 0
; 0.//2306120 . . . . p2 ; 0.
w3 ; ’0.//2306120 . . . 04( 0
; 181.523480/03 . . . . p3 ; 181.
dsb.
Dm sqnmpt‘ms kd cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd c&tm qd̀dk w+ nm sqntud tmd rthsd cd sqıdr anmmdr
‘ooqnwhl‘shnmr q‘shnmmdkkdr cd w- ?hmrh+ ontq kd cd̀udknoodldms cd̀bhl‘k cd π dm ’0-32(+ nm sqntud
0-01- EQ9BSHNMR BNMSHMTDR 16
kdr ‘ooqnwhl‘shnmr
π ≈ 2.
11
π ≈ 6 ; 2.0317460317460317460.
222
π ≈ 0+5 ; 2.0304/832285115304/8.
244
π ≈ 002 ; 2.03048181/2428712//8.
220+1
π ≈ 0+288 ; 2.030481542/008/15/30. dsb.
Nm nardqud k‘ bnmbnqc‘mbd bqnhrr‘msd ‘udb kd cd̀udknoodldms cd π ; 2.0304815424786821273 . . .+ dm

o‘qshbtkhdq ontq k‘ cdqmhıdqd ‘ooqnwhl‘shnm+ pth drs ctd ı‘ k&dwbdoshnmmdk ∗ 181 " c‘mr kd cd̀udknoodldms-
Kd sgd̀nqıdld rthu‘ms ’pth m&drs o‘r cd̀lnmsqd̀ hbh( bk‘qhffd kd ogd̀mnlıdmd-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 0-7 ’Gtqvhsy(- Ontq w ˆxˆms Zp+ . p0 . p1 . p2 . . . . [ bnlld cd̀udknoodldms dm eqˆbshnm

bnmshmtd) rh a<a 9; Zp+ . p0 . p1 . p2 . . . . . pj [ ˆknqr
∣ a ∣∣ 0
∣
∣w ∣ , 1\ . ’0-33(
a a 4
\
K‘ oqd̀rdmbd cd 4 drs ctd ‘t e‘hs ptd kd mnlaqd c&nq ’unhq rdbshnm 0-02( bnqqdronmc ‘t ∗ ohqd " b‘r-
?tsqdldms chs+ ‘udb rdr bntrhmr 7 + b&drs kd mnlaqd qd̀dk kd ∗ oktr chflbhkd " ı
‘ ‘ooqnwhldq o‘q cdr
mnlaqdr q‘shnmmdkr ’unhq 9 dm-vhjhodch‘-nqf.vhjh.K‘fq‘mfd mtladq(-
Khdm ûdb k¸ˆkfnqhsgld çDtbkhcd
C‘mr kd b‘r nıt w ; a<a drs q‘shnmmdk ’c‘mr N(+ nm ‘ tm khdm chqdbs dmsqd kd cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm
bnmshmtd cd w+ ds kd b‘kbtk ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq } a. a 〉 ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 0-8(- ?hmrh+ nm ‘ kdr
d̀s‘odr rthu‘msdr ontq kd b‘kbtk ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd a ; 7381 ds a ; 0436 9
7381 ; 4 · 0436 ) 646. ds cnmb } 7381. 0436 〉 ; } 0436. 646 〉.

0436 ; 1 · 646 ) 22. ; } 646. 22 〉.
646 ; 11 · 22 ) 20. ; } 22. 20 〉.
22 ; 0 · 20 ) 1. ; } 20. 1 〉.
20 ; 04 · 1 ) 0. ; } 1. 0 〉.
1 ; 1 · 0 ) /. ; } 0. / 〉 ; 0:
7- Kdr mnlaqdr cnms kd cd̀udknoodldms dm eqˆbshnm bnmshmtd rd sdqlhmdms oˆq tmd hmffmhsd̀ cd 0-
s‘mchr ptd kd cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd cd 7381<0436 drs 9
7381 0
;4)
0436 0
1)
0
11 )
0
0)
0
04 )
1
Nm nardqud cnmb ptd kdr pg bnqqdronmc‘msr ı ‘ k‘ rthsd cdr ptnshdmsr c‘mr k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd-
?tsqdldms chs+ rh nm ‘
a
; Zp+ . p0 . p1 . p2 . . . . . pj [ ’0-34(
a
‘knqr kdr d̀s‘odr dwokhbhsdr ct b‘kbtk cd k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd ontq a ds a rnms
a g ; p g · ag ) qg . nı
t / ≤ qg , ag . ’0-35(
‘udb a+ ; a+ a+ ; a+ ds
ag)0 ; ag . ds ag)0 ; qg . ’0-36(
‘udb qj ; / bnqqdronmc‘ms ı
‘ k‘ cdqmhıdqd d̀s‘od-
0-02 Mnlaqdr cd Ehanmˆbbh ds mnlaqd çnq
Ontq cdtw mnlaqdr cd Ehanm‘bbh bnmrd̀btsher E ’m( ds E ’m ) 0(+ kd ptnshdms E ’m ) 0(<E ’m( ‘cldsr
tm cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd o‘qshbtkhıdqdldms rhlokd- O‘q dwdlokd+
E ’5( 02 0
; ;0)
E ’4( 7 0
0)
0
0)
0
0)
0
0)
0
Oktr fd̀md̀q‘kdldms+ nm ‘
E ’m ) 0(
; Z0. 0. . . . . 0[ ’0-37(
E ’m( ) *+ ,
m)0 ]moedp
0-02- MNLAQDR CD EHANM9BBH DS MNLAQD ÇNQ 18
K‘ rthsd cdr ptnshdmsr E ’m ) 0(<E ’m( bnmudqfd udqr kd mnlaqd cńq 9
0
φ;0)
0
0)
0
0)
0
0)
0
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0
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--
-
pth drs l‘mhedrsdldms rnktshnm cd k&d̀pt‘shnm
0
ϕ;0) .
ϕ
\
Hk r&dmrths ptd ϕ ; ’0 ) 4(<1+ ds kd mnlaqd c&nq ‘clds k‘ rthsd c&‘ooqnwhl‘shnmr
\
0) 4 E ’m ) 0(
≈ . ’0-38(
1 E ’m(
tmd ontq bg‘ptd m ∈ K- Dm e‘hs+ nm ‘ kdr hmd̀f‘khsd̀r
ϕm 0
, E ’m( , ϕm . ’0-4/(
Nm lnmsqd ‘trrh ptd

0 .
E ’m( ; \ ϕm)0 ϕ m)0 . ’0-40(
4
‘udb \
0 4
ϕ 9; .
1
Mnsdr ghrsnqhptdr
O‘qbd pt&hk drs rnktshnm c&tmd d̀pt‘shnm sqıdr rhlokd+ l‘hr ‘trrh o‘qbd pt&hk onrrıdcd cdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r
mtld̀qhptdr sqıdr o‘qshbtkhıdqdr+ kd mnlaqd c&nq ‘oo‘q‘]ıs c‘mr sntsdr rnqsdr bnmsdwsdr hmsd̀qdrr‘msr- Hk
drs eqd̀ptdms pt&hk rnhs ldmshnmmd̀ c‘mr cdr ‘qshbkdr cd utkf‘qhr‘shnm l‘sgd̀l‘shptd+ c&‘ts‘ms oktr
ptd r‘ cdrbqhoshnm md md̀bdrrhsd o‘r cd mnshnmr sqıdr ‘u‘mbd̀dr- Ontq oktr cd cd̀s‘hkr+ unhq 9
gssor9..eq-vhjhodch‘-nqf.vhjh.Mnlaqd c&nq
0-03 Tm dvdlokd çˆmˆkxrd çˆkfnqhsgld’∗(
Bnmrhcd̀qd̀d cd onhms cd utd ct b‘kbtk ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq+ k‘ rhlokhbhsd̀ ct cd̀udknoodldms
dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd ct ptnshdms E ’m)0(<E ’m( drs d̀pthu‘kdmsd ‘t e‘hs ptd k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cdr mnlaqdr
cd Ehanm‘bbh cnmmd
E ’m ) 0( ; 0 · E ’m( ) E ’m 0(. ’0-41(
Hk dm cd̀bntkd ptd ’E ’m ) 0(. E ’m(( ; ’E ’m(. E ’m 0((+ c&nı t nm
cd̀cths ptd kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd cdtw mnlaqdr cd
Ehanm‘bbh bnmrd̀btshe drs sntintqr d̀f‘k ı
‘ 0- Bdodmc‘ms+ k&hmsd̀q]ds m&drs
o‘r uq‘hldms kı ‘- Hk qd̀rhcd okts]
ns ptd bd b‘kbtk drs kd ∗ ohqd " cd
sntr bdtw ct oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd cdtw mnlaqdr c&tmd
bdqs‘hmd s‘hkkd+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd bdkth pth cdl‘mcd kd oktr fq‘mc mnlaqd
c&d̀s‘odr- F‘aqhdk K‘ld̀ ’dm 0733( ‘ dwoknhsd̀ bd e‘hs ontq anqmdq kd
mnlaqd c&d̀s‘odr cd b‘kbtk c‘mr k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd- B&drs k&tmd
cdr oqdlhıdqdr ˆmˆkxrdr cd bnlokdwhsd̀ c´ˆkfnqhsgld ‘t rdmr lncdqmd-
Nm k‘ oqnonrhshnm rthu‘msd-
Nqnonrhshnm 0-8- Kd mnlaqd c´d̀sôdr cd bˆkbtk ontq k´ˆkfnqhsgld
c´Dtbkhcd ôokhptd̀ ı̂ cdr mnlaqdr a ds a) ûdb a ≤ a) drs oktr odshs F‘aqhdk K‘ld̀
ptd knfψ ’a(- ’0684z076/(
?hmrh+ nm r‘hs ptd l]dld ontq cdr mnlaqdr cd 1// bghΨqdr ’bnlld c‘mr kdr b‘kbtkr hlokhptd̀r c‘mr
kd rxrsıdld QR?(+ kd mnlaqd sns‘k c&d̀s‘odr cd b‘kbtk rdq‘ oktr odshs ptd
knfψ ’0/1+0 (.
cnmb oktr odshs ptd 850- Oq‘shptdldms+ ontq tm nqchm‘sdtq pth e‘hs cdr lhkkh‘qcr ’rhmnm oktr(
c&nod̀q‘shnmr ı
‘ k‘ rdbnmcd+ b&drs oqdrptd hmrs‘ms‘md̀-
0-04 Bˆkbtk ôoqnbgd̀ cd yd̀qnr ’qd̀dkr( cd enmbshnmr
Tm snts chΨd̀qdms cnl‘hmd c&tshkhr‘shnm cd ld̀sgncdr ı ‘ r‘udtq qd̀btqrhud

drs c‘mr kd b‘kbtk cd yd̀qnr cd enmbshnmr rtq kdr qd̀dkr- Q‘oodknmr pt&nm chs
ptd s drs tm yd̀qn qd̀dk cd k‘ enmbshnm e 9 Q → Q+ rh nm ‘
e ’s( ; /. ‘udb s ∈ Q. ’0-42(
?tsqdldms enqltkd̀d+ k‘ qdbgdqbgd cdr yd̀qnr qd̀dkr c&tmd enmbshnm bnqqdr,
onmc ı
‘ qd̀rntcqd k&d̀pt‘shnm e ’w( ; /+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd b‘kbtkdq k&dmrdlakd
X’e ( 9; { s ∈ Q | e ’s( ; /{. ’0-43(
Hr‘‘b Mdvsnm
’0532,0616(
0-04- B9KBTK 9OOQNBGD̀ CD YD̀QNR ’QD̀DKR( CD ENMBSHNMR 20
Q‘oodknmr ptd ontq e ’w( ; a w ) a+ ‘udb a 6; /+ nm ‘
X’e ( ; { a<a{. ’0-44(
Nm ‘ ‘trrh+ ontq e ’w( ; a w1 ) a w ) b+ ‘udb a 6; /+ ptd

! \ \ /
a a1 3 a b a ) a1 3 a b
X’e ( ; . . rh a1 3 a b ≥ /. ’0-45(
1a 1a
‘udb X’e ( ; ¬+ rh a1 3 a b , /- C‘mr bdr b‘r+ nm b‘kbtkd cnmb e‘bhkdldms X’e (- Ontq cdr enmbshnmr
oktr bnlokhptd̀dr+ kd b‘kbtk dw‘bs cd X’e ( cduhdms chflbhkd+ rhmnm l]dld hlonrrhakd- Rntudms+ hk drs
chflbhkd cd sqntudq l]dld tm rdtk cdr yd̀qnr cd e ’o‘qlh sntsdr kdr onrrhahkhsd̀r c‘mr X’e ((+ l]dld dm
r‘bg‘ms pt&hk rd sqntud c‘mr tm bdqs‘hm hmsdqu‘kkd-
Tmd e‘b́nm cd bnmsntqmdq kd oqnakıdld drs c&ôoqnwhldq ’cd lhdtw dm lhdtw( tm yd̀qn cd e - Bdk‘
bnmrhrsd ı‘ bnmrsqthqd tmd rthsd
s+ . s0 . s1 . . . . → s
cd u‘kdtqr pth r&‘ooqnbgdms cd oktr dm oktr c&tm uq‘h yd̀qn s cd e - Kd enql‘khrld bnqqdbs ontq snts
bdbh drs cd̀udknood̀ c‘mr tm bntqr c&‘m‘kxrd+ l‘hr k‘ ld̀sgncd ‘kfnqhsglhptd ctd ı‘ Mdvsnm drs e‘bhkd
‘ oqd̀rdmsdq rh nm md̀fkhfd cd chrbtsdq cd bdqs‘hmr ‘rodbsr sdbgmhptdr- Ontq rd ok‘bdq c‘mr tm anm
ı
bnmsdwsd+ rtoonrnmr cnmb pt&nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm cd̀qhu‘akd e ‘kk‘ms c&tm hmsdqu‘kkd Za. a[ udqr Q+ ontq
k‘ptdkkd nm r‘hs ptd e ’a( , /+ ds e ’a( / /- ?tsqdldms chs+ kd fq‘ogd cd e drs sdk ptd oqd̀rdmsd̀ ı‘ k‘
Ehftqd 0-2-
Nm rtoonrd ptd e → ’w( dwhrsd 8 c‘mr snts k&hmsdqu‘kkd Za. a[+ ds ptd e → ’w( md r&‘mmtkd i‘l‘hr rtq Za. a[-
Nm ‘ ‘knqr
?kfnqhsgld 0-0. ’Mdvsnm,Q‘ogrnm 0+ (- = ı oˆqshq c´tmd ôoqnwhlˆshnm cnmmd̀d sm c´tm yd̀qn cd e )
nm bˆkbtkd tmd ldhkkdtqd ôoqnwhlˆshnm sm)0 ) dm onrˆms .
e ’sm (
sm)0 ; sm . ’0-46(
e → ’sm (
K‘ Ehftqd 0-2 lnmsqd bnlldms nm odts ∗ nasdmhq " bdssd dwoqdrrhnm- Nm b‘kbtkd k&hmsdqrdbshnm ‘udb
k&‘wd cdr w cd k‘ cqnhsd+ o‘rr‘ms o‘q kd onhms ’sm . e ’sm ((+ pth drs s‘mfdmsd ı
‘ k‘ bntqad+ ds cnmb cd
odmsd e → ’sm (- Hk dm qd̀rtksd ptd k&d̀pt‘shnm cd k‘ cqnhsd dm ptdrshnm drs
x ; e → ’sm ( ’w sm ( ) e ’sm (.
c&nı
t nm nashdms ’0-46(- Ontq hkktrsqdq k‘ ld̀sgncd+ bnmrhcd̀qnmr kd oqnakıdld cd b‘kbtkdq k‘ q‘bhmd
8- Cˆmr bdqsˆhmr bˆr+ cdr ˆrodbsr sdbgmhptdr enms ptd kˆ ld̀sgncd md enmbshnmmd oˆr- Tmd chrbtrrhnm cd̀sˆhkkd̀d ds
qhfntqdtrd+ ct onhms cd utd cd k¸ˆmˆkxrd+ md odts cnmb ]dsqd d̀uhsd̀d-
0.- Inrdog Qôgrnm ’0537z0604(-
0-04- B9KBTK 9OOQNBGD̀ CD YD̀QNR ’QD̀DKR( CD ENMBSHNMR 22
nm ‘ cnmb nasdmt+ ‘oqıdr rdtkdldms 2 hsd̀q‘shnmr+ tmd ‘o,

oqnwhl‘shnm pth drs u‘k‘akd itrpt&ı ‘ k‘ 03,hıdld cd̀bhl‘kd-
C‘mr kdr anmr b‘r+ nm ∗ cntakd " k‘ oqd̀bhrhnm cd k&‘o,
oqnwhl‘shnm ı ‘ bg‘ptd d̀s‘od cd b‘kbtk- Ahdm dmsdmct+ k‘
ld̀sgncd r&‘ookhptd rtqsnts ı ‘ cdr rhst‘shnmr oktr bnl,
okhptd̀dr ontq kdrptdkkdr hk mh ‘ ‘tbtmd enqltkd cnmm‘ms
kdr yd̀qnr- O‘q dwdlokd+ ontq tmd enmbshnm bnlld
e ’w( ; dwo’w 0( w 0.
cnms kd fq‘ogd drs cnmmd̀ ı‘ k‘ Ehftqd 0-3+ nm bgdqbgdq‘ ı

‘ ‘ooqnwhldq kd yd̀qn pth rd sqntud oqıdr cd
1- Hk m&x ‘ o‘r cd enqltkd rhlokd ontq bd yd̀qn+ l‘hr nm nashdms sqıdr q‘ohcdldms tmd u‘kdtq bnlld
1.03508211/51/471474126/50/17410257141777551
‘udb k&‘kfnqhsgld cd Mdvsnm,Q‘ogrnm-

0-05 Tm inkh bnto çndhk’∗(
Ehftpd 0-4 z K&dmrdlakd cd L‘mcdkaqns
K&dmrdlakd cd Lˆmcdkaqns drs k&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr bnlokdwdr b ’c‘mr "(+ ontq kdrptdkr k&dmrdlakd
cdr hsd̀qd̀r
{ebm ’/( | m ∈ K{
drs anqmd̀+ ‘udb eb ’y( ; y 1 ) b- B&drs cnmb chqd pt&hk dwhrsd M ’cd̀odmc‘ms cd b( ontq kdptdk nm ‘
|e m ’b(| , M. ontq snts m ∈ K.
Ontq bds dmrdlakd+ nm ‘ k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm enqldkkd 9
L 9; {b ∈ " | ∃M ∀m ∈ K. |ebm ’/(| , M {.
Kdr ∗ bntkdtqr " ontq kdr onhmsr ı‘ k&dwsd̀qhdtq cd L bncdms k‘ ∗ uhsdrrd " ‘udb k‘ptdkkd k‘ rthsd
m
{eb ’/({m∞K chudqfd- Ontq dm r‘unhq oktr rtq bd cdqmhdq onhms+ hk e‘ts rthuqd tm bntqr c&‘m‘kxrd-
K&‘rodbs sqıdr qd̀btqrhe cd k&dmrdlakd cd L‘mcdkaqns+ ‘oo‘q‘hr knqrpt&nm dm ‘fq‘mchs tmd onqshnm-
K&dmrdlakd cd L‘mcdkaqns ‘ d̀sd̀ hmsqncths o‘q Admnhs L‘mcdkaqns ’0813,1/0/(- Rnm d̀stcd drs khd̀d ı‘
tmd ‘m‘kxrd cd k‘ mnshnm l‘sgd̀l‘shptd cd bg‘nr- B&drs tm b‘r o‘qshbtkhdq cd k‘ mnshnm cd ∗ eq‘bs‘kd "-
Nm ‘ ad‘tbnto c&‘tsqdr eq‘bs‘kdr sqıdr inkhdr+ o‘q dwdlokd+ k&d̀onmfd cd Ldmfdq ’J‘qk Ldmfdq+ ’08/1z
0874((- Ontq unsqd btkstqd fd̀md̀q‘kd+ hk drs hmsd̀qdrr‘ms c&‘kkdq unhq cd ptnh hk qdsntqmd rtq kd rhsd 9
gsso/..dm-vhjhodch_-nqf.vhjh.K_mcdkaqnsSrds
0-06- DVDQBHBDR 24
0-06 Dvdqbhbdr
0-0- Tm tshkhr‘ms kd e‘hs ptd+ ontq cdr dmshdqr onrhsher b ds c+ nm ‘
’b chuhrd c( ds ’c chuhrd b( rrh b ; c.
lnmsqdq ptd
}a. a〉 ; }a. a j a〉.
ptdkptd rnhs k&dmshdq j-
0-1- Lnmsqdq kdr hcdmshsd̀r dm ’0-04(+ o‘q tm ‘qftldms qd̀btqrhe ’rtq m( pth m&tshkhrd ptd k&‘rrnbh‘shuhsd̀
cd ∗ ) " ds ∗ · " ontq ’h(+ ’hhh( ds ’hu(+ ‘udb dm oktr k‘ bnllts‘shuhsd̀ cd ∗ ) " ontq ’hh(-
0-2- Lnmsqdq ptd
‘( k‘ rnlld cdr m oqdlhdqr dmshdqr hlo‘hqr cnmmd m1 - Dm enqltkd
m
∑
’1 j 0( ; m1 . ’0-47(
j90
‘( k‘ rnlld cdr b‘qqd̀r cdr m oqdlhdqr dmshdqr drs cnmmd̀d o‘q k‘ enqltkd
m
∑ m ’m ) 0( ’1 m ) 0(
j1 ; . ’0-48(
5
j90
0-3- Lnmsqdq o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd kd oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cd E ’m( ds E ’m 0( drs 0-
0-4- B‘kbtkdq kd mnlaqd cd lntudldmsr ’cd̀ok‘bdldms c&tm chrptd( md̀bdrr‘hqd ontq qd̀rntcqd kd
oqnakıdld cdr sntqr cd G‘mn—ı-
0-5 ’Bndfibhdmsr ahmnlhVtv’-
‘( Lnmsqdq ptd k&dwoqdrrhnm rthu‘msd r‘shre‘hs ‘trrh k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd ’0-17(
m¸
. ’0-5/(
j¸’m j(¸
a( Lnmsqdq o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq m kdr hcdmshsd̀r

∑m ( ) ( ) m (
∑ ) ( )
k m)0 k)h k)m)0
h( ; . ds hh( ; . ’0-50(
j j)0 h j
k9+ g9+
0-6 ’Dmshdqr lnctkn o’- Rnhs o tm mnlaqd oqdlhdq- Lnmsqdq ptd sntr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr mnm mtkr cd
Sn rnms hmudqrhakdr ontq k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm- B‘kbtkdq kdr hmudqrdr cd sntr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr mnm mtkr cd
S02 -
0-7- Lnmsqdq o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd kdr bndflbhdmsr+ ct cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd ct ptnshdms
E ’m(<E ’m 0( cd cdtw mnlaqdr cd Ehanm‘bbh bnmrd̀btsher+ rnms sntr cdr 0- Ptd odts,nm chqd cd
E ’m(<E ’m 1( =
0-8- Cd̀lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘ ahdm kd khdm dmsqd cd̀udknoodldmsr dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd ds kd b‘kbtk cd
k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd rod̀bhffd̀ dm ’0-34( ds ’0-35(+ ‘udb kdr bnmchshnmr ’0-36(-
0-0.- Oqntudq k‘ Oqnonrhshnm 0-2+ dm dwoknhs‘ms chqdbsdldms k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cd a •Γimc m( a ds k‘

chrsqhatshuhsd̀ cd k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm rtq k&‘cchshnm ’unhq ’0-04(+ ’hh(( ontq k‘ oqdlhıdqd o‘qshd : ds k&d̀f‘khsd̀
a 0 · a0 a1 · a1 ; ’a0 a1 ( · a0 ) a1 · ’a0 a1 (.
ontq k‘ rdbnmcd-
0-00- Lnmsqqdq+ o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd+ ptd
’w 0(’wm 0
) wm 1
) . . . ) w ) 0( ; wm 0. ’0-51(
Oqnfqˆllˆshnm lˆsgd̀lˆshptd
0-01 ’Fd̀md̀qVsdtq cd mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr’- C‘mr tm rxrsıdld cd b‘kbtk enqldk+ bnmrsqthqd tm

fd̀md̀q‘sdtq ‘kd̀‘snhqd cd fq‘mcr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr- Ontq bd e‘hqd+ nm bnlldmbd o‘q tshkhrdq tm fd̀md̀q‘,
sdtq ‘kd̀‘snhqd cd fq‘mcr mnlaqdr hlo‘hqr+ ontq sqntudq tm b‘mchc‘s p- Nm sdrsd rh p drs oqdlhdq
‘udb tmd enmbshnm ∗ sdrsoqdlhdq " ’‘trrh ı ‘ bnmrsqthqd(- Rh b&drs kd b‘r nm ‘ sqntud̀+ rhmnm nm ‘intsd
1 ı‘ p ds nm sdrsd cd mntud‘t- Kd Sgd̀nqıdld cdr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr 00 ‘rrtqd pt&nm u‘ sqntudq ‘rrdy
q‘ohcdldms tm mnlaqd oqdlhdq cd bdssd e‘b́nm-
Bnlld sdrs ’oqna‘ahkhrsd( cd oqhl‘khsd̀ ontq p+ nm odts ud̀qhffdq ontq tmd uhmfs‘hmd cd mnlaqdr a
’0 , a , p(+ pt&nm ‘ ahdm
ap 0 •Γimc p( 0.
Rh ontq tm mnlaqd k&hcdmshsd̀ m&drs o‘r ud̀qhffd̀d ‘knqr p m&drs bdqs‘hmdldms o‘r oqdlhdq- Rhmnm+ p drs
enqs oqna‘akdldms oqdlhdq- Oktrhdtqr rxrsıdldr bnmshdmmdms tmd enmbshnm ∗ hroqhld " pth dΨdbstd
tm sdrs rhlhk‘hqd+ l‘hr oktr qhfntqdtw-
Dvoknqˆshnm lˆsgd̀lˆshptd
0-02 ’Rnlldr cd othrrVmbdr’- ?udb tm rxrsıdld cd b‘kbtk enqldk+ d̀stchdq k‘ rnlld cdr j,hıdld
othrr‘mbdr cdr m oqdlhdqr dmshdqr 9
0j ) 1j ) . . . ) mj . ’0-52(
00- cd̀bqhr bnlldms kˆ chrsqhatshnm cdr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr drs ˆrrdy qd̀ftkhıdqd-
0-06- DVDQBHBDR 26
‘ffm cd sqntudq tmd enqltkd+ ontq kdr b‘r j ; 2+ j ; 3+ dsb-

Tm eVhs tshkd 9 K‘ enqltkd drs tm onkxm]
nld dm m cd cdfqd̀ j ) 0-
0-03 ’Mnlaqdr cd BVsVkVm’- Nm cd̀ffmhs qd̀btqrhudldms kdr mnlaqdr Bm dm onr‘ms


0 rh m ; /.
Bm 9; 3 m 1 ’0-53(
 Bm 0 rhmnm.
m)0
Nm b‘kbtkd ‘knqr ptd

m / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bm 0 0 1 4 03 31 021 318
Odts,nm cd̀cthqd cd ’0-53( ptd kdr Bm rnms sntintqr cdr dmshdqr =
0-04 ’Enqltkd ontq kV enmbshnm ϕ çDtkdq’- Lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘
∏( 0
)
ϕ’m( ; m 0 . ’0-54(
o
nLm
nı
t kd oqncths ‘ khdt rtq k&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr pth chuhrdms m- Lnmsqdq ‘trrh ptd
∑
ϕ’c( ; m.
cLm
nı
t k‘ rnlld ‘ khdt rtq k&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr ’dmsqd 0 ds m( pth chuhrdms m-
Rtffdrshnm 9 Bnmrhcd̀qdq c&‘anqc kdr b‘r nı t m drs cd k‘ enqld o" p a + othr o" p a qb + ‘udb cdr mnlaqdr
oqdlhdqr chrshmbsr o+ p ds q- O‘rrdq dmrthsd ‘t b‘r fd̀md̀q‘k-
0-05 ’Enmbshnm ç?bidqlVmm’- Dwoknqdy k‘ enmbshnm > 9 K · K → K cd̀ffmhd qd̀btqrhudldms

bnlld 9


m ) 0 rh k ; /.
>’k. m( 9; >’k 0. 0( rh k / / ds m ; /. ’0-55(


>’k 0. >’k. m 0(( rh k / / ds m / /.
Bdssd enmbshnm ‘ cdr u‘kdtqr pth bqnhrrdms sqıdr sqıdr q‘ohcdldms ’‘ssdmshnm ‘udb unsqd o‘tuqd nqchm‘,
sdtq(- O‘q dwdlokd

m\j / 0 1 2 3 m
/ 0 1 2 3 4 m)0
0 1 2 3 4 5 m)1
1 2 4 6 8 00 1m ) 2
2 4 02 18 50 014 1m)2 2
1 11
- -1
1-
1 1 1 1 11 1 11 11
1
3 11 2 11 2 11 2 11 2 11 2 1
) *+ , 2
m)2
Tmd inkhd mns‘shnm+ hmsqncthsd o‘q C- Jmtsg+ odqlds c&d̀bqhqd tmd enqltkd ontq kdr u‘kdtqr cd k‘
enmbshnm c&?bjdql‘mm- ? ı bd rtids+ unhq
gsso/..dm-vhjhodch_-nqf.vhjh.Imtsg rSto’_qqnvSmns_shnm
0-06- Lnmsqdq ptd+ knqrpt&nm ‘ chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd cd a o‘q a cnmmd a ; p · a ) q+ nm ‘ k‘ chuhrhnm
dtbkhchdmmd cd onkxm]
nldr
wa 0 ; ’wa "
) wa 1"
) . . . ) wq (’w" 0( ) ’wq 0( ’0-56(
Rtffdrshnm 9 Bnmrhcd̀qdq ptdkptdr dwdlokdr rod̀bhffptdr cd a ds a+ othr o‘rrdq ‘t b‘r fd̀md̀q‘k-
0-07- Dw‘lhmdq+ ontq chudqrdr u‘kdtqr cd j+ k‘ rthsd cdr oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cdr mnlaqdr
cd Ehanm‘bbh E ’m ) j( ds E ’m(+ dm enmbshnm cd k‘ u‘kdtq cd j ds cd bdkkd cd ’m lnc j(- Dm cd̀cthqd
tmd qıdfkd fd̀md̀q‘kd+ ds k‘ cd̀lnmsqdq-
0-08- Nm oqd̀bhrd k‘ mns‘shnm ’0-31( ontq kdr eq‘bshnmr bnmshmtdr dm onr‘ms qd̀btqrhudldms
0
Zp+ . p0 . p1 . . . . . pm [ 9; p+ ) .
Zp0 . p1 . . . . . pm [
‘udb Zp+ [ 9; p+ - Kdr bnmudqfdmsr c&tmd eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd+ rnms kdr tmhptdr dmshdqr gm ds jm + qdk‘shud,
ldms oqdlhdqr dmsqd dtw+ sdkr ptd
gm
; Zp+ . p0 . p1 . . . . . pm [.
jm
Lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘ kdr qd̀btqqdmbdr
g 1 ; /. g 0 ; 0. gm ; pm gm 0 ) gm 1.
’0-57(
j 1 ; 0. j 0 ; /. jm ; pm jm 0 ) jm 1.
ds ptd
gm j m 0 gm 0 jm ; ’0 (m .
0-06- DVDQBHBDR 28
0-1.- Lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘ kd cd̀udknoodldms dm eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd 9
wC Γm)0( 0
; ZwC Γm 0(
. wC Γm 1(
. . . . . w1 . w. w. 0[.
wC Γm( 0
Bgôhsqd 1
Dmrdlakdr ds enmbshnmr
1-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
?u‘ms cd ontqrthuqd oktr ‘u‘ms+ mntr ‘kknmr l‘hmsdm‘ms lhdtw ‘rrdnhq kdr enmcdldmsr cd mnsqd
chrbntqr- K‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr ds cdr enmbshnmr rnms ı‘ k‘ a‘rd c&tmd oqd̀rdms‘shnm lncdqmd cdr
l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr- Hll‘mpt‘akdldms+ nm x e‘hs ‘oodk ontq k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm c&naidsr oktr bnlokdwdr+
nt ontq cnmmdq tmd a‘rd rnkhcd ‘tw ‘qftldmsr knfhptdr- Dm oktr c&]dsqd cdr mnshnmr enmc‘ldms‘kdr
ontq kdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ dkkdr rnms ‘trrh bqtbh‘kdr dm hmenql‘shptd+ o‘q dwdlokd ontq hmsqncthqd k‘
mnshnm cd ∗ rsqtbstqdr cd cnmmd̀dr "-
1-1 Dmrdlakdr
K‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr ‘ d̀sd̀ hmsqncthsd o‘q Fdnqf B‘msnq- Nm odts dm

cnmmdq tmd ‘whnl‘shptd qhfntqdtrd pth m&drs o‘r uq‘hldms ‘ooqnenmchd hbh
’unhq bdodmc‘ms k&‘oodmchbd A(- B&drs snts cd l]dld tm ‘rodbs hlonqs‘ms
cd k‘ ptdrshnm bnlld nm u‘ k&dmsqdunhq ı‘ k‘ rdbshnm 1-8- K‘ sgd̀nqhd rtoonrd
ptd kdr dmrdlakdr bnmshdmmdms cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr+ ds nm d̀bqhs w ∈ > ontq chqd
ptd ∗ w drs tm d̀kd̀ldms cd > "- Cdtw dmrdlakdr rnms d̀f‘tw rh ds rdtkd,
ldms r&hkr nms kdr l]dldr d̀kd̀ldmsr- ?tsqdldms chs+ ontq ∗ bnmm‘]ısqd " tm
dmrdlakd hk e‘ts r‘unhq chqd ptdkr dm rnms kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr- ?hmrh+ nm ‘ kdr
oqd̀rdms‘shnmr d̀pthu‘kdmsdr
{a. a. b{ ; {b. a. a{ ; {a. a. a. a. b. a. a. a{.

Fdnqf B‘msnq
c&tm l]dld dmrdlakd pth bnmshdms kdr sqnhr d̀kd̀ldmsr 9 a+ a ds b- ’0734z0807(
30
31 BG9OHSQD 1- DMRDLAKDR DS ENMBSHNMR
Sxohptdldms+ r‘mr kdr cd̀ffmhq sqıdr qhfntqdtrdldms hbh+ nm bnlldmbd o‘q bnmrhcd̀qdq cdr dmrdlakdr
∗ rhlokdr " bnlld
• K&dmrdlakd cdr dmshdqr mˆstqdkr+
K 9; {/. 0. 1. 2. . . . {:
• K&dmrdlakd cdr dmshdqr+
S 9; { . . . . 2. 1. 0. /. 0. 1. 2. . . . {:
• K&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr qˆshnmmdkr+

{a }
N 9; | a ∈ S. a ∈ K. ds a 6; / :
a
k&dmrdlakd Q cdr mnlaqdr qd̀dkr+ pth hmbkts kdr mnlaqdr q‘shnmmdkr ds sntr kdr mnlaqdr pt&nm odts
bnmrsqthqd 0 ı
‘ o‘qshq cd bdtw,bh o‘q ∗ o‘rr‘fd ı‘ k‘ khlhsd " : k&dmrdlakd cdr dmshdqr m‘stqdkr dmsqd 0
ds m
Zm[ 9; {h ∈ K | 0 ≤ h ≤ m{:
k&dmrdlakd cd kdssqdr ’lhmtrbtkdr( cd k&‘kog‘ads
A 9; {a. a. b. c. . . . . y{:
nt dmbnqd cdr dmrdlakdr c&naidsr chudqr bnlld
{•. •. •{. nı
t {♣. ♦. ♥. ♠{.
ı o‘qshq cd sdkr dmrdlakdr cd ∗ a‘rd " nm bnmrsqths cdr dmrdlakdr oktr bnlokdwdr ‘t lnxdm
?
c&nod̀q‘shnmr dmsqd dmrdlakdr pth rdqnms hmsqncthsdr c‘mr kdr rdbshnmr rthu‘msdr- Tmd ‘whnl‘shptd
bnqqdbsd cd k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr dwokhptd bnlldms oqnbd̀cdq ı ‘ cdr cdrbqhoshnmr ‘clhrrhakdr
c&dmrdlakdr cd a‘rd+ ds bnlldms bnmrsqthqd dmrthsd cdr dmrdlakdr oktr bnlokdwdr- ?hmrh+ nm odts
cd̀bqhqd k&dmrdlakd
> ; {w ∈ R | O ’w({. ’1-0(
cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R pth r‘shrenms tmd bdqs‘hmd oqnoqhd̀sd̀ O ’w(+ enqltkd̀d rntr enqld c&d̀mnmbd̀ knfhptd
’unhq ?oodmchbd?(- C‘mr bd b‘r+ k‘ mnshnm c&d̀f‘khsd̀ > ; A+ ‘udb A ; {w ∈ R | P’w({+ bnqqdronmc
‘t e‘hs ptd kdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r O ’w( ds P’w( rnms knfhptdldms d̀pthu‘kdmsdr- Nm cd̀mnsd ¬+ k&dmrdlakd uhcd+
pth md bnmshdms ‘tbtm d̀kd̀ldms- Kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr ’nt bˆqchmˆk ( c&tm dmrdlakd ffmh >+ drs cd̀mnsd̀
|>|+ nt o‘qenhr ‘trrh ”>-
ı unhq cˆmr tm bntqr çˆmˆkxrd-

0- =
1-2- RNTR,DMRDLAKDR 32
1-2 Rntr,dmrdlakdr
Rh sntr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd A rnms ‘trrh cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd >+ nm chs ptd A drs tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd >+ ds
nm d̀bqhs
A ⊆ >.
Nm chs ‘trrh ptd A drs tmd oˆqshd cd >- Rd cnmmdq tm rntr,dmrdlakd A+ cd j d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd
> cd b‘qchm‘k m+ bnqqdronmc cnmb ı ‘
∗ bgnhrhq j d̀kd̀ldmsr oˆqlh m " -
K&hmbktrhnm c&dmrdlakdr onrrıdcd kdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r rthu‘msdr- Ontq snts >+ A ds B+ nm ‘
‘( ¬ ⊆ >.
a( > ⊆ >.
’1-1(
b( rh > ⊆ A ds A ⊆ >. ‘knqr > ; A.
c( rh > ⊆ A ds A ⊆ B. ‘knqr > ⊆ B.
Knqrptd > ds A rnms cd̀bqhs bnlld dm ’1-0(+ nm ‘ A ⊆ > rh ds rdtkdldms rh k&d̀mnmbd̀ knfhptd
∗ P’w( ;⇒ O ’w( " drs uq‘h-
Nm cd̀mnsd OZR[ k&dmrdlakd cd sntr kdr rntr,dmrdlakdr cd R 9
OZR[ 9; {> | > ⊆ R {. ’1-2(
Nm chs ‘trrh ptd OZR[ drs k&dmrdlakd cdr oˆqshdr cd R- O‘q dwdlokd+
OZ{a. a. b{[ ; {¬. {a{. {a{. {b{. {a. a{. {a. b{. {a. b{. {a. a. b{{.
Ontq bg‘ptd / ≤ j+ nm bnmrhcıdqd ‘trrh k&dmrdlakd cdr oˆqshdr ı̂ j,d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R 9
O j ZR[ 9; {> | > ⊆ R. |>| ; j {.
B&drs cnmb
∗ k&dmrdlakd cdr onrrhahkhsd̀r cd bgnhw cd j d̀kd̀ldmsr o‘qlh m " -
?hmrh+ nm ‘ O + ZR[ ; {¬{+ othr

O 0 ZR[ ; {{w{ | w ∈ R{.
ds dmbnqd
O 1 ZR[ ; {{w. x{ | w. x ∈ R. ds w 6; x{.
‘ O m ZR[ ; {R{+ ontq m d̀f‘k ‘t b‘qchm‘k cd R- ?hmrh+ rh R ; {a. a. b{+ ‘knqr nm

ds ‘hmrh cd rthsd itrpt&ı
‘
O + ZR[ ; {¬{. O 0 ZR[ ; {{a{. {a{. {b{{. O 1 ZR[ ; {{a. a{. {a. b{. {a. b{{. O 2 ZR[ ; {{a. a. b{{.
Bdr dmrdlakdr bnmshdmmdms cnmb qdrodbshudldms 0+ 2+ 2+ ds 0 d̀kd̀ldmsr+ ds kdtq tmhnm chrinhmsd cnmmd
k&dmrdlakd ı‘ 7 d̀kd̀ldmsr OZR[ utr oktr g‘ts-
?ssdmshnm+ kdr dmrdlakdr
{a. a. b{ ds {{a{. {a{. {b{{.
rnms chΨd̀qdmsr+ othrpt&hkr m&nms o‘r kdr l]dldr d̀kd̀ldmsr- ?tsqdldms chs+ kdr ‘bbnk‘cdr ∗ { " ds
∗ { " nms tm hbh q]nkd l‘sgd̀l‘shptd hlonqs‘ms- Bd md rnms o‘r ptd cd rhlokdr rd̀o‘q‘sdtqr bnlld
dm eq‘mb́‘hr- Nm chs cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr {w. x{ cd O 1 Z>[ ptd bd rnms cdr oˆhqdr c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd >- Nm ‘ ‘knqr
enqbd̀ldms w 6; x-
1-3 Nod̀qˆshnmr cd aˆrd rtq kdr dmrdlakdr
Tmd oqdlhıdqd nod̀q‘shnm cd a‘rd dmsqd dmrdlakdr drs bdkkd c&hmsdqrdbshnm+ >∩A+ dmsqd cdtw dmrdlakdr
> ds A- B&drs k&dmrdlakd cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr pth rnms bnlltmr ı ‘ bdr cdtw dmrdlakdr- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms
nm ‘
> ∩ A 9; {w | w ∈ >. ds w ∈ A{. ’1-3(
{a. a. b. c{ ∩ {0. a. 2. c{ ; {a. c{.
C&‘tsqd o‘qs+ k&tmhnm cd > ds A drs k&dmrdlakd
> V A 9; {w | w ∈ >. nı
t w ∈ A{. ’1-4(
O‘q dwdlokd
{a. a. b. c{ V {0. a. 2. c{ ; {a. a. b. c. 0. 2{.
Nm ud̀qhffd e‘bhkdldms ptd kdr d̀f‘khsd̀r rthu‘msdr rnms u‘k‘akdr dm fd̀md̀q‘k+ ptdkr ptd rnhdms kdr dm,
rdlakdr >+ A+ ds B 9
’h( > ∩ ¬ ; ¬. ’h(→ > V ¬ ; >.

’hh( > ∩ A ; A ∩ >. ’hh(→ > V A ; A V >.
’1-5(
’hhh( > ∩ ’A ∩ B( ; ’> ∩ A( ∩ B. ’hhh(→ > V ’A V B( ; ’> V A( V B.
’hu( > ∩ ’A V B( ; ’> ∩ A( V ’> ∩ B(. ’hu(→ > V ’A ∩ B( ; ’> V A( ∩ ’> V B(.
1-3- NOD̀Q9SHNMR CD A9RD RTQ KDR DMRDLAKDR 34
Knqrptd > ∩ A ; ¬+ nm chs ptd > V A drs tmd tmhnm chrinhmsd+ ds nm d̀bqhs ‘knqr > ) A ontq cd̀rhfmdq
bdssd tmhnm- Unhq k&dwdqbhbd 1-1 ontq bd pth bnmbdqmd kdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r cd k&tmhnm chrinhmsd 1 -
K‘ ch d̀qdmbd+ > \ A+ cd cdtw dmrdlakdr > ds A+ drs k&dmrdlakd cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > pth md rnms o‘r
c‘mr A+ b-,ı‘,c- 9
> \ A 9; {w ∈ > | w 6∈ A{. ’1-6(
Dm rtoonr‘ms pt&nm ‘ tm dmrdlakd R ffwd̀+ nm cd̀mnsd > kd bnlokd̀ldms cd > c‘mr R- B&drs snts
rhlokdldms tm ‘tsqd mnl ontq
> 9; R \ >.
pt&hk drs oq‘shptd c&tshkhrdq knqrptd kd ∗ rtqdmrdlakd " R drs bk‘hq c‘mr kd bnmsdwsd- ?hmrh+ knqrpt&nm
ffwd R ; {a. a. b. c. d. e { ds > ; {a. b. d{+ nm ‘ > ; {a. c. e {- Rh > ; {w ∈ R | O ’w({+ ‘knqr nm ‘
> ; {w ∈ R | ¬O ’w({.
Ptdkr ptd rnhs > ds A cdr rntr,dmrdlakdr cd R ’cnmb cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd OZR[(+ kdr hcdmshsd̀r rthu‘msdr
rnms u‘k‘akdr
’h( > ; >.
’hh( > ∩ > ; ¬. ’hh(→ > V > ; R. ’1-7(
’hhh( > ∩ A ; > V A. ’hhh(→ > V A ; > ∩ A.
Ontq tmd e‘lhkkd c&dmrdlakdr 2
{>0 . >1 . >2 . . . . . >m {.
nm ‘ kdr tmhnmr ds hmsdqrdbshnmr
m
⋂ m
⋃
>g . ds >g .
g90 g90
Dm e‘hs+ OZR[ drs sntintqr k&tmhnm ’chrinhmsd+ unhq Dwdqbhbd 1-1 ontq k‘ mns‘shnm( cdr dmrdlakdr O j ZR[+
b-,ı‘,c- 9
∑′
OZR[ ; O j ZR[. ’1-8(
j9+
Bnlld O j ZR[ ; ¬+ rh j drs oktr fq‘mc ptd kd b‘qchm‘k cd R+ bdssd rnll‘shnm drs dm e‘hs ffmhd- Nm ‘
cnmb hbh cdtw cdrbqhoshnmr ct l]dld dmrdlakd-
1- Knqrptd / ds A md rnms oˆr chrinhmsr ’/ ∩ A 6: ∅(+ nm odts snts cd l]dld bnmrhcd̀qdq kdtq tmhnm chrinhmsd dm
enqb́ˆms ! / ds A ı̂ ]dsqd chrinhmsr- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm onrd
/ ) A : ’{.{ /( A ’{0{ A(.
Nm cnmmd ˆhmrh cdr bntkdtqr ! chrshmbsdr ˆtv d̀kd̀ldmsr cd / ds cd A-

2- Nm dvoknhsd hbh k¸ˆrrnbhˆshuhsd̀ cd k¸tmhnm ds cd k¸hmsdqrdbshnm-
Nm odts ∗ b‘kbtkdq " qd̀btqrhudldms k&dmrdlakd cdr o‘qshdr ı‘ j d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd R ; S ) {w{+
‘udb w 6∈ S + dm onr‘ms


 0( > ; R ds j ; |R|.
> ∈ O j ZR[ rrh 1( > ∈ O j ZS [. nı t ’1-0/(


2( > ; A ) {w{. ds A ∈ O j 0 ZS [.
1-4 Oqncths bˆqsd̀rhdm
?u‘ms c&hmsqncthqd k‘ oqnbg‘hmd bnmrsqtbshnm+ q‘oodknmr ptd cdtw bntokdr ’a. a( ds ’b. c( rnms d̀f‘tw+
rh ds rdtkdldms rh nm ‘ kdr cdtw d̀f‘khsd̀r a ; b ds a ; c- Kd oqncths bˆqsd̀rhdm cd > ds A drs k&dmrdlakd
cd sntr kdr bntokdr ’w. x(+ ‘udb w d̀kd̀ldms cd > ds x d̀kd̀ldms cd A- ?tsqdldms enqltkd̀+ nm ‘
> · A ; {’w. x( | w ∈ > ds x ∈ A{.
Rh k&tm cdr dmrdlakdr > nt A drs uhcd+ ‘knqr kd oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm > · A drs uhcd+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
> · ¬ ; ¬ · A ; ¬. ’1-00(
Tmd hkktrsq‘shnm ct oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm drs cnmmd̀d o‘q
{a. a. b. c{ · {0. 1. 2. 3. 4{ ; {’a. 0(. ’a. 1(. ’a. 2(. ’a. 3(. ’a. 4(.
’a. 0(. ’a. 1(. ’a. 2(. ’a. 3(. ’a. 4(.
’b. 0(. ’b. 1(. ’b. 2(. ’b. 3(. ’b. 4(.
’c. 0(. ’c. 1(. ’c. 2(. ’c. 3(. ’c. 4({.
C‘mr kd b‘r cdr dmrdlakdr+ ffmhr Zm[ ; {0. 1. . . . . m{ ds Zj[ ; {0. 1. . . . . j{+ nm bnmrs‘sd ptd kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr
ct oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm Zm[ · Zj[ r&hcdmshffdms ‘tw bˆrdr c&tm sâkdˆt ’nt c&tmd lˆsqhbd( ‘x‘ms m khfmdr
ds j bnknmmdr 9
−−−
0
−−−
1
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
−−−
m
−−−
0 1 2 3 4 j
Qdl‘qptnmr pt&nm tshkhrd hbh cdr bnnqcnmmd̀dr lˆsqhbhdkkdr+ hmcdw‘ms kdr khfmdr ct g‘ts udqr kd a‘r+
okts]
ns ptd cdr bnnqcnmmd̀dr bˆqsd̀rhdmmdr ontq kdrptdkkdr nm hmcdwdq‘hs kdr khfmdr ct a‘r udqr kd g‘ts-
ı
? rsqhbsdldms o‘qkdq+ kd oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm m&drs o‘r ‘rrnbh‘she- ?hmrh+ kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd ’> · A( · B
rnms cd k‘ enqld ’’w. x(. y(+ ‘udb w ∈ >+ x ∈ A ds y ∈ B : s‘mchr ptd bdtw cd > · ’A · B( rnms
1-5- QDK9SHNM 36
cd k‘ enqld ’w. ’x. y((- Nm bnmrhcıdqd bdodmc‘ms rntudms tmd bnmrsqtbshnm hmsdqld̀ch‘hqd+ cd̀mnsd̀d
> · A · B+ cnms kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr rnms kdr sqhokdsr ’w. x. y(- Knqrptd >+ A ds B rnms cdr dmrdlakdr ffmhr+
kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > · A · B odtudms rd qdoqd̀rdmsdq rntr enqld cd s‘akd‘t sqhchldmrhnmmdk ’tm odt
bnlld c‘mr k‘ Ehftqd bh,bnmsqd(-
Oktr fd̀md̀q‘kdldms+ nm ‘ kd oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm ltkshokd
>0 · >1 · · · · · >m ; {’w0 . w1 . . . . . wm ( | wg ∈ >g . 0 ≤ h ≤ m{.
Knqrptd >g ; A+ ontq sntr kdr h+ nm nashdms k‘ othrrˆmbd bˆqsd̀rhdmmd m,hıdld+
A m 9; A
) · A*+
· · · A,.
m ]moedp
cd k&dmrdlakd A+ ‘udb A + 9; {∗{- Kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd A m rnms kdr m,stokdsr ’w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (+ c&d̀kd̀ldmsr
cd wg ∈ A- Hk ‘qqhud o‘qenhr pt&nm udthkkd d̀bqhqd oktr rhlokdldms w0 w1 . . . wm + ontq tm sdk d̀kd̀ldms-
Nm chs ‘knqr pt&nm k&‘ d̀bqhs rntr enqld cd lns-
1-5 Qdkˆshnm
Tmd qdkˆshnm Q+ dmsqd kdr dmrdlakdr > ds A+ drs rhlokdldms tm rntr,dmrdlakd ct oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm
> · A+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9 Q ⊆ > · A- O‘q dwdlokd+ ontq > ; {a. a. b. c{ ds A ; {0. 1. 2{+ nm ‘ k‘ qdk‘shnm
Q ; {’a. 0(. ’a. 1(. ’a. 2(. ’b. 1(. ’c. 0({.
Tm dwdlokd sxohptd drs k‘ qdk‘shnm ’dmsqd ]dsqdr gtl‘hmr( 9
Q 9; ∗ drs tm ‘mb]dsqd cd ".
Rh G cd̀rhfmd k&dmrdlakd cdr ]dsqdr gtl‘hmr ’lnqsr nt uhu‘msr(+ nm cd̀ffmhs qd̀btqrhudldms Q ⊆ G · G

dm onr‘ms 9 
 0( a drs kd oıdqd nt k‘ lıdqd cd a+ nt
’a. a( ∈ Q rrh ’1-01(
 1( ’a. b( ∈ Q ds ’b. a( ∈ Q.
K‘ oqdlhıdqd bk‘trd ‘lnqbd kd oqnbdrrtr+ ds k‘ rdbnmcd ‘flqld ptd
∗ kdr ˆmbZdsqdr cd ldr ˆmbZdsqdr rnms ldr ˆmbZdsqdr " -
Tmd qdk‘shnm Q rtq > drs chsd

’‘( qd̀fidwhud rh ontq bg‘ptd w c‘mr >+ nm ‘ ’w. w( ∈ Q+
’a( rxld̀sqhptd rh ’w. x( ∈ Q dmsq‘]ımd ’x. w( ∈ Q+

’b( ˆmshrxld̀sqhptd rh ’w. x( ∈ Q ds ’x. w( ∈ Q dmsq‘]ımd w ; x+
’c( sqˆmrhshud rh ’w. x( ∈ Q ds ’x. y( ∈ Q dmsq‘]ımd ’w. y( ∈ Q-
K‘ oktr rhlokd cdr qdk‘shnmr qd̀fidwhudr+ rtq tm dmrdlakd >+ drs k‘ qdkˆshnm c´d̀fˆkhsd̀ dmsqd d̀kd̀ldmsr
cd >- Kd rntr,dmrdlakd bnqqdronmc‘ms cd > · > drs bk‘hqdldms {’w. w( | w ∈ >{-
Tmd qdkˆshnm c´d̀pthuˆkdmbd Q rtq >+ drs tmd qdk‘shnm pth drs ı ‘ k‘ enhr qd̀fidwhud+ rxld̀sqhptd ds
sq‘mrhshud- Okts] ns ptd c&d̀bqhqd ’w. x( ∈ Q+ nm d̀bqhs rntudms w ∼ x ’nt w • x(+ ds nm chs ptd w drs
d̀pthu‘kdms ı‘ x- ?hmrh+ ∗ ∼ " drs tmd qdk‘shnm c&d̀pthu‘kdmbd rh ds rdtkdldms rh+ ontq snts w+ x ds y
c‘mr >+ nm ‘
’‘( w ∼ w+
’a( rh w ∼ x+ ‘knqr x ∼ w+
’b( rh w ∼ x ds x ∼ y+ ‘knqr w ∼ y-
1-6 Enmbshnmr
?oo‘qdlldms+ kd sdqld ∗ enmbshnm " ‘ d̀sd̀ hmsqncths o‘q Kdhamhy- Odmc‘ms

knmfsdlor k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cd bdssd mnshnm m&‘ o‘r d̀sd̀ sqıdr bk‘hqd- C‘mr k&dm,
bxbknod̀chd cd c&?kdladqs+ nm chs ı ‘ odt oqıdr pt&tmd enmbshnm drs cnmmd̀d
o‘q tmd enqltkd hlokhpt‘ms tmd u‘qh‘akd- Q‘oodknmr pt&‘tintqc&gth nm
r&‘bbnqcd okts]ns rtq kd e‘hs cd cnmmdq tmd ‘ooqnbgd ‘arsq‘hsd ı ‘ k‘ mnshnm
cd enmbshnm ’unhq Rdbshnm 0-1(+ dm cnmm‘ms rdtkdldms tm bqhsıdqd pth odqlds
rhlokdldms cd chqd pt‘mc nm ‘ ‘Ψ‘hqd ı ‘ tmd enmbshnm- Dmsqd ‘tsqdr+ bdk‘
qdmc onrrhakd k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cd k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr cd > udqr A- ?hmrh+
nm bnmrhcıdqd k&dmrdlakd EnjbrZ>. A[ cnms kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr rnms kdr qdk‘shnmr
enmbshnmmdkkdr cd > udqr A+ b&drs,ı ‘,chqd ptd Fnsseqhdc Kdhamhy
’0535z0605(
e ⊆ > · A. nı
t ’h( ∀w ∃x ’w ∈ >. x ∈ A. ds ’w. x( ∈ e (.
’1-02(
’hh( ∀w ∀x0 ∀x1 ’’w. x0 ( ∈ e ds ’w. x1 ( ∈ e ;⇒ x0 ; x1 (.
Nm ‘ ‘knqr+ ontq bg‘ptd d̀kd̀ldms e cd EnjbrZ>. A[+ tmd enmbshnm
e 9>→A
cd rntqbd > ds cd ats A- Hk mntr ‘qqhudq‘ rntudms cd o‘qkdq cd k‘ enmbshnm e + rh k‘ rntqbd ds kd ats
‘rrnbhd̀r rnms bk‘hqr c‘mr kd bnmsdwsd- Ontq > ; {a. a. b{ ds A ; {/. 0{+ nm ‘
EnjbrZ>. A[ ; { {’a. /(. ’a. /(. ’b. /({. {’a. /(. ’a. /(. ’b. 0({.
{’a. /(. ’a. 0(. ’b. /({. {’a. /(. ’a. 0(. ’b. 0({.
{’a. 0(. ’a. /(. ’b. /({. {’a. 0(. ’a. /(. ’b. 0({.
{’a. 0(. ’a. 0(. ’b. /({. {’a. 0(. ’a. 0(. ’b. 0({ {.
1-6- ENMBSHNMR 38
Hk x ‘ cnmb 7 enmbshnmr cd > udqr A- Nardqunmr ptd k&dmrdlakd EnjbrZ¬. A[ bnmshdms dw‘bsdldms tm
d̀kd̀ldms+ ptdk ptd rnhs k&dmrdlakd A- B&drs k‘ qdk‘shnm uhcd ’pth drs enmbshnmmdkkd o‘q cd̀e‘ts(+ ds nm
‘ dwokhbhsdldms
EnjbrZ¬. A[ ; {¬{. ’1-03(
Dm tshkhr‘ms bdbh bnlld bnmchshnm hmhsh‘kd+ nm odts b‘kbtkdq qd̀btqrhudldms k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr
cd > udqr A knqrptd > ds A rnms cdr dmrdlakdr ffmhr- Nm ‘


0( e ; ¬ ds > ; ¬.

e ∈ EnjbrZ>. A[ rrh 1( e ; f ) {’w. x({. ‘udb w ∈ >. x ∈ A. ds ’1-04(


 f ∈ EnjbrZ> \ {w{. A[.
∣
Ontq e 9 > → A+ ds B tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd >+ nm ‘ k‘ qdrsqhbshnm e ∣B + cd e ı ‘ B+ cd̀ffmhd dm onr‘ms
∣
e ∣B 9; {’w. e ’w(( | w ∈ B{. ’1-05(
∣
Hk dm qd̀rtksd cnmb tmd enmbshnm e ∣B 9 B → A-
Ptdk ptd rnhs A+ rntr,dmrdlakd cd >+ nm odts cd̀ffmhq k‘ enmbshnm bˆqˆbsd̀qhrshptd+ A 9 > → {/. 0{+
cd A c‘mr >+ dm onr‘ms !
0 rh. w ∈ A.
A’w( 9; ’1-06(
/ rhmnm.
Bdssd enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd kd rntr,dmrdlakd A o‘q kd e‘hs ptd
A ; {w ∈ > | A’w( ; 0{. ds A ; {w ∈ > | A’w( ; /{. ’1-07(
t Q drs tmd qdk‘shnm cd Zm[ udqr Zj[+ k‘ enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd Q 9 Zm[ · Zj[ → {/. 0{
C‘mr kd b‘r nı
bnqqdronmc‘msd !
0 rh. ’h. i( ∈ Q.
Q’h. i( 9; ’1-08(
/ rh. ’h. i( 6∈ Q.
drs tmd lˆsqhbd m·j cnms kdr bndflbhdmsr rnms cdr 0 nt cdr /- Nm chs ptd Q drs k‘ lˆsqhbd c´hmbhcdmbd
cd k‘ qdk‘shnm Q- O‘q dwdlokd+ ‘udb m ; 2 ds j ; 3+ k‘ qdk‘shnm
Q ; {’0. 0(. ’0. 2(. ’0. 3(. ’1. 1(. ’1. 2(. ’2. 0(. ’2. 3({
bnqqdronmcr ‘hmrh ı
‘ k‘ l‘sqhbd 5 
0 / 0 0
Q ; / 0 0 /
0 / / 0
C‘mr kd b‘r c&tmd qdk‘shnm enmbshnmmdkkd e + k‘ l‘sqhbd nasdmtd bnmshdms dw‘bsdldms tm rdtk 0 rtq
bg‘btmd cd rdr khfmdr-
4/ BG9OHSQD 1- DMRDLAKDR DS ENMBSHNMR
Bdssd cdqmhıdqd bnmrsqtbshnm drs tm b‘r rod̀bh‘k cd enmbshnm cd k‘ enqld L 9; Zm[ · Zj[ → >+ ı ‘ u‘kdtq
c‘mr tm dmrdlakd > ptdkbnmptd- Tmd sdkkd enmbshnm r&hcdmshffd m‘stqdkkdldms ı ‘ tmd l‘sqhbd m · j
cnms kdr bndflbhdmsr rnms bgnhrhr c‘mr k&dmrdlakd >+ rhlokdldms dm oqdm‘ms L ’h. i( bnlld u‘kdtq
dm onrhshnm ’h. i( c‘mr k‘ l‘sqhbd- ?hmrh+ ontq > ; {a. a. b. c. d{+ nm ‘ k‘ l‘sqhbd 1 · 2
( )
a a b
b a d
‘ k‘ enmbshnm rtq Z1[ · Z2[+ oqdm‘ms kdr u‘kdtqr

pth bnqqdronmc ı
L ’0. 0( ; a. L ’0. 1( ; a. L ’0. 2( ; b.

L ’1. 0( ; b. L ’1. 1( ; 0. L ’1. 2( ; d.
1-6-0 Ahidbshnmr
C‘mr tmd oqdlhıdqd hmsqnctbshnm ı ‘ k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dm,

rdlakdr+ k‘ bnqqdronmc‘mbd d̀s‘akhd o‘q tmd ahidbshnm
e 9 > → A+ dmsqd kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > ds bdtw cd A+ drs
rntudms hmsqncthsd o‘q tmd qdoqd̀rdms‘shnm m‘—ıud bnlld
bdkkd cd k‘ Ehftqd 1-0- Cd e‘b́nm oktr oqd̀bhrd+ nm ‘ k‘
cd̀ffmhshnm rthu‘msd- Tmd enmbshnm e cd > udqr A+ drs tmd
ahidbshnm+ rh nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm hmudqrd e 0 9 A → >+
ontq k‘ bnlonrhshnm+ b-,ı ‘,c- 9
0 0
e ◦ e ; Hc, . ds e ◦e ; HcA . ’1-1/(
Ehftpd 1-0 z Qdoqd̀rdms‘shnm m‘—ıud c&tmd
Hk drs sqıdr e‘bhkd cd ud̀qhffdq pt&hk md odts x ‘unhq pt&tm ahidbshnm-
hmudqrd ontq k‘ bnlonrhshnm+ b-,ı ‘,c- 9
Nqnonrhshnm 1-0- Ontq sntsd enmbshnm e 9 > → A) rh f 9 A → > drs sdkkd ptd
f ◦ e ; Hc, . ds e ◦ f ; HcA . ’1-10(
ˆknqr f ; e 0-
Ontq lnmsqdq ptd e 9 > → A drs tmd ahidbshnm+ hk e‘ts cnmb lnmsqdq pt&nm odts bnmrsqthqd tmd
enmbshnm pth r‘shre‘hs ’1-10(-
Nm cd̀rhfmd o‘q AgiZ>. A[ k&dmrdlakd ’ffmh( cdr qdk‘shnmr ahidbshudr dmsqd > ds A+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
%
AgiZ>. A[ 9; {e ∈ EnjbrZ>. A[ | e 9 > → A{. ’1-11(
b&drs,ı‘,chqd pt&tm d̀kd̀ldms md odts,]dsqd bgnhrh pt&tmd rdtkd enhr- Tmd enqltk‘shnm tm odt oktr sdbg,
mhptd ’l‘hr oktr e‘bhkd ı ‘ l‘mhotkdq( cd bdssd cd̀ffmhshnm oqdmc k‘ enqld rthu‘msd- Tmd enmbshnm
e 9 > → A drs hmidbshud rh ds rdtkdldms rh+ ontq snts w0 ds snts w1 c‘mr >
w0 6; w1 hlokhptd e ’w0 ( 6; e ’w1 (. ’1-13(
bd pth d̀pthu‘ts ’knfhptdldms( ı

‘ chqd ‘trrh ptd
e ’w0 ( ; e ’w1 ( dmsq‘hmd enqbd̀ldms w0 ; w1 . ’1-14(
Hk dm cd̀bntkd ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 1-5( ptd e drs hmidbshud rh ds rdtkdldms rh e ‘clds tm hmudqrd ı̂ fˆtbgd+
b-,ı‘,c- 9 hk dwhrsd f 9 A → > sdk ptd f ◦ e ; Hc, - Dm fd̀md̀q‘k+ tm sdk hmudqrd ı
‘ f‘tbgd m&drs o‘r tmhptd+
ds hk m&drs o‘r tm hmudqrd ı ‘ cqnhsd-
Nm cd̀mnsd rntudms o‘q kd rxlankd ∗ ↪→ " kd e‘hs pt&tmd enmbshnm rnhs hmidbshud- Nm d̀bqhs cnmb
e 9 > ↪→ A+ ontq chqd ptd e drs tmd hmidbshud- Nm cd̀rhfmd o‘q GjiZ>. A[ k&dmrdlakd cdr qdk‘shnmr
enmbshnmmdkkdr e sdkkdr ptd e 9 > ↪→ A rnhs tmd enmbshnm hmidbshud cd > udqr A+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
GjiZ>. A[ 9; {e ∈ EnjbrZ>. A[ | e 9 > ↪→ A{. ’1-15(
Nm b‘kbtkd qd̀btqrhudldms k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr hmidbshudr cd > udqr A knqrptd > ds A rnms cdr
dmrdlakdr ffmhr- Nm ‘


’0( e ; ¬ ds > ; ¬.

e ∈ GjiZ>. A[ rrh ’1( e ; f ) {’w. x({. ‘udb w ∈ >. x ∈ A. ds ’1-16(


 f ∈ GjiZ> \ {w{. A \ {x{[.
Nardqunmr ptd k‘ rdtkd chΨd̀qdmbd dmsqd bdssd cdrbqhoshnm ds bdkkd dm ’1-12( drs c‘mr k‘ o‘qshd ’0(-
K‘ qdrrdlak‘mbd m&drs o‘r enqsthsd- Dkkd r&dmrths ct e‘hs pt&tmd hmidbshnm dmsqd cdtw dmrdlakdr cd
l]dld b‘qchm‘k drs enqbd̀ldms tmd ahidbshnm ’unhq Oqnonrhshnm 1-1(- Ontq > ; {a. a{ ds A ; {0. 1. 2{+
nm ‘
GjiZ>. A[ ; { {’a. 0(. ’a. 1({. {’a. 1(. ’a. 0({.
{’a. 0(. ’a. 2({. {’a. 2(. ’a. 0({.
{’a. 1(. ’a. 2({. {’a. 2(. ’a. 1({ {.
Ontq pt&hk dwhrsd tmd hmidbshnm e 9 > ↪→ A+ kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > cnhs md̀bdrr‘hqdldms ]dsqd oktr
odshs nt d̀f‘k ı ‘,c- 9 |>| ≤ |A|- Nm ‘ cnmb GjiZ>. A[ ; ¬+ knqrptd |>| / |A|-
‘ bdkth cd A+ b-,ı
Kd bnlonrd̀ cd cdtw enmbshnmr hmidbshudr drs sntintqr tmd enmbshnm hmidbshud- Cd oktr+ rh nm ‘ cdtw
enmbshnmr sdkkdr ptd kd bnlonrd̀ f ◦ e rnhs tmd enmbshnm hmidbshud+ ‘knqr e drs enqbd̀ldms hmidbshud ’l‘hr
o‘r md̀bdrr‘hqdldms f(-
1-7 Bnlosdq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr çtm dmrdlakd
Knqrpt&nm bgdqbgd ı‘ bnlosdq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd >+ kd oqnakıdld rd cd̀bnlonrd rntudms dm
tm ’nt cdr( oqnakıdld’r( oktr rhlokd’r(+ rdknm ptd k&dmrdlakd ı
‘ d̀mtld̀qdq odts rd cd̀bqhqd dm sdqld
cdr bnmrsqtbshnmr cd a‘rd rtq kdr dmrdlakdr-
Nm cd̀l‘qqd kdr bgnrdr dm lnmsq‘ms ’o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd( ptd
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 1-2- Ph > ds A rnms cdr dmrdlakdr ffmhr) qdrodbshudldms cd bˆqchmˆk m ds j) ˆknqr nm ˆ
kdr d̀fˆkhsd̀r rthuˆmsdr .
’h( |> ) A| ; m ) j. ’hh( |> · A| ; m j.

( )
m
’hhh( |OZ>[| ; 1m . ’hu( |O j Z>[| ; . ’1-20(
j
’u( |A m | ; j m .
Kd oqnakıdld cd bnlosdq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd ffmh drs o‘qenhr chflbhkd+ ds l]dld c‘mr bdqs‘hmr
b‘r o‘r dmbnqd qd̀rnkt- Hk cnmmd khdt ı
‘ tm cnl‘hmd cdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr pt&nm ‘oodkkd k‘ bnlahmˆsnhqd
d̀mtld̀qˆshud- B&drs k&tm cdr cnl‘hmdr cd qdbgdqbgd c‘mr kdptdk cdr oqnedrrdtqr ct cd̀o‘qsdldms cd
l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr cd k&TP?L rnms rod̀bh‘khrd̀r- Ontq dm r‘unhq oktr ı ‘ bd rtids+ nm odts bnmrtksdq k‘
o‘fd vda ct bdmsqd cd qdbgdqbgd hmrshstshnmmdk ∗ Kˆbhl " 9
gsso/..vvv-k_bhl-tp_l-b_.
Ontq cdr dmrdlakdr hmffmhr+ nm ‘ ‘trrh cdr qd̀rtks‘sr c&d̀mtld̀q‘shnm- Hk x ‘ dm e‘hs sntsd tmd ghd̀q‘qbghd
cdr hmffmhr+ kd oktr odshs d̀s‘ms k&hmffmh bnqqdronmc‘ms ‘t ∗ mnlaqd " cd k&dmrdlakd K- Nm kd cd̀mnsd
ℵ+ - B‘msnq ‘ d̀stchd̀ bdssd ptdrshnm+ dm dwoknhs‘ms kd onhms cd utd ptd cdtw dmrdlakdr nms kd l]dld
bˆqchmˆk rh ds rdtkdldms r&hk dwhrsd tmd ahidbshnm dmsqd kdr cdtw- ?tsqdldms chs+
%
|>| ; |A|. rrh ∃e 9 > → A. ’1-21(
Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ unhq Dwdqbhbd 1-0/+ nm ‘ ptd
|K| ; |S| ; |N| ; ℵ+ . ’1-22(
C&‘tsqd o‘qs+ nm odts ‘trrh unhq ’Dwdqbhbd 1-00( ptd
|Q| ; |OZK[|. ’1-23(
Nm d̀sdmc kdr hmd̀f‘khsd̀r dmsqd b‘qchm‘tw c&dmrdlakdr hmffmhr+ dm bnmrhcd̀q‘ms ptd |>| ≤ |A| r&hk dwhrsd
tmd hmidbshnm cd > c‘mr A- Ahdm dmsdmct+ |>| |A| r&hk x ‘ tmd hmidbshnm cd > c‘mr A+ l‘hr o‘r cd
ahidbshnm- ?udb bdr bnmudmshnmr+ nm lnmsqd pt&nm ‘ sntintqr
1-7- BNLOSDQ KDR D̀KD̀LDMSR ÇTM DMRDLAKD 44
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 1-3 ’B‘msnq(- Ontq snts dmrdlakd >) nm ˆ k´hmd̀fˆkhsd̀ rsqhbsd
|>| |OZ>[|.
Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ nm ‘ k‘ rthsd c&hmd̀f‘khsd̀r
|K| |OZK[| |OZOZK[[| ... .
pth cnmmd khdt ı

‘ tmd ghd̀q‘qbghd c&hmffmhr cd oktr dm oktr fq‘mcr-
Nm md r‘hs o‘r uq‘hldms rh |OZK[| drs kd ∗ rdbnmc 3 " hmffmh- Kd e‘hs cd rtoonrdq ptd b&drs kd b‘r
onqsd kd mnl c&gxonsgıdrd ct bnmshmt- K&tmd cdr bnmrd̀ptdmbdr cd k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀ |K| |OZK[| drs ptd
kd mnlaqd cd enmbshnmr bˆkbtkâkd ’‘udb tm nqchm‘sdtq( cd K c‘mr K ’b&drs ℵ+ ( drs snts odshs o‘q
q‘oonqs ‘t mnlaqd sns‘k cd enmbshnmr cd K c‘mr K ’pth kth drs dm e‘hs d̀f‘k ı
‘ |OZK[|(-
Ontq kd unhq+ nm tshkhrd k‘ mnshnm cd mnlaqd cd Fz ncdk - Nm rtoonrd ptd kdr
‘kfnqhsgldr rnms cd̀bqhsr o‘q tm sdwsd pth tshkhrd tm bdqs‘hm mnlaqd ffwd̀ m
cd b‘q‘bsıdqdr ’‘kog‘ads trtdk dm lhmtrbtkd ds l‘itrbtkd+ bghΨqdr+ kdssqd
fqdbptd+ rxlankdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ dro‘bd ak‘mb+ ds-(- Ontq rhlokhffdq k‘
cdrbqhoshnm+ hl‘fhmnmr pt&nm ‘ ‘rrnbhd̀ ı ‘ bg‘btm cd bdr m rxlankdr tm
tmhptd mnlaqd dmsqd / ds m 0- O‘q dwdlokd+
a ↔ /. a ↔ 1. b ↔ 1. dsb.
Tm sdwsd bnqqdronmc ‘knqr ı

‘ tmd rthsd ffmhd cd bdr mnlaqdr 9
9; a+ a0 a1 · · · aj . ‘udb j∈K ds / ≤ ag ≤ m 0.
Nm sq‘mrenqld ‘knqr ahidbshudldms bdssd rthsd dm tm ’fq‘mc( mnlaqd dm, Jtqs F—ncdk
shdq+ dm onr‘ms ’‘udb ?kadqs Dhmrsdhm(
’ ( 9; a+ ) a0 m ) a1 m1 ) . . . ) aj mj . ’08/5z0867(
?hmrh+ ı‘ bg‘ptd mnlaqd dmshdq hk bnqqdronmc tm sdwsd+ ds hmudqrdldms ı ‘ bg‘ptd sdwsd hk bnqqdronmc tm
mnlaqd- Ahdm dmsdmct+ k‘ okto‘qs cdr sdwsdr 4 ‘rrnbhd̀r ı ‘ cdr dmshdqr rnms r‘mr ‘tbtmd rhfmhffb‘shnm+
l‘hr sntr bdtw pth cd̀bqhudms cdr ‘kfnqhsgldr dm enms o‘qshd- Cd oktr+ tm l]dld ‘kfnqhsgld odts,]dsqd
cd̀bqhs cd oktrhdtqr e‘b́nmr chΨd̀qdmsdr- Nm dm bnmbkts pt&hk x ‘ ‘t oktr ℵ+ ‘kfnqhsgldr onrrhakdr-
3- Kd oktr odshs hmffmh oktr fqˆmc ptd ℵ) + pth onqsd kd mnl cd ℵ0 -

4- Bdkˆ hmbkts dmsqd ˆtsqdr kdr ndtuqdr bnlokıdsdr cd Rgˆjdrodˆqd nt cd Unksˆhqd+
dptd cd AnqfdrΓ·(
Kˆ ahakhnsgı
K&d̀bqhu‘hm ‘qfdmshm Inrd̀ Kthr Anqfdr oqnonrd tmd uhrhnm ‘ltr‘msd cd k‘

Ahakhnsgıdptd cd Aâdk ’Kˆ Ahakhnsdbˆ cd Aâdk ( pth bnmshdms sntr kdr khuqdr
’hk x dm ‘ tm mnlaqd ffmh( cd 30/ o‘fdr pt&hk drs onrrhakd c&d̀bqhqd ‘udb kdr
14 kdssqdr c&tm bdqs‘hm ‘kog‘ads- Bdssd mntudkkd+ sq‘cthsd dm oktrhdtqr
k‘mftdr+ cnms kd eq‘mb́‘hr+ cd̀bqhs k&dwhrsdmbd cdr g‘ahs‘msr cd bdssd ah,
akhnsgıdptd+ pt&hkr md pthssdms i‘l‘hr- Kdr khuqdr x rnms chronrd̀r ‘t g‘r‘qc+
ds bg‘btm cdr g‘ahs‘msr drs ı ‘ k‘ qdbgdqbgd c&tm khuqd o‘qshbtkhıdqdldms hl,
onqs‘ms ontq kth 9 kd bˆsˆknftd cdr bˆsˆknftdr+ kˆ cdrbqhoshnm cd sntsd rˆ
uhd) oˆrrd̀d ds etstqd+ kˆ cdrbqhoshnm cd kńqhfhmd cd kˆ ahakhnsgıdptd+ dsb-
Nm drshld pt&hk x ‘ cd k&nqcqd cd 0/7+ ‘snldr c‘mr k‘ o‘qshd ∗ nardq, Inrd̀ Kthr Anqfdr
u‘akd " cd mnsqd tmhudqr- Bdodmc‘ms+ rh nm rtoonrd pt&hk x ‘ 0/// b‘, ’08/5z0867(
q‘bsıdqdr o‘q o‘fd c&tm khuqd cd k‘ ahakhnsgıdptd cd Anqfdr+ ‘knqr kd mnlaqd
cd khuqdr drs
1430+ϕ+++ .
bd pth drs ptdkptd odt oktr fq‘mc ptd kd mnlaqd c&‘snldr cnms hk drs ptdrshnm- Hk drs cnmb tm odt
chflbhkd cd sqntudq ‘rrdy cd ok‘bd ’ds cd l‘sd̀qhdk( ontq d̀qhfdq k‘ ahakhnsgıdptd cd Anqfdr c‘mr mnsqd
tmhudqr-
1-8 Dmrdlakdr) cd̀bhcâhkhsd̀) ds bnlokdvhsd̀ çˆkfnqhsgldr’∗(
Hmenqldkkdldms+ nm chs c&tm rntr,dmrdlakd >+ cdr dmshdqr onrhsher K+ pt&hk drs cd̀bhcâkd r&hk dwhrsd tm
‘kfnqhsgld dΨdbshe ’pth r&‘qq]dsd ‘oqıdr tm sdlor ffmh( pth odqlds cd ud̀qhffdq k&‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd nt mnm
‘ bds dmrdlakd-
ı
Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm cdl‘mcd ptd k‘ enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd cd > rnhs bˆkbtkâkd ‘udb tmd Lˆbghmd
cd Stqhmf 5 ’tm nqchm‘sdtq+ r‘mr khlhsdr oqd̀bhrdr cd ld̀lnhqd(- Bdk‘ bnloqdmc kdr enmbshnmr pt&nm
odts bnmrsqthqd+ ı‘ o‘qshq cdr enmbshnmr cd a‘rd rtq kdr dmshdqr+ ‘udb k‘ bnlonrhshnm ds k‘ qd̀btqrhuhsd̀-
Ontq bdqs‘hmr dmrdlakdr+ hk drs e‘bhkd cd cd̀sdqlhmdq pt&hk rnms cd̀bhc‘akdr- B&drs kd b‘r+ o‘q dwdlokd+
ontq k&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr o‘hqr+ nt k&dmrdlakd cdr mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr-
Nm odts oqntudq ptd k&‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd ı ‘ bdqs‘hmr dmrdlakdr drs dm e‘hs hmcd̀bhcâkd- B&drs,ı
‘,chqd pt&hk
md odts o‘r x ‘unhq c&‘kfnqhsgld odqldss‘ms cd sdrsdq bdssd ‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd- Hk drs e‘rbhm‘ms cd unhq
‘hmrh pt&nm m&‘tq‘ i‘l‘hr k‘ onrrhahkhsd̀ cd qd̀rntcqd bd fdmqd cd ptdrshnmr ‘udb tm nqchm‘sdtq sdk
pt&nm kdr bnmb́nhs- Bdodmc‘ms+ sqıdr rntudms nm md r‘hs o‘r ’dmbnqd( rh tmd ptdrshnm drs cd̀bhc‘akd nt
mnm- ?udb kd oqnakıdld cd Bnkk‘sy+ nm dm ‘ tm dwdlokd-
5- =kˆm L- Stqhmf ’0801z0843(

1-8- DMRDLAKDR) CD̀BHC9AHKHSD̀) DS BNLOKDVHSD̀ Ç9KFNQHSGLDRΓ·( 46
Knqrpt&nm ‘ tm ‘kfnqhsgld ontq b‘kbtkdq tmd enmbshnm e 9 K → V+ bdkth,bh m&drs o‘r md̀bdrr‘hqdldms
sqıdr dflb‘bd- O‘qenhr l]dld+ hk drs oq‘shptdldms hmtshkd- Hk hlonqsd cnmb+ ‘ts‘ms ptd onrrhakd+ c&‘unhq
tmd hcd̀d ct ∗ sdlor cd b‘kbtk " md̀bdrr‘hqd ontq b‘kbtkdq e ’m(+ dm enmbshnm cd k‘ u‘kdtq cd m-
K&dwoqdrrhnm dw‘bsd cd bd sdlor cd b‘kbtk drs fd̀md̀q‘kdldms sqno bnlokdwd ontq ]dsqd chqdbsdldms
b‘kbtk‘akd- Nm tshkhrd cnmb tmd enqld c&‘ooqnwhl‘shnm pth cnmmd tm nqcqd cd fq‘mcdtq ontq bd sdlor
cd b‘kbtk- B&drs k‘ mns‘shnm N’f’m((+ pth ldrtqd k‘ bnlokdwhsd̀ c´tm ˆkfnqhsgld- Hmsthshudldms+ kdr
‘kfnqhsgldr dm
’0( N’0(+ chsr bnmrsˆmsr+ rnms ∗ hmrs‘ms‘md̀r "+
’1( N’knf’m((+ chsr knfˆqhsglhptdr+ rnms ∗ sqıdr q‘ohcdr "+
’2( N’m(+ chsr khmd̀ˆhqdr+ rnms ∗ q‘ohcdr "+
’3( N’m1 (+ chsr ptˆcqˆshptdr+ rnms ∗ ‘rrdy q‘ohcdr "+
’4( N’mj (+ chsr onkxmnlhˆtw rnms ∗ ‘bbdos‘akdr "+
’5( N’dm (+ chsr dwonmdmshdkr rnms ∗ sqıdr kdmsr "-
’6( N’m¸(+ chsr eˆbsnqhdkr rnms ∗ sqıdr sqıdr kdmsr "-
?t,cdkı ‘ cd N’m¸( ’ds rntudms l]dld ‘u‘ms(+ kdr ‘kfnqhsgldr cduhdmmdms drrdmshdkkdldms hmtshkhr‘akdr
’l]dld rtq tm rtodqnqchm‘sdtq(- C&tm onhms cd utd sdbgmhptd+ nm ‘rrnbhd ı ‘ bg‘ptd enmbshnm g’w(
’cd̀ffmhd ontq w ∈ Q rh w drs ‘rrdy fq‘mc+ ds ı
‘ u‘kdtqr onrhshudr(+ nm cd̀mnsd o‘q N’g’w(( tm bdqs‘hm
dmrdlakd cd enmbshnmr- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm ‘ f’w( ∈ N’g’w((+ r&hk dwhrsd M / / ds tmd bdqs‘hmd
bnmrs‘msd onrhshud L + sdkr ptd
f’w( ≤ L · g’w(. ontq snts w / M.
?tsqdldms chs+ ı‘ tm ltkshokd L oqıdr+ k‘ enmbshnm g’w( bqnhs oktr uhsd ptd k‘ enmbshnm f’w( ontq cdr
u‘kdtqr ‘rrdy fq‘mcdr cd w- Nm lnmsqd e‘bhkdldms pt&nm ‘ kdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r
’0( Rh f0 ∈ N’g0 ( ds f1 ∈ N’g1 ( ‘knqr f0 ) f1 ∈ N’g0 ) g1 (. ’1-24(

’1( Rh f0 ∈ N’g0 ( ds f1 ∈ N’g1 ( ‘knqr f0 f1 ∈ N’g0 · g1 (. ’1-25(
’2( Rh f// ‘knqr f · N’g( ⊆ N’f · g(. ’1-26(
?m‘kxrdq k‘ bnlokdwhsd̀ c&tm ‘kfnqhsgld pth b‘kbtkd k‘ enmbshnm e ’m( bnmrhrsd cnmb ı
‘ drshldq kd
mnlaqd l‘whltl ’nt lnxdm( c&d̀s‘odr rhlokdr cd b‘kbtk pth rnms md̀bdrr‘hqdr knqr ct b‘kbtk- Bdssd
drshl‘shnm r&dwoqhld rntr k‘ enqld N’f’m((+ cnmb dm sdqld c&tmd enmbshnm cd m-
K&‘m‘kxrd cd bnlokdwhsd̀ lnxdmmd c&tm ‘kfnqhsgld odts rd e‘hqd cd e‘b́nm ad‘tbnto oktr ffmd+ ‘t
lnxdm c&ntshkr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr d̀k‘anqd̀r 9 enmbshnmr fd̀md̀qˆsqhbdr+ bnlahmˆsnhqd d̀mtld̀qˆshud+ ˆmˆkxrd
bnlokdwd+ ˆmˆkxrd cd rhmftkˆqhsd̀+ dsb-
C‘mr tm ‘tsqd qdfhrsqd+ nm d̀stchd ‘trrh k‘ bnlokdwhsd̀ sgd̀nqhptd cd bdqs‘hmr b‘kbtkr- C‘mr bd b‘r
hk r&‘fhs lnhmr c&drshldq k‘ bnlokdwhsd̀ lnxdmmd cd b‘kbtkr dwokhbhsdr+ ptd cd cd̀lnmsqdq pt&hk drs
onrrhakd nt hlonrrhakd cd qd̀rntcqd ∗ dflb‘bdldms " cdr oqnakıdldr c&tm bdqs‘hm fdmqd- Hbh k&dflb‘,
bhsd̀ drs ı
‘ oqdmcqd ‘udb tm fq‘hm cd rdk- Dkkd rhfmhffd k&dwhrsdmbd c&‘kfnqhsgldr pth b‘kbtkd dm sdlor
onkxmnlh‘k+ l‘hr nm md r‘hs o‘qenhr l]dld o‘r bnlldms bnmrsqthqd bdr ‘kfnqhsgldr- Ohqd dmbnqd+ hk
x ‘ cdr dwdlokdr dwokhbhsdr ontq kdrptdkr nm odts cd̀lnmsqdq pt&hk ∗ dwhrsd " cdr ‘kfnqhsgldr onkx,
mnlh‘tw : l‘hr nm odts ‘trrh cd̀lnmsqdq pt&nm md r‘tq‘ i‘l‘hr kdr sqntudq- C&‘tsqd o‘qs+ l]dld cdr
‘kfnqhsgldr onkxmnlh‘tw odtudms ]dsqd oq‘shptdldms hmtshkhr‘akdr+ rh k&dwonr‘ms cd m drs sqıdr fq‘mc-
B&drs c‘mr bd bnmsdwsd ptd rd onrd kd oqnakıdld sntintqr ntudqs ∗ O udqrtr MO "- Hmenqldkkdldms+
k‘ ptdrshnm drs cd r‘unhq rh kd e‘hs pt&nm othrrd ud̀qhffdq dm sdlor onkxmnlh‘k pt&nm ‘ ahdm tmd rnkt,
shnm ‘tw oqnakıdldr c&tmd bdqs‘hmd e‘lhkkd+ hlokhptd nt mnm pt&nm othrrd dΨdbshudldms sqntudq cdr
rnktshnmr ‘tw oqnakıdldr dm ptdrshnm dm sdlor onkxmnlh‘k- B&drs rtashk+ ds hk drs md̀bdrr‘hqd cd e‘hqd
‘ssdmshnm ı
‘ k&d̀mnmbd̀ dw‘bs-
Tm ‘tsqd onhms cd utd oktr bnmbqds rtq k‘ ptdrshnm cdr b‘kbtkr chflbhkdr drs rntkdud̀ o‘q k‘ onrrhahkhsd̀
cd bnmrsqthqd cdr ∗ nqchm‘sdtqr pt‘mshptdr "- ?udb cd sdkr ntshkr+ nm odts bnmsntqmdq bdqs‘hmdr chfl,
btksd̀r cd b‘kbtk- O‘q dwdlokd+ cdr sq‘u‘tw sgd̀nqhptdr lnmsqdms bnlldms bnmrsqthqd cdr ‘kfnqhsgldr
dflb‘bdr cd e‘bsnqhr‘shnm cd fq‘mcr dmshdqr+ rh nm ‘qqhud tm intq ı
‘ ‘unhq ‘bbıdr ı
‘ cd sdkr nqchm‘sdtqr-
Kd oˆqˆcnvd cd Qtrrdkk
K‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr sdkkd ptd enqltkd̀d o‘q B‘msnq m&d̀s‘hs o‘r
‘rrdy oqd̀bhrd- Adqsq‘mc Qtrrdkk k&‘ lhr dm d̀uhcdmbd dm rntkhfm‘ms
pt&dkkd cnmm‘hs khdt ‘t o‘q‘cnwd rthu‘ms- Nm bnmrhcıdqd k&dmrdlakd
∗ cd sntr kdr dmrdlakdr pth md rd bnmshdmmdms o‘r dtw,l] dld "- Dm
enqltkd+ b&drs
> ; {w | w 6∈ w{. ’1-27(
K‘ ptdrshnm pth rd onrd drs cd r‘unhq rh
>∈> nı
t > 6∈ >.
Gnqr nm bnmrs‘sd ’‘udb Qtrrdk( ptd
>∈> hlokhptd > 6∈ >. Adqsq‘mc Qtrrdkk
’0761,086/(
ds qd̀bhoqnptdldms ¸ B&drs kı
‘ kd o‘q‘cnwd- ?ssdmshnm+ nm bnmrhcıdqd hbh k‘ mnshnm c&dmrdlakd ı‘ k‘
B‘msnq- Bdssd bnmrsqtbshnm m&drs o‘r onrrhakd c‘mr kdr udqrhnmr lncdqmdr cd k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr-
Dm dΨds+ ontq qdld̀chdq ‘t o‘q‘cnwd cd Qtrrdk+ nm ‘ d̀bg‘e‘tcd̀ oktrhdtqr ‘whnl‘shptdr oqd̀bhrdr
ontq k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr- K&tmd cdr oktr bnmmtdr drs bdkkd chsd cd Ydqldkn,Eq‘dmjdk oqd̀rdmsd̀d
rbgd̀l‘shptdldms ı ‘ k&‘oodmchbd A- B&drs c‘mr cd sdkr bnmsdwsdr ptd kdr l‘sgd̀l‘shbhdmr sq‘u‘hkkdms
l‘hmsdm‘ms-
1-0. Dvdqbhbdr
1-0- Lnmsqdq ptd+ ontq sntr dmrdlakdr > ds A nm ‘

1-0.- DVDQBHBDR 48
‘( > ; > V A rh ds rdtkdldms rh A ; > ∩ A-

a( > V ’> ∩ A( ; >+ ds > ∩ ’> V A( ; >+
1-1- Ontq cdr dmrdlakdr chrinhmsr > ds A+ b&drs,ı ‘,chqd ptd > ∩ A ; ¬+ nm chs cd > V A ptd b&drs
tmd tmhnm chrinhmsd- Nm d̀bqhs ‘knqr > ) A ontq bdssd tmhnm- Lnmsqdq ptd+ ontq sntr dmrdlakdr >+
A ds B cdtw ı ‘ cdtw chrinhmsr+ nm ‘
‘( > ) ¬ ; >+
a( > ) A ; A ) >+
b( ’> ) A( · B ; ’> · B( ) ’A · B(+
c( > ) ’A ) B( ; ’> ) A( ) B-
Dm tshkhr‘ms bdssd cdqmhıdqd ‘rrnbh‘shuhsd̀+ lnmsqdq pt&nm odts d̀sdmcqd k‘ mnshnm
c&tmhnm chrinhmsd ‘tw
e‘lhkkdr c&dmrdlakdr cdtw ı ‘ cdtw chrinhmsr- Nm tshkhrd ‘knqr kd rxlankd cd ∗ "+ ds nm d̀bqhs cnmb
m
∑
>g ; >0 ) >1 ) . . . ) >m . ’1-28(
g90
snts bnlld c&g‘ahstcd- Hk r&‘fhs hbh cd ud̀qhffdq ptd k‘ u‘kdtq cd ’1-28( md cd̀odmc o‘r cd k‘ e‘b́nm
c&nqf‘mhrdq kd b‘kbtk ’ok‘bdq cdr o‘qdmsgıdrdr(-
1-2- Lnmsqdq ptd kdr dmrdlakdr ı ‘ tm d̀kd̀ldms ’kdr rhmfkdsnmr( rnms cdr hcdmshsd̀r ontq kd oqncths
b‘qsd̀rhdm ’ı
‘ tmd ahidbshnm oqıdr(- Lnmsqdq ‘trrh pt&nm ‘ kdr hcdmshsd̀r rthu‘msdr ’lnctkn cdr ahidbshnmr
pth bnmrhrsdms ı‘ qd̀nqcnmmdq kdr bnlonr‘msdr(
% %
’h( A m · A j → A m)j . ds ’hhh( ’A m (j → Am j. ’1-3/(
Lnmsqdq dmffm pt&nm odts hcdmshffdq ’uh‘ tmd ahidbshnm ‘cd̀pt‘sd( kdr dmrdlakdr A m ds EnjbrZZm[. A[-
1-3- Lnmsqdq+ o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq m+ k‘ enqltkd ct ahm]nld cd Mdvsnm 9
∑m ( )
m j m j
’w ) x(m ; w x . ’1-30(
j
j9+
Rtffdrshnm 9 Tshkhrdq ’0-17(-

1-4- Nm cd̀ffmhs qd̀btqrhudldms kdr enmbshnmr ’cd K udqr K( 9
!
0 rh m ≤ 0.
e ’m( 9;
e ’m 0( ) 1 e ’m 1( rh m / 0.
ds 

0 rh m ≤ 0.
f’m( 9; 1 f’m 0( 0 rh m drs hlo‘hq.


1 f’m 0( ) 0 rh m drs o‘hq.
Lnmsqdq ptd e ; f-
5/ BG9OHSQD 1- DMRDLAKDR DS ENMBSHNMR
1-5- Lnmsqdq ptd

‘( e 9 > → A drs hmidbshud rr&hk dwhrsd f 9 A → > sdk ptd f ◦ e ; Hc, -
a( Kd bnlonrd̀ cd enmbshnmr hmidbshudr drs hmidbshe-
b( Cnmmdq tm dwdlokd c&tmd enmbshnm hmidbshud cd {a. a{ c‘mr {0. 1. 2{+ ‘hmrh ptd cdtw hmudqrdr
ı‘ f‘tbgd chrshmbsr cd bdssd enmbshnm-
c( e 9 > → A drs rtqidbshud rr&hk dwhrsd f 9 A → > sdk ptd e ◦ f ; HcA -
d( Kd bnlonrd̀ cd enmbshnmr rtqidbshudr drs rtqidbshe-
b( Cnmmdq tm dwdlokd c&tmd enmbshnm rtqidbshud cd {a. a. b{ c‘mr {0. 1{+ ‘hmrh ptd cdtw hmudqrdr
ı‘ cqnhsd chrshmbsr cd bdssd enmbshnm-
‘ k‘ enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd cnmmd tmd ahidbshnm dmsqd k&dmrdlakd OZ>[

1-6- Ud̀qhffdq ptd kd o‘rr‘fd ı
ds k&dmrdlakd EnjbrZ>. {/. 0{[-
1-7- Lnmsqdq o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd m¸ drs kd mnlaqd cd ahidbshnmr dmsqd cdtw dmrdlakdr cd b‘qchm‘k m-
1-8- Ptdk ptd rnhs kdr dmrdlakdr >+ A+ ds B+ sqntudq cdr ahidbshnmr dwokhbhsdr 9
%
h( EnjbrZ> ) A. B[ → EnjbrZ>. B[ · EnjbrZA. B[.
%
hh( EnjbrZ>. A · B[ → EnjbrZ>. A[ · EnjbrZ>. B[. ’1-31(
%
hhh( EnjbrZ>. EnjbrZA. B[[ → EnjbrZ> · A. B[.
1-0.- Lnmsqdq c&‘anqc ptd k‘ enmbshnm θ 9; K → S+ cd̀ffmhd bnlld

!
j rh m ; 1 j.
θ’m( ; ’1-32(
j rh m ; 1 j 0.
%
drs tmd ahidbshnm- Lnmsqdq dmrthsd pt&nm nashdms ahdm tmd ahidbshnm ϕ 9; S → N+ dm onr‘ms ϕ’/( ; /+
ds
γΓ" ( γΓ" ( γΓ" (
ϕ’± m( ; ± o0 0 o1 1 · · · oi f ’1-33(
knqrptd k‘ cd̀bnlonrhshnm cd m / /+ dm oqncths cd othrr‘mbdr cd mnlaqdr oqdlhdqr chrshmbsr 6 + drs

"
m ; o"00 o"11 · · · oi f .
1-00- Lnmsqdq c&‘anqc pt&hk x ‘ ahidbshnm dmsqd k&dmrdlakd ’/. 0( ds Q+ dm tshkhr‘ms k‘ enmbshnm
e 9; ’/. 0( → Q+ cd̀ffmhd bnlld
e ’w( 9; s‘m’π w π<1(.
6- Snts dmshdq mˆstqdk ˆclds tmd tmhptd sdkkd cd̀bnlonrhshnm-

1-0.- DVDQBHBDR 50
Ontq sntr dmrdlakdr > ds A+ nm ‘ ptd |>| ≥ |A| r&hk dwhrsd tmd rtqidbshnm cd > udqr A- Lnmsqdq
pt&nm ‘ tmd rtqidbshnm 7 f 9; OZK[ ! Z/. 0[+ cd̀ffmhd dm onr‘ms
∑ 0
f’>( ; >’j( .
1j)0
j∞K
nı
t >’j( drs k‘ u‘kdtq dm j cd k‘ enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd ct rntr,dmrdlakd >-
1-01 ’Fd̀md̀qVshnm cd rntr,dmrdlakdr’-

‘( ?t lnxdm cd k‘ enqltkd ’1-0/(+ d̀bqhqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd qd̀btqrhud pth b‘kbtkd k&dmrdlakd cdr
o‘qshdr ı
‘ j d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd-
a( D̀bqhqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth dmfdmcqd ‘kd̀‘snhqdldms ’‘udb chrsqhatshnm tmhenqld 8 ( tm d̀kd̀ldms
cd O j Z>[-
1-02- Bnmbdunhq cdr oqnbd̀ctqdr pth+ d̀s‘ms cnmmd̀r cdr dmrdlakdr ffmhr > ds A+ dmfdmcqdms kdr dm,
rdlakdr 9
‘( EnjbrZ>. A[. a( AgiZ>. A[. b( GjiZ>. A[. c(Γ·( ItoiZ>. A[
?ssdmshnm+ bdr dmrdlakdr cduhdmmdms q‘ohcdldms sqıdr fq‘mcr-
1-03- Bnmbdunhq cdr oqnbd̀ctqdr cd b‘kbtk enqldk pth+ d̀s‘ms cnmmd̀r cdr dmrdlakdr ffmhr > ds A+
dmfdmcqdms ‘kd̀‘snhqdldms ’‘udb chrsqhatshnm tmhenqld( tm d̀kd̀ldms cd 9
‘( EnjbrZ>. A[. a( AgiZ>. A[. b( GjiZ>. A[. c(Γ·( ItoiZ>. A[
Bdr oqnbd̀ctqdr cduq‘hdms ontunhq enmbshnmmdq ontq cdr dmrdlakdr ad‘tbnto oktr fq‘mcr ptd bdtw
cd k&dwdqbhbd oqd̀bd̀cdms-
7- Tshkhrdq kd eˆhs pt¸nm ˆ tm cd̀udknoodldms eqˆbshnmmˆhqd ahmˆhqd ontq snts mnlaqd qd̀dk n ∈ Y.. 0[-
8- Bgˆptd d̀kd̀ldms cnhs ûnhq kˆ l]dld oqnaâhkhsd̀ ç]dsqd dmfdmcqd̀+ ı̂ rûnhq 0,F + nı
t F drs kd mnlaqd çd̀kd̀ldmsr
cd k¸dmrdlakd bnmbdqmd̀-
Bgôhsqd 2
Fqôgdr rhlokdr
2-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
?udb k‘ mnshnm c&dmrdlakd ahdm dm l‘hm+ nm odts l‘hmsdm‘ms hmsqncthqd cdr bnmrsqtbshnmr oktr
d̀k‘anqd̀dr- K&tmd c&dmsqd dkkdr drs k‘ mnshnm cd fq‘ogdr ptd mntr ‘kknmr l‘hmsdm‘ms d̀stchdq oktr
dm oqnenmcdtq+ dm oktr cd cd̀udknoodq cdr ‘kfnqhsgldr pth qd̀rnkudms cdr oqnakıdldr hlokhpt‘ms bdr
fq‘ogdr-
2-1 Fqôgd rhlokd-
C‘mr kd bnmsdwsd rthu‘ms+ mntr ‘kknmr chqd cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd ffmh R ’ptdkbnmptd( ptd bd
rnms cdr rnlldsr- Bd m&drs pt&tm ‘tsqd mnl ontq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R+ l‘hr bdk‘ qdmc k‘ chrbtrrhnm
oktr ‘fqd̀‘akd- Tm fqôgd ’nt fqôgd rhlokd( rtq tm dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr R drs bnmrshstd̀ c&tm
dmrdlakd A c&ˆqZdsdr- Tmd ‘q]dsd drs rhlokdldms tmd o‘hqd {w. x{ c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R- Nm chs ‘knqr ptd
kdr rnlldsr w ds x rnms ˆciˆbdmsr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd+ nt ptd w ds x rnms kdr dwsqd̀lhsd̀r cd k&‘q]dsd {w. x{-
Tm fq‘ogd rtq R drs cnmb tm bntokd ’R. A(+ ‘udb A tm rntr,dmrdlakd ptdkbnmptd cd k&dmrdlakd
O 1 ZR[ 9; {{w. x{ | w. x ∈ R. w 6; x{.
cd sntsdr kdr ‘q]dsdr onrrhakdr- Nm ∗ qdoqd̀rdmsd " tm fq‘ogd dm kd cdrrhm‘ms c‘mr kd ok‘m b‘qsd̀rhdm
Q1 - Ontq bd e‘hqd+ nm ‘rrnbhd ı
‘ bg‘ptd rnllds w tm onhms cd Q1 ’pt&nm cd̀mnsdq‘ ‘trrh w ontq d̀uhsdq
c&‘unhq cdr mns‘shnmr sqno kntqcdr(+ ds ı ‘ bg‘ptd ‘q]dsd {w. x{ tmd bntqad 0 inhfm‘ms kd onhms w ‘t
onhms x- Hbh+ mh k‘ onrhshnm cdr onhmsr ’pt&nm rtoonrd ‘t lnhmr cdtw ı ‘ cdtw chrshmbsr(+ mh bdkkd cdr
bntqadr pth kdr inhfmdms m&nms uq‘hldms c&hlonqs‘mbd- Nm chs o‘qenhr ptd kd rnllds w drs k&d̀shptdssd
0- Unhq kˆ rdbshnm 2-03
52
2-2- UNHRHM9FD DS CDFQD̀ 56
1 1 2 1
2 2 1
3
3
3 4
1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6
Ehftpd 2-6 z Kdr bxbkdr ontq m ; 2. 3. 4. 5. 6-
2-2 Unhrhmˆfd ds cdfqd̀
Kdr unhrhmr c&tm rnllds w ct fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A( rnms kdr rnlldsr x ontq kdrptdkr nm ‘ tmd ‘q]dsd
{w. x{ ∈ A- Kd unhrhmˆfd T ’w( ; TF ’w(+ c&tm rnllds w c‘mr F+ drs k&dmrdlakd cdr unhrhmr cd w 9
TF ’w( 9; {x | {w. x{ ∈ A{. ’2-2(
Kd cdfqd̀ cdf’w( ; cdfF ’w(+ c&tm rnllds w cd F+ drs kd b‘qchm‘k cd T ’w(- B&drs cnmb kd mnlaqd cd
unhrhmr cd w+ nt dmbnqd kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr hmbhcdmsdr ı‘ w- C‘mr tm fq‘ogd ı ‘ m rnlldsr+ kd cdfqd̀
md odts oqdmcqd ptd kdr u‘kdtqr dmsqd / ds m 0- Rh b&drs /+ b&drs pt&hk m&x ‘ ‘tbtmd ‘q]dsd ‘x‘ms w
bnlld dwsqd̀lhsd̀+ ds nm chs ptd w drs tm rnllds hrnkd̀- ? ı k&‘tsqd dwsq]dld+ tm onhms w odts,]dsqd
qdkhd̀ ı
‘ sntr kdr ‘tsqdr rnlldsr ct fq‘ogd- B&drs kd b‘r nı
t kd cdfqd̀ drs l‘whl‘k+ ‘knqr d̀f‘k ı
‘ m 0-
C‘mr kd fq‘ogd cd Odsdqrdm ds c‘mr kd odqltsnıdcqd+ sntr kdr rnlldsr nms l]dld cdfqd̀ d̀f‘k ı
‘ 2- Dm
fd̀md̀q‘k+ tm fq‘ogd drs chs qd̀ftkhdq rh sntr rdr rnlldsr nms l]dld cdfqd̀-
Gdlld 2-0 ’cdr onhfmd̀dr cd l‘hmr(- Cˆmr snts fqôgd rhlokd) nm ˆ
∑
cdf’w( ; 1 |A|. ’2-3(
w∞P
Nqdtud- C‘mr k‘ rnlld cd f‘tbgd cd ’2-3(+ bg‘ptd ‘q]dsd drs bnlosd̀d 1 enhr+ othrpt&dkkd ‘ cdtw
dwsqd̀lhsd̀r-
Ontq unhq bdbh cd e‘b́nm ‘ltr‘msd+ nm odmrd ı ‘ bg‘ptd rnllds bnlld qdoqd̀rdms‘ms tm hmchuhct+ ds
‘tw ‘q]dsdr bnlld d̀s‘ms cdr onhfmd̀dr cd l‘hm pt&hk cnmmd ı ‘ rdr unhrhmr- Bg‘ptd onhfmd̀d cd l‘hm
e‘hs hmsdqudmhq cdtw hmchuhctr+ ds kd cdfqd̀ c&tm rnllds bnqqdronmc ‘t mnlaqd cd onhfmd̀dr cd l‘hmr
cnmmd̀dr o‘q k&hmchuhct bnqqdronmc‘ms- Kd sgd̀nqıdld ds r‘ oqdtud odtudms ‘knqr rd qdkhqd dm sdqld cd
onhfmd̀dr cd l‘hmr-
Nm dm cd̀cths e‘bhkdldms kd e‘hs rthu‘ms-
BnqnkkVhqd 2-1- Cˆmr tm fqôgd rhlokd) hk x ˆ sntintqr tm mnlaqd oˆhq cd rnlldsr cd cdfqd̀
hloˆhq-
57 BG9OHSQD 2- FQ9OGDR RHLOKDR
Nqdtud- Nm bnlldmbd o‘q rd̀o‘qdq k&dmrdlakd cdr rnlldsr dm cdtw o‘qshdr chrinhmsdr R ; O ) H+
‘udb O bdkkd cdr rnlldsr cd cdfqd̀ o‘hq+ ds H bdkkd cdr rnlldsr cd cdfqd̀ hlo‘hq+ c&nı
t
∑ ∑ ∑
cdf’w( ; cdf’w( ) cdf’w(.
w∞P w∞M w∞G
Cd ’2-3(+ nm b‘kbtkd ‘knqr ptd

∑ ∑
1 |A| cdf’w( ; cdf’w(.
w∞M w∞G
Bnlld kd ldlaqd cd f‘tbgd drs l‘mhedrsdldms o‘hq+ b&drs ‘trrh kd b‘r ct ldlaqd cd cqnhsd- Bdk‘
enqbd kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd H ‘ ]dsqd o‘hq+ c&nı
t mnsqd ‘flql‘shnm-
Tmd ‘tsqd oqnoqhd̀sd̀ ‘ltr‘msd cdr cdfqd̀r cdr rnlldsr ’cnms k‘ oqdtud drs ‘trrh sqıdr inkhd(+ drs k‘
rthu‘msd 9
Nqnonrhshnm 2-2- Cˆmr tm fqôgd rhlokd) hk x ˆ sntintqr ˆt lnhmr cdtw rnlldsr pth nms kd lZdld
cdfqd̀-
Nqdtud- Nm oqnbıdcd o‘q bnmsq‘chbshnm- Rtoonrnmr pt&hk x ‘hs tm fq‘ogd F ı ‘ m rnlldsr+ sdk ptd
sntr kdr rnlldsr nms tm cdfqd̀ chΨd̀qdms- Bnlld hk x ‘ dw‘bsdldms m u‘kdtqr onrrhakdr ontq kd
cdfqd̀ ’kdr mnlaqdr dmsqd / ds m 0(+ nm cnhs ‘unhq tm rnllds cd cdfqd̀ h ontq bg‘ptd h dmsqd / ds
m 0- Cnmmnmr cnmb kd mnl wg ‘t rnllds cd cdfqd̀ h- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ kd rnllds cd w+ m&drs qdkhd̀ ı‘
‘tbtm ‘tsqd rnllds+ ds kd rnllds wm 0 drs qdkhd̀ ı ‘ sntr kdr ‘tsqdr rnlldsr- Bdbh drs l‘mhedrsdldms
hlonrrhakd+ othrpt&‘knqr nm ‘tq‘hs ptd wm 0 drs qdkhd̀ ı ‘ w+ + pth kth m&drs qdkhd̀ ı
‘ ‘tbtm rnllds- Bdssd
bnmsq‘chbshnm mntr enqbd ı ‘ qdidsdq k&gxonsgıdrd pt&hk dwhrsd tm fq‘ogd c‘mr kdptdk sntr kdr rnlldsr
nms tm cdfqd̀ chΨd̀qdms+ bd pth lnmsqd k‘ oqnonrhshnm-
Rntr,fqôgdr
Rh S drs tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr cd F+ nm nashdms F |S + kd rntr,fqôgd hmcths cd F rtq S + dm

md bnmrhcd̀q‘ms ptd kdr ‘q]dsdr F pth nms kdtqr cdtw dwsqd̀lhsd̀r c‘mr S - ?tsqdldms chs+
F |S 9; ’S. A(. ‘udb A ; { {w. x{ ∈ A | w. x ∈ S {. ’2-4(
Oktr fd̀md̀q‘kdldms+ kd fq‘ogd ’S. A( drs tm rntr,fqôgd cd ’R. A(+ rhlokdldms rh S ⊆ R+ ds A ⊆ A-

2-3- BGDLHM C9MR TM FQ9OGD- 58
Antbkdr
Nm udts o‘qenhr odqldssqd ı ‘ cdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr c&‘unhq cdr antbkdr- Bd rnms cdr ‘q]dsdr cnms kdr
cdtw dwsqd̀lhsd̀r bn—ımbhcdms+ ds cnmb cd k‘ enqld {w{+ ‘udb w tm rnllds cd F- ?tsqdldms chs+
k&dmrdlakd A cdr ‘q]dsdr drs tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd O 0 ZR[ V O 1 ZR[+ ‘udb
OZR[ 9; {{w{ | w ∈ R{.
K‘ ∗ anmmd " e‘b́nm c&‘c‘osdq k‘ mnshnm cd cdfqd̀ c&tm rnllds ı

‘ bd mntud‘t bnmsdwsd drs cd onrdq

|{ ∈ A | ; {w. x{ ds w 6; x{| ) 1 rh {w{ ∈ A.
cdf’w( 9; ’2-5(
|{ ∈ A | ; {w. x{ ds w 6; x{| rhmnm.
Nm bnlosd cnmb 1 bnlld bnmsqhatshnm ‘t cdfqd̀ c&tm rnllds ‘udb antbkd-
2-3 Bgdlhm cˆmr tm fqôgd-
Oktrhdtqr oqnakıdldr bk‘rrhptdr cd k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr fq‘ogdr enms hmsdqudmhq k‘ mnshnm cd ∗ bgdlhm " c‘mr
tm fq‘ogd- Hmsthshudldms+ nm rd oqnlıdmd c‘mr kd fq‘ogd+ c&tm rnllds ı ‘ k&‘tsqd+ dm o‘rr‘ms o‘q cdr
‘q]dsdr- Bdodmc‘ms ontq k‘ bk‘qsd̀ cd k&dwonrd̀+ ds ontq rhlokhffdq kdr ‘qftldmsr+ hk u‘ts k‘ odhmd c&dm
cnmmdq tmd cd̀ffmhshnm oktr qhfntqdtrd- Tm bgdlhm
γ ; ’w+ . w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (.
c‘mr tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A( drs tmd rthsd cd rnlldsr+ wg c‘mr R+ ontq k‘ptdkkd bg‘ptd o‘hqd
{wg . wg)0 { drs tmd ‘q]dsd cd F+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9 {wg . wg)0 { ∈ A-
Nm chs ptd r’γ( 9; w+ drs k‘ rntqbd ’nt kd cd̀ats( ct bgdlhm+ ds ptd a’γ( 9; wm dm drs kd ats ’nt k‘
ffm(- Nm chs ‘trrh ptd kd bgdlhm γ uˆ cd w+ ı‘ wm - Bg‘ptd o‘hqd {wg . wg)0 { drs tm oˆr ct bgdlhm+ ds
k‘ knmftdtq Z’γ( ct bgdlhm drs d̀f‘kd ı
‘ m+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd ptd k‘ knmftdtq drs kd mnlaqd cd o‘r c‘mr kd
bgdlhm- C‘mr kd fq‘ogd cd k‘ Ehftqd 2-0+ nm ‘ kd bgdlhm cd knmftdtq 5
’a. c. b. d. a. a. c(.
cd rntqbd a ds cd ats c- K‘ rthsd ’a. c. d. a( m&drs o‘r tm bgdlhm c‘mr kd l]dld fq‘ogd+ o‘qbd ptd
k‘ o‘hqd {c. d{ m&drs o‘r tmd ‘q]dsd ct fq‘ogd- Ontq bg‘ptd rnllds w c&tm fq‘ogd+ nm ‘ kd bgdlhm
Hcw 9; ’w(+ cd knmftdtq /+ pth u‘ cd w ı‘ w- B&drs kd bgdlhm uhcd dm w-
6/ BG9OHSQD 2- FQ9OGDR RHLOKDR
2-4 Nod̀qˆshnmr rtq kdr bgdlhmr
‘ k‘ rntqbd cd γ1 + nm bnmrsqths kd bnlonrd̀ γ0 · γ1 +

Ontq cdtw bgdlhmr γ0 ds γ1 + ‘udb kd ats cd γ0 d̀f‘k ı
rhlokdldms dm ldss‘ms γ0 ds γ1 ants ı ‘ ants- Nm chs ‘trrh ptd γ0 ds γ1 rnms bnlonrâkdr- Oktr
oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm rtoonrd ptd
γ0 ; ’w+ . w0 . . . . . wm (. ds γ1 ; ’x+ . w0 . . . . . xj (. ‘udb a’γ0 ( ; r’γ1 (.
b&drs,ı‘,chqd ptd wm ; x+ : ds ‘knqr nm onrd
γ0 · γ1 ; ’w+ . w0 . . . . . wm . x0 . . . . . xj (. ’2-6(
Bnlld wm ; x+ + b&drs ahdm tm bgdlhm+ ds hk drs cd knmftdtq m ) j- K‘ bnlonrhshnm cd bgdlhm drs

‘rrnbh‘shud+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd ptd ontq cdr bgdlhmr γ0 + γ1 ds γ2 + ‘udb a’γ0 ( ; r’γ1 ( ds a’γ1 ( ; r’γ2 (+ nm ‘
γ0 · ’γ1 · γ2 ( ; ’γ0 · γ1 ( · γ2 . ’2-7(
Kd bgdlhm Hcw intd kd q]nkd c&d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd ı̂ fˆtbgd ’qdro- ı̂ cqnhsd( ontq k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm ‘udb γ+
rh r’γ( ; w ’qdro- a’γ( ; w(+ b-,ı ‘,c- 9
Hcw · γ ; γ ’qdro. γ · Hcw ; γ(.
Othrptd kdr ‘q]dsdr rnms r‘mr nqhdms‘shnm+ nm odts ∗ qdsntqmdq " tm bgdlhm ‘kk‘ms cd w ı‘ x ontq nasdmhq
tm bgdlhm ‘kk‘ms cd x ı ‘ w- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ kd qdsntqmd̀ ← γ c&tm bgdlhm γ ; ’w+ . . . . . wm 0 . wm (
drs kd bgdlhm
←γ 9; ’wm . wm 0 . . . . . w+ (.
Ahdm dmsdmct+ nm ‘
r’←
γ ( ; a’γ(. ds a’←
γ ( ; r’γ(.
Nm lnmsqd ‘trrh e‘bhkdldms ptd
←
γ0 · γ1 ; ←
γ1 · ←
γ0 . ’2-8(
Rh w ; r’γ( ds x ; a’γ(+ nm cd̀mnsd ‘trrh kd e‘hs pt&nm ‘ tm bgdlhm γ cd w ı
‘ x o‘q 9
"x
α
w
K‘ bnlonrhshnm cd bgdlhmr odts ‘knqr rd qdoqd̀rdmsdq bnlld rths 9

y
"
"
γ0 · γ1
γ1
w "
γ 0
x ’2-0/(
cd k‘ onrrhahkhsd̀ cd bnlonrdq kdr bgdlhmr- Kdr bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr ct fq‘ogd rnms kdr bk‘rrdr
c&d̀pthu‘kdmbd rdknm k‘ qdk‘shnm •F + ds tm fq‘ogd drs cnmb bnmmdwd r&hk m&‘ pt&tmd rdtkd bnlonr‘msd
bnmmdwd-
Tm ˆqaqd drs tm fq‘ogd bnmmdwd r‘mr bxbkd- Tm rnllds c&tm ‘qaqd drs tmd edthkkd+ r&hk m&‘ pt&tm
rdtk unhrhm- Nm d̀stchd kdr ‘qaqdr oktr dm cd̀s‘hk ‘t Bg‘ohsqd 3- Tmd enqZds drs tm fq‘ogd r‘mr bxbkdr-
Ontq k&hmrs‘ms+ cnmmnmr ‘t lnhmr cdtw qd̀rtks‘sr bnmbdqm‘ms kdr ‘qaqdr-
Gdlld 2-4- Ptq tm dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr R ûdb |R| ≥ 1) tm ˆqaqd ˆ sntintqr ˆt lnhmr 1 edthkkdr-
Nqdtud- Bnmrhcd̀qnmr tm bgdlhm γ ; ’w+ . . . . . wj ( c‘mr k&‘qaqd+ pth rnhs cd knmftdtq l‘whltl-
Bdssd knmftdtq ’; j( drs ‘t lnhmr d̀f‘kd ı ‘ 0+ othrptd kd fq‘ogd drs bnmmdwd ‘udb ‘t lnhmr 1
rnlldsr- Nm ‘ enqbd̀ldms w+ 6; wm + othrpt&hk m&x ‘ o‘r cd bxbkdr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd ’b&drs tm ‘qaqd(-
Rh nm ‘u‘hs cdf’w+ ( / 0+ nt cdf’wj ( / 0+ nm ontqq‘hs oqnknmfdq kd bgdlhm γ- O‘q gxonsgıdrd γ drs
cd knmftdtq l‘whl‘kd+ cnmb nm ‘ enqbd̀ldms cdf’w+ ( ; 0 ds cdf’wj ( ; 0+ bd rnms cnmb cdtw edthkkdr
chrshmbsdr-
Nqnonrhshnm 2-5- Tm fqôgd bnmmdwd) ûdb r rnlldsr ds a ˆqZdsdr) drs tm ˆqaqd rh ds rdtkdldms rh
r a ; 0-
Nqdtud-
’⇒(
Nm oqnbıdcd o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq r kd mnlaqd cd rnlldsr- Rh r ; 0+ ‘knqr nm ‘ enqbd̀ldms
a ; /+ ds k&d̀f‘khsd̀ ’1( drs ud̀qhffd̀d- Rtoonrnmr ptd+ ontq snts ‘qaqd ı ‘ r rnlldsr+ k&d̀f‘khsd̀
’1( rnhs ud̀qhffd̀d- Bnmrhcd̀qnmr ‘knqr tm ‘qaqd ’R. A( ı ‘ r ) 0 rnlldsr ’‘udb r / 0(- O‘q k‘
oqnonrhshnm 2-5+ k&‘qaqd bnmshdms ‘t lnhmr tmd edthkkd w ∈ R- Nm dmkıdud bdssd edthkkd ds k&‘q]dsd
k‘ inhfm‘ms ‘t qdrsd cd k&‘qaqd ontq nasdmhq kd fq‘ogd ’R → . A(- B&drs cnmb ptd R → ; R \ {w{ ds
A ; A \ {{w. x{{+ ‘udb x drs kd rdtk unhrhm cd w- Kd fq‘ogd ’R → . A( drs tm ‘qaqd+ othrpt&hk drs
bnmmdwd ds r‘mr bxbkd+ ‘udb r rnlldsr- Hk ud̀qhffd cnmb ’1(- L‘hr ‘knqr ’1( drs ‘trrh uq‘h ontq
k&‘qaqd ’R. A(+ othrpt&nm ‘intsd 0 ‘t mnlaqd cd rnlldsr+ ds 0 ‘t mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr-
’⇐(
Nm oqnbıdcd o‘q bnmsq‘chbshnm- Rtoonrnmr pt&nm ‘hs tm fq‘ogd bnmmdwd F ; ’R. A( r‘shr,
e‘hr‘ms ’1(+ l‘hr pth md rnhs o‘r tm ‘qaqd- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm rtoonrd ptd F bnmshdms ‘t
lnhmr tm bxbkd- Knqrpt&nm dmkıdud tmd ‘q]dsd cd bd bxbkd+ kd fq‘ogd qdrsd bnmmdwd- Nm qd̀oıdsd
bdssd d̀s‘od s‘ms ptd bdk‘ drs onrrhakd+ ı ‘ bg‘ptd enhr dmkdu‘ms tmd ‘q]dsd- Kd fq‘ogd qd̀rtks‘ms
drs bnmmdwd ds r‘mr bxbkdr- B&drs cnmb tm ‘qaqd+ ‘udb kd l]dld mnlaqd cd rnlldsr ptd F-
O‘q k&‘qftldms bh,g‘ts+ k&d̀f‘khsd̀ ’1( drs u‘k‘akd ontq bds ‘qaqd- L‘hr bdbh bnmsqdchs mnsqd
gxonsgıdrd+ othrptd kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr cd F drs rsqhbsdldms oktr fq‘mc ptd bdkth cd k&‘qaqd
’nasdmt dm dmkdu‘ms tm bdqs‘hm mnlaqd+ / 0+ c&‘q]dsdr cd F(- Nm ‘ cnmb enqbd̀ldms ptd F drs
r‘mr bxbkdr-
2-7 Oktr bntqs bgdlhm
K&tm cdr oqnakıdldr sxohptdr cd k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr fq‘ogdr bnmrhrsd ı

‘ sqntudq kd ’nt kdr( bgdlhm kd oktr
bntqs inhfm‘ms cdtw rnlldsr cnmmd̀r+ c‘mr tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A(- Rntkhfmnmr ptd bd kd fq‘ogd m&drs
o‘r bnmmdwd+ hk x ‘tq‘ cdr o‘hqdr cd rnlldsr dmsqd kdrptdkr hk m&x ‘tq‘ ‘tbtm bgdlhm- Hk x ‘ cd
sqıdr mnlaqdtrdr ‘ookhb‘shnmr cdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr pth rd sq‘cthrdms rntr bdssd enqld+ dm ‘c‘os‘ms
itchbhdtrdldms k‘ mnshnm cd ∗ oktr bntqs bgdlhm "- Mntr x qduhdmcqnmr-
Ontq k&hmrs‘ms+ nm dmsdmc o‘q oktr bntqs bgdlhm dmsqd w ds x+ tm bgdlhm pth qd̀‘khrd k‘ chrs‘mbd c’w. x(
’b‘kbtkd̀d c‘mr k‘ bnlonr‘msd bnmmdwd bnlltmd ı ‘ w ds x(- B&drs cnmb chqd ptd k‘ knmftdtq ct bgdlhm
drs d̀f‘kd ı‘ c’w. x(- O‘q cd̀ffmhshnm cd chrs‘mbd+ tm sdk bgdlhm dwhrsd+ ds hk r&‘fhs l‘hmsdm‘ms cd kd
sqntudq dwokhbhsdldms ’nt cd kdr sqntudq sntr+ r&hk x dm ‘ oktrhdtqr(- Hk x ‘ oktrhdtqr ‘kfnqhsgldr ontq
bd e‘hqd- Tmd cdr ‘ooqnbgdr kdr oktr rhlokdr odts ]dsqd ‘fqd̀‘akdldms oqd̀rdmsd̀d cd e‘b́nm qd̀btqrhud-
D̀s‘ms cnmmd̀r cdtw rnlldsr w ds x cd F+ nm oqnbıdcd bnlld rths ontq b‘kbtkdq k&dmrdlakd BF ’w. x(
cdr bgdlhmr kdr oktr bntqsr cd w ı ‘ x c‘mr F+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd
BF ’w. x( 9; {γ | r’γ( ; w. a’γ( ; x. Z’γ( ; cF ’w. x( {. ’2-03(
Bnlld mntr k&‘unmr cd̀iı

‘ rntkhfmd̀+ hk drs onrrhakd ptd bds dmrdlakd rnhs uhcd-
?kfnqhsgld 2-7 ’Oktr bntqs bgdlhm(- Ph w ; x ˆknqr
BF ’w. x( ; {’w({. .
Phmnm) rnhs F→ 9; F |S kd fqôgd hmcths cd F rtq k´dmrdlakd S 9; R \ {w{- Nm bˆkbtkd qd̀btqrhudldms

kdr dmrdlakdr BF ’y. x() ontq bgˆptd y cˆmr kd unhrhmˆfd TF ’w(- Ph BF ’y. x( drs mnm uhcd) nm ˆ tmd
chrsˆmbd cF ’y. x(- Pnhs c→ kd lhmhltl cd bdr chrsˆmbdr) ı̂ rûnhq ptd
c→ 9; lhm{ cF ’y. x( | y unhrhm cd w ds BF ’y. x( 6; ¬{.
Knqrptd ˆt lnhmr tm cdr BF ’y. x( drs mnm uhcd) ˆknqr k´dmrdlakd BF ’w. x( drs ˆknqr eˆbhkdldms nasdmt
bnlld
BF ’w. x( 9; { ’w. y( · γ | γ ∈ BF ’y. x(. cF ’y. x( ; c→ . y unhrhm cd w {.
ds nm ˆ cF ’w. x( ; c→ ) 0- Phmnm nm ˆ
BF ’w. x( 9; ¬.
2-8 Bxbkdr dtkd̀qhdmr
Nm chs pt&nm ‘ tm bxbkd dtkd̀qhdm c‘mr F+ r&hk dwhrsd tm bxbkd c‘mr F pth dloqtmsd bg‘ptd ‘q]dsd tmd
ds tmd rdtkd enhr- Ahdm dmsdmct+ ontq ptd bdk‘ rnhs onrrhakd F cnhr ]dsqd bnmmdwd- Dtkdq ı
‘ lnmsqd̀ ptd
2-00- HRNLNQOGHRLD CD FQ9OGDR 66
cd k‘ Ehftqd 2-0/- Bnlld kdr 3 rnlldsr rnms cd cdfqd̀ hlo‘hq+ hk m&x ‘ o‘r cd bgdlhm dtkd̀qhdm+ ds
kd oqnakıdld m&‘ cnmb o‘r cd rnktshnm-
2-00 Hrnlnqoghrld cd fqôgdr
Bnlld ontq sntsdr kdr mnshnmr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ hk drs drrdmshdk cd r‘unhq bnlo‘qdq cdr fq‘ogdr
dmsqd dtw- Hmsthshudldms+ hkr nms k‘ l]dld ∗ enqld " rh nm odts qdmnlldq kdr rnlldsr cd k&tm ontq
nasdmhq k&‘tsqd- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ ontq cdtw fq‘ogdr F ; ’R. A( ds F→ ; ’S. A(+ nm chs pt&nm ‘
hrnlnqoghrld cd fqôgd
%
e 9 F → F→ . ’2-04(
%
rh nm ‘ tmd ahidbshnm e 9 R → S + sdkkd ptd
{w. x{ ∈ A rrh {e ’w(. e ’x({ ∈ A. ’2-05(
Kd bnlonrd̀ c&hrnlnqoghrldr cd fq‘ogdr drs tm hrnlnqoghrld cd fq‘ogd+ ‘hmrh ptd k&hmudqrd c&tm
%
hrnlnqoghrld- Tm ˆtsnlnqoghrld c&tm fq‘ogd F drs tm hrnlnqoghrld e 9 F → F- Dm udqst cdr
nardqu‘shnmr oqd̀bd̀cdmsdr+ k&dmrdlakd cdr ‘tsnlnqoghrldr c&tm fq‘ogd enqld tm fqntod- Bdqs‘hmr
fq‘ogdr+ kdr fq‘ogdr cd B‘xkdx+ rnms dm e‘hs bnmrsqthsr ı
‘ o‘qshq c&tm fqntod+ ds bd fqntod ‘oo‘q‘]ıs
‘knqr bnlld fqntod c&‘tsnlnqoghrldr cd rnm fq‘ogd-
Dm fd̀md̀q‘k hk drs chflbhkd cd ud̀qhffdq ptd cdtw fq‘ogdr cnmmd̀r rnms hrnlnqogdr+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd pt&nm md
bnmm‘]ıs o‘r c&‘kfnqhsgld pth qd̀onmcd ı ‘ k‘ ptdrshnm dm sdlor onkxmnlh‘k- Bdodmc‘ms+ nm bnmm‘]ıs cdr
‘kfnqhsgldr dflb‘bdr ontq bdqs‘hmdr e‘lhkkdr cd fq‘ogdr d̀stchd̀r c‘mr k‘ rthsd cd bdr mnsdr bnlld 9
kdr ‘qaqdr+ nt kdr fq‘ogdr ok‘m‘hqdr-
K‘ mnshnm rthu‘msd odqlds cd cd̀sdbsdq e‘bhkdldms ’l‘hr o‘r ı‘ bnto r]
tq( ptd cdr fq‘ogdr md rnms
o‘r hrnlnqogdr- K‘ rthsd cd cdfqd̀r c&tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A( ı
‘ m rnlldsr drs k‘ khrsd
KF 9; ’r+ . r0 . . . . . rm 0 (. ’2-06(
nı
t rg drs kd mnlaqd cd rnlldsr cd cdfqd̀ h c‘mr kd fq‘ogd- Ahdm dmsdmct+ nm ‘
m ; r+ ) r0 ) . . . ) rm 0. ’2-07(
Hk drs bk‘hq ptd
Nqnonrhshnm 2-0.- Ph cdtw fqôgdr F ; ’R. A( ds F→ ; ’S. A( rnms hrnlnqogdr) ˆknqr kdtq rthsd cd
cdfqd̀ rnms enqbd̀ldms d̀fˆkdr) b´drs,ı̂,chqd ptd KF ; KF# -
c‘mr kd fq‘ogd ontq kdrptdkr nm ‘ cdr ‘q]dsdr {wg . wg)0 {+ l‘hr ‘tsqdr ‘q]dsdr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd rd sdqlhm‘ms
dm k&tm cdr wg ontq 1 ≤ h ≤ j 0- Nm odts ‘knqr snts bnmsq‘bsdq c&tm aknb+ ontq qdlok‘bdq k‘ bg‘]ımd
o‘q tmd rdtkd ‘q]dsd {w0 . wj {-
K&nod̀q‘shnm cd bnmsq‘bshnm odqlds cd cd̀ffmhq k‘ mnshnm cd lhmdtq c&tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A(- Nm chs
pt&tm fq‘ogd L drs tm lhmdtq cd F rh nm odts nasdmhq L o‘q tmd rthsd cd bnmsq‘bshnm ı ‘ o‘qshq
c&tm rntr,fq‘ogd cd F- ?tsqdldms chs+ kd fq‘ogd L r&nashdms cd F o‘q tmd rtbbdrrhnm c&nod̀q‘shnmr
bgnhrhdr o‘qlh kdr rthu‘msdr 9
‘,chqd ptd+ ontq w ∈ R+ nm bnmrhcıdqd kd fq‘ogd F→ ; ’R → . A→ (
’0( rtooqdrrhnm c´tm rnllds+ b&drs,ı
→ →
‘udb R 9; R \ {w{+ ds A ; {{t. u{ ∈ A | t 6; w. ds u 6; w{-
‘,chqd ptd+ ontq {w. x{ ∈ A+ nm bnmrhcıdqd kd fq‘ogd F→ ; ’R → . A→ (
’1( rtooqdrrhnm c´tmd ˆqZdsd+ b&drs,ı
→ →
‘udb R 9; R+ ds A ; A \ {{w. x{{-
’1( bnmsqˆbshnm c´tmd ˆqZdsd-
Bdssd mnshnm+ hmsqncthsd o‘q Jk‘tr V‘fmdq ’080/z1///(+ ‘ dt tm hlo‘bs bnmrhcd̀q‘akd rtq k‘ sgd̀nqhd
cdr fq‘ogdr- Dkkd ‘ ldmd̀ ‘t l‘hmsdm‘ms e‘ldtw sgd̀nqıdld cd Qnadqsrnm,Rdxlntq 7 d̀mnmbd̀ bh,
cdrrntr- Ontq kd enqltkdq+ q‘oodknmr pt&nm chs pt&tmd e‘lhkkd D cd fq‘ogd drs chsd lhmdtq,edqld̀d
rh dkkd bnmshdms snts lhmdtq c&tm fq‘ogd pth kth ‘oo‘qshdms- Dm enqltkd+ nm cdl‘mcd ptd D rnhs
sdkkd ptd
Rh ’F ∈ D ds L lhmdtq cd F( ‘knqr L ∈ D.
Nm md bnmrhcıdqd hbh ptd cdr bk‘rrdr pth rnms ‘trrh edqld̀dr o‘q hrnlnqoghrld- Rdknm kd sgd̀nqıdld
cd Qnadqsrnm,Rdxlntq+ k&dmrdlakd D+ cdr fq‘ogdr pth md rnms o‘r c‘mr tmd sdkkd bk‘rrd D+ drs
b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd̀ o‘q tm dmrdlakd ffmh FB ’ı‘ hrnlnqoghrld oqıdr( cd fq‘ogdr chs c&narsqtbshnm+ cnms ‘t
lnhmr tm cnhs ‘oo‘q‘]ısqd bnlld lhmdtq cd m&hlonqsd ptdk fq‘ogd F c‘mr D- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm ‘
F∈D rrh ∃L ∈ FB ’L lhmdtq cd F(. ’2-12(
‘ k‘ e‘lhkkd D 9
K‘ qd̀bhoqnptd cd bds d̀mnmbd̀ cnmmd k‘ b‘q‘bsd̀qhr‘shnm rthu‘msd ontq k&‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd ı
F∈D rrh ∀L ∈ FB ’L m&‘oo‘q‘]ıs o‘r bnlld lhmdtq cd F(. ’2-13(
Nm chs cnmb cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd FB ptd bd rnms cdr lhmdtqr,dwbktr- Tm dwdlokd bk‘rrhptd cnmmd tmd
b‘q‘bsd̀qhr‘shnm o‘q lhmdtq dwbkt ontq k‘ mnshnm cd fq‘ogdr ok‘m‘hqdr chrbtsd̀r ı
‘ k‘ rdbshnm rthu‘msd-
7- Mdhk Qnadqsrnm+ Nghn Rsˆsd Tmhudqrhsx+ ds Oˆtk Rdxlntq+ Oqhmbdsnm Tmhudqrhsx-

2-03- FQ9OGDR OK9M9HQDR 70
2-03 Fqôgdr okˆmˆhqdr
Nm chs pt&tm fq‘ogd ’nt ltkshfq‘ogd ‘udb antbkd( drs okˆmˆhqd rh nm odts kd ∗ oknmfdq " c‘mr kd
ok‘m ’nt rtq k‘ rogıdqd 8 ( r‘mr pt&hk x ‘hs bqnhrdldms dmsqd kdr ‘q]dsdr- Oktr sdbgmhptdldms+ nm ‘rrnbhd
‘ bg‘ptd rnllds w ct fq‘ogd tm onhms Ow cd Q1 - Othr+ ontq bg‘ptd ‘q]dsd {w. x{+ nm rd
c&‘anqc ı
cnmmd tmd bntqad rhlokd ’tmd enmbshnm bnmshmtd(
γwx 9; Z/. 0[ → Q1 . ‘udb γwx ’/( ; Ow . ds γwx ’0( ; Ox .
pth drs hmidbshud ’dkkd md rd qdbntod o‘r(- Nm chs ‘knqr pt&nm ‘ tm oknmfdldms ct fq‘ogd c‘mr kd
ok‘m+ ds ptd kd fq‘ogd drs ok‘m‘hqd+ rh ds rdtkdldms r&hk drs onrrhakd cd bgnhrhq kd snts ontq ptd kdr
bntqadr γwx rnhdms r‘mr hmsdqrdbshnmr dmsqd dkkdr dm cdgnqr cd kdtqr dwsqd̀lhsd̀r+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
γwx ∩ γsu ; {w. x{ ∩ {t. u{. knqrptd {w. x{ ;

6 {t. u{. ’2-14(
Hk drs e‘bhkd cd ∗ unhq " ptd kd fq‘ogd cd k‘ Ehftqd 2-01 drs ok‘m‘hqd+ othrpt&hk drs cdrrhmd̀ cd e‘b́nm
‘ r‘shre‘hqd k‘ bnmchshnm ’2-14(- Hk drs tm odt oktr chflbhkd cd bnmrs‘sdq pt&hk m&x ‘ ‘tbtmd e‘b́nm cd
ı
cdrrhmdq kd fq‘ogd cd Odsdqrdm ontq ptd ’2-14( rnhs r‘shre‘hs- C‘mr bd sxod cd rhst‘shnm+ nm chs ptd
kd fq‘ogd m´drs oˆr okˆmˆhqd-
2-04 Bˆqsdr
Tmd bˆqsd ’l‘sgd̀l‘shptd( drs rhlokdldms tm oknmfdldms c&tm ltkshfq‘ogd ok‘m‘hqd F ; ’R. A(+
‘udb antbkdr+ c‘mr k‘ rogıdqd R+ ı
‘ gnld̀nlnqoghrld oqıdr 0+ - Nm bnmrhcıdqd cnmb ptd cdtw b‘qsdr rnms
d̀pthu‘kdmsdr rh nm odts cd̀enqldq k&tmd c‘mr k&‘tsqd o‘q tmd cd̀enql‘shnm bnmshmtd cd k‘ rogıdqd- Kd
l]dld ltkshfq‘ogd odts cnmmdq khdt ı ‘ oktrhdtqr b‘qsdr chΨd̀qdmsdr+ b&drs,ı ‘,chqd ptd k&nm md odts o‘r
o‘rrdq cd k&tmd ı‘ k&‘tsqd o‘q tmd cd̀enql‘shnm bnmshmtd ’unhq Dwdqbhbd ::(- Ontq tmd b‘qsd+ nm odts
bnmrhcd̀qdq k‘ mnshnm cd eˆbd- B&drs tmd qd̀fhnm bnmmdwd ntudqsd 00 cd k‘ rogıdqd+ cd̀khlhsd̀d o‘q cdr
‘q]dsdr ’pth enqldms tm bxbkd(- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ kdr e‘bdr rnms kdr qd̀fhnmr bnmmdwdr ct rntr,dmrdlakd
cd onhmsr cd k‘ rogıdqd
{O ∈ R | O ; γwx ’s(. {w. x{ ∈ A. / ≤ s ≤ 0{.
O‘q dwdlokd+ knqrpt&nm ‘rrnbhd tmd b‘qsd ı ‘ tm ‘qaqd nm m&‘ pt&tmd rdtkd e‘bd- Knqrpt&nm o‘qkd c&tmd
b‘qsd+ nasdmtd o‘q oknmfdldms cd F+ nm hcdmshffd tm rnllds w ‘udb kd onhms Ow + ds k&‘q]dsd {w. x{
‘udb k‘ bntqad γwx - ?tsqdldms chs+ w drs kd mnl ct onhms Ow - K‘ ffftqd 2-01 ’pt&nm hl‘fhmd cdrrhmd̀d
rtq tmd fq‘mcd rogıdqd( cnmmd tmd b‘qsd ‘udb 4 rnlldsr+ 5 ‘q]dsdr+ ds 2 e‘bdr ’hmbkt‘ms k‘ e‘bd
8- Bd pth drs dm eˆhs snsˆkdldms d̀pthuˆkdms-
0.- Bdbh rhfmhffd rhlokdldms pt¸nm odts cd̀enqldq kˆ ffftqd nasdmtd cd eˆb́nm bnmshmtd-
00- Qôodknmr ptd b¸drs tm ntudqs cˆmr kdptdk hk drs onrrhakd cd oˆrrdq çtm onhms ı̂ tm ˆtsqd oˆq tmd bntqad bnmshmtd
dmshıdqdldms bnmsdmtd cˆmr k¸ntudqs- Ontq oktr cd cd̀sˆhkr+ unhq tm anm antpthm cd snonknfhd-
dwsdqmd(- C‘mr k‘ Ehftqd 2-4+ nm ‘ ’‘ooqnwhl‘shudldms( cdrrhmd̀ kd odqltsnıdcqd rtq k‘ rogıdqd- K‘

b‘qsd bnqqdronmc‘msd bnmshdms 13 rnlldsr+ 25 ‘q]dsdr ds 03 e‘bdr ’5 b‘qqd̀r+ ds 7 gdw‘fnmdr(-
Nm chs pt&tmd ‘q]dsd {w. x{ drs hmbhcdms ı
‘ tmd e‘bd E rh dkkd rd sqntud rtq rnm anqc- Oktr sdbgmhptd,
ldms+ nm ‘ ptd
{γwx ’s( | / ≤ s ≤ 0{ ⊆ E .
B&drs,ı‘,chqd ptd k‘ bntqad drs bnmsdmtd c‘mr k‘ edqldstqd cd E - C‘mr bd b‘r+ nm chs ‘trrh ptd k‘
e‘bd E drs hmbhcdmsd ı ‘ k&‘q]dsd {w. x{- Cd e‘b́nm snts ı
‘ e‘hs rdlak‘akd+ nm ‘ k‘ qdk‘shnm c&hmbhcdmbd
dmsqd rnlldsr ds ‘q]dsdr+ ds dmsqd rnlldsr ds e‘bdr- Tm hrsgld drs tmd ‘q]dsd pth m&drs hmbhcdmsd
pt&ı
‘ tmd e‘bd- Sntsd ‘tsqd ‘q]dsd drs hmbhcdmsd ı ‘ dw‘bsdldms cdtw e‘bdr- Kdr cd̀enql‘shnmr bnmshmtdr
c&tmd b‘qsd oqd̀rdqudms sntsdr bdr qdk‘shnmr c&hmbhcdmbd- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ nm lnmsqd ı ‘ k‘ Ehftqd ::
cdtw b‘qsdr chΨd̀qdmsdr ‘rrnbhd̀dr ‘t l]dld fq‘ogd- Kdtq chΨd̀qdmbd drs lhrd dm d̀uhcdmbd o‘q kd e‘hs
pt&dkkdr cnmmdms khdt ı‘ cdr qdk‘shnmr c&hmbhcdmbd chΨd̀qdmsdr-
Knqrpt&nm dΨ‘bd cdr ‘q]dsdr c&tmd b‘qsd ’nt cdr rnlldsr hrnkd̀r( nm nashdms dmbnqd tmd b‘qsd- B&drs
tmd rntr,bˆqsd cd k‘ b‘qsd- Dtkdq ‘ sqntud̀ tmd sqıdr inkhd qdk‘shnm bnmbdqm‘ms kdr b‘qsdr-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 2-00 ’Dtkdq(- Ontq tmd bˆqsd bnmmdwd ûdb r rnlldsr) a ˆqZdsdr) ds e eˆbdr) nm ˆ
sntintqr
r a ) e ; 1. ’2-15(
Nqdtud- Nm oqnbıdcd o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq a- Rh a;/+ bnlld k‘ b‘qsd drs bnmmdwd+ nm cnhs ‘unhq
r ; e ; 0+ ds k‘ qdk‘shnm drs ud̀qhffd̀d- O‘q gxonsgıdrd cd qd̀btqqdmbd+ rtoonrnmr l‘hmsdm‘ms ptd k‘
qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq drs ud̀qhffd̀d ontq sntsd b‘qsd bnmmdwd ‘x‘ms ‘t oktr a ‘q]dsdr- Nm bnmrhcıdqd tmd b‘qsd
bnmmdwd B → ‘x‘ms a→ 9; a ) 0 ‘q]dsdr ’r→ rnlldsr+ ds e → e‘bdr(- C‘mr tm oqdlhdq sdlor+ nm rtoonrd
pt&nm odts dΨ‘bdq tmd cdr ‘q]dsdr cd bdssd b‘qsd+ snts dm bnmrdqu‘ms kd e‘hs c&]dsqd bnmmdwd- K‘ b‘qsd
qd̀rtks‘msd B r‘shre‘hs kdr bnmchshnmr cd k&gxonsgıdrd cd qd̀btqqdmbd+ othrpt&dkkd bnmshdms a ‘q]dsdr- Kd
mnlaqd cd rnlldsr cd B d̀s‘ms r ; r→ + nm ‘ k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq ontq bdssd b‘qsd 9 r a ) e ; 1+ ‘udb
e rnm mnlaqd cd e‘bdr- Cdtw b‘r rd oqd̀rdmsdms+ ds c‘mr kdr cdtw b‘r mntr ‘kknmr unhq ptd kd mnlaqd
cd e‘bdr cd k‘ mntudkkd b‘qsd drs e 9; e → 0- Othrpt&‘knqr
r→ a→ ) e → ; r ’a ) 0( ) ’e ) 0( ; r a ) e ; 1.
nm ‘tq‘ lnmsqd̀ ’c‘mr bdssd rhst‘shnm( ptd k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq shdms ontq B → -
Ontq ud̀qhffdq ptd kd mnlaqd cd e‘bdr cd B drs tm cd lnhmr ptd kd mnlaqd cd e‘bdr cd B → + nm q‘hrnmmd
bnlld rths- Tmd oqdlhıdqd onrrhahkhsd̀ drs ptd k&‘q]dsd dmkdud̀d drs tmd antbkd+ ds ‘knqr nm odqc tmd e‘bd
dm dmkdu‘ms k&‘q]dsd- ?tsqdldms k&‘q]dsd dmkdud̀d rd rhstd enqbd̀ldms dmsqd cdtw e‘bdr+ rhmnm kd fq‘ogd
qd̀rtks‘ms dm k&dmkdu‘ms md rdq‘hs oktr bnmmdwd- Bdr cdtw e‘bdr rd inhfmdms ontq m&dm enqldq pt&tmd
rdtkd c‘mr k‘ b‘qsd B+ ds mntr ‘unmr ffmh cd chrbtsdq kd b‘r nı t nm odts nasdmhq tmd b‘qsd bnmmdwd dm
dmkdu‘ms tmd ‘q]dsd-
2-04- B9QSDR 72
Md qdrsd oktr pt&ı‘ d̀stchdq k‘ rhst‘shnm nı t hk drs hlonrrhakd c&dmkdudq tmd ‘q]dsd r‘mr cd̀bnmmdbsdq
k‘ b‘qsd- K‘ rdtkd onrrhahkhsd̀ drs ptd kd fq‘ogd rntr,i‘bdms drs tm ‘qaqd+ ds nm ‘ tmd rdtkd e‘bd- K‘
qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq rd cd̀cths ‘knqr cd k‘ oqnonrhshnm 2-5-
Nm ‘rrnbhd ı ‘ tmd b‘qsd B k‘ bˆqsd ctˆkd B · nasdmtd cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd- Kdr rnlldsr cd B · rnms
kdr e‘bdr cd B+ nm ‘ tmd ‘q]dsd dmsqd cdtw rnlldsr cd B · ontq bg‘ptd ‘q]dsd dmsqd kdr cdtw e‘bdr
bnqqdronmc‘msdr cd B- ?ssdmshnm+ nm nashdms o‘qenhr oktrhdtqr ‘q]dsdr dmsqd cdtw rnlldsr- Nm ‘
cnmb tmd b‘qsd pth bnqqdronmc ı ‘ oknmfdq tm ltshfq‘ogd c‘mr k‘ rogıdqd+ ‘udb cdr antbkdr rh k‘ b‘qsd
bnlonqsd cdr hrsgldr- Bg‘ptd e‘bd ct ct‘k bnqqdronmc ı ‘ tm rnllds w cd B- Dkkd drs cd̀khlhsd̀d o‘q
·
kdr ‘q]dsdr cd B nasdmtdr ı‘ o‘qshq c&‘q]dsdr B+ pth rnms ‘ci‘bdmsdr ı
‘ w- Hk r&dmrths ptd kd cntakd ct‘k
qdcnmmd k‘ b‘qsd nqhfhm‘kd 9
’B · (· ; B.
Kdr oqnonrhshnmr rthu‘msdr odqldssdms cd lnmsqdq e‘bhkdldms ptd bdqs‘hmr fq‘ogdr md rnms o‘r ok‘,
m‘hqdr+ dm o‘qshd dm dwoknhs‘ms k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq- Nm cd̀atsd o‘q rntkhfmdq pt&nm odts chqdbsdldms
∗ b‘kbtkdq "kd mnlaqd cd e‘bd c&tm fq‘ogd ok‘m‘hqd bnmmdwd r‘mr uq‘hldms kd cdrrhmdq+ othrptd sntsd
b‘qsd bnqqdronmc‘ms ı ‘ tm cdrrhm cd bd fq‘ogd r‘shre‘hs k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq- Ontq snts fq‘ogd+ nm odts
cnmb b‘kbtkdq
e 9; a ) 1 r.
Nqnonrhshnm 2-01- Ontq snts fqôgd rhlokd okˆmˆhqd bnmmdwd ˆxˆms r ≥ 2 rnllds ds a ˆqZdsdr) nm
ˆ kdr hmd̀fˆkhsd̀r
2 e ≤ 1 a. ds a ≤ 2 r 5. ’2-16(
Nqdtud- K‘ oqdlhıdqd d̀s‘od drs cd lnmsqdq pt&nm odts rd qdrsqdhmcqd ‘tw fq‘ogdr r‘mr hrsgldr+
ontq lnmsqdq k‘ oqdlhıdqd hmd̀f‘khsd̀- Dm dΨds+ ontq tm rntr,fq‘ogd nasdmt dm dmkdu‘ms tm hrsgld+
kd mnlaqd cd e‘bd drs bnmrdqud̀ snts dm qd̀cthr‘ms kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr- Bdodmc‘ms nm odts odqcqd
k‘ bnmmdwhsd̀- Nm lnmsqd c&‘anqc ptd e‘hs k‘ oqdlhıdqd hmd̀f‘khsd̀ drs u‘k‘akd ontq kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokd
ok‘m‘hqd r‘mr hrsgldr+ r‘mr bnmchshnm cd bnmmdwhsd̀- Dm d̀khlhm‘ms kdr rhst‘shnmr dwsq]dldr+ nm ud̀qhffd
e‘bhkdldms pt&nm odts rtoonrdq pt&hk x ‘ ‘t lnhmr cdtw e‘bdr+ ds ‘t lnhmr sqnhr ‘q]dsdr-
Ontq tmd ‘q]dsd ds tmd e‘bd E + nm onrd k’ . E ( ; 0 rh drs hmbhcdmsd ı
‘ E - Rhmnm+ nm onrd
k’ . E ( ; /- Kdr rnlldr
∑ ∑
k’ . E (. ds k’ . E (.
C eâc ˆm2
crc
cnmmdms cnmb qdrodbshudldms kd mnlaqd cd e‘bdr hmbhcdmsdr ı ‘ ds kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr hmbhcdmsdr ı‘

E - Bnlld nm m&‘ o‘r c&hrsgldr+ k‘ oqdlhıdqd rnlld drs sntintqr d̀f‘kd ı ‘ 1- Cd oktr+ bnlld tmd
e‘bd drs sntintqr cd̀khlhsd̀d o‘q ‘t lnhmr 2 ‘q]dsdr+ nm ‘ k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀
∑
k’ . E ( ≥ 2.
‘q]dsd
Nm b‘kbtkd cnmb ptd

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
1a ; k’ . E ( ; k’ . E ( ≥ 2 e.
ˆm2
crc C eâc C eâc ˆm2
crc
Nm cd̀cths ‘knqr k‘ cdtwhıdld hmd̀f‘khsd̀ ı

‘ o‘qshq cd k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq o‘q rhlokd b‘kbtk+ othrpt&nm ‘
1a
1;r a)e ≤r a) .
2
Dm hrnk‘ms a nm sqntud ahdm k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀ cd̀rhqd̀d-
Ontq kd fq‘ogd bnlokds I4 o‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘ 0/ ‘q]dsdr ds 4 rnlldsr+ ds k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀ m&drs o‘r
r‘shre‘hsd- Cnmb I4 m&drs o‘r ok‘m‘hqd- Bdodmc‘ms+ kd sgd̀nqıdld m&drs o‘r tmd b‘q‘bsd̀qhr‘shnm cdr
fq‘ogdr ok‘m‘hqdr- ?hmrh+ kd fq‘ogd aho‘qsh bnlokds I2ϕ2 ’‘udb 5 rnlldsr ds 8 ‘q]dsdr( m&drs o‘r
ok‘m‘hqd+ l‘hr hk r‘shre‘hs k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀ ’2-16(- Ontq kd unhq+ nm ‘c‘osd tm odt k‘ oqdtud cd k‘ oqnonrhshnm
bnlld rths- K‘ qdl‘qptd bkd̀ drs ptd kdr e‘bdr c&tmd b‘qsd pt&nm ‘tq‘hs nasdmtd o‘q tm oknmfdldms
gxonsgd̀shptd cd I2ϕ2 + cduq‘hdms enqbd̀ldms ]dsqd cd̀khlhsd̀dr o‘q ‘t lnhmr 3 ‘q]dsdr- Dm dΨds+ o‘qbd ptd
I2ϕ2 drs aho‘qsh+ nm cnhs ‘ksdqmdq dmsqd rnlldsr c&tmd cdr o‘qshdr ds rnlldsr cd k&‘tsqd knqrpt&nm
sntqmd ‘tsntq c&tmd e‘bd- Hk r&dmrths pt&nm ‘
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
1a ; k’ . E ( ; k’ . E ( ≥ 3 e.
ˆm2
crc C eâc C eâc ˆm2
crc
Dm qdlok‘b́‘ms c‘mr k‘ qdk‘shnm c&Dtkdq+ nm sqntud ptd a ≤ 1 r 3- L‘hr bdssd qdk‘shnm m&drs o‘r
ud̀qhffd̀d ontq I2ϕ2 + othrptd a ; 8 ds r ; 5- Nm bnmbkts cnmb ptd I2ϕ2 m&drs o‘r ok‘m‘hqd-
Hk odts rdlakdq chflbhkd cd r‘unhq qdbnmm‘]ısqd dm fd̀md̀q‘k kdr fq‘ogdr ok‘m‘hqdr cdr fq‘ogdr mnm,
ok‘m‘hqdr+ l‘hr nm ‘ dm e‘hs k‘ b‘q‘bsd̀qhr‘shnm sqıdr rhlokd rthu‘msd-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 2-02 ’V‘fmdq(- Tm fqôgd drs okˆmˆhqd rh ds rdtkdldms r´hk md bnmshdms bnlld lhmdtq)
mh tm fqôgd I2ϕ2 ) mh tm fqôgd I4 -
Hk r&dmrths pt&nm odts ldssqd ‘t onhms tm ‘kfnqhsgld ‘rrdy dflb‘bd ontq ud̀qhffdq rh tm fq‘ogd drs
ok‘m‘hqd nt o‘r+ dm ud̀qhff‘ms rh kd fq‘ogd bnmshdms nt mnm k&tm cdr cdtw lhmdtqr dwbktr- Bdodmc‘ms+
bds ‘kfnqhsgld md cnmmd ‘tbtmd hmchb‘shnm rtq k‘ e‘b́nm cd ∗ cdrrhmdq " kd fq‘ogd cd e‘b́nm ok‘m‘hqd+
l]dld r&hk ‘flqld ptd bdk‘ drs onrrhakd- Dm e‘hs+ hk x ‘ fd̀md̀q‘kdldms oktrhdtqr e‘b́nmr cd cdrrhmdq tm
fq‘ogd pt&nm r‘hs ]dsqd ok‘m‘hqd+ ds ‘tbtmd md r&hlonrd bnlld ∗ k‘ " ldhkkdtqd e‘b́nm-
c&‘anqc+ hk drs bk‘hq ptd j r drs kd mnlaqd cd j,bnknq‘shnmr onrrhakdr ontq tm fq‘ogd chrbqds ı‘ r
rnlldsr+ othrpt&nm odts bgnhrhq khaqdldms kdr bntkdtqr c&tm rnllds- Tm fq‘ogd chrbqds ı
‘ r rnllds
‘clds cnmb sr bnlld onkxm] nld bgqnl‘shptd- C‘mr kdr ‘tsqdr b‘r+ nm b‘kbtkd qd̀btqrhudldms kd
onkxm]nld OF ’s(+ ‘t lnxdm cd k&d̀pt‘shnm
OF ’s( ; OF# ’s( OF## ’s(. ’2-18(
t F→ drs kd fq‘ogd nasdmt o‘q rtooqdrrhnm c&tmd ‘q]dsd {w. x{+ ds F→→ drs nasdmt o‘q bnmsq‘bshnm cd
nı
bdssd l]dld ‘q]dsd- Nm itrshffd bdssd d̀pt‘shnm o‘q kd q‘hrnmmdldms rthu‘ms- Ontq b‘kbtkdq kd mnlaqd
OF ’j( cd j,bnknq‘shnmr c&tm fq‘ogd F+ nm b‘kbtkd c&‘anqc ’qd̀btqrhudldms( kd mnlaqd OF# ’j( cd j,
bnknq‘shnm ct fq‘ogd F→ nasdmt dm dmkdu‘ms k&‘q]dsd {w. x{- Bd mnlaqd drs oktr fq‘mc ptd kd mnlaqd
cd j,bnknq‘shnmr cd F+ othrptd kdr rnlldsr w ds x odtudms ]dsqd cd l]dld bntkdtq- Gnqr+ kd mnlaqd
cd j,bnknq‘shnmr cd F+ ontq kdrptdkkdr w ds x rnms cd k‘ l]dld bntkdtq+ drs bk‘hqdldms d̀f‘k ‘t mnlaqd
cd j,bnknq‘shnmr cd F→→ ’nasdmt o‘q bnmsq‘bsd cd {w. x{(+ ‘udb bnlld bntkdtq cd w ds cd x k‘ bntkdtq
ct rnllds nasdmt dm bnmsq‘bs‘ms k&‘q]dsd {w. x{- Nm ‘ cnmb ahdm ’2-18(- O‘q qd̀btqqdmbd+ nm odts
rtoonrdq ptd OF# ’s( ds OF## ’s( rnms cdr onkxm]nldr+ qdrodbshudldms cd cdfqd̀ r ds r 0+ cnmb OF ’s(
drs tm onkxm]nld cd cdfqd̀ r- Nm ‘ k‘ oqnonrhshnm rthu‘msd-
Nqnonrhshnm 2-03- Kd onkxmZnld bgqnlˆshptd c´tm fqôgd ı̂ r rnlldsr) a ˆqZdsdr ds b bnlonrˆmsdr

bnmmdwdr drs tm onkxmZ
nld cd cdfqd̀ r) sdk ptd
’0( Kd bndflbhdms cd sr drs 0)
’1( Kd bndflbhdms cd sr 0 drs a)
’2( Kd bndflbhdms cd sg drs /+ rh h , b)
’3( Kd bndflbhdms cd sb drs mnm,mtk)
’4( Kdr rhfmdr cdr bndflbhdmsr cd OF ’s( ‘ksdqmdms)
’5( Rh F0 + F1 + . . .+ Fb rnms kdr bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr cd F+ ‘knqr
OF ’s( ; OF0 ’s(OF1 ’s( · · · OFG ’s(.
Nqdtud- Nm ud̀qhffd e‘bhkdldms ’0( o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr uh‘ k&d̀pt‘shnm ’2-18(+ ‘udb
bnlld b‘r hmhsh‘k k‘ rhst‘shnm ct fq‘ogd chrbqds ’pth m&‘ ‘tbtmd ‘q]dsd(- K‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ ’5( cd̀bntkd cd
bd ptd kd mnlaqd cd j,bnknq‘shnmr cd F+ ‘x‘ms kdr bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr Fg + drs d̀f‘k ‘t oqncths
OF0 ’j(OF1 ’j( · · · OFG ’j(.
othrptd kd bgnhw cdr bntkdtqr cd rnlldsr cd bnlonr‘msdr chrshmbsdr odts rd e‘hqd cd e‘b́nm hmcd̀odm,
c‘msd- Nm lnmsqd ‘trrh ’1( o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd rtq kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr+ othrptd kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr cd
F→ drs a 0+ ds ptd OF## ’s( drs cd cdfqd̀ r 0 ‘udb bndflbhdms cnlhm‘ms d̀f‘k ı ‘ 0- Nm qdl‘qptd
ptd kd onkxm]nld bgqnl‘shptd m&‘ i‘l‘hr cd sdqld bnmrs‘ms+ othrpt&hk mh ‘ ‘tbtmd bnknq‘shnm ‘udb
/ bntkdtqr- Bdbh odqlds cd cd̀cthqd ’2( cd ’5(+ othrptd bg‘ptd O ’Fg . s( drs ltkshokd cd s- Ontq
2-05- BNKNQ9SHNM CD FQ9OGDR 76
lnmsqdq ’4(+ dmbnqd tmd enhr o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd+ nm nardqud ptd kdr sdqldr cd l]dld cdfqd̀ cd OF# ’s(
ds cd OF## ’s( nms l]dld rhfmd- C&‘tsqd o‘qs+ ’3( cd̀bntkd ct b‘r b ; 0 ’b-,ı ‘,c- 9 F drs bnmmdwd(
othrptd bg‘ptd O ’Fg . s( drs ltkshokd cd s- Ontq unhq ptd kd bndflbhdms cd s drs mnm mtk c‘mr kd b‘r
t F drs bnmmdwd+ nm tshkhrd ’4( ds k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd dm nardqu‘ms ptd F→→ drs bnmmdwd rh F k&drs-
nı
Ahdm dmsdmct+ kd mnlaqd bgqnl‘shptd ct fq‘ogd ‘oo‘q‘]ıs bnlld d̀s‘ms kd oktr odshs dmshdq j ontq
kdptdk nm ‘ OF ’j( 6; /- Hk r&dmrths ptd+ rh j ; χ’F(+ ‘knqr nm ‘
OF ’s( ; s ’s 0( · · · ’s ’j 0(( P’s(. ’2-2/(
nı
t P’s( drs tm bdqs‘hm onkxm]nld- Dm dΨds+ ontq kdr dmshdqr h dmsqd / ds j 0+ kd onkxm]
nld bgqnl‘shptd
cnhs r&‘mmtkdq+ bd pth enqbd 2-2/ ’ı
‘ bd oqnonr+ unhq ?oodmchbd B-0(-
Nm ‘ kdr u‘kdtqr o‘qshbtkhıdqdr rthu‘msdr ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 2-07( 9
OIk ’s( ; s ’s 0( ’s 0( . . . ’s ’m 0((. ’2-20(

m 0
OF ’s( ; s ’s 0( . rh F drs tm ‘qaqd. ’2-21(
m m
OBk ’s( ; ’s 0( ) ’ 0( ’s 0(. ’2-22(
Hk r&dmrths ptd 1 drs kd mnlaqd bgqnl‘shptd c&tm ‘qaqd ds c&tm bxbkd+ l‘hr nm odts ‘trrh unhq bdk‘
chqdbsdldms e‘bhkdldms-
2-07- DVDQBHBDR 78
ds udqr k‘ f‘tbgd( : ds x ds x cd̀mns‘ms cdr o‘r udqshb‘tw ’qdrodbshudldms udqr kd g‘ts ds udqr kd
a‘r(- O‘q ‘atr cd k‘mf‘fd+ nm cd̀rhfmd ‘trrh o‘q γ kd lns ‘rrnbhd̀ ‘t bgdlhm γ- ?hmrh kd bgdlhm cd
k‘ Ehftqd 2-05 bnqqdronmc ‘t lns
wxwwxwwwwxxxwxxxxwwwwwxwwwwwww.
Knqrpt&nm qdf‘qcd cd knhm tm bgdlhm sqıdr knmf c‘mr S·S+ nm sdmc udqr kd ∗ lntudldms aqnvmhdm "-
Bdbh drs hkktrsqd̀ ı
‘ k‘ Ehftqd 2-06-
K&d̀stcd ct lntudldms aqnvmhdm drs hlonqs‘msd c‘mr oktrhdtqr bnmsdwsdr ogxrhptdr- Ontq dm r‘unhq
tm odt oktr+ unhq kd rhsd 9
gsso/..eq-vhjhodch_-nqf.vhjh.KntudldmsSaqnvmhdm
2-07 Dvdqbhbdr
2-0- Dm bnlos‘ms cd cdtw e‘b́nmr kd mnlaqd c&‘q]dsdr ct fq‘ogd bnlokds Im)0 + lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘
k&hcdmshsd̀
m’m ) 0(
0 ) 1 ) 2 ) ... ) m ; . ’2-24(
1
2-1- Bnlahdm kd btad cd chldmrhnm m ‘,s,hk c&‘q]dsdr =
2-2- Lnmsqdq ptd kd fq‘ogd aho‘qsh bnlokds Imϕj drs sntintqr tm rntr,fq‘ogd ct fq‘ogd aho‘qsh
Im)qϕj)r + ptdkptd rnhs q ds r c‘mr K-
2-3- Lnmsqdq pt&nm odts cd̀ffmhq qd̀btqrhudldms k‘ chrs‘mbd dmsqd cdtw rnlldsr w ds x c&tm fq‘ogd
bnmmdwd F+ dm onr‘ms
!
/ rh w ; x.
cF ’w. x( 9; ’2-25(
0 ) lhmy∞T Γw( cF ’y. x( rhmnm.
2-4- B‘kbtkdq+ ontq kdr fq‘ogdr aho‘qshr bnlokdsr+ kdr btadr+ ds kdr bxbkdr+
‘( k&dwbdmsqhbhsd̀ cd bg‘ptd rnllds+
a( kd q‘xnm+
b( kd ch‘lıdsqd-
Sqntudq ‘trrh sntr kdr bdmsqdr cd bdr fq‘ogdr-
2-5- Lnmsqdq ptd kd ch‘lıdsqd c&tm fq‘ogd bnmmdwd ı

‘ m rnlldsr drs sntintqr oktr odshs nt d̀f‘k ı‘
m 0-
2-6- Oqntudq k‘ u‘qh‘msd ct Sgd̀nqıdld 2-8 bnqqdronmc‘ms ‘t b‘r cdr ltkshfq‘ogdr bnmmdwdr ‘udb
dw‘bsdldms cdtw rnlldsr cd cdfqd̀ hlo‘hq-
2-7- Lnmsqdq ptd snts fq‘ogd ı
‘ m rnllds drs hrnlnqogd ı
‘ tm rntr,fq‘ogd ct fq‘ogd bnlokds Im -
2-8- Sqntudq cdtw fq‘ogdr mnm hrnlnqogdr ‘x‘ms k‘ l]dld rthsd cd cdfqd̀ ’/. 0. 2. 0. /(-
2-0.- Nm chs pt&tmd rthsd ’r+ . r0 . . . . . rm 0 (+ ‘udb rg ∈ K ds r+ ) r0 ) . . . ) rm 0 ; m+ drs fqôghptd
rh dkkd ‘oo‘q‘]ıs bnlld rthsd cd cdfqd̀r c&tm fq‘ogd F ’ı ‘ m rnlldsr(- O‘qlh kdr rthsdr rthu‘msdr+
cd̀sdqlhmdq bdkkdr pth rnms fq‘oghptdr-
‘( ’/. 1. 0. 1. /(+
a( ’/. /. 1. 1(+
b( ’/. 0. 1. 2. . . . . m 0(-
2-00- Nm chs pt&tm fq‘ogd drs oˆhq rh sntr bdr rnlldsr rnms cd cdfqd̀ o‘hq- Lnmsqdq ptd kd mnlaqd
cd fq‘ogdr o‘hqr ‘x‘ms m ) 0 rnlldsr drs kd l]dld ptd kd mnlaqd cd fq‘ogdr ‘x‘ms m rnlldsr-
2-01- Lnmsqdq ptd+ ontq tm fq‘ogd rhlokd ‘udb b bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+ r rnllds ds a ‘q]dsdr+ nm
‘ kdr hmd̀f‘khsd̀r ( )
r b)0
r b≤a≤ .
1
Rtffdrshnm 9 Ontq k‘ rdbnmcd hmd̀f‘khsd̀+ bnmrhcd̀qdq k‘ rhst‘shnm nı
t sntsdr kdr bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+
r‘te tmd+ rnms qd̀cthsdr ı
‘ tm rdtk rnllds-
.
2-02- Oqntudq pt&tm fq‘ogd ‘udb r rnlldsr ds oktr ’/( cd r 1 0 ‘q]dsdr drs enqbd̀ldms bnmmdwd-
2-03- Lnmsqdq ptd ontq tmd enq]ds F ; ’R. A(+ ‘udb r rnlldsr ds a ‘q]dsdr+ nm ‘ ptd r a drs d̀f‘k
‘t mnlaqd cd bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr cd F-
2-04- Lnmsqdq ptd ontq tmd b‘qsd+ ‘udb r rnlldsr+ a ‘q]dsdr+ e e‘bdr+ ds b bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+
nm ‘
r a ) e ; 0 ) b.
2-05- Nm chs pt&tm fq‘ogd drs rˆmr sqhˆmfkd r&hk md bnmshdms ‘tbtm rntr,fq‘ogd hrnlnqogd ı‘ I2 -
Lnmsqdq ptd ontq tm fq‘ogd ok‘m‘hqd r‘mr hrsgld ds r‘mr sqh‘mfkd+ ‘x‘ms r rnlldsr+ a ‘q]dsdr+ ds b
bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+ nm ‘ k&hmd̀f‘khsd̀
a ≤ 1r 1b 1.
2-06- Lnmsqdq o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd kd bndflbhdms ’h. i( cd k‘ j,hıdld othrr‘mbdr AjF + cd k‘ l‘sqhbd
c&‘ci‘bdmbd c&tm fq‘ogd F ; ’Zm[. A(+ cnmmd ahdm kd mnlaqd cd bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq j ‘kk‘ms cd h
‘ i- Nm nardqud e‘bhkdldms ptd b&drs kd b‘r ontq j ; /+ othrptd A+F ; Hcm drs k‘ l‘sqhbd hcdmshsd̀
ı
m · m- Ontq lnmsqdq k&d̀s‘od cd qd̀btqqdmbd+ dwokhbhsdq kd oqncths cd l‘sqhbd AjF · AF -
2-07- Lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘ kdr enqltkdr ’2-20(+ ’2-21(+ ds ’2-22(-
2-07- DVDQBHBDR 80
2-08- Bnmbdunhq tm oqnfq‘lld pth b‘kbtkd kd ch‘lıdsqd ds kd q‘xnm c&tm fq‘ogd+ ds pth dm sqntud
sntr kdr bdmsqdr-
Dvoknqˆshnm lˆsgd̀lˆshptd
2-1.- Lnmsqdq pt&nm odts oknmfdq I2ϕ2 c‘mr tm snqd+ b-,ı ‘,c- 9 cdrrhmdq kd fq‘ogd I2ϕ2 rtq kd snqd
r‘mr bqnhrdldms cdr ‘q]dsdr- Bnlahdm nashdms,nm cd e‘bdr =
2-10- Lnmsqdq ptd ontq tm fq‘ogd bnmmdwd oknmfd̀ c‘mr kd snqd+ nm ‘ r a ) e ; /-
2-11- D̀s‘ms cnmmd̀ tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A(+ nm bnmrhcıdqd kd fq‘ogd F→ nasdmt ı ‘ o‘qshq cd F dm qd̀,
d̀shptdss‘ms bg‘ptd rnllds w o‘q k&dmrdlakd {w{- ?tsqdldms chs+ F→ 9; ’R → . A→ ( ‘udb R → 9; {{w{ | w ∈
R{+ ds A→ 9; {{{w{. {x{{ | {w. x{ ∈ A{- Knqr c&tmd bnmsq‘bshnm cd k&‘q]dsd {{w{. {x{{+ nm d̀shptdssd
{w. x{ kd rnllds nasdmt- Lnmsqdq pt&dm bnmsq‘bs‘ms ’c‘mr m&hlonqsd ptdk nqcqd( rtbbdrrhudldms
sntsdr kdr ‘q]dsdr cd fq‘ogd F→ + nm nashdms sntintqr tm fq‘ogd chrbqds cnms kd mnlaqd cd rnlldsr
drs kd mnlaqd cd bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr cd F→ -
2-12- ?c‘osdq k&‘ooqnbgd cd k&dwdqbhbd 2-11 ontq dm e‘hqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd kdr bnlonr‘msdr
bnmmdwdr c&tm fq‘ogd-
Bgôhsqd 3
Rsqtbstqdr ˆqanqdrbdmsdr
3-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
O‘qlh kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr+ kdr ‘qaqdr intdms tm q] nkd rod̀bh‘k- Kdtq d̀stcd drs khd̀d ı
‘ bdkkd cdr ‘qaqdr
∗ dmq‘bhmd̀r "+ pt&nm ‘oodkkd hbh ‘qanqdrbdmbdr- Bdr cdqmhdqr fq‘ogdr rnms m‘stqdkkdldms nqhdmsd̀r ’dm
‘kk‘ms udqr k‘ q‘bhmd(+ ds hk drs cnmb m‘stqdk cd chrbtsdq cd bdr naidsr ı‘ bd rs‘cd cd mnsqd oqd̀rdms‘shnm-
3-1 9qaqdr
Q‘oodknmr pt&tm ˆqaqd drs snts rhlokdldms tm fq‘ogd rhlokd bnmmdwd r‘mr bxbkd- Cd e‘b́nm d̀pthu‘kdmsd+
tm ‘qaqd F ; ’R. >( drs tm fq‘ogd rhlokd c‘mr kdptdk hk dwhrsd tm ds tm rdtk bgdlhm qdkh‘ms sntsd
o‘hqd cd rnlldsr- Dm dΨds+ hk dwhrsd tm sdk bgdlhm o‘qbd ptd F drs bnmmdwd+ ds kd bgdlhm drs tmhptd
o‘qbd ptd rhmnm nm ‘tq‘hs tm bxbkd- Nm ‘oodkkd ‘trrh rntudms mndtcr kdr rnlldsr c&tm ‘qaqd- Sntr
kdr mndtcr c&tm ‘qaqd nms ‘t lnhmr tm unhrhm- Bdtw pth m&dm m&nms pt&tm rdtk rnms ‘oodkd̀r edthkkdr
cd k&‘qaqd-
Knqrpt&nm cdrrhmd tm ‘qaqd c‘mr kd ok‘m+ k‘ chronrhshnm cdr unhrhmr c&tm mndtc ‘tsntq cd bdkth,bh
m&‘ o‘r c&hlonqs‘mbd- ?tsqdldms chs+ kdr cdtw ‘qaqdr cd k‘ Ehftqd 3-0 rnms kdr l]dldr- Nm cd̀mnsd
oaZR[ k&dmrdlakd cdr ‘qaqdr pth nms k&dmrdlakd R bnlld dmrdlakd cd mndtcr- O‘q cd̀ffmhshnm+ hk m&x
‘ o‘r c&‘qaqd rtq k&dmrdlakd uhcd+ ds tm rdtk ‘qaqd rtq tm rhmfkdsnm- Nm ‘ kdr 05 ‘qaqdr rthu‘msr rtq
82
85 BG9OHSQD 3- RSQTBSTQDR 9QANQDRBDMSDR
Nm odts dmuhr‘fdq tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd F ; ’R. >( bnlld k‘ qdk‘shnm cd

bntudqstqd c&tm nqcqd+ ‘udb k‘ q‘bhmd bnlld d̀kd̀ldms kd oktr fq‘mc-+ ds nm
cd̀rhfmd o‘q ≺F k&nqcqd bnqqdronmc‘ms- K‘ aqˆmbgd ‘ss‘bgd̀d dm tm mndtc
x c&tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd drs k‘ qdrsqhbshnm ct fq‘ogd ı‘ k&dmrdlakd cdr y+ sdkr
ptd y ≥F x- Tmd aq‘mbgd drs cnmb ‘trrh tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd+ ‘x‘ms kd mndtc
x bnlld q‘bhmd- Nm chs ptd b&drs k‘ aq‘mbgd hrrtd cd x- Kdr aqˆmbgdr cd
k´ˆqanqdrbdmbd rnms kdr aq‘mbgdr hrrtdr cdr unhrhmr cd r‘ q‘bhmd-
K‘ oqnenmcdtq πF ’x( c&tm mndtc x+ c&tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd+ drs k‘ chrs‘mbd
dmsqd bd mndtc ds k‘ q‘bhmd- ?tsqdldms chs+ b&drs k‘ knmftdtq cd k&tmhptd
bgdlhm pth qdkhd bd mndtc ı ‘ k‘ q‘bhmd- K‘ oqnenmcdtq π’F(+ c&tmd ‘qan,
qdrbdmbd+ drs k‘ oqnenmcdtq l‘whl‘kd c&tm mndtc c‘mr bdkkd,bh- Nm odts
b‘kbtkdq qd̀btqrhudldms k‘ oqnenmcdtq c&tm ‘qaqd+ bnlld rths 9 Ohdqqd Kdqntw
’0831z1//7(
πF ; 0 ) l‘w πA . ’3-2(
A
nı
t A u‘qhd c‘mr k&dmrdlakd cdr aq‘mbgdr cd k&‘qanqdrbdmbd- Ahdm dmsdmct+ rh k&‘qanqdrbdmbd drs
qd̀cthsd ı‘ r‘ q‘bhmd+ k‘ oqnenmcdtq drs d̀f‘kd ı
‘ 0- Tmd qd̀btqqdmbd rdlak‘akd odqlds cd b‘kbtkdq kd
mnlaqd e ’F( cd edthkkdr c&tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd 9
∑
e ’F( ; 0 ) e ’A(. ’3-3(
A
Bnmrhcd̀q‘ms k&dmrdlakd Fj cdr mndtcr cd oqnenmcdtq j c‘mr tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd F+ k‘ kˆqfdtq λ’F(
cd F drs ‘knqr cd̀ffmhd bnlld d̀s‘ms
λ’F( 9; l‘w{|Fj | | / ≤ j ≤ π’F( {. ’3-4(
K&d̀stcd cd bdr o‘q‘lıdsqdr rtq kdr ‘qanqdrbdmbdr drs hmshldldms khd̀d ı

‘ k&‘m‘kxrd dm bnlokdwhsd̀ c&‘k,
fnqhsgldr cd qdbgdqbgd c‘mr kdr ‘qaqdr+ nt kdr chbshnmm‘hqdr- Ontq k‘ oqnenmcdtq+ bdk‘ bnqqdronmc ı‘
ldrtqdq kd mnlaqd cd bnlo‘q‘hrnmr md̀bdrr‘hqd ‘u‘ms cd sqntudq tmd hmenql‘shnm-
3-3- 9QAQDR AHM9HQDR 86
3-3 9qaqdr ahmˆhqdr
Tm ˆqaqd ahmˆhqd 1 rtq k&dmrdlakd R odts rd cd̀bqhqd qd̀btqrhudldms cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd- Hk drs
‘( rnhs k&‘qaqd ahm‘hqd uhcd+ c‘mr kd b‘r R ; ¬ : rnhs k&‘qaqd ahm‘hqd qd̀cths ı
‘ tm rdtk mndtc+ knqrptd
|R| ; 0 :
a( rnhs bnmrshstd̀ c&tm mndtc ’k‘ q‘bhmd+ pth drs tm d̀kd̀ldms w cd R( ‘tptdk rnms ‘ss‘bgd̀dr tmd
aq‘mbgd f‘tbgd ds tmd aq‘mbgd cqnhsd ’pth rnms bg‘btm cdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr+ qdrodbshudldms
rtq cdr dmrdlakdr A ds B sdkr ptd A ) B ; R \ {w{(-
Oktr sdbgmhptdldms+ tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd drs tm sqhokds ; ’w. γ. δ(+ ‘udb w ∈ R+ γ tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd
rtq A+ δ tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd rtq B+ ds A ) B ; R \ {w{- Nm chs ptd w drs k‘ qˆbhmd cd k&‘qaqd+ ds ptd γ
dm drs k‘ aqˆmbgd fˆtbgd+ ds δ k‘ aqˆmbgd cqnhsd- Nm cd̀mnsd o‘q ZR[ k&dmrdlakd cdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr
rtq R- Nm ‘ cnmb tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀+ l‘hr hk drs dm oktr cdrrhmd̀ c‘mr kd ok‘m cd e‘b́nm ı
‘ chrshmftdq
k‘ f‘tbgd cd k‘ cqnhsd-
Nm cdrrhmd g‘ahstdkkdldms kdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ‘udb k‘ q‘bhmd snts dm g‘ts+ ds kdr
cdtw aq‘mbgdr onhms‘ms udqr kd a‘r+ k&tmd udqr k‘ f‘tbgd+ k&‘tsqd udqr k‘ cqnhsd-
Kd mndtc b drs k‘ q‘bhmd+ ds a+ c ds e rnms cdr edthkkdr- K‘ aq‘mbgd f‘tbgd cd
k&‘qaqd drs qd̀cthsd ‘t rdtk mndtc a+ ds k‘ aq‘mbgd cqnhsd drs bdkkd onqsd̀d o‘q kdr
mndtcr a+ c+ d+ ds e -
Hk drs bntq‘ms cd oqd̀rdmsdq cdr ‘qaqdr+ nt cdr fq‘ogdr+ r‘mr d̀shptdssdr- Nm chs
‘knqr pt&nm ‘ cdrrhmd̀ k‘ enqld cd k&‘qaqd- Oktr sdbgmhptdldms+ nm cd̀ffmhs k‘
mnshnm cd sxod cd fq‘ogdr+ b&drs,ı‘,chqd kdr bk‘rrdr c&d̀pthu‘kdmbdr ontq ‘ mnshnm
c&hrnlnqoghrld cd fq‘ogd- Nm ‘ cnmb tmd mnshnm cd sxod c&‘qaqdr+ sxod cd
fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r+ dsb-
ı bg‘ptd enqld c&‘qaqd ahm‘hqd ı
? ‘ m mndtcr+ hk bnqqdronmc dm e‘hs m¸ ‘qaqdr pth Dtfıdmd B‘s‘k‘m
odtudms r&nasdmhq dm d̀shptds‘ms ’cd sntsdr kdr e‘b́nmr onrrhakdr( kdr m mndtcr o‘q ’0703z0783(
kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R- Kd mnlaqd cd enqldr ’unhq dwdqbhbd 3-2( c&‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ı ‘
m mndtcr drs kd m,hıdld mnlaqd cd B‘s‘k‘m 9
( )
0 1m
Bm ; . ’3-5(
m)0 m
Kd mnlaqd sns‘k c&‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr rtq R+ cd b‘qchm‘k m+ drs cnmb

( )
m¸ 1m
| ZR[| ; . ’3-6(
m)0 m
Kdr 4 enqldr c&‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ı

‘ m ; 2 mndtcr rnms bdkkdr hkktrsqd̀dr ı
1- Nm cduqˆhs okts]
ns chqd ˆqanqdrbdmbd ahmˆhqd ! + lˆhr bd m¸drs oˆr kˆ sqˆchshnm-
87 BG9OHSQD 3- RSQTBSTQDR 9QANQDRBDMSDR
! ! ! ! !
+ + +
! ! +!
+ +!
+ ! +!
+
+ +
! +!
+ ! ++!
Ehftpd 3-3 z Kdr enqldr c&‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ı

‘ 2 mndtcr-
Oˆqbntqr çˆqaqdr ahmˆhqdr
C‘mr oktrhdtqr bnmsdwsdr+ nm r&hmsd̀qdrrd ı ‘ k&dwoknq‘shnm cdr ∗ u‘kdtqr " pth rd qdsqntud c‘mr tm ‘qaqd
ahm‘hqd+ o‘q dwdlokd ontq sqntudq nı t rd rhstd tmd u‘kdtq rod̀bhffptd- Ontq bd e‘hqd+ hk drs eqd̀ptdms
pt&nm o‘qbntqd rxrsd̀l‘shptdldms k&‘qaqd rdknm k&tmd cdr ∗ rsq‘sd̀fhdr " rthu‘msdr- Nm ‘ kdr o‘qbntqr
oqd̀ffwd ’cd̀mnsd̀ ϕ( ds onrsffwd ’cd̀mnsd̀ ψ(+ pth rnms qdrodbshudldms cd̀ffmhr 2 bnlld rths 9
!
w rh. ; ’w(.
ϕ’ ( 9; ’3-7(
w ϕ’γ( ϕ’δ( rh. ; ’w. γ. δ(.
ds !
w rh. ; ’w(.
ψ’ ( 9; ’3-8(
ψ’γ( ψ’δ( w rh. ; ’w. γ. δ(.
O‘q dwdlokd+ ‘udb k&‘qaqd cd k‘ ffftqd 3-4+ nm nashdms qdrodbshudldms
ϕ’ ( ; abace d. ds ψ’ ( ; be cdaa.
3-4 9qaqdr ahmˆhqdr bqnhrrˆmsr

!a
O‘qlh kdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr rtq tm dmrdlakd sns‘kdldms nqcnmmd̀ +
R+ nm ‘ bdtw ontq kdrptdkr kdr d̀shptdssdr unms dm bqnhrr‘ms !b + !a
+
!c +!d
kd knmf cd snts bgdlhm ‘kk‘ms cd k‘ q‘bhmd ‘tw edthkkdr- Kd +
oktr odshs d̀kd̀ldms cd R d̀shptdssd cnmb enqbd̀ldms k‘ q‘bhmd-
Nm chs cd sdkr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr pt&hkr rnms bqnhrrˆmsr+ ds nm !e
cd̀mnsd abZR[ k&dmrdlakd cdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr cnms
kdr mndtcr rnms d̀shptdsd̀r o‘q kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R- Nm rtoonrd Ehftpd 3-4 z ?qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhr,
ptd rtq k&dmrdlakd uhcd+ hk m&x ‘ pt&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms 9 r‘ms+ ‘udb a , a , b , c , d , e -
k&‘qaqd uhcd-
Sdbgmhptdldms+ tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms rtq R drs tm sqhokds ’lhm’R(. γ. δ(+ nı t γ drs tm ‘qaqd
ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms rtq A ⊆ R \ {lhm’R({+ ds δ drs tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms rtq kd bnlokd̀ldms cd A
2- Unhq kˆ rdbshnm rthuˆmsd ontq kˆ cd̀ffmhshnm ct oˆqbntqr hm ud+ okts]
ns ôodkd̀ oqnidbshnm+ ds cd̀mnsd̀ -
3-4- 9QAQDR AHM9HQDR BQNHRR9MSR 88
c‘mr R \{lhm’R({- Rtq k&dmrdlakd R ; {0. 1. 2{+ nm ‘ kdr 5 ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr cd k‘ Ehftqd 3-5-
!0 !0 !0 !0 !0 !0
+ + + +
!1 !1 ++!1 ++!1 !2 ++!1 !1 ++!2
+ +
!2 ++!2 !2 ++!2
Ehftpd 3-5 z Kdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr rtq {0. 1. 2{-
Dm e‘hs+ kd mnlaqd c&‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr ı

‘ m,rnlldsr drs dw‘bsdldms m¸- Bdbh cd̀bntkd ct e‘hs
pt&nm ‘ tmd ahidbshnm π ’k‘ oqnidbshnm( dmsqd ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr ds nqcqd sns‘tw rtq R- Dkkd rd
cd̀ffmhs qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld rths+ dm oqd̀rdms‘ms kdr nqcqdr sns‘tw rtq R rntr enqld cd lnsr- Ontq
tm ‘qaqd bqnhrr‘ms ; ’a. γ. δ( ’‘udb aq‘mbgd f‘tbgd γ ds aq‘mbgd cqnhsd δ(+ nm ‘ k‘ oqnidbshnm
π’ ( 9; π’γ( a π’δ(. ’3-0/(
Nm qd̀btoıdqd k&‘qaqd ı‘ o‘qshq cd Z ; π’ ( dm b‘kbtk‘ms kd cd̀oknxd̀ ∆’Z( cd Z- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+

ontq tm nqcqd sns‘k Z ; w0 w1 · · · wm rtq R+ nm onrd
∆’Z( 9; ’a. ∆’t(. ∆’u((. ’3-00(
nı
t t ds u rnms kdr lnsr pth rnms tmhptdldms b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd̀r o‘q kd e‘hs ptd Z rd cd̀bnlonrd bnlld
bnlld oqncths ’cd bnmb‘sd̀m‘shnm( cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd 9
Z ; t a u.
Nm unhs e‘bhkdldms ptd k‘ enmbshnm ∆ drs k&hmudqrd cd π- O‘q dwdlokd+ kd lns baae cd drs k‘ oqnidbshnm
cd k&‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms cd k‘ Ehftqd 3-4- Nm chs ‘trrh o‘qenhr pt&nm ‘ nasdmt kd lns π’ ( o‘q
kdbstqd hmffwd cd k&‘qaqd -
Hk cd̀bntkd chqdbsdldms cd k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm cd k‘ ahidbshnm π ptd
| abZR[| ; m¸. ’3-01(
rh R drs tm dmrdlakd sns‘kdldms nqcnmmd̀ cd b‘qchm‘k m-

0// BG9OHSQD 3- RSQTBSTQDR 9QANQDRBDMSDR
3-5 9qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r
Tm ˆqaqd nqcnmmd̀( drs tm ‘qaqd ’tmd ‘qanqdrbdmbd( rnhs qd̀cths ı

‘ tm rdtk mndtc+ rnhs bnmrshstd̀ c&tm
mndtc ’k‘ q‘bhmd( ‘tptdk drs q‘ss‘bgd̀d tmd rthsd mnm uhcd c&‘qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r- Bd rnms kdr aq‘mbgdr
cd k&‘qaqd+ ds dkkdr rnms nqcnmmd̀dr cd f‘tbgd ı
‘ cqnhsd- K‘ Ehftqd 3-6 oqd̀rdmsd kdr enqldr c&‘qaqdr
nqcnmmd̀r ı
‘ 3 mndtcr-
‘ ’w( rh R ; {w{+ rnhs tm bntokd ’w. A(+
Oktr sdbgmhptdldms+ tm ‘qaqd nqcnmmd̀ rtq R drs rnhs qd̀cths ı
nı
t w ’c‘mr R( drs k‘ q‘bhmd cd k&‘qaqd+ ds A ; ’ 0 . 1 . . . . . j ( drs tmd rthsd mnm uhcd ’j / /(
c&‘qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r- Hk m&x ‘ o‘r c&‘qaqd nqcnmmd̀ rtq k&dmrdlakd uhcd-
Hk x ‘ tmd ahidbshnm bk‘rrhptd dmsqd ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ds ‘qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r- Kd o‘rr‘fd c&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd
‘ tm ‘qaqd nqcnmmd̀ odts rd cd̀bqhqd ‘hrd̀ldms dm sdqld cd ffkh‘shnm- Nm ‘intsd tm mntud‘t mndtc
ı
! ! ! ! !
+ + +
! ! ! +!
+ ! ! +
+! ! +!
+
+
! ! +!
+ ! !
Ehftpd 3-6 z Enqldr c&‘qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r ı

‘ pt‘sqd mndtcr
bnlld ∗ oıdqd " 3 cd k‘ q‘bhmd+ ds nm hmsdqoqıdsd kd e‘hs cd cdrbdmcqd c‘mr k‘ aq‘mbgd f‘tbgd c&tm
‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bnlld kd o‘rr‘fd cd ∗ oıdqd " dm ∗ ffkr "- Cdrbdmcqd c‘mr k‘ aq‘mbgd cqnhsd r&hmsdqoqıdsd
bnlld kd o‘rr‘fd cd ∗ eqıdqd " ı‘ ∗ eqıdqd b‘cds "- Bd oqnbdrrtr drs hkktrsqd̀ ı
‘ k‘ Ehftqd 3-5- Kd mndtc
rtookd̀ldms‘hqd drs bdkth pth drs d̀shptdsd̀ w- Nm dmkıdud cd o‘qs ds c&‘tsqd kdr d̀shptdssdr cdr mndtcr+
ontq nasdmhq k‘ bnqqdronmc‘mbd dm sdqld cd enqld c&‘qaqdr-
Ontq m ; 2+ k‘ ahidbshnm cd k‘ Ehftqd 3-8-
3- Rdknm kd fn]ts ct kdbsdtq+ nm odts rtarshstdq lıdqd ! ontq oıdqd ! ds ffkkd ! ontq ffkr ! + nt l]dld dmbnqd
tshkhrdq kdr sdqldr oktr mdtsqdr oˆqdms ! ds dmeˆms !-
3-6- ENMBSHNM CD RS9SHNMMDLDMSΓ·( 0/0
" " " "

a a w w
+ +
+ +
a " +"b a " +" b a " b " +"d
+ + +
+ 7→ +
+ 7→ ,-
c " + "d c " + "d a " "
, c -"e
+ + , -
+ +
+
+"e + "e
+ +
Ehftpd 3-7 z Tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd ds k&‘qaqd ok‘m bnqqdronmc‘ms-
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
| | | | |
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
Ehftpd 3-8 z K‘ ahidbshnm ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr+ ‘qaqdr ‘ncnmmd̀r+ ontq m ; 2-
3-6 Enmbshnm cd rsˆshnmmdldms’∗(
?oo‘qdlldms k‘ mnshnm ptd mntr ‘kknmr l‘hmsdm‘ms ‘anqcdq drs ctd ı ‘ Q- Oxjd ’unhq Z14[(- Dkkd ‘
d̀sd̀ qdcd̀bntudqsd o‘q ?-F- Jnmgdhl ds A- Vdhrr ’unhq Z08[( c‘mr tm bnmsdwsd hmenql‘shptd+ ontq
k&d̀stcd c&tm bdqs‘hm sxod cd ∗ g‘rg‘fd "-
Nm rtoonrd ptd m ∗ bnmctbsdtqr " nms bg‘btm nosd̀ c&‘u‘mbd ontq tmd cdr m ok‘bdr cd rs‘shnmmd,
ldms+ sntsdr rhstd̀dr ct l]dld bnsd̀ c&tmd qtd ı‘ rdmr tmhptd ds mtld̀qnsd̀ bnmrd̀btshudldms cd 0 ı‘ m-
?tsqdldms chs+ nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm ψ cd k&dmrdlakd B cdr bnmctbsdtqr udqr k&dmrdlakd {0. 1. . . . . m{+
pth qdmc bnlosd cdr oqd̀ed̀qdmbdr cd rs‘shnmmdldms cd bg‘ptd bnmctbsdtq+ ‘udb ψ’b( ; j rh kd bnmctb,
sdtq b oqd̀eıdqd k‘ ok‘bd j- Nm chs ptd ψ drs k‘ enmbshnm cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd- Hk m&x ‘ ‘tbtmd qdrsqhbshnm
rtq bdr oqd̀ed̀qdmbdr- O‘q dwdlokd+ kdr bnmctbsdtqr odtudms ‘unhq sntr bgnhrh k‘ ok‘bd 0 bnlld ok‘bd
oqd̀ed̀qd̀d-
Ontq tmd enmbshnm cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd ψ ffwd̀d+ nm rtoonrd ptd kdr bnmctbsdtqr ‘qqhudms k&tm ‘oqıdr k&‘tsqd+
c‘mr tm nqcqd ptdkbnmptd+ ds r&‘u‘mbdms itrpt&ı ‘ kdtq ok‘bd oqd̀ed̀qd̀d- Hkr r&x f‘qdms rh dkkd drs khaqd+ nt
rd f‘qdms ı‘ k‘ oqdlhıdqd ok‘bd khaqd pth rths kdtq ok‘bd oqd̀ed̀qd̀d- C‘mr kd b‘r hkktrsqd̀ ı
‘ k‘ Ehftqd 3-0/+
0/1 BG9OHSQD 3- RSQTBSTQDR 9QANQDRBDMSDR
kd oqnbg‘hm bnmctbsdtq cd̀rhqd rd f‘qdq ı

‘ k‘ ok‘bd mtld̀qnsd̀d 7+ pth drs nbbtod̀d- Hk rd f‘qdq‘ cnmb ı‘
k‘ cnmb k‘ ok‘bd 8+ pth drs khaqd-
τΓb(97
Ehftpd 3-0/ z Tm bnmctbsdtq bgdqbg‘ms r‘ ok‘bd oqd̀ed̀qd̀d-
R&hk dwhrsd tm nqcqd c&‘qqhud̀d cdr bnmctbsdtqr ontq kdptdk tm cdr bnmctbsdtqr m&‘qqhud o‘r ı‘ rd
sqntudq tmd ok‘bd ’rthu‘ms bdssd oqnbd̀ctqd( ‘u‘ms cd o‘qudmhq ı ‘ k‘ ffm cd k‘ qtd+ nm chs ptd k‘
enmbshnm cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd ψ m&drs o‘r tmd enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldms- ?t bnmsq‘hqd+ nm chs ‘unhq tmd
enmbshnm cd rsˆshnmmdldms rh bg‘ptd bnmctbsdtq qd̀trrhs ı ‘ rd f‘qdq+ ptdkptd rnhs k&nqcqd c&‘qqhud̀d-
Nm lnmsqd e‘bhkdldms ptd ψ drs tmd enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldms rh ds rdtkdldms rh+ ontq snts j dmsqd
0 ds m+ k&hl‘fd hmudqrd
ψ ’Zj[( ; {b ∈ B | ψ’b( ≤ j{.
bnmshdms ‘t lnhmr j d̀kd̀ldmsr+ h-d- 9 ∣ ∣
∣ψ ’Zj[(∣ ≥ j. ’3-02(
?tsqdldms chs+ ontq bg‘ptd j hk x ‘ ‘t lnhmr j bnmctbsdtqr pth cd̀rhqdms rd f‘qdq c‘mr kdr j
oqdlhıdqdr ok‘bdr-
Nm cd̀mnsd IrYZm[ k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms+ ‘udb B ; Zm[- Nm odts cd̀bqhqd tmd
enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldms bnlld tm lns ψ ; o0 o1 · · · om + ‘udb og ; ψ’h(- ?hmrh+ kdr 2 enmbshnmr cd
rs‘shnmmdldms pth bnqqdronmcdms ‘t b‘r m ; 1 rnms 9
IrYZ1[ ; {00. 01. 10{.
Ontq m ; 2+ nm ‘ kdr 05 enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms 9
IrYZ2[ ; {000. 001. 010. 100. 002. 020. 200. 011.

101. 110. 012. 021. 102. 120. 201. 210{
Kd oqnakıdld bnmrhrsd ‘knqr ı‘ bnlosdq kd mnlaqd cd enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms dm sdqld cd m-

4
Ontq bd e‘hqd nm cd̀enqld k‘ qtd ontq dm e‘hqd tm bdqbkd+ ds nm ‘intsd tmd ok‘bd cd rs‘shnmmdldms
d̀shptdsd̀d m ) 0+ bnlld hkktrsqd̀ ı
‘ k Ehftqd 3-00- pth odts ‘trrh ]dsqd k&tmd cdr ok‘bdr oqd̀ed̀qd̀dr- Hk
4- Bdssd ôoqnbgd drs ctd ı̂ Onkkˆj ’unhq Y + Rdb- 1[(-
Z
3-7- ENQDSR 0/2
! !
1 2
1
n+
...
n
...
k
!
Ehftpd 3-00 z Rs‘shnmmdldms bhqbtk‘hqd-
dm qd̀rtksd cnmb ptd ψ oqdmc l‘hmsdm‘ms cdr u‘kdtqr dmsqd 0 ds m ) 0- Sntsdr kdr unhstqdr odtudms
sntintqr rd rs‘shnmmdq+ pthssd ı‘ qdo‘rrdq o‘q kd cd̀ats : ds+ ı
‘ k‘ ffm+ hk qdrsd sntintqr dw‘bsdldms tmd
ok‘bd cd khaqd- K‘ enmbshnm ψ drs tmd enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldms rh k‘ rdtkd ok‘bd khaqd drs k‘ ok‘bd
mtld̀qnsd̀d m ) 0- Ontq bg‘ptd enmbshnm cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd ψ+ ds bg‘ptd i dmsqd / ds m+ nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm
cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd ψi cd̀ffmhd bnlld 9
ψi ’b( 9; ’ψ’b( ) i lnc m ) 0(.
O‘qlh kdr ’m ) 0(m enmbshnmr cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbdr+ hk x dm ‘ m ) 0 pth r&d̀bqhudms bnlld ψi + ontq bg‘ptd
enmbshnm cd rs‘shnmmdldms ψ- Tmd rdtkd c&dmsqd dkkdr k‘hrrd k‘ ok‘bd m ) 0 khaqd- Nm ‘ cnmb ’m )
0(m <’m ) 0( ; ’m ) 0(m 0 enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms 9
|IrYZm[| ; ’m ) 0(m 0
. ’3-03(
3-7 EnqY
dsr
Kd khdm dmsqd enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms ds kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr o‘rrd o‘q k‘ mnshnm cd enqZds+ b&drs,
‘,chqd snts rhlokdldms tm fq‘ogd rhlokd cnms kdr bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr rnms cdr c&‘qanqdrbdmbd
ı
’bg‘btmd drs tm ‘qaqd nı t nm ‘ rd̀kdbshnmmd̀ tmd q‘bhmd(- O‘q dwdlokd+ rtq k&dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr
R ; {0. 1. 2{+ nm ‘ kdr 05 enq]dsr cd k‘ Ehftqd 3-01-
3-8 Dvdqbhbdr
3-0- Lnmsqdq ptd k‘ oqnenmcdtq c&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd ı

‘ m edthkkdr drs ‘t lnhmr d̀f‘kd ı
‘ knf1 ’m(-
3-8- DVDQBHBDR 0/4
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
| | | | |
% % % % %
$ ! $ ! $ ! $ ! $ !
# " # " # " # " # "
Ehftpd 3-02 z Ahidbshnm ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr ds sqh‘mftk‘shnmr-
3-4- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd sntr kdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr rtq tm dmrdlakd R-
3-5- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd k‘ oqnenmcdtq c&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd rtq tm dmrdlakd R-
3-6- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd sntr kdr ‘qaqdr ahm‘hqdr bqnhrr‘msr rtq tm dmrdlakd sns‘,
kdldms nqcnmmd̀ R-
3-7- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd k‘ oqnenmcdtq c&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms rtq tm dmrdlakd
sns‘kdldms nqcnmmd̀ R-
3-8- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth b‘kbtkd sntr kdr ‘qaqdr nqcnmmd̀r rtq tm dmrdlakd R-
3-0.- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth sq‘mrenqld tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd dm ‘qaqd nqcnmmd̀+ bnlld hk drs
cd̀bqhs ı‘ k‘ Ehftqd 3-7-
0/5 BG9OHSQD 3- RSQTBSTQDR 9QANQDRBDMSDR
Bgôhsqd 4
Fqôgdr nqhdmsd̀r
4-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
Knqrpt&nm nqhdmsd kdr ‘q]dsdr c&tm fq‘ogd+ nm nashdms k‘ mnshnm cd fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r- Nm ‘ c‘mr bd b‘r
cdr u‘qh‘msdr hmsd̀qdrr‘msdr cdr ‘kfnqhsgldr rtq kdr fq‘ogdr-
4-1 Fqôgd nqhdmsd̀-
Tm fqôgd nqhdmsd̀ F drs k‘ cnmmd̀d c&tm bntokd ’R. A(+ ‘udb A ⊆ R · R- Tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ rtq
tm dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr R bnqqdronmc cnmb ı ‘ k‘ cnmmd̀d c&tmd qdk‘shnm A rtq R- Bnlld ontq kdr
fq‘ogdr rhlokdr+ kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R rnms ‘oodkd̀r rnlldsr+ l‘hr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd A rnms okts]
ns ‘oodkd̀
cdr ˆqbr- ?tsqdldms chs+ k‘ chΨd̀qdmbd ‘udb kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr 0 ds kdr fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r qd̀rhcd c‘mr
kd e‘hs pt&nm ‘ cnmmd̀ tmd nqhdms‘shnm ‘tw ‘q]dsdr+ othrpt&hk x tmd chΨd̀qdmbd dmsqd ’w. x( ds ’x. w(-
Ontq tm ‘qb a ; ’w. x( c‘mr A+ nm chs ptd w drs k‘ rntqbd cd a+ ds ptd x dm drs kd ats- K‘ Ehftqd 4-1
hkktrsqd o‘q tm cdrrhm 1 bdssd mnshnm cd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀-
Nm chs c&tm ‘qb ’w. w( ptd b&drs tmd antbkd ct fq‘ogd- Nm cd̀rhfmd o‘q FonZR[ k&dmrdlakd cdr fq‘ogdr
nqhdmsd̀r rtq tm dmrdlakd R+ cd m rnlldsr+ ds kd mnlaqd cd fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r rtq R drs
FonZR[ ; 1m−m . ’4-0(
Kdr fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r cd rnlldsr {•. •{ rnms kdr 05 fq‘ogdr cd k‘ Ehftqd 4-0- Kd cdfqd̀ rnqsˆms ’qdro-
cdfqd̀ dmsqˆms( c&tm rnllds w ct fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A(+ cd̀mnsd̀ c)F ’w( ’qdro- cF ’w((+ drs cd̀ffmh bnlld
c)
F ’w( 9; ”{x | ’w. x( ∈ A{ ’qdro. cF ’w( 9; ”{x | ’x. w( ∈ A{(.
0- Nm hmrhrsd hbh lhdtv rtq kˆ ch d̀qdmbd dmsqd kdr cdtv mnshnmr dm tshkhrˆms k¸ˆcidbshe rhlokd-
1- Ahdm dmsdmct+ oktrhdtqr cdrrhmr ch d̀qdmsr odtudms bnqqdronmcdms ˆt l]dld fqôgd- Mntr x qduhdmcqnmr-
0/6
4-3- BGDLHMR C9MR TM FQ9OGD NQHDMSD̀ 000
sdk ptd w ; e j ’w(- Bnlld R drs ffmh+ R bnmshdms enqbd̀ldms ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 4-7( ‘t lnhmr tm d̀kd̀ldms
qd̀btqqdms ontq e -
4-3 Bgdlhmr cˆmr tm fqôgd nqhdmsd̀
Nm ‘c‘osd k‘ mnshnm cd bgdlhm c‘mr tm fq‘ogd rhlokd+ ‘t bnmsdwsd cdr fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r+ snts
rhlokdldms dm cdl‘mc‘ms cd ∗ qdrodbsdq " k&nqhdms‘shnm cdr ‘q]dsdr- Tm bgdlhm
γ ; ’w+ . w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (.
c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A( drs cnmb tmd rthsd cd rnlldsr+ wg c‘mr R+ ‘udb bg‘ptd ’wg . wg)0 (
tm ‘qb cd F- Snts bnlld nm k&‘ e‘hs ontq kdr bgdlhmr c‘mr kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr+ nm chs ptd w+ drs
k‘ rntqbd cd γ+ ds ptd wm drs rnm ats- Dmbnqd hbh+ m drs k‘ knmftdtq cd γ-
K&dmrdlakd cdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq j+ ‘kk‘ms cd w ı‘ x+ drs cd̀mnsd̀ Fj ’w. x(- Kdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq
/ r&hcdmshffdms ‘tw rnlldsr ct fq‘ogd+ ds nm d̀bqhs oktr rhlokdldms ’w. x( ontq F+ ’w. x(- ?hmrh+

{’w({ rh. w ; x.
’w. x( ;
¬ rhmnm.
Kdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq 0 bnqqdronmcdms ‘tw ‘qbr ct fq‘ogd+ ds rh nm d̀bqhs rhlokdldms F’w. x(+
okts]ns ptd F0 ’w. x(+ ‘knqr 
{’w. x({ rh. ’w. x( ∈ A.
F’w. x( ;
¬ rhmnm.
Nm cd̀mnsd o‘q F· ’w. x( k&dmrdlakd cdr bgdlhmr ‘kk‘ms cd w ı
‘ x c‘mr kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
F· ’w. x( 9; ’w. x( ) F’w. x( ) F1 ’w. x( ) . . . ’4-7(
Bds dmrdlakd odts ]dsqd hmffmh-

K‘ bnlonrhshnm cd bgdlhmr c‘mr F drs cd̀ffmhd snts bnlld c‘mr kd b‘r cdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr- B&drs
cnmb tmd enmbshnm
Fj ’w. x( · Fi ’x. y( → Fj)i ’w. y(. ’4-8(
Kd mnlaqd cd bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq j h ı ‘ i c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A(+ ‘udb R ; {0. 1. . . . . m{+
drs cnmmd̀ o‘q k‘ j,hıdld othrr‘mbd cd k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd cd F 9
Nqnonrhshnm 4-1- Ontq tm fqôgd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’Zm[. A() kd mnlaqd cd bgdlhmr ˆkkˆms cd h ı̂ i cˆmr
F drs d̀fˆk ˆt bndflbhdms ’h. i( cd kˆ j,hıdld othrrˆmbd cd kˆ lˆsqhbd c´ˆciˆbdmbd AF .
∣ ∣
∣ j ∣ j
∣F ’w. x(∣ ; ’AF ( ’w. x(. ’4-0/(
001 BG9OHSQD 4- FQ9OGDR NQHDMSD̀R
Nardqunmr+ dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ pt&hk x ‘ tm tmhptd bgdlhm cd knmftdtq j hrrt c&tm rnllds cnmmd̀ w c‘mr
kd fq‘ogd r‘fhss‘k Fe + ‘rrnbhd̀ ı
‘ tmd dmcnenmbshnm e - B&drs kd bgdlhm
’w. e ’w(. e 1 ’w(. . . . . e j 0

’w((.
nasdmt dm hsd̀q‘ms e -
BgˆYımdr
Tmd bgˆZımd c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A( drs bgdlhm c‘mr kd fq‘ogd rhlokd nasdmt dm ntakh‘ms
k&nqhdms‘shnm c‘mr F- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm ‘
γ ; ’w+ . w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (.
‘udb ’wg . wg)0 ( ∈ A nt ’wg)0 . wg ( ∈ A- O‘q bd ah‘hr+ nm odts cnmb sq‘mronrdq ‘t bnmsdwsd cdr fq‘ogdr
nqhdmsd̀r kdr mnshnmr cd bnmmdwhsd̀ cd̀iı‘ bnmrhcd̀qd̀dr ontq kdr fq‘ogdr rhlokdr-
O‘q dwdlokd+ nm odts cd̀bnlonrdq tmd dmcnenmbshnm rtq R dm bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+ bnlld hkktrsqd̀
ı
Bnlonrˆmsdr enqsdldms bnmmdvdr
Dm tshkhr‘ms k‘ mnshnm cd bgdlhmr+ okts]ns ptd bdkkd cd bg‘]ımd+ nm drs ‘ldmd̀ ı

‘ bnmrhcd̀qdq k‘ mnshnm cd
∗ bnmmdwhsd̀ enqsd " rtq tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm hmsqncths k‘ qdk‘shnm c&d̀pthu‘kdmbd
w • x dmsqd rnlldsr cd F ; ’R. A(+ pth bncd kd e‘hs ptd cdtw rnlldsr w ds x rnms c‘mr tmd l]dld
bnlonrˆmsd enqsdldms bnmmdwd- B&drs,ı‘,chqd ptd w • x rh ds rdtkdldms rh hk dwhrsd c‘mr F tm bgdlhm
cd w ı‘ x+ ds tm bgdlhm cd x ı
‘ w-
Snts fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ ‘clds tmd cd̀bnlonrhshnm tmhptd dm bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr+ ds bg‘btmd cd bdr
bnlonr‘msdr rd cd̀bnlonrd ı‘ rnm sntq dm bnlonr‘msdr enqsdldms bnmmdwdr cd e‘b́nm tmhptd-
B&drs cnmb k&dmrdlakd cdr othsr cd F- Othr+ ontq bg‘ptd / , h ≤ j+ nm onrd
0
Qg 9; {w ∈ R | A ’w( ⊆ Qg 0 {. ’4-03(
O‘q cd̀ffmhshnm+ kd qˆmf+ qF ’w(+ c&tm rnllds w+ drs d̀f‘k ı ‘ h rh ds rdtkdldms rh w ∈ Qg - Sntr kdr
rnlldsr c‘mr Qj rnms cdr othsr+ l‘hr hk odts x ‘unhq cdr othsr pth rnms c‘mr k&tm cdr Qg + ‘udb
%
h , j- Tmd mtld̀qnsˆshnm+ c&tm fq‘ogd F ; ’R. A( ı ‘ m rnlldsr+ drs tmd ahidbshnm e 9 R →Zm[
sdkkd ptd e ’w( , e ’x( rh ’w. x( ∈ A- Dm dwoknhs‘ms bdr mnshnmr cd q‘mf ds cd mtld̀qns‘shnm+ nm odts
lnmsqdq ptd
Nqnonrhshnm 4-3- Tm fqôgd ı̂ m rnlldsr F ; ’R. A( drs ˆbxbkhptd) rh ds rdtkdldms r´hk ˆclds tmd
mtld̀qnsˆshnm-
Dm d̀k‘anq‘ms rtq bdr hcd̀dr 2 + nm odts lnmsqdq ’unhq Z18[( ptd kd mnlaqd m 9; | bubZA[| cd fq‘ogdr
‘bxbkhptdr rtq tm dmrdlakd A ı ‘ m d̀kd̀ldms drs b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd̀ o‘q k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd
m
∑ ( )
j)0 m j Γm j(
m ; ’ 0( 1 m j. ’4-04(
j
j90
ds nm ‘ kdr u‘kdtqr
m / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...
| bubZm[| 0 0 2 14 432 18170 26704/2 0027668154 6726/1218232 . . .
K&‘qftldms cd k‘ oqdtud cd k‘ Oqnonrhshnm 4-2 lnmsqd pt&nm ‘ ‘trrh
Nqnonrhshnm 4-4- Cˆmr tm fqôgd ˆbxbkhptd F rtq A) cd bˆqchmˆk m) kdr bgdlhmr nms tmd knmftdtq
anqmd̀d oˆq kd mnlaqd cd rnlldsr- Nm ˆ cnmb Fj ; ¬ ontq snts j ≥ m- Hk dm cd̀bntkd ptd ontq snts
rnllds w ds x) nm ˆ .
F· ’w. x( 9; ’w. x( ) F’w. x( ) F1 ’w. x( ) . . . ) Fm 0

’w. x(. ’4-05(
B´drs cnmb tm dmrdlakd ffmh-
Nm chs pt&nm ‘ ltmh tm fq‘ogd rhlokd c&tmd nqhdmsˆshnm ˆbxbkhptd+ rh kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ qd̀rtks‘ms
drs ‘bxbkhptd- O‘q dwdlokd+ kd fq‘ogd bnlokds I2 ’kd sqh‘mfkd( ‘clds kdr 5 nqhdms‘shnmr ‘bxbkhptdr
2- =udb tm ˆqftldms çhmbktrhnm,dvbktrhnm pth dvoknhsd kd bgnhv çtm rntr,dmrdlakd cd rntqbdr-

Dm qd̀rtld̀+ nm ‘ lnmsqd̀ ptd
’F( ; ’ ’F→ ( ’F→→ (( ) 1 ’F→→ (.
bd pth lnmsqd ahdm ’4-07(-
O‘q dwdlokd+ nm b‘kbtkd pt&hk x ‘ m¸ nqhdms‘shnmr ‘bxbkhptdr ct fq‘ogd bnlokds Im + othrptd rnm
onkxm]nld bgqnl‘shptd drs s’s 0(’s 0( · · · ’s ’m 0((- Nm odts kd unhq chqdbsdldms dm q‘hrnmm‘ms
qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld rths- Cd k‘ oqnonrhshnm 4-2+ hk cd̀bntkd pt&nm ‘ ‘t lnhmr tm rnllds rntqbd-
Dm e‘hs+ hk md odts x dm ‘unhq pt&tm+ othrptd cdtw rnlldsr rntqbdr md odtudms ]dsqd qdkhd̀r o‘q tm
‘qb- Ahdm dmsdmct+ hk x ‘ m bgnhw ontq bd rnllds rntqbd- Rh nm dmkıdud bd rnllds+ k&gxonsgıdrd cd
qd̀btqqdmbd ‘rrtqd pt&hk x ‘ ’m 0(¸ nqhdms‘shnmr ‘bxbkhptdr ct fq‘ogd qdrs‘ms- Nm ‘ cnmb fkna‘kdldms
m¸ nqhdms‘shnmr-
4-5 Fqôgdr uˆktd̀
Hk drs rntudms hmsd̀qdrr‘ms+ ontq cdr ‘ookhb‘shnmr+ cd cnmmdq tm ∗ onhcr " ‘tw ‘qbr c&tm fq‘ogd
nqhdmsd̀- Bd onhcr ’nt u‘kt‘shnm( bnqqdronmc o‘q dwdlokd ı ‘ tmd chrs‘mbd ’dmsqd uhkkdr(+ ı
‘ tm bn]
ts
’c&tm unx‘fd+ c&tmd sq‘mr‘bshnm(+ nt dmbnqd ı ‘ tmd oqna‘ahkhsd̀ ’cd o‘rrdq c&tm rnllds ı
‘ tm ‘tsqd(-
Ahdm dmsdmct+ rdknm k‘ m‘stqd cd bdssd u‘kt‘shnm+ cdr oqnakıdldr chΨd̀qdmsr rd onrdms- Mntr ‘kknmr
bdodmc‘ms unhq ptd kdtq rnktshnm rths sqıdr rntudms kd l]dld bgdlhmdldms-
Tm ∗ fq‘ogd u‘ktd̀ " drs rhlokdldms tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A( ltmh c&tmd uˆktˆshnm cdr ‘qbr+
b&drs,ı‘,chqd tmd enmbshnm
µ 9 A → P. ’4-08(
ı u‘kdtq c‘mr tm bdqs‘hm ’cdlh,(‘mmd‘t 4 P ’bnlld K+ N+ Q+ Q) V {∞{+ {/. 0{+ dsb-(- K&‘u‘ms‘fd
‘
cd bgnhrhq cdr onhcr pth enms o‘qshd c&tm ‘mmd‘t ’nt c&tm cdlh,‘mmd‘t( cduhdmcq‘ d̀uhcdms o‘q k‘
‘ snts k&dmrdlakd R · R+ dm onr‘ms rhlokdldms ptd
rthsd- Hk drs g‘ahstdk c&d̀sdmcqd k‘ u‘kt‘shnm ı
µ’w. x( 9; / rh ’w. x( 6∈ A. ’4-1/(
‘ k&d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd ’ontq k&‘cchshnm( ct rdlh,‘mmd‘t P- K&‘m‘knftd

?ssdmshnm+ hbh ∗ / " bnqqdronmc ı
cd k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd ontq tm fq‘ogd u‘ktd̀ rtq Zm[ drs k‘ l‘sqhbd
Aµ ; ’agi (0±gϕi±m . nı
t agi 9; µ’h. i(. ’4-10(
Dm e‘hs+ dm bgnhrhrr‘ms k‘ u‘kt‘shnm µ 9 A → K+ sdkkd ptd µ’w. x( ; 0 ontq ’w. x( c‘mr A+ nm

qd̀btoıdqd dw‘bsdldms k‘ mnshnm nqhfhm‘kd cd l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd- Dm bd rdmr+ k‘ mnshnm cd fq‘ogd
4- B¸drs tm dmrdlakd ltmh çnod̀qˆshnmr ârsqˆhsdr cd rnlld ! ds cd oqncths ! + ûdb cd anmmdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r-
Nm tshkhrd hbh kd sdqld cdlh,ˆmmdˆt !+ oˆqbd pt¸hk m¸x ˆ oˆr md̀bdrrˆhqdldms çhmudqrd ˆcchshe- Unhq ôodmchbd B-
4-5- FQ9OGDR U9KTD̀ 006
u‘ktd̀ fd̀md̀q‘khrd bdkkd cd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀- Nm odts cnmb qdenqltkdq k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm cd fq‘ogd u‘ktd̀
rntr k‘ enqld rhlokhffd̀d rthu‘msd- Tm fqôgd uˆktd̀+ rtq tm dmrdlakd cd rnlldsr R+ drs tm bntokd
F ; ’R. µ( ‘udb µ tmd u‘kt‘shnm cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R · R+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd tmd enmbshnm
µ 9 R · R → P. ’4-11(
ı u‘kdtq c‘mr tm cdlh,‘mmd‘t P- Nm bnmrhcıdqd ‘knqr ptd kdr ˆqbr cd F rnms kdr bntokdr ’w. x( ∈ R
‘
sdkr ptd µ’w. x( 6; /- ?tsqdldms enqltkd̀+ k&dmrdlakd A cdr ‘qbr cd F drs
A 9; {’w. x( ∈ R · R | µ’w. x( 6; /{. ’4-12(
ı bg‘ptd bgdlhm γ ; ’w+ . w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (+ bnqqdronmc k‘ u‘kt‘shnm

?
µ’γ( 9; µ’w+ . w0 ( · µ’w0 . w1 ( · . . . · µ’wm 0 . wm (.
t k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm drs bdkkd cd P- Nm bgdqbgd sqıdr rntudms ı

nı ‘ b‘kbtkdq kdr bgdlhmr cd u‘kt‘shnm
lhmhl‘kd ’nt l‘whl‘kd(- Nm bnmrhcıdqd ‘trrh k‘ u‘kt‘shnm µ’G( cd rntr,fq‘ogdr G ; ’R. A(+ ‘udb
A ⊆ A+ cd̀ffmhd dm onr‘ms ∑
µ’G( 9; µ’w. x(. ’4-13(
Γwϕx(∞A
Kd b‘r o‘qshbtkhdq nı
t G drs tm ‘qaqd ’chs bntuqˆms( drs sqıdr rntudms hlonqs‘ms+ ds k‘ qdbgdqbgd c&tm
‘qaqd bntuq‘ms cd u‘kt‘shnm lhmhl‘kd drs tm oqnakıdld bk‘rrhptd c‘mr bd cnl‘hmd-
Γj(
Kdr bndflbhdmsr cd k‘ l‘sqhbd Ajµ ; ’agi (0±gϕi±m bnqqdronmcdms ‘knqr ı
‘
Γj(
∑
agi ; µ’γ(.
α
nı
t k‘ rnlld ‘ khdt rtq k&dmrdlakd cdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq j+ ‘kk‘ms cd h ı ‘ i- Rdknm kd bnmsdwsd+
oktrhdtqr oqnakıdldr rtq kdr fq‘ogdr u‘ktd̀r odtudms rd qd̀rntcqd o‘q tm b‘kbtk l‘sqhbhdk ahdm ‘c‘osd̀-
Mntr ‘kknmr dm chrbtsdq ptdkptdr dwdlokdr-
4-6 Lˆsqhbdr annkd̀dmmdr
Bnlld Annkd+ mntr ‘kknmr l‘hmsdm‘ms b‘kbtkdq ‘udb cdr l‘sqhbdr cd e‘b́nm
∗ knfhptd "+ snts rhlokdldms dm rtoonr‘ms ptd
0 ) 0 ; 0.
Hbh+ 0 qdoqd̀rdmsd k‘ u‘kdtq cd ud̀qhsd̀ ∗ uq‘h "+ s‘mchr ptd / qdoqd̀rdmsd k‘

u‘kdtq ∗ e‘tw "- Kdr bndflbhdmsr cdr l‘sqhbdr rnms cnmb ∗ annkd̀dmr " ‘t
rdmr cd̀bqhs cd e‘b́nm oktr oqd̀bhrd bh,cdrrntr- K&hmsdmshnm drs cd ∗ b‘kbt,
kdq " r&hk dwhrsd tm bgdlhm cd knmftdtq j ‘kk‘ms cd w ı ‘ x c‘mr tm fq‘ogd
nqhdmsd̀ cnmmd̀- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ nm sq‘u‘hkkd ‘udb cdr l‘sqhbdr ‘udb bn,
dflbhdmsr c‘mr k&ˆmmdˆt cd Annkd A- B&drs k&dmrdlakd A 9; {/. 0{ ltmh cd
k&‘cchshnm sdkkd ptd
Fdnqfd Annkd
/ ) / ; /. 0 ) / ; 0. / ) 0 ; 0. ds 0 ) 0 ; 0. ’0704 z 0753(
ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm
/ · / ; /. / · 0 ; /. 0 · / ; /. ds 0 · 0 ; 0.
K&‘cchshnm bnqqdronmc ‘t ∗ nt " knfhptd+ ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm ‘t ∗ ds " knfhptd-

‘ u‘kdtq c‘mr A+ nm ‘ k&‘cchshnm annkd̀dmmd sdqld,ı
Ontq kdr l‘sqhbdr ı ‘ sdqld+ ds kd oqncths l‘sqhbhdk
drs sdk ptd
m
∑
’L · M (gi ; Lgj Mji ; 0. rrh ∃j ’Lgj ; 0. ds Mji ; 0(. ’4-14(
j90
Mntr bnmrhcd̀qnmr hbh kd b‘r cdr fq‘ogdr u‘ktd̀r ‘udb u‘kdtq c‘mr k&‘mmd‘t annkd̀dm- K‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘c,
i‘bdmbd bnqqdronmc‘msd drs k‘ l]dld ptd k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd trtdkkd c&tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀+ l‘hr
kdr b‘kbtkr rnms chΨd̀qdmsr- Hk cd̀bntkd cd ’4-14( ptd kd bndflbhdms ’h. i( cd Aj ; AjF drs rnhs 0+ rnhs /+
rdknm pt&hk x ‘hs nt mnm tm bgdlhm cd knmftdtq j ‘kk‘ms cd h ı ‘ i+ ds nm ‘ ptd
Nqnonrhshnm 4-6- Kˆ lˆsqhbd annkd̀dmmd
A· ; Hcm ) A ) A1 ) A2 ) . . . . ’4-15(
ˆ bndflbhdms ’h. i( d̀fˆk ı̂ 0) rh ds rdtkdldms r´hk dwhrsd tm bgdlhm ˆkkˆms cd h ı̂ i cˆmr F- Phmnm) bd
bndflbhdms drs /-
Nardqudy ptd ontq b‘kbtkdq A· + c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ ı ‘ m rnlldsr+ hk m&drs o‘r md̀bdrr‘hqd cd
cd̀o‘rrdq kd b‘kbtk cd A m 0 + othrptd kd oktr bntqs bgdlhm dmsqd cdtw rnlldsr drs ‘t oktr cd knmftdtq
m 0- Dm e‘hs+ nm nashdms A· ; Aj ‘trrhs] ns ptd Aj ; Aj)0 -
4-7- KD CDLH,9MMD9T SQNOHB9K 008
Aqde+ ontq nasdmhq A· qd̀btqrhudldms+ nm b‘kbtkd 5
Aj ; Hcm ) A · Aj 0. ’4-16(
‘udb A+ ; Hcm - Nm r&‘qq]dsd rh Aj ; Aj)0 + ds ‘knqr A· ; Aj - K&‘u‘ms‘fd cd k‘ rsq‘sd̀fhd cd b‘kbtk ’4-16(

drs cd chlhmtdq kd mnlaqd sns‘k cd ltkshokhb‘shnmr cd l‘sqhbdr-
Ptdkptd rnhs kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A(+ nm nashdms tm mntud‘t fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F· dm bnmrhcd̀q‘ms
kd fq‘ogd cnms k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd drs k‘ l‘sqhbd annkd̀dmmd A· - Nm chs ptd F· drs k‘ edqldstqd
sqˆmrhshud cd F-
4-7 Kd cdlh,ˆmmdˆt sqnohbˆk
Bnmrhcd̀qnmr l‘hmsdm‘ms ptd k‘ u‘kt‘shnm c&tm ‘qb ’w. x( drs

c‘mr Q) V {∞{- Nm odts ‘knqr odmrdq ptd µ’w. x( drs tm bn] ts
ontq o‘rrdq cd w ı‘ x+ ‘udb kd bn] ts ∗ ∞ " r&hk drs hlonrrhakd
cd o‘rrdq cd w ı‘ x ’o‘qbd pt&hk m&x ‘ o‘r c&‘qb kdr qdkh‘ms(-
Rdknm bdssd hmsdqoqd̀s‘shnm+ hk drs m‘stqdk cd bnmrhcd̀qdq ptd
µ’γ( 9; µ’w+ . w0 ( ) µ’w0 . w1 ( ) . . . ) µ’wm 0 . wm (.
drs kd bn]
ts ontq o‘qbntqhq kd bgdlhm γ ; ’w+ . w0 . w1 . . . . . wm (-
C‘mr bd bnmsdwsd+ tmd ptdrshnm sxohptd bnmrhrsd ı ‘ bgdqbgdq kd
bgdlhm cd bn] ts lhmhl‘k inhfm‘ms cdtw rnlldsr cnmmd̀r- Hlqd Rhlnm
Ontq ‘c‘osdq mnr b‘kbtkr l‘sqhbhdkr ı ‘ bd bnmsdwsd+ nm drs ’0832z1//8(
‘ldmd̀ ı
‘ sq‘u‘hkkdq ‘udb cdr l‘sqhbdr cnms kdr bndflbhdmsr rnms c‘mr kd cdlh,ˆmmdˆt sqnohbˆk - K&dm,
rdlakd rntr,i‘bdms drs cnmb Q) ) {∞{+ ‘udb kdr nod̀q‘shnmr
w ± x 9; lhm’w. x( ds w ⊗ x 9; w ) x.
Nm onrd w ± ∞ ; w ’b&drs,ı
‘,chqd ptd ∞ drs k&d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd ontq ±(+ ds w ⊗ ∞ ; ∞- Hk odts o‘q‘]ısqd
d̀sq‘mfd c&tshkhrdq ) bnlld ∗ ltkshokhb‘shnm "+ l‘hr nm bnmrs‘sd pt&nm ‘ ahdm
∗ "
w ⊗ ’x ± y( ; ’w ⊗ x( ± ’w ⊗ y(.
‘hmrh ptd kdr ‘tsqdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r md̀bdrr‘hqdr ontq nasdmhq tm cdlh,‘mmd‘t- Kd cdlh,‘mmd‘t qd̀rtks‘ms ‘
d̀sd̀ mnlld̀ ∗ sqnohb‘k " o‘q Cnlhmhptd Odqqhm+ dm k&gnmmdtq c&Hlqd Rhlnm pth dm ‘ d̀stchd̀ ad‘tbnto
cd oqnoqhd̀sd̀r ds c&‘ookhb‘shnmr- ?t bntqr cdr qd̀bdmsdr ‘mmd̀dr+ tm u‘rsd bg‘lo c&d̀stcdr+ ‘oodkd̀
fd̀nld̀sqhd sqnohbˆkd+ r&drs cd̀udknood̀-
5- Rthuˆms kˆ ld̀sgncd ct ragfidlT cd Anqmdq + ontq Vhkkhˆl Fdnqfd Gnqmdq+ lˆsgd̀lˆshbhdm ˆmfkˆhr ’0675z0726(-
4-8- EKNS C9MR TM QD̀RD9T 010
4-8 Ekns cˆmr tm qd̀rdˆt
‘ u‘kdtqr 6 c‘mr Q+ c‘mr kdptdk hk x ‘ tm tmhptd rnllds

Tm qd̀rdˆt drs tm fq‘ogd u‘ktd̀ F ; ’R. µ(+ ı
rntqbd r+ ‘udb c ’r( ; /+ ds tm tmhptd rnllds othsr o+ ‘udb c) ’o( ; /- C‘mr k‘ okto‘qs cdr b‘r+
kd fq‘ogd drs ‘bxbkhptd- Ontq bg‘ptd ‘qb+ nm chs ptd µ’w. x( drs k‘ bôˆbhsd̀ cd k&‘qb- Bdr mnshnmr
‘oo‘q‘hrrdms m‘stqdkkdldms c‘mr k&d̀stcd cd qd̀rd‘tw d̀kdbsqhptdr+ cd qd̀rd‘tw cd sq‘mronqs+ cd qd̀rd‘tw
cd chrsqhatshnm+ cd qd̀rd‘tw c&‘ptdctbr+ dsb-
Ontq sntsd enmbshnm e 9 R · R → Q+ ds snts rnllds w cd F+ nm bnmrhcıdqd kdr u‘kdtqr 9
∑ ∑
e ’w( 9; e ’x. w(. ds e ) ’w( 9; e ’w. x(. ’4-18(
x∞P x∞P
Tm fins e c‘mr kd qd̀rd‘t F drs tmd enmbshnm e 9 R · R → Q sdkkd ptd

0( ontq snts ‘qb ’w. x(+ nm ‘ / ≤ e ’w. x( ≤ µ’w. x(+
1( ontq snts rnllds w ’‘tsqd ptd k‘ rntqbd ds kd othsr(+ nm ‘ e ) ’w( ; e ’w(-
K‘ oqdlhıdqd bnmchshnm r&hmsdqoqıdsd bnlld kd e‘hs ptd kd fins c‘mr bg‘ptd ‘qb drs khlhsd̀ o‘q r‘
b‘o‘bhsd̀+ ds k‘ rdbnmcd bnlld kd e‘hs ptd k‘ pt‘mshsd̀ cd fins pth dmsqd c‘mr tm rnllds drs k‘ l]dld
ptd bdkkd pth dm rnqs 7 ’hk m&x ‘ o‘r cd odqsdr c‘mr kd qd̀rd‘t(-
Hk cd̀bntkd cd bdr bnmchshnmr ptd e ) ’r( ; e ’o(- Bdssd pt‘mshsd̀ fkna‘kd+ cd̀mnsd̀d T ’e ( 9; e ) ’r(+
drs k‘ uˆkdtq ct fins- Tmd cdr ptdrshnmr oqhmbho‘kdr+ pth rd onrdms c‘mr k&d̀stcd cdr qd̀rd‘tw+ drs
cd sqntudq cdr finsr cnms k‘ u‘kdtq l‘whl‘kd- Nm chs ‘knqr pt&nm ‘ tm fins lˆwhlˆk c‘mr F- Ontq
e‘bhkhsdq k&d̀stcd cd bdr finsr l‘whl‘tw+ nm bnmrhcıdqd kdr mnshnmr rthu‘msdr- Nm chs ptd k&‘qb ’w. x(
drs rˆstqd̀+ o‘q kd fins e + rh e ’w. x( ; µ’w. x(- Tm rd̀oˆqˆsdtq S ct qd̀rd‘t+ drs tm dmrdlakd c&‘qbr
sdk ptd snts bgdlhm cd k‘ rntqbd ‘t othsr o‘rrd o‘q ‘t lnhmr tm cdr ‘qb cd S - Nm chs ‘knqr ptd k‘
bôˆbhsd̀ ct rd̀oˆqˆsdtq drs
∑
µ’S ( 9; µ’w. x(. ’4-2/(
Γwϕx(∞S
Hk drs m‘stqdk cd bnmrhcd̀qdq ptd k‘ bôˆbhsd̀ ct qd̀rdˆt µF drs kd lhmhltl cdr b‘o‘bhsd̀r cd rdr
rd̀o‘q‘sdtqr 9
µF ; lhm{µ’S ( | S rd̀o‘q‘sdtq cd F{. ’4-20(
Bdbh drs qdmct oktr bk‘hq o‘q kd kdlld rthu‘ms-
Gdlld 4-8- Ontq snts qd̀rdˆt F) kˆ bôˆbhsd̀ c´tm rd̀oˆqˆsdtq S ) cd F) drs sntintqr oktr fqˆmcd nt
d̀fˆkd ı̂ kˆ uˆkdtq c´tm fins cˆmr F- Ph kˆ uˆkdtq cd e drs d̀fˆkd ı̂ kˆ bôˆbhsd̀ cd S ) ˆknqr sntr kdr ˆqbr
cd S rnms rˆstqd̀r-
6- Nm odts bnmrhcd̀qdq cdr uˆktˆshnmr oktr fd̀md̀qˆkdr+ ûdb uˆkdtqr cˆmr tm cdlh,ˆmmdˆt nqcnmmd̀-
7- Cˆmr kd bnmsdvsd cdr qd̀rdˆtv d̀kdbsqhptdr+ b¸drs kˆ oqdlhıdqd knh cd Jhqbggn -
Nqdtud-
Kd sgd̀nqıdld rthu‘ms b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd kdr finsr l‘whl‘tw-
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 4-0. ’Enqc,Etkjdqrnm(- Cˆmr tm qd̀rdˆt F) kˆ uˆkdtq c´tm fins lˆwhlˆk e drs d̀fˆkd ı̂
kˆ bôˆbhsd̀ cd F .
T ’e ( ; µF .
Dm fthrd cd cd̀lnmrsq‘shnm cd bd sgd̀nqıdld+ mntr ‘kknmr unhq bnlldms bnmrsqthqd ‘kfnqhsglhptdldms

tm fins l‘whltl c‘mr tm qd̀rd‘t- Nm bnlldmbd o‘q bnmrsqthqd tm fins c‘mr kdptdk bg‘ptd bgdlhm
‘kk‘ms cd k‘ rntqbd ‘t othsr bnmshdms ‘t lnhmr tm ‘qb r‘stqd̀- Nm chs pt&tm sdk fins drs bnlokds-
0( Dm oqdlhdq khdt+ nm bgnhrhs tm fins e ’cd cd̀o‘qs( pth rdq‘ rtbbdrrhudldms lnchffd̀ ontq nasdmhq+
dm ffm cd bntqrd+ tm fins bnlokds- Nm odts sntintqr bgnhrhq bd fins cd cd̀o‘qs bnlld d̀s‘ms
kd fins mtk + e ’w. x( ; /+ ontq snts ’w. x( c‘mr A- Bdodmc‘ms+ nm odts rntudms sqntudq tm
ldhkkdtq fins cd cd̀o‘qs ’pth drs oktr fq‘mc(+ dm dwoknhs‘ms kdr o‘qshbtk‘qhsd̀r ct oqnakıdld-
1( Nm ∗ ‘ld̀khnqd " rtbbdrrhudldms kd fins e cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd+ itrpt&ı
‘ k&nasdmshnm c&tm fins
8
bnlokds- Dm dΨds+ rh e m&drs o‘r bnlokds+ hk dwhrsd tm bgdlhm
γ ; ’w+ . w0 . . . . . wm (.
‘kk‘ms cd k‘ rntqbd r ; w+ ‘t othsr o ; wm + kd knmf ctptdk ‘tbtm cdr ‘qbr m&drs r‘stqd̀ 9
b-,ı‘,c- 9 e ’wg . wg)0 ( , µ’wg . wg)0 (- Nm odts ‘knqr bnmrhcd̀qdq kd fins e → 9
!
e ’w. x( rh k&‘qb ’w. x( m&drs o‘r c‘mr γ.
e → ’w. x( 9; ’4-21(
e ’w. x( ) ε rhmnm.
‘udb ε d̀f‘k ı
‘
ε 9; lhm{µ’w. x( e ’w. x( | ’w. x( c‘mr γ{.
2( Nm qd̀oıdsd k&d̀s‘od 1( itrpt&ı

‘ k&nasdmshnm tm fins bnlokds-
ı
? o‘qshq cd bd fins bnlokds+ nm bnmrsqths tm fins l‘whl‘k dm qd̀od̀s‘ms kd oqnbdrrtr rthu‘ms s‘ms ptd
bdk‘ drs onrrhakd- Nm bnlldmbd o‘q l‘qptdq qd̀btqrhudldms bdqs‘hmr rnlldsr ct qd̀rd‘t F c&tm
∗ ) "+ nt c&tm ∗ "+ bnlld rths-
0( K‘ rntqbd r drs l‘qptd̀d c&tm )-

1( Rh w drs l‘qptd̀+ ds ’w. x( drs tm ‘qb mnm r‘stqd̀ o‘q e + ‘knqr nm l‘qptd x c&tm )-
2 Rh w drs l‘qptd̀+ ds ’x. w( drs tm ‘qb ontq kdptdk e ’x. w( / /+ ‘knqr nm l‘qptd x c&tm -
8- Nm sqntud tm sdk bgdlhm oˆq tmd dvoknqˆshnm eˆbhkd ı̂ ldssqd dm okˆbd- Unhq Dvdqbhbd 4-03-
4-0.- BGDLHMR DS LNSR Γ·( 012
ı k‘ ffm cd bd oqnbdrrtr cd l‘qpt‘fd+ rh kd othsr m&drs o‘r l‘qptd̀ ‘knqr kd fins drs l‘whl‘k ds nm ‘
?
sdqlhmd̀- Rhmnm+ kd othsr drs enqbd̀ldms l‘qptd̀ c&tm )+ ds hk dwhrsd tm bgdlhm+ bnmrshstd̀ cd rnlldsr
l‘qptd̀r+ ‘kk‘ms cd k‘ rntqbd ‘t othsr 9
γ ; ’w+ . w0 . . . . . wm (. nı
t r ; w+ . ds wm ; o.
nm bnmrsqths tm mntud‘t fins e → + d̀f‘k ı

‘ e dm cdgnqr cd bd bgdlhm+ dm onr‘ms
‘( e ’wg . wg)0 ( 9; e ’wg . wg)0 ( ) ε+ rh wg)0 drs l‘qptd̀ c&tm )+
a( e ’wg)0 . wg ( 9; e ’wg)0 . wg ( ε+ rh wg)0 drs l‘qptd̀ c&tm +
‘udb ε d̀f‘k ‘t lhmhltl cdr u‘kdtqr µ’wg . wg)0 ( e ’wg . wg)0 ( ’ontq kdr wg)0 l‘qptd̀r c&tm )( ds
e ’wg)0 . wg ( ’ontq kdr wg)0 l‘qptd̀r c&tm (-
’∗(
4-0. Bgdlhmr ds lnsr
Dm ‘rrnbh‘ms cdr kdssqdr 0+ ı

‘ bg‘ptd ‘qb c&tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀+
θ 9 A ↪→ {a. a. b. . . . {.
cd e‘b́nm ı‘ bd pt&nm ‘hs cdr kdssqdr chrshmbsdr ‘rrnbhd̀dr ‘tw ‘qbr hrrtr
c&tm l]dld rnllds+
θ’w. x( 6; θ’w. y( rh x 6; y.
nm odts ‘rrnbhdq ‘tw bgdlhmr cdr lnsr+ b&drs,ı ‘,chqd tmd rthsd cd
kdssqd- Nm chs ptd k‘ kdssqd ‘rrnbhd̀d ı
‘ tm ‘qb drs rnm d̀shptdssd- ?hmrh+ Kdnm‘qcn Ehanm‘bbh
nm nashdms kd lns θ’γ( cd m,kdssqdr ’006/ z 014/(
θα 9; θ0 θ1 · · · θm . dm onr‘ms θg ; θ’wg 0 . wg (. ’4-22(
pth bncd kd bgdlhm ’w+ . w0 . . . . . wm ( ‘kk‘ms cd w ; w+ ı

‘ x ; wm - ?ı k&d̀s‘od j+ kd knmf c&tm bgdlhm
‘hmrh bncd̀+ nm o‘rrd cnmb ct rnllds wj 0 ‘t rnllds wj + dm dloqtms‘ms k&tmhptd ‘qb hrrt cd wj 0
‘x‘ms k‘ kdssqd θj bnlld d̀shptdssd- Nm cd̀mnsd ε kd lns uhcd+ pth bnqqdronmc ‘t bgdlhm uhcd- Rdknm
bd bnc‘fd+ kdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq m+ ‘kk‘ms ct rnllds • ı ‘ kth,l]dld c‘mr kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ E rnms
‘ k‘ Ehftqd 4-5- Nardqunmr ptd+ bg‘ptd bgdlhm γ c‘mr E m 0 ’•. •(+ odts rd oqnknmfdq o‘q
d̀mtld̀qd̀r ı
k‘ antbkd a ontq cnmmdq tm bgdlhm c‘mr E m ’•. •(- Cd oktr+ bg‘ptd bgdlhm γ c‘mr E m 1 ’•. •(+ odts
rd oqnknmfdq o‘q k&‘ints cd aa ontq cnmmdq ‘trrh tm bgdlhm c‘mr E m ’•. •(- Dm qd̀rtld̀+
{ ∣ } { ∣ }
∣ ∣
E Γm( ’•. •( ; θ · a ∣ θ ∈ E m 0 ’•. •( ) θ · aa ∣ θ ∈ E m 1 ’•. •( .
0.- Dm eˆhs+ snts bdbh drs dmbnqd tmd enhr tm bˆr cd fqôgd uˆktd̀- Kˆ uˆktˆshnm drs cˆmr kd cdlh,ˆmmdˆt cdr rnlldr
enqldkkdr cd lnsr !+ ûdb bnlld ltkshokhbˆshnm kˆ anmaTsfidmTshnm cd lnsr-
m Bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq m cd • ı ‘•
a
/ {ε{
0 {a{
1 {aa. aa{ a
2 {aaa. aaa. aaa{ a
3 {aaaa. aaaa. aaaa. aaaa. aaaa{
-- --
- -
Ehftpd 4-5 z Bgdlhmr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd cd Ehanm‘bbh-
Rh Em cd̀rhfmd kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd E m ’•. •(+ nm ‘ cnmb k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd
Em ; E m 0 ) Em 1. ‘udb E+ ; E0 ; 0. ’4-23(
Kdr mnlaqdr Em rnms cnmb kdr e‘ldtw mnlaqdr cd Ehanmˆbbh + cnms kdr oqdlhıdqdr u‘kdtqr rnms
m / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0/ 00 01 02 03 04 . . .
Em 0 0 1 2 4 7 02 10 23 44 78 033 122 266 50/ 876 . . .
Nm ud̀qhffd e‘bhkdldms o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd kdr othrr‘mbdr cd k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd ct fq‘ogd cd
Ehanm‘bbh cnmmd ( )m ( )
0 0 Em Em 0
; . ’4-24(
0 / E m 0 Em 1
o‘q kd ah‘hr cd k&d̀f‘khsd̀ ( )( ) ( )
0 0 Em 0 Em 1 E m Em 0
; .
0 / Em 1 Em 2 Em 0 Em 1
pth cd̀bntkd cd ’4-23(- Dm o‘rr‘ms+ rntkhfmnmr ptd kdr mnlaqdr cd Ehanm‘bbh ‘cldssdms cd mnlaqdtrdr
‘tsqdr hmsdqoqd̀s‘shnmr bnlahm‘snhqdr-
4-00- BG9ZHMDR CD L9QJNUΓ·( 014
4-00 BgˆYımdr cd Lˆqjnu’∗(
Tm ‘tsqd b‘r rod̀bh‘k cd fq‘ogd u‘ktd̀ cnmmd k‘ mnshnm cd bgˆZımd cd Lˆqjnu -

C‘mr bd b‘r+ kd onhcr c&tm ‘qb ’w. x( drs tmd oqna‘ahkhsd̀ owx ’b-,ı ‘,c- 9
owx ∈ Z/. 0[(+ ‘udb k‘ bnmchshnm ptd
∑
owx ; 0. ’4-25(
x∞P
ontq bg‘ptd rnllds w cd F- Nm bnmuhdms hbh ptd owx ; /+ rh ’w. x( m&drs

o‘r tm ‘qb ct fq‘ogd- K‘ rnlld ’4-25( m&‘ cnmb uq‘hldms khdt ptd rtq
kdr rnlldsr x ontq kdrptdkr hk x ‘ tmd ‘qb cd w ı
‘ x+ cnmb rtq kdr unhrhmr cd
w- K&hmsdmshnm drs hbh cd cd̀bqhqd tm oqnbdrrtr ‘kd̀‘snhqd cd bgdlhmdldms
?mcqdh L‘qjnu
c‘mr tm fq‘ogd-
’0745z0811(
D̀s‘ms cnmmd̀ pt&nm rd rhstd ‘t rnllds w ı
‘ tm bdqs‘hm lnldms+ owx cnmmd
k‘ oqna‘ahkhsd̀ c&‘kkdq ‘t rnllds x ‘t lnldms rthu‘ms- K‘ bnmchshnm ’4-25( drs cnmb m‘stqdkkd+
othrpt&dkkd ‘rrtqd pt&dm bg‘ptd rnllds nm ‘ tmd chrsqhatshnm cd oqna‘ahkhsd̀ rtq kd bgnhw ct unhrhm
nı
t rd cd̀ok‘bdq ı
‘ o‘qshq ct rnllds-
Ontq rhlokhffdq k‘ chrbtrrhnm+ rtoonrnmr dmbnqd tmd enhr ptd Zm[ drs k&dmrdlakd cdr rnlldsr ct
fq‘ogd- Nm r&hmsd̀qdrrd ı
‘ k‘ oqna‘ahkhsd̀ cd rd qdsqntudq dm tm bdqs‘hm rnllds i ı
‘ k&hmrs‘ms j+ r‘bg‘ms
pt&ı
‘ bg‘ptd hmrs‘ms nm o‘rrd c&tm rnllds ı ‘ tm rnllds unhrhm rdknm k‘ oqna‘ahkhsd̀ rod̀bhffd̀ o‘q k‘
bg‘]ımd cd L‘qjnu- Ahdm dmsdmct+ bdk‘ cd̀odmc ct onhms cd cd̀o‘qs- Ontq b‘kbtkdq kd snts+ nm o‘rrd
o‘q k‘ l‘sqhbd cd sq‘mrhshnm m · m
S 9; ’ogi (0±gϕi±m .
O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘ k‘ bg‘]ımd cd L‘qjnu rthu‘msd+ dm bnlo‘fmhd cd r‘ l‘sqhbd cd sq‘mrhshnm
# #
0<1
5 
1++ 2 / 0<1 0<1
+#
0<1+ 0<1 S 9; 0<1 / 0<1.
0<1 0<1 /
0
Nm ud̀qhffd o‘q b‘kbtk ptd
5 j 5 
/ 0<1 0<1 0<2 0<2 0<2
0<1 / 0<1 ' 0<2 0<2 0<2.
0<1 0<1 / 0<2 0<2 0<2
ontq j ‘rrdy fq‘mc- Dm e‘hs+ k&‘ooqnwhl‘shnm drs cd̀iı
‘ ‘rrdy anmmd ‘udb j ; 0/-
K&d̀stcd cdr bg‘]ımdr cd L‘qjnu drs tm rtids u‘rsd+ ‘udb ad‘tbnto c&‘ookhb‘shnmr- Ontq rd e‘lhkh‘qhrdq+
nm odts bnmrtksdq kd rhsd 9
Bg‘]ımdr cd L‘qjnu
4-01 Nqcqdr’∗(
K‘ mnshnm cd fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd drs hmshldldms khd̀d ı ‘ k‘ mnshnm c&nqcqd- Ldssqd dm nqcqd kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr
c&tm dmrdlakd drs mnm rdtkdldms m‘stqdk+ l‘hr bdk‘ drs o‘qenhr drrdmshdk ontq ontunhq ‘m‘kxrdq
ds bnloqdmcqd tm oqnakıdld- Cd oktr+ knqrpt&nm bgdqbgd ı ‘ bnlosdq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd cd
rsqtbstqdr+ kd e‘hs cd r‘unhq kdr d̀mtld̀qdq ’kdr oqd̀rdmsdq rtbbdrrhudldms( c‘mr tm bdqs‘hm nqcqd e‘bhkhsd
fq‘mcdldms kd sq‘u‘hk- Aqde+ k‘ mnshnm c&nqcqd drs drrdmshdkkd ontq sntsdr rnqsdr cd q‘hrnmr 00 -
Q‘oodknmr pt&tmd qdkˆshnm cńqcqd ’nm chs ‘trrh tm nqcqd( ∗ ≺ " rtq tm dmrdlakd R+ drs m&hlonqsd
ptdkkd qdk‘shnm pth drs ı
‘ k‘ enhr ‘mshqd̀fidwhud+ ‘mshrxld̀sqhptd ds sq‘mrhshud- Rh kd bntokd ’w. x( e‘hs o‘qshd
cd k‘ qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd+ nm d̀bqhs w ≺ x+ ds nm chs ptd w drs oktr odshs ı ‘ x- Dm enqltkd+ ∗ ≺ " drs tm
nqcqd rtq R rh ds rdtkdldms rh+ ontq snts w+ x ds y c‘mr R+ nm ‘
’‘( w 6≺ w+
’a( rh w ≺ x ‘knqr x 6≺ w+
’b( rh w ≺ x ds x ≺ y+ ‘knqr w ≺ y-
Ontq bg‘ptd qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd+ kd bntokd ’R. ≺( drs tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd- Nm d̀bqhs w ≥ x ontq rhfmhffdq
ptd w drs oktr odshs ptd x ’w ≺ x(+ nt w ; x- Tm dwdlokd sxohptd c&dmrdlakd nqcnmmd̀ drs nasdmt dm
bnmrhcd̀q‘ms k‘ qdk‘shnm c&hmbktrhnm rtq k&dmrdlakd OZR[+ cdr o‘qshdr cd R- K‘ Ehftqd 4-6 oqd̀rdmsd 01
k&dmrdlakd nqcnmmd̀ ’OZ{a. a. b{[. ⊂(-
?ssdmshnm+ k‘ cd̀ffmhshnm c&dmrdlakd nqcnmmd̀ md rhfmhffd o‘r ptd {a. a. b{
k&nm othrrd bnlo‘qdq sntr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd k&dmrdlakd+ ds bdssd +
mnshnm l‘sgd̀l‘shptd md bn—ımbhcd cnmb o‘r ‘udb k‘ mnshnm tshkhrd̀d +
∗ c‘mr k‘ uhd bntq‘msd "- Bdssd cdqmhı dqd bnqqdronmc okts] ns ‘t {a. a{ {a. b{ {a. b{
bnmbdos c&nqcqd sns‘k ‘t rdmr bh,cdrrntr- !
+ +
+
! +
Tm nqcqd snsˆk ’nt khmd̀ˆhqd( ∗ , "+ drs tm nqcqd rtq R ontq kdptdk {a{ {a{ {b{
sntr kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R rnms bnlo‘q‘akdr cdtw ı ‘ cdtw+ b-,ı‘,c- 9 +
ontq bg‘ptd w ds x chrshmbsr c‘mr R+ nm ‘ rnhs w , x nt x , w- +
Tmd sdkkd qdk‘shnm bnqqdronmc ı ‘ tmd nqhdms‘shnm ‘bxbkhptd cdr ‘qbr ¬
ct fq‘ogd bnlokds rtq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R- ?hmrh+ k‘ Ehftqd 4-7 Ehftpd 4-6 z Sqdhkkhr cdr rntr,
oqd̀rdmsd sntr kdr nqcqdr sns‘tw rtq k&dmrdlakd A ; {a. a. b{- Kdr dmrdlakdr cd {a. a. b{
nqcqdr onrrhakdr rtq {a. a. b{ hmbktdms mnm rdtkdldms bdr 5 nqcqdr
sns‘tw+ l‘hr ‘trrh kdr 02 ‘tsqdr cd k‘ Ehftqd 4-8+ ontq tm sns‘k cd 08- Hk m&x ‘ o‘r dmbnqd cd enqltkd
bnmmtd ontq kd mnlaqd Mm + c&nqcqdr rtq tm dmrdlakd ı ‘ m d̀kd̀ldmsr- Nm bnmm‘]ıs ‘t lnhmr kdr u‘kdtqr
00- Odmrdy ˆt b]nsd̀ odt oqˆshptd çtm chbshnmmˆhqd cˆmr kdptdk kdr lnsr rdqˆhdms chronrd̀r ˆt gˆrˆqc-
01- Rntr kˆ enqld ct chˆfqˆlld cd Gˆrrd cd k¸nqcqd+ ˆt rdmr cd̀ffmh tm odt oktr knhm-
4-01- NQCQDRΓ·( 016
$b $a $b $a $a $a
$a $b $a $b $a $a
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
$a $a $a $a $b $b
. . . . . .
Ehftpd 4-7 z Kdr 5 nqcqdr sns‘tw rtq {a. a. b{-
$a $a $b $a $b $a
$b $b $a $a $b $b
$a $a $a $b $a $b
. . . . . .
$b $a $b $a $a $a $a $a $b
- , - , - , ,- ,- ,-
-$ -$, a -$ ,b -$a
$ $,b -$a ,a -$a
$
-0 ,/ 0 ,
- / 0 ,
- / /, -0 /, -0 /, -0
,a ,b
$a $a $b
Ehftpd 4-8 z Kdr 02 ‘tsqdr nqcqdr rtq {a. a. b{-
rthu‘msdr 9
m / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ...
Mm 0 0 2 08 108 3120 02//12 5018748 320612268 33400/31400 . . .
?oo‘qdlldms+ k‘ oktr fq‘mcd u‘kdtq bnmmtd drs ontq m ; 05+ ds b&drs 9
1308282814861/00655/178671/037/74/12.
Chˆfqˆlldr cd Gˆrrd
Ontq cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr chrshmbsr w ds x c&tm dmrdlakd nqcnmmd̀ ’R. ≺(+ nm chs ptd x bntuqd w+ r&hk m&x ‘
‘tbtm d̀kd̀ldms cd R rd rhst‘ms dmsqd w ds x- Nm d̀bqhs ‘knqr w →∼ x ’nt oktr rhlokdldms w → x(-
Sntsd k&hmenql‘shnm rtq k‘ qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd odts,]dsqd dmshıdqdldms qd̀btod̀qd̀d ’unhq Rdbshnm 4-3( ı‘
o‘qshq cd k‘ qdkˆshnm cd bntudqstqd- K‘ qdk‘shnm cd bntudqstqd drs ˆmshsqˆmrhshud+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9
w→x ds x→y hlokhptd x 6→ y.

Kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ ‘rrnbhd̀ ı‘ k‘ qdk‘shnm cd bntudqstqd drs kd chˆ,

fqˆlld cd Gˆrrd cd k&nqcqd- Nm kd qdoqd̀rdmsd g‘ahstdkkdldms o‘q
tm fq‘ogd rhlokd cdrrhmd̀ cd e‘b́nm sdkkd ptd sntsdr kdr ‘q]dsdr rnhdms
nqhdmsd̀dr ct a‘r udqr kd g‘ts- Nm qd̀btoıdqd k‘ qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd ı
‘ o‘q,
shq cd rnm ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd+ rhlokdldms dm b‘kbtk‘ms kdr bgdlhmr
‘kk‘ms ct a‘r udqr kd g‘ts c‘mr kd ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd- Nm ‘ cnmb
w ≺ x+ rh ds rdtkdldms r&hk x ‘ tm bgdlhm
w+ → w0 → w0 → · · · → wm .
c‘mr kd ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd+ ‘udb w ; w+ ds x ; wm - Gdklts G‘rrd

?hmrh+ nm ‘ kd ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd cd k‘ Ehftqd 4-0/+ pth cd̀bqhs tmd ’0787z0868(
qdk‘shnm cd bntudqstqd rtq k&dmrdlakd
{’012. 102(. ’012. 021(. ’102. 120(. ’021. 201(. ’120. 210(. ’201. 210(({.
rtq k&dmrdlakd {012. 021. 102. 120. 201. 210{- Knqrptd k‘ qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd drs sns‘kd+ kd ch‘fq‘lld cd
"
210
+
120 " +"201

+
102 " "021

+
+"
+
012
Ehftpd 4-0/ z Tm ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd
G‘rrd bnqqdronmc‘ms drs tmd bgˆZımd-

02/ BG9OHSQD 4- FQ9OGDR NQHDMSD̀R
Tmd ‘ooqnbgd oktr b‘kbtk‘snhqd o‘rrd o‘q k‘ enmbshnm cd Poqˆftd,Fqtmcx 02 ’nt oktr rhlokdldms
enmbshnm cd Fqtmcx( F 9 R → K+ ct fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd F ; ’R. A(- Nm k‘ cd̀ffmhs rhlokdldms dm
onr‘ms qd̀btqrhudldms
F’w( 9; lhm’K \ {F’x( | ’w. x( ∈ A{(. ’4-26(
?tsqdldms chs+ F’w( drs kd oktr odshs dmshdq pth m&‘ o‘r d̀sd̀ tshkhrd̀ bnlld u‘kdtq cd F ontq tm unhrhm
cd w- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+
F’w( 9; / rh TF ’w( ; ¬. ’4-27(
b&drs,ı‘,chqd knqrptd w drs tm othsr- Kd e‘hs ptd kd fq‘ogd F rnhs ‘bxbkhptd ‘rrtqd ptd ’4-26( drs tmd
anmmd cd̀ffmhshnm- Nm lnmsqd o‘q qd̀btqqdmbd ptd
Nqnonrhshnm 4-00- Ontq tm fqôgd ˆbxbkhptd F) tm rnllds w drs tmd O ,onrhshnm cd F) rh ds

rdtkdldms rh F’w( ; /-
Kd mnxˆt cd Fqtmcx c&tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd F drs k&dmrdlakd
F 9; {w ∈ R | F’w( ; / {. ’4-28(
B&drs cnmb k&dmrdlakd cdr O ,onrhshnmr c‘mr F-
Idt cd Mhl
C‘mr kd idt cd Mhl 03 + cdtw intdtqr dmkıdudms ı

‘ sntq cd q]
nkd tm mnlaqd ptdkbnmptd ’l‘hr oktr fq‘mc
ptd 0( cd ∗ idsnmr " cd k&tm cd m s‘r chrshmbsr- Kd f‘fm‘ms drs bdkth pth dmkıdud kd ’nt kdr( cdqmhdq
ı bg‘ptd d̀s‘od nm ‘ cnmb tmd bnmffftq‘shnm
idsnm- ?
w 9; ’w0 . w1 . w2 . . . . . wm (.
‘udb kdr / ≤ wg ≤ jg + nı
t jg drs kd mnlaqd cd idsnmr c‘mr kd s‘r h ‘t cd̀o‘qs- Tm lntudldms bnmrhrsd
‘ rntrsq‘hqd ‘t lnhmr 0 ı
ı ‘ dw‘bsdldms k&tm cd bdr wg + l‘hr nm odts rntrsq‘hqd ‘trrh m&hlonqsd pt&dkkd
u‘kdtqr ≤ wg - Kd odqc‘ms drs bdkth pth rd qdsqntud cdu‘ms k‘ bnmffftq‘shnm wg ; /+ ontq snts h-
K‘ enmbshnm cd Roq‘ftd,Fqtmcx ct idt cd Mhl ‘ d̀sd̀ cd̀bqhsd o‘q Antsnm 04 dm 08/0 ’unhq Z7[(- Ontq
k‘ b‘kbtkdq+ nm d̀bqhs bg‘ptd mnlaqd wg dm ahm‘hqd ds nm b‘kbtkd k‘ enmbshnm cd Fqtmcx+ ‘t lnxdm cd
k‘ rnlld chfhsˆkd ∗ ± "+ dm onr‘ms
F’w( 9; w0 ± w1 ± . . . ± wm . ’4-3/(
02- Unhq Y03[ ds Y17[-

03- Kd mnl drs ôoˆqdlldms c]t ı̂ Antsnm-
04- Bgˆqkdr Kdnmˆqc Antsnm cd k¸Tmhudqrhsd̀ cd Gˆquˆqc+ ’0758,0811(-
4-02- IDTV HLO9QSH9TV 020
Q‘oodknmr ptd k‘ rnlld chfhs‘kd+ ontq cdtw dmshdqr d̀bqhsr dm ahm‘hqdr
w ; ’ j ··· 1 0 + (1
; + ) 01 ) 13 ) ... ) j 1j .
x ; ’βj · · · β1 β0 β+ (1
; β + ) β 0 1 ) β 1 3 ) . . . ) β j 1j .
drs cd̀ffmhd bnlld

w ± x 9; ’γj · · · γ1 γ0 γ+ (1 . ’4-30(
‘udb γg 9; ’ g ) βg lnc 1(- ?hmrh+
02 ± 6 ; 00/01 ± 0001
; 0/1
; 1
Bdssd rnlld drs ‘rrnbh‘shud+ bnllts‘shud+ ‘udb / bnlld mdtsqd- Cd oktr+ bnlld m ± m ; /+ nm ‘
tm hmudqrd- Hk r&dmrths ptd
w±y ;x±y rrh w ; x. ’4-31(
Nm ‘ tmd rsq‘sd̀fhd f‘fm‘msd ontq kd oqdlhdq intdtq rh+ ‘t cd̀o‘qs+ kdr s‘r rnms sdkr ptd
j0 ± j1 ± . . . ± jm 6; /. ’4-32(
O‘qs‘ms c&tm bnmffftq‘shnm w 9; ’w0 . w1 . w2 . . . . . wm (+ tm intdtq e‘hs o‘rrdq cd wg ı

‘ xg , wg kd
mnlaqd cd idsnmr c‘mr kd s‘r h ’dm dmkdu‘ms wg xg idsnmr(+ ontq nasdmhq k‘ mntudkkd bnmffftq‘shnm
x 9; ’x0 . x1 . x2 . . . . . xm (.
tq xi ; wi + ontq i 6; h- Kd bg‘mfdldms bnqqdronmc‘ms c‘mr k‘ u‘kdtq cd k‘ enmbshnm cd

‘udb ahdm r]
Fqtmcx drs cnmb cd o‘rrdq cd
F’w( ; w0 ± w1 ± . . . ± wm .
‘
ı
F’x( ; F’w( ± wg ± xg . ’4-33(
Bnlld kdr O ,onrhshnmr rnms kdr bnmffftq‘shnmr ontq kdrptdkkdr nm ‘
w0 ± w1 ± . . . ± wm ; /. ’4-34(
‘ sqntudq h ds xg ontq ptd F’w( ± wg ± xg ; /-

k‘ rsq‘sd̀fhd f‘fm‘msd bnmrhrsd rhlokdldms ı
4-03 Dvdqbhbdr
4-0- Lnmsqdq k&d̀f‘khsd̀ 4-1 dm bnlos‘ms kdr ‘qbr cd F rdknm k‘ rntqbd+ othr rdknm kd ats-
4-1- Bnlosdq kd mnlaqd cd bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq j+ ‘kk‘ms cd 0 ı

‘ m c‘mr kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ rtq Zm[+
cnms k&dmrdlakd c&‘qbr drs
‘( {’h. i( | 0 ≤ h ≤ m. ds 0 ≤ i ≤ m{-
a( {’h. i( | 0 ≤ h ≤ i ≤ m{-
b( {’h. i( | i h ≤ 1{-
4-2- Lnmsqdq ptd kd mnlaqd cd bxbkdr cd knmftdtq j+ c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F+ drs d̀f‘k ı ‘ k‘ sq‘bd
cd k‘ l‘sqhbd AjF - Q‘oodknmr ptd k‘ sqˆbd c&tmd l‘sqhbd drs k‘ rnlld cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd r‘ ch‘fnm‘kd
oqhmbho‘kd-
4-3- Lnmsqdq ptd snts bgdlhm c‘mr tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd drs cd knmftdtq hmed̀qhdtqd nt d̀f‘kd ‘t
ch‘lıdsqd ct fq‘ogd- Dm cd̀cthqd ptd k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd c&tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd drs mhkonsdmsd+
b&drs,ıd chqd pt&tmd cd rdr othrr‘mbdr drs mtkkd-
4-4- Lnmsqdq pt&tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ F ; ’R. A( drs enqsdldms bnmmdwd rh ds rdtkdldms rh r‘ edqldstqd
‘,chqd ptd F· ; ’R. R · R(-
sq‘mrhshud cnmmd kd fq‘ogd bnlokds+ b&drs,ı
4-5- Lnmsqdq pt&tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ drs ‘bxbkhptd rh ds rdtkdldms rh k‘ l‘sqhbd ’Hc χF ( drs hmudqrhakd-
Rtffdrshnm 9 Lnmsqdq ptd ontq tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd+ kdr bndflbhdmsr cd k‘ l‘sqhbd ’Hc χF ( 0 ’pth
dwhrsd( bnqqdronmcdms ‘tw mnlaqdr cd bgdlhmr qdkh‘ms kdr rnlldsr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+
hk x ‘ tm mnlaqd ffmh cd sdkr bgdlhmr-
4-6- Lnmsqdq chqdbsdldms pt&tm ‘qaqd rtq m rnllds ‘clds 1m 0 nqhdms‘shnmr ‘bxbkhptdr-
4-7- Lnmsqdq ptd sntsd dmcnenmbshnm ‘clds ‘t lnhmr tm d̀kd̀ldms qd̀btqqdms-
4-8- Rnhs A k‘ l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd annkd̀dmmd c&tm fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd- Lnmsqdq ptd k‘ l‘sqhbd
annkd̀dmmd
A· 9; Hc ) A ) A1 ) A2 ) . . ..
drs ˆmshrxld̀sqhptd+ bd pth qduhdms ı‘ chqd ptd ontq h 6; i nm ‘ A· ’h. i( ; 0 rh ds rdtkdldms rh
A· ’i. h( ; /- Nm q‘oodkkd ptd c‘mr bd bnmsdwsd 0 ) 0 ; 0-
4-0.- Ontq cdtw fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r cnmmd̀r F0 ; ’R0 . A0 ( ds F1 ; ’R1 . A1 (+ d̀bqhqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth
dmfdmcqd sntr kdr hrlnqoghrldr cd F0 udqr F1 -
4-03- DVDQBHBDR 022
4-00- Ontq tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ cnmmd̀ F ; ’R. A( ds w+ x c‘mr R+ d̀bqhqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd qd̀btqrhud pth
dmfdmcqd sntr kdr bgdlhmr cd w udqr x c‘mr F- Rtffdrshnm 9 dwoknhsdq k‘ bnlonrhshnm cd bgdlhmr-
4-01- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth+ ontq tm dmrdlakd ffmh A cnmmd̀+ dmfdmcqd
b( sntsdr kdr dmcnenmbshnmr rtq A-
c( ‘kd̀‘snhqdldms ’‘udb chrsqhatshnm tmhenqld( bdr l]dldr rsqtbstqdr-
4-02- Bnmbdunhq tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth+ d̀s‘ms cnmmd̀d tmd dmcnenmbshnm e 9 R → R+ b‘kbtkd r‘ cd̀bnlon,
rhshnm dm bnlonr‘msdr bnmmdwdr-
4-03- D̀s‘ms cnmmd̀ tm fins mnm bnlokds c‘mr tm qd̀rd‘t+ bnmbdunhq tm ‘kfnqhsgld pth qdbgdqbgd tm
bgdlhm mnm r‘stqd̀+ ‘kk‘ms cd k‘ rntqbd ‘t othsr- Ontq bd e‘hqd+ hk rtfls cd sqntudq tm bgdlhm cd k‘
rntqbd ‘t othsr c‘mr kd fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ nasdmt dm md bnmrdqu‘ms ptd kdr ‘qbr ct qd̀rd‘t pth md rnms
o‘r r‘stqd̀r-
Bgôhsqd 5
Lnsr) kˆmfˆfdr) ds ˆtsnlˆsdr
5-0 Hmsqnctbshnm-
K&d̀stcd l‘sgd̀l‘shptd cdr ∗ k‘mf‘fdr " ds cdr ∗ lnsr " qdu]ds

tmd hlonqs‘mbd ‘ts‘ms oq‘shptd ptd sgd̀nqhptd- Cd bd onhms
cd utd+ tm lns m&drs pt&tmd rthsd cd b‘q‘bsıdqdr+ ds tm kˆm,
fˆfd m&drs pt&tm dmrdlakd cd lnsr- K‘ rhfmhffb‘shnm md intd
‘tbtm q] nkd hbh- C&tmd o‘qs+ kdr ‘ookhb‘shnmr rnms ltkshokdr+ o‘q
dwdlokd dm hmenql‘shptd ontq cd̀bqhqd k‘ rxms‘wd cdr k‘mf‘fdr
cd oqnfq‘ll‘shnm+ nt dmbnqd dm fd̀mnlhptd ontq k&d̀stcd ct
rd̀ptdmb́‘fd cd k&?CM+ pth rd oqd̀rdmsd bnlld tm knmf lns 9
· · · _b_f_s_b__sf_s_f_f_ssf_f_fbf__s_f · · ·
‘udb kdr kdssqdr a ’?cd̀mhmd(+ b ’Bxsnrhmd(+ f ’Ft‘mhmd( ds s L- O- Rbgtsydmadqfdq
’Sgxlhmd( bnc‘ms kdr mtbkd̀na‘rdr cnms k&?CM drs bnmrshstd̀- ’081/z0885(
Tmd ‘tsqd ‘ookhb‘shnm bk‘rrhptd bnmbdqmd kd sq‘b́‘fd c&tmd cqnhsd rtq tm d̀bq‘m pth+ knqrpt&nm k‘
qdf‘qcd cd sqıdr oqıdr+ qdrrdlakd ‘tw ohwdkr fqhrd̀r cd k&hkktrsq‘shnm bh,cdrrntr-
Bdssd cqnhsd odts rd bncdq ‘knqr bnlld wwxwwxwwwxwwxww+ ds hk dm qdrrnqs pt&nm odts dflb‘bdldms
l‘mhotkdq cdr cqnhsdr+ o‘q kd ah‘hr cd lnsr-
024
025 BG9OHSQD 5- LNSR) K9MF9FDR) DS 9TSNL9SDR
Ct onhms cd utd oktr sgd̀nqhptd+ nm ‘ k‘ ghd̀q‘qbghd cd Bgnlrjx 0 ,Rbg— tsydmadqfdq 1 + c‘mr k‘ptdkkd
kdr k‘mf‘fdr ’bnlld rntr,dmrdlakdr ‘arsq‘hsr cd lnsr( rnms bk‘rrhffd̀r rdknm k‘ m‘stqd oktr nt lnhmr
bnlokdwd cdr ntshkr cd b‘kbtk md̀bdrr‘hqdr ı
‘ kdtq l‘mhotk‘shnm- Bdk‘ u‘ cd k&nqchm‘sdtq ‘t rhlokd
‘tsnl‘sd-
5-1 Lnsr
Ontq hmsqncthqd k‘ mnshnm cd lns+ nm bnlldmbd o‘q bgnhrhq tm ˆkogâds A+ pth drs rhlokdldms tm
dmrdlakd ffmh ’ptdkbnmptd( cd kdssqdr- Dm oq‘shptd+ hk drs ahdm oktr ‘fqd̀‘akd cd bgnhrhq A cd e‘b́nm
‘ bd ptd rdr d̀kd̀ldmsr rd oq]dsdms ahdm ‘tw bnmrsqtbshnmr rthu‘msdr+ l‘hr bdk‘ m&drs pt&tmd ptdrshnm
ı
cd fn]ts- Snts dmrdlakd ffmh odts rdquhq c&‘kog‘ads- O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ontqq‘ bgnhrhq A bnlld d̀s‘ms
k&tm cdr dmrdlakdr rthu‘msr
{a. a. b. c. . . . . y{. {/. 0{. {a. b. f. s{.

{•. •. •{. nt {♣. ♦. ♥. ♠{.
Tm lns cd knmftdtq m rtq k&‘kog‘ads A drs rhlokdldms tmd rthsd ptdkbnmptd cd m kdssqdr
v ; v 0 v 1 v 2 . . . vm . ‘udb vg ∈ A. ’5-0(
pth rnms d̀bqhsdr rtbbdrrhudldms+ r‘mr uhqftkdr rd̀o‘q‘sqhbdr- ?tsqdldms chs+ ‘t cd̀s‘hk oqıdr cd k‘
oqd̀rdms‘shnm+ bd rnms kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd Am - Kd lns uhcd drs mnsd̀ 0 ’nt dmbnqd ε+ o‘q dwdlokd c‘mr kd
b‘r nıt 0 drs tmd kdssqd cd k&‘kog‘ads(- Hmrhrsnmr dmbnqd rtq kd e‘hs pt&hk m&x ‘ hbh ‘tbtmd oqd̀sdmshnm cd
untknhq ‘ssqhatdq tmd rhfmhffb‘shnm ı ‘ tm lns- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ nm m&‘ ‘tbtm adrnhm c&tm chbshnmm‘hqd-
O‘q dwdlokd+ rtq k&‘kog‘ads A ; {a. b. f. s{+ nm ‘ kd lns cd knmftdtq 107
bs__ffbbb___sbsb_fbb_sfb_sbffff_fs_b__sbbfs_sffbb__b__bsffbf
bfs_bfs___fsbsbbsssbsbf_sffsbb_s_bbss_f_sfbfss_fb_ss__sb_ffb
__bffbsbsbs_f_s_f_fbbbsb__bbff_fsssf__fb_sffbssbs__bsss_bsb_
fssbfssbsbfsbf_b__sffbff__bsffbf_bfsf
pth cd̀bqhs tmd onqshnm cd oqnsd̀hmd c&tm uhqtr- Bnlld ‘tsqdr dwdlokdr+ ontq k&‘kog‘ads A ; {a. a. b{+
nm ‘ kdr lnsr ’qdrodbshudldms cd knmftdtq /+ 0 ds 1( cdr dmrdlakdr
A+ ; {0{. A0 ; {a. a. b{. ds

1
A ; {aa. aa. ab. aa. aa. ab. ba. ba. bb{.
0- Mnˆl Bgnlrjx+ LHS-
1- L-O- Rbgtsydmadqfdq drs k¸ˆmb]dsqd lˆsgd̀lˆshptd cd oktrhdtqr bgdqbgdtqr ct Kˆbhl ı̂ k¸TP=L-
5-1- LNSR 026
Nm cd̀mnsd A· k&dmrdlakd cd sntr kdr lnsr+ b-,ı

‘,c- 9
′
∑
A· ; Am . ’5-1(
m9+
?udb A ; {/. 0{+ nm ‘ cnmb

A· ; {ε. /. 0. //. /0. 0/. 00. ///. //0. /0/. /00. 0//. 0/0. 00/. 000. . . . {
Ahdm dmsdmct+ k‘ knmftdtq |v| c&tm lns v drs kd mnlaqd cd kdssqdr pt&hk bnmshdms+ ds kdr lnsr cd
knmftdtq 0 r&hcdmshffdms ‘tw kdssqdr- Nm chs pt&hk x ‘ nbbtqqdmbd cd k‘ kdssqd w dm onrhshnm h c‘mr
v+ rh vg ; w- Ontq v tm lns rtq k&‘kog‘ads A+ ds w tmd kdssqd cd A+ nm cd̀rhfmd |v|w kd mnlaqd
c&nbbtqqdmbdr cd w c‘mr v- Bk‘hqdldms+ ontq tm ‘kog‘ads cd j kdssqdr+ nm ‘ j m lnsr cd knmftdtq m-
K&nod̀q‘shnm cd bnmbˆsd̀mˆshnm ’cd̀mnsd̀d ltkshokhb‘shudldms(+ dmsqd cdtw lnsr t ; t0 t1 t2 . . . tm ds
u ; u0 u1 u2 . . . uj + cnmmd kd lns
t · u ; t0 t1 t2 . . . tm u0 u1 u2 . . . uj . ’5-2(
cnms k‘ knmftdtq drs k‘ rnlld cdr knmftdtqr cd t ds cd u- Nm ‘ dm e‘hs k‘ ahidbshnm
%
Am · A j → Am)j . ’5-3(
‘ ∗ bntodq " tm lns v ; t · u+ cd knmftdtq m ) j+ dm rnm tmhptd oqd̀ffwd
cnms k&hmudqrd bnqqdronmc ı
t cd knmftdtq m+ rthuh cd rnm tmhptd rtflwd u cd knmftdtq j- Sntr kdr oqd̀ffwdr onrrhakdr ct lns
aaaaaaaa ’rtq k&‘kog‘ads A( rnms
{aaaaaaaa. aaaaaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaa. aaaa. aaa. aa. a. 0{.
s‘mchr ptd kdr rtflwdr ct l]dld lns rnms
{0. a. aa. aaa. aaaa. aaaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaaaa. aaaaaaaa{.
othrpt&nm ‘ kdr cd̀bnlonrhshnmr rthu‘msdr
{aaaaaaaa·0. aaaaaaa·a. aaaaaa·aa. aaaaa·aaa. aaaa·aaaa. aaa·aaaaa. aa·aaaaaa. a·aaaaaaa. 0·aaaaaaaa{
K‘ bnmb‘sd̀m‘shnm drs ‘rrnbh‘shud+ ds ‘clds kd lns uhcd bnlld d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd- Ltmhrr‘ms A· cd
bdssd nod̀q‘shnm cd bnmb‘sd̀m‘shnm+ nm nashdms kd lnmnzıcd 2 cdr lnsr rtq A-
?udb bd onhms cd utd ‘kfd̀aqhptd+ hk cduhdms m‘stqdk cd bnmrhcd̀qdq k‘ othrrˆmbd j,hıdld c&tm lns v+
cd̀ffmh qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld 9 
v · vj 0 rh j / /
j
v 9; ’5-4(
0 rh j ; /.
Nm ‘ cnmb ’aa(3 ; aaaaaaaa-
2- Tm dmrdlakd ltmh çtmd nod̀qˆshnm ˆrrnbhˆshud ûdb tm d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd drs ôodkd̀ lnmn–ıcd-
5-2 Kˆmfˆfdr
Ontq mntr+ tm kˆmfˆfd m&drs pt&tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd lnsr onrrhakdr- ?tsqdldms chs+ b&drs tm rntr,
dmrdlakd ptdkbnmptd cd A· 9
H ⊆ A· . ’5-5(
Nm md r&hmsdqqnfd cnmb o‘r rtq kd e‘hs ptd cdr lnsr othrrdms ‘unhq tm ∗ rdmr " c‘mr bd k‘mf‘fd+ l‘hr
nm r&hmsd̀qdrrd okts]
ns ı
‘ k‘ e‘b́nm cnms kdr lnsr c&tm k‘mf‘fd rnms bnmrsqthsr- K&‘bbdms drs lhr rtq kd
b‘kbtk cdr k‘mf‘fdr+ k&‘m‘kxrd cd k‘ rsqtbstqd cdr lnsr pth kd bnlonrd+ nt dmbnqd rtq kdtq bnmrsqtb,
shnm- C&‘tsqd o‘qs+ nm r&hmsd̀qdrrdq‘ ‘trrh ı‘ k‘ bk‘rrhffb‘shnm cd k‘ ∗ bnlokdwhsd̀ " ‘kfnqhsglhptd cd
k‘mf‘fdr-
Ontq tm ‘kog‘ads cnmmd̀+ chrnmr A ; {a. a{+ nm ‘ cdr k‘mf‘fdr ffmhr bnlld
∣
¬. {a. a{. nt dmbnqd {v ∣ |v|" ; j ds |v|a ; m j{.
ds cdr k‘mf‘fdr hmffmhr bnlld
{am am | m ∈ K{. nt dmbnqd {0. a. aa. aaa. . . . {.
Nm bnmuhdms c&d̀bqhqd Hj ontq kd k‘mf‘fd md bnmsdm‘ms ptd kdr lnsr cd knmftdtq j c‘mr H+ b-,ı‘,c- 9
Hj 9; { v ∈ H | |v| ; j{. ’5-6(
Kdr nod̀q‘shnmr c&tmhnm+ cd oqncths+ ds c&d̀snhkd odqldssdms cd bnmrsqthqd cd mntud‘tw k‘mf‘fdr ı‘

o‘qshq cd k‘mf‘fdr cnmmd̀r- D̀uhcdlldms+ mntr m&‘unmr o‘r ı
‘ qdcd̀ffmhq k&tmhnm cd k‘mf‘fdr- Kd oqncths
H · H cnmmd kd k‘mf‘fd bnmsdm‘ms sntr kdr bnmb‘sd̀md̀r cd lnsr c‘mr H ‘udb cdr lnsr cd H→ - Nm ‘
→
cnmb
H · H→ 9; {t · u | t ∈ H ds u ∈ H→ {. ’5-7(
B&drs tm oqncths ‘rrnbh‘she- ?ssdmshnm bdodmc‘ms+ hk ‘ ptdkptdr rtqoqhrdr- ?hmrh+ nm ‘
A· · A· ; A· .
Ontq nasdmhq cdr lnsr c‘mr k&d̀snhkd H· + nm bnmb‘sıdmd tm mnlaqd ptdkbnmptd cd lnsr cd H- B&drs
cnmb chqd pt&nm ‘
′
⋃
·
H 9; Hj . ’5-8(
j9+
‘udb H+ 9; {0{+ ds
Hj 9; H · Hj 0
. ’5-0/(
rh j / /- Ontq hkktrsqdq k&nod̀q‘shnm c&d̀snhkd+ bnmrhcd̀qnmr kd k‘mf‘fd H ; {aa. aa{- Nm ‘ ‘knqr
H· ; {0. aa. aa. aaaa. aaaa. aaaa. aaaa. . . . {.

5-2- K9MF9FDR 028
Dm o‘rr‘ms+ nm qdl‘qptd pt&hk x ‘ bnlo‘shahkhsd̀ dmsqd bdssd cd̀ffmhshnm ds mnr tr‘fdr oqd̀bd̀cdmsr+
othrptd k&dmrdlakd A drs kth,l]dld tm k‘mf‘fd ’cnms kdr lnsr rnms kdr kdssqdr cd k&‘kog‘ads(-
Q‘oodknmr pt&nm tshkhrd kd rxlankd cd rnlld+ dmsqd dmrdlakdr+ ontq cd̀rhfmdq kd e‘hs pt&nm ‘ tmd
tmhnm chrinhmsd- Nm ‘ ‘knqr kdr hcdmshsd̀r ’unhq Dwdqbhbd 5-0
′
∑
H ; Hj . ’5-00(
j9+
5 
′
∑ j
⋃
H · H→ ;  Hi · H→j i
. ’5-01(
j9+ i9+
Nm chs pt&tm oqncths cd k‘mf‘fd drs mnm,ˆlahft rh ds rdtkdldms rh bg‘ptd lns v ∈ H · H→ rd

cd̀bnlonrd cd e‘b́nm tmhptd bnlld oqncths c&tm lns t c‘mr H ‘udb tm lns u c‘mr H→ + b-,ı‘,c- 9
ontq snts t. t→ c‘mr H+ ds u. u → c‘mr H→ + nm ‘
t · u ; t→ · u → . rrh ’t ; t→ ds u ; u → (. ’5-02(
Hk drs g‘ahstdk ’l‘hr onsdmshdkkdldms lnhmr qhfntqdtw+ unhq Dwdqbhbd 5-1( cd rhlokhffdq k‘ mns‘shnm
dm d̀bqhu‘ms rhlokdldms v ontq kd k‘mf‘fd H ; {v{+ pth md bnmshdms ptd kd lns v- ?udb bdssd
bnmudmshnm 3 + nm nashdms tmd mnsˆshnm ˆcchshud ontq kdr k‘mf‘fdr+ pth rd oqd̀rdmsdms l‘hmsdm‘ms rntr
k‘ enqld cd k‘ rnlld ’enqldkkd( cdr lnsr pt&hkr bnmshdmmdms 9
∑
H; v. ’5-03(
v∞F
?hmrh+ nm ‘ kdr 2 d̀bqhstqdr d̀pthu‘kdmsdr
’a ) a(2 ; aaa ) aaa ) aaa ) aaa ) aaa ) aaa ) aaa ) aaa

; {aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa{.
Dm fthrd c&‘tsqd hkktrsq‘shnm+ kd k‘mf‘fd rtq {a. a{+ bnmrshstd̀ cd sntr kdr lnsr pth bnmshdmmdms
dw‘bsdldms tmd nbbtqqdmbd cd cdtw a bnmrd̀btsher+ ‘clds k‘ cdrbqhoshnm
H ; ’aa ) a(· a a ’aa ) a(· . ’5-04(
3- Sqıdr tshkhrd̀d cˆmr kdr lhkhdtv cd k¸hmenqlˆshptd sgd̀nqhptd-

03/ BG9OHSQD 5- LNSR) K9MF9FDR) DS 9TSNL9SDR
5-3 Fqˆllˆhqdr
Mntr ‘kknmr l‘hmsdm‘ms unhq bnlldms cd̀bqhqd qd̀btqrhudldms cdr k‘mf‘fdr o‘q kd ah‘hr ∗ qıdfkdr cd
fq‘ll‘hqd " d̀bqhsdr ‘t lnxdm cdr nod̀q‘shnmr hmsqncthsdr bh,g‘ts- Bdr qıdfkdr cd fq‘ll‘hqdr cd̀bqhudms
bnlldms bnmrsqthqd qd̀btqrhudldms kdr lnsr cdr k‘mf‘fdr bnmrhcd̀qd̀r- Bnlldmb́nmr o‘q hkktrsqdq
k&‘ooqnbgd o‘q tm dwdlokd- Kd k‘mf‘fd cdr lnsr cd Cxbj rtq k&‘kog‘ads {a. a{+ drs b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd̀ o‘q
kdr qıdfkdr cd fq‘ll‘hqd
C → 0 ’5-05(
C → a · C · a · C. ’5-06(
Nm hmsdqoqıdsd bdr qıdfkdr bnlld rhfmhff‘ms pt&tm lns cd Cxbj drs 9 rnhs kd lns uhcd 0+ rnhs tm lns
cd k‘ enqld
a · t · a · u.
nı
t t ds u rnms dtw,l]dldr cdr lnsr cd Cxbj ’d̀uhcdlldms oktr bntqsr(- Dm bnmrhcd̀q‘ms sntsdr kdr
onrrhahkhsd̀r cd r‘shre‘hqd ı
‘ bdr qıdfkdr+ nm sqntud ptd kd k‘mf‘fd cd Cxbj drs k&dmrdlakd cdr lnsr 9
{0. aa. aaaa. aaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaaa. aaaaaa. . . . {
Oktr fd̀md̀q‘kdldms+ tmd fqˆllˆhqd ’‘kfd̀aqhptd+ nt gnqr bnmsdwsd 4 ( drs tm dmrdlakd ffmh cd qıdfkdr
cd fqˆllˆhqdr+ pth rnms rhlokdldms cdr dwoqdrrhnmr cd k‘ enqld
X → ω. ’5-07(
‘udb ω tm lns rtq tm ‘kog‘ads A dm cdtw bnlonr‘msdr R ) A+ nı t X ∈ R- Kdr kdssqdr cd k‘ o‘qshd

R rnms cdr kdssqdr ‘whkk‘hqdr+ ‘oodkd̀dr uˆqhâkdr ’rntudms dm l‘itrbtkdr(- Kdr kdssqdr cd k‘ o‘qshd A
’rntudms cdr lhmtrbtkdr(+ rnms ‘oodkd̀dr rxlankdr sdqlhmˆtw - K&hmsdmshnm drs cd cd̀bqhqd tm k‘mf‘fd
rtq k&‘kog‘ads A+ bnlld c‘mr k&dwdlokd bh,g‘ts+ nı t R ; {C{+ ds A ; {a. a{- C‘mr bd b‘r+ hk x ‘
cnmb tmd rdtkd u‘qh‘akd C ds cdtw rxlankdr sdqlhm‘tw a+ a-
Kd ld̀b‘mhrld o‘q kdptdk nm nashdms tm k‘mf‘fd ı
‘ o‘qshq c&tmd fq‘ll‘hqd+ drs o‘q tmd cd̀qhuˆshnm
fqˆllˆshbˆkd+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd tmd rthsd
v+ ;⇒ v0 ;⇒ v1 ;⇒ · · · ;⇒ vm .
cd lnsr vg rtq k&‘kog‘ads A ; R ) A+ nı

t bg‘ptd vg ;⇒ vg)0 drs d̀s‘od drs cd k‘ enqld
vg ; t · X · u ;⇒ t · ω · u ; vg)0 .
‘udb X → ω tmd cdr qıdfkdr cd k‘ fq‘ll‘hqd - ?tsqdldms chs+ nm ‘ nasdmt vg)0 dm qdlok‘b́‘ms X
o‘q ω c‘mr vg - Nm chs ‘knqr pt&nm ‘ cd̀qhud̀ vm ı
‘ o‘qshq cd v+ -
4- Hk dvhrsd tmd mnshnm oktr fd̀md̀qˆkd cd fqˆllˆhqdr chsdr anmsdustdiidr ptd mntr md oqd̀rdmsdqnmr oˆr hbh-
5-4- 9TSNL9SDR CD̀SDQLHMHRSDR 030
Ontq V k&tmd cdr u‘qh‘akdr cd k‘ fq‘ll‘hqd + kdr lnsr ct k‘mf‘fd H ; H ϕV rnms sntr kdr lnsr cd
t ∈ A· pt&nm odts cd̀qhudq cd V- Nm chs cnmb ptd H drs kd kˆmfˆfd cd̀qhud̀ cd V rdknm k‘ fq‘ll‘hqd
- Tm dwdlokd hkktrsqd ahdm bnlldms nm oqnbıdcd- Bnmrhcd̀qnmr k‘ fq‘ll‘hqd bnmrshstd̀d cdr qıdfkdr
A → a A a.
A → >.
> → a >.
> → 0.
t kdr u‘qh‘akdr rnms > ds A+ ds k&‘kog‘ads cdr kdssqdr ct k‘mf‘fd drs {a. a{- Nm r&hmsd̀qdrrd ‘t k‘mf‘fd
nı
cd̀qhud̀ cd A- O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘
A ;⇒ a A a ;⇒ aa A aa ;⇒ aa > aa ;⇒ aaa > aa ;⇒ aaa 0 aa ; aaaaa.
Kd lns aaaaa e‘hs cnmb o‘qshd ct k‘mf‘fd- Dm e‘hs+ nm sqntud ptd
H ; {am aj am | m ≥ 0. ds j ≥ /{.
; {aa. aaa. aaaa. . . . aaaa. aaaaa. aaaaaa. . . . {.
Nm odts ∗ khqd " kdr qıdfkdr cd k‘ fq‘ll‘hqd bnlld rths 9

’0( bg‘ptd ‘ookhb‘shnm cd k‘ oqdlhıdqd qıdfkd hmsqncths tm a cd o‘qs ds c&‘tsqd ct bdmsqd ct lns :
’1( k‘ rdbnmcd qıdfkd dwhfd ptd kd bdmsqd ct lns rnhs qdlokh o‘q cdr a :
’2( k‘ sqnhrhıdld qıdfkd odqlds c&hmrd̀qdq ‘ts‘ms cd a pt&nm cd̀rhqd ‘t bdmsqd ct lns :
’3( k‘ cdqmhıdqd qıdfkd odqlds c&‘qq]dsdq kd oqnbdrrtr-
5-4 9tsnlˆsdr cd̀sdqlhmhrsdr
Tmd ‘tsqd e‘b́nm cd rod̀bhffdq tm k‘mf‘fd drs o‘q kd ah‘hr c&tm ∗ ‘tsnl‘sd "+ b-,ı
‘,c- 9 tm lncıdkd ‘ar,
sq‘hs cd l‘bghmd cd b‘kbtk- K&ghrsnhqd cdr lncıdkdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr cd l‘bghmdr cd b‘kbtkr drs knmftd
ds okdhmd cd qdanmchrrdldmsr- Dkkd btklhmd ’ontq k&hmrs‘ms( ‘udb k&hmsqnctbshnm cdr nqchm‘sdtqr ln,
cdqmdr- Kdr ‘tsnl‘sdr bnmrhcd̀qd̀r hbh rnms cdr l‘bghmdr ad‘tbnto oktr khlhsd̀dr c‘mr kdtq b‘o‘bhsd̀
cd b‘kbtkr- Hk x dm ‘ oktrhdtqr u‘qh‘msdr+ l‘hr mntr md bnmrhcd̀qdqnmr ptd kd b‘r cdr ‘tsnl‘sdr chsr
cd̀sdqlhmhrsdr-
Rnhs A tm ‘kog‘ads+ ds D tm dmrdlakd ffmh cnms kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr rdqnms ‘oodkd̀r d̀sˆsr- Tm ˆtsnlˆsd
cd̀sdqlhmhrsd drs rhlokdldms tmd enmbshnm
9 A → BjcZD[.
‘ bg‘ptd kdssqd w cd A tmd dmcnenmbshnm w 9 D → D- Knqrpt&nm kdr qdoqd̀rdmsd dm

pth ‘rrnbhd ı
sdqldr cd fq‘ogdr r‘fhss‘tw+ nm ok‘bd k‘ kdssqd w rtq bg‘ptd ‘qb cd k‘ enmbshnm ‘rrnbhd̀d- ?hmrh+ ontq
A ; {a. a{ ds D ; {•. •{+ k&‘tsnl‘sd
" ; {’•. •(. ’•. •({. ds a ; {’•. •(. ’•. •({.
rd qdoqd̀rdmsd bnlld hmchptd̀ ı
‘ k‘ Ehftqd 5-0- B&drs tm ltkshfqôgd nqhdmsd̀+ cnms kdr ‘qbr rnms
a
a a
a
Ehftpd 5-0 z Tm ‘tsnl‘sd-
d̀shptdsd̀r o‘q kdr kdssqdr cd k&‘kog‘ads A- Nm chs ltkshfq‘ogd+ o‘qbd pt&hk x ‘ onsdmshdkkdldms oktrhdtqr
‘qbr ‘kk‘ms c&tm rnllds w ı ‘ tm rnllds x- Sdbgmhptdldms+ tm sdk ltkshfq‘ogd ’pth m&drs o‘r
md̀bdrr‘hqdldms tm ‘tsnl‘sd cd̀sdqlhmhrsd( drs rhlokdldms tm rntr,dmrdlakd ct oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm
A · D · D- Nm hmsdqoqıdsd ‘knqr kd sqhokds ’w. d. e ( bnlld d̀s‘ms tm ‘qb ‘kk‘ms cd d ı ‘ e + onqs‘ms
k&d̀shptdssd a-
Hk drs m‘stqdk cd cd̀rhfmdq o‘q w k‘ enmbshnm w - Nm e‘hs ∗ enmbshnmmdq " tm ‘tsnl‘sd ‘t lnxdm cdr
lnsr rtq k&‘kog‘ads A- Dm dΨds+ nm bnmrhcıdqd tm lns bnlld enmbshnm bnlonrd̀d ı ‘ o‘qshq cdr enmbshnmr
‘rrnbhd̀dr ı
‘ bg‘btmd cd rdr kdssqdr- K&g‘ahstcd c‘mr bd cnl‘hmd drs cd bnlonrdq cd f‘tbgd ı ‘ cqnhsd+
okts]ns ptd cd cqnhsd ı‘ f‘tbgd bnlld nm ‘ k&g‘ahstcd cd kd e‘hqd ontq cdr enmbshnmr- ?hmrh+ ontq tm
‘tsnl‘sd ffwd̀+ tm lns v ; v0 v1 · · · vm cduhdms rxmnmxld cd k‘ enmbshnm v ; vm ◦ · · · ◦ v1 ◦ v0 +
rdknm k‘ bnmudmshnm trtdkkd cd bnlonrhshnm cd enmbshnm- Nm d̀uhsd c&‘unhq ı ‘ bnmshmtdkkdldms snts
qdsntqmdq+ dm bnmudm‘ms cnqd̀m‘u‘ms cd cd̀rhfmdq o‘q d · v+ nt oktr rhlokdldms o‘q d · v+ k&dΨds ’uh‘
k&‘tsnl‘sd( ct lns v rtq tm d̀s‘s d c‘mr D- Nm ‘ ‘knqr+ ontq bg‘ptd v ∈ A· ds d ∈ D 9
‘( d · 0 ; d.
’5-08(
a( d · ’t u( ; ’d · t( · u.
K&hmsdqoqd̀s‘shnm hl‘fd̀d ct b‘kbtk d · v drs k‘ rthu‘msd- O‘qs‘ms cd k&d̀s‘s d+ nm rths kd bgdlhm+ c‘mr
kd ltkshfq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀+ pth bnqqdronmc ‘t lns v- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+ ontq bg‘ptd kdssqd w+ hk x ‘ tm
rdtk ‘qb ct ltkshfq‘ogd ’k&‘tsnl‘sd( cd k‘ enqld ’w. d. e (- K&dΨds cd w rtq d drs c&‘kkdq ı ‘ e + b-,ı‘,c- 9
d · w ; e - Kd oqnbdrrtr rd cd̀qntkd dmrthsd qd̀btqrhudldms+ dm dwoknhs‘ms kd e‘hs ptd
d · ’w t( ; ’d · w( · t ; e · t.
‘ d · v+ ontq v ; v0 v1 · · · vm + drs cnmb
Kd bgdlhm ‘rrnbhd̀ ı
’d+ . d0 . . . . . dm (. ‘udb d ; d+ . d · v ; dm .
5-5- DVDQBHBDR 032
ds dg ; dg 0 · vg + ontq h ‘kk‘ms cd 0 ı
‘ m- Kd ats dm ct bgdlhm drs cnmb k‘ u‘kdtq cd d · v-
O‘q dwdlokd+ ‘udb k&‘tsnl‘sd cd k‘ Ehftqd 5-0+ nm nashdms kd qd̀rtks‘s rthu‘ms 5
• · aaaaaa ; • · aaaaa
; • · aaaa
; • · aaa
; • · aa
; •·a
; •
Kd khdm dmsqd k‘ mnshnm c&‘tsnl‘sd ds bdkkd cd k‘mf‘fd r&d̀s‘akhs cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd- Rnhs 9 A → D
tm ‘tsnl‘sd cnmmd̀+ ds d ∈ D tm d̀s‘s ffwd̀ ptd k&nm u‘ ‘oodkdq hmhshˆk - Nm bgnhrhs ‘trrh tm rntr,
dmrdlakd E cd D+ ds nm chs ptd kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd E rnms cdr d̀s‘sr ffmˆtw - Tm k‘mf‘fd H+ rtq k&‘kog‘ads
A+ drs qdbnmmt o‘q k&‘tsnl‘sd 9 A → D+ ‘udb kd bgnhw cd d bnlld d̀s‘s hmhsh‘k ds cdr d̀s‘sr ffm‘tw
E + rh ds rdtkdldms rh nm ‘
v∈H ⇐⇒ d · v ∈ E. ’5-1/(
R&hk dwhrsd tm ‘tsnl‘sd ’‘udb bgnhw c&d̀s‘s hmhsh‘k ds c&d̀s‘sr ffm‘tw( pth qdbnmm‘]ıs tm k‘mf‘fd H+ nm
chs ptd kd k‘mf‘fd drs qdbnmmˆhrrâkd- Tm bd̀kıdaqd sgd̀nqıdld khd bdssd mnshnm ı
‘ bdkkd cdr k‘mf‘fdr pt&nm
odts cd̀bqhqd ‘udb kdr nod̀q‘shnmr hmsqncthsdr bh,g‘ts- Dm unhbh k&d̀mnmbd̀+ r‘mr cd̀lnmrsq‘shnm 9
Sgd̀nqd̀ld 5-0 ’Jkddmd 6 + 0843(- Tm kˆmfˆfd drs qdbnmmˆhrrâkd rh ds rdtkdldms r´hk odts Zdsqd dm,
fdmcqd̀) ı̂ oˆqshq cdr kdssqdr cd k´ˆkogâds) ı̂ k´ˆhcd cdr sqnhr nod̀qˆshnmr tmhnm) oqncths ds d̀snhkd-
5-5 Dvdqbhbdr
5-0- Lnmsqdq kdr hcdmshsd̀r ’5-00( ds ’5-01(-
5-1- Γ·( Ontq qdmcqd qhfntqdtw k‘ mns‘shnm ‘cchshud cdr k‘mf‘fdr+ nm bnmrhcıdqd k&‘mmd‘t cdr rd̀qhdr
N}}A〉〉 dm kdr u‘qh‘akdr mnm bnllts‘shudr bnqqdronmc‘ms ‘tw d̀kd̀ldmsr cd A+ b-,ı ‘,c- 9 w x 6; x w+
ontq w ds x c‘mr A- O‘q cd̀ffmhshnm+ kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd bds ‘mmd‘t rnms kdr rnlldr enqldkkdr
∑
bv v. ‘udb bv ∈ N. ’5-10(
v∞∈−
‘udb bndflbhdmsr q‘shnmmdkr-

5- Hk drs eˆbhkd ct rthuqd kdr d̀sôdr dm cd̀okˆb́ˆms rnm cnhfs rtq kd cdrrhm-
6- Rsdogdm B- Jkddmd ’08.8z0883(
‘( Lnmsqdq pt&dm onr‘ms

: ∑ ; : ∑ ; ∑
bv v ) cv v 9; ’bv ) cv ( v.
v∞∈− v∞∈− v∞∈−
: ∑ ; : ∑ ; ∑ : ∑ ;
bv v · cv v 9; b s cu v
v∞∈− v∞∈− v∞∈− s−u9v
nm nashdms tm ‘mmd‘t ’mnm bnllts‘she(-

a( Lnmsqdq pt&nm ‘ tm tmhptd gnlnqoghrld c&‘mmd‘t Ψ 9 N}}A〉〉 → NZZy[[+ udqr k&‘mmd‘t cdr
rd̀qhdr enqldkkdr dm k‘ u‘qh‘akd y+ ontq kdptdk Ψ’w( ; y ontq bg‘ptd u‘qh‘akd w c‘mr A+ ds ptd
Ψ’H( ; H’y(+ ontq snts k‘mf‘fd H-
5-2- Lnmsqdq pt&hk x ‘ ahidbshnm dmsqd kdr lnsr ct k‘mf‘fd ’a ) a(m + ds kdr rntr,dmrdlakdr cd Zm[-
5-3- Lnmsqdq ptd kdr lnsr cd Cxbj bnqqdronmcdms ‘tw o‘qdmsgıdr‘fdr ∗ d̀pthkhaqd̀r "+ ontq kdrptdkr
‘ bg‘ptd o‘qdmsgıdrd ntuq‘msd ∗ ’ "+ hk bnqqdronmc tmd o‘qdmsgıdrd edql‘msd ∗ ( " ahdm ok‘bd̀d- O‘q
ı
dwdlokd+ kdr 4 o‘qdmsgıdr‘fdr
’ (’ (’ (. ’ (’’ ((. ’’ ((’ (. ’’ (’ ((. ds ’’’ (((.
bnqqdronmcdms ‘tw 4 lnsr cd Cxbj 9 aaaaaa+ aaaaaa+ aaaaaa+ aaaaaa+ ds aaaaaa- Oktr oqd̀bhrd̀ldms+
tm oˆqdmsgd̀rˆfd drs tm lns rtq k&‘kog‘ads bnmrshstd̀ cdr cdtw kdssqdr ∗ ’ " ds ∗ ( "- Ontq bg‘ptd
h dmsqd 0 ds m+ nm b‘kbtkd k‘ chΨd̀qdmbd
cg 9; ’mnlaqd cd o‘qdmsgıdrdr ntuq‘msdr ‘u‘ms k‘ onrhshnm h(

’mnlaqd cd o‘qdmsgıdrdr edql‘msdr ‘u‘ms k‘ onrhshnm h(.
Kd o‘qdmsgıdr‘fd drs chs d̀pthkhaqd̀ rh ds rdtkdldms rh nm ‘ cg ≥ / ontq snts h+ ds rh cm ; /-
5-4- Bnmrsqthqd tm ‘tsnl‘sd pth qdbnmm‘]ıs kd k‘mf‘fd cd k&dwdlokd ’5-04(-
5-5- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth+ ‘udb bnlld cnmmd̀dr tm ‘tsnl‘sd+ tm d̀s‘s ds tm lns+ b‘kbtkd
kd qd̀rtks‘s nasdmt dm ‘ookhpt‘ms k‘ enmbshnm ‘rrnbhd̀d ı
‘ bd lns ı
‘ k&d̀s‘s cnmmd̀-
5-6- Bnmrsqthqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth+ ‘udb bnlld cnmmd̀dr tm ‘tsnl‘sd+ tm d̀s‘s hmhsh‘k ds cdr d̀s‘sr
ffm‘tw ffwd̀r+ b‘kbtkd sntr kdr lnsr cd knmftdtq m ct k‘mf‘fd qdbnmmt o‘q bds ‘tsnl‘sd+ ‘udb bds d̀s‘s
hmhsh‘k ds bdr d̀s‘sr ffm‘tw-
Bgôhsqd 6
daqd ∗(
9kfı
6-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
Mntr m&‘kknmr pt&drpthrrdq hbh kd u‘rsd cnl‘hmd cd k&tshkhr‘shnm c&‘kfnqhsgldr c‘mr tm bnmsdwsd
‘kfd̀aqhptd-
6-1 9kfnqhsgld cd Fˆtrr,Inqcˆm
Kd oqnakıdld cd qd̀rntcqd tm rxrsıdld c&d̀pt‘shnmr

khmd̀‘hqdr ’ı
‘ bndflbhdmsr q‘shnmmdkr+ qd̀dkr+ bnl,
okdwdr+ dsb-(
a00 w0 ) a01 w1 ) . . . ) a0m wm ; a0 .

a10 w0 ) a11 w1 ) . . . ) a1m wm ; a1 .
-- ’6-0(
-
aj0 w0 ) aj1 w1 ) . . . ) ajm wm ; aj .
dm kdr u‘qh‘akdr w0 + w1 + . . . + wm + drs k&tm cdr B‘qk Eqhdcqhbg F‘trr

oqnakıdldr kdr oktr eqd̀ptdlldms qdmbnmsqd̀r+ ‘t, ’0666 z 0744(
s‘ms dm l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr ptd c‘mr cdr cnl‘hmdr ‘ookhptd̀r sqıdr chudqr cd k‘ Ogxrhptd+ k‘ Bghlhd+
k&Hmenql‘shptd+ k‘ Qdbgdqbgd Nod̀q‘shnmmdkkd+ kd Fd̀mhd+ dsb- Hk drs cnmb m‘stqdk ptd bd rnhs k&tm cdr
oqhmbho‘tw rtidsr c&d̀stcd c&tm oqdlhdq bntqr c&‘kfıdaqd khmd̀‘hqd-
K&‘kfnqhsgld c&d̀khlhm‘shnm cd F‘trr,Inqc‘m cnmmd tmd e‘b́nm dflb‘bd cd oqnbd̀cdq- Hk bnmrhrsd ı‘
sq‘mrenqldq kd rxrsıdld ’6-0( dm tm rxrsıdld d̀pthu‘kdms ’pth ‘ kdr l]dldr rnktshnmr( ds pth drs ∗ rs‘m,
c‘qchrd̀ "- Bdssd enqld rsˆmcˆqc ffm‘kd drs tmhptd+ ds odqlds cd ∗ khqd " chqdbsdldms kdr rnktshnmr ct
034
035 BG9OHSQD 6- 9KFDAQDΓ·(
rxrsıdld- Mntr ‘kknmr rdtkdldms q‘oodkdq kd qd̀rtks‘s fkna‘k+ othrptd kdr cd̀s‘hkr nms d̀sd̀ ’nt rdqnms(
utr c‘mr tm ‘tsqd bntqr-
Nm bnlldmbd o‘q bncdq kd rxrsıdld ’6-0( cd e‘b́nm l‘sqhbhdkkd+ bnlld
5 
a00 a01 . . . a0m a0
a10 a11 . . . a1m a1 
 
 -- -- - -- --  ’6-1(
 - - - - - - 
aj0 aj1 . . . ajm aj .
Bdssd l‘sqhbd drs sq‘mrenqld̀d dm tmd ∗ l‘sqhbd d̀bgdknm qd̀cthsd " o‘q tmd rtbbdrrhnm c&nod̀qˆshnmr
cd khfmdr+ pth bnmrhrsd ı
‘
’0( ltkshokhdq ’nt chuhrdq( tmd khfmd o‘q tm rb‘k‘hqd 0 mnm mtk-
’1( d̀bg‘mfdq cdtw khfmdr+
’2( ‘intsdq ı
‘ tmd khfmd kd ltkshokd c&tmd ‘tsqd-
Q‘oodknmr pt&tmd l‘sqhbd drs d̀bgdknm qd̀cthsd rh
’0( k‘ oqdlhıdqd u‘kdtq mnm mtkkd cd bg‘ptd khfmd drs tm 0- Nm chs ptd b&drs kd ohuns cd bdssd khfmd-
’1( rtq bg‘ptd bnknmmd bnqqdronmc‘ms ı
‘ tm ohuns cd khfmd+ hk x ‘ tmd rdtkd u‘kdtq mnm mtkkd- B&drs
kd 0 bnqqdronmc‘ms ‘t ohuns-
ı bg‘ptd l‘sqhbd ’6-1(+ nm odts ‘rrnbhdq tmd tmhptd l‘sqhbd d̀bgdknm qd̀cthsd nasdmtd o‘q tmd rthsd
?
c&nod̀q‘shnm cd khfmd- K&‘kfnqhsgld cd F‘trr,Inqc‘m nqf‘mhrd rd b‘kbtkd cd e‘b́nm rxrsd̀l‘shptd-
6-2 9kfnqhsgld çDtbkhcd ontq onkxmY

nldr
nldr 1 e ’w( ds f’w( drs b‘q‘bsd̀qhrd̀ ’ı

Tm oktr fqˆmc bnlltm chuhrdtq c’w( cd onkxm] ‘ tm ltkshokd
bnmrs‘ms mnm mtk oqıdr( o‘q kd e‘hs ptd
’0( c’w( chuhrd e ’w( ds f’w(+ ds
’1( Rh b’w( chuhcd e ’w( ds f’w(+ ‘knqr b’w( chuhrd c’w(-
Snts bnlld ontq kdr dmshdqr+ nm ‘ k&ˆkfnqhsgld c´Dtbkhcd ontq kd b‘kbtk c&tm OFBC cd onkxm]nldr-
Hk drs a‘rd̀ rtq kd e‘hs ptd c’w( drs tm OFBC ontq e ’w( ds f’w(+ rh ds rdtkdldms b&drs tm OFBC ontq
f’w( ds q’w(+ ‘udb q’w( cnmmd̀ o‘q ’B-4(- Hkktrsqnmr o‘q tm dwdlokd+ ontq ahdm bnmrs‘sdq pt&nm ‘ kd
l]dld oqnbdrrtr ptd c‘mr kd b‘r cdr dmshdqr- Kdr d̀s‘odr ct b‘kbtk ct OFBC cdr onkxm] nldr w43 0
0- Tm mnlaqd qˆshnmmdk+ qd̀dk+ nt bnlokdvd+ rdknm kd bnmsdvsd-

1- Unhq k¸ôodmchbd B-0 ontq oktr cd cd̀sˆhkr rtq kdr onkxm]
nldr-
6-3- A9RDR CD FQN̂AMDQ 036
ds w2+ 0 rnms
w43 0 ; w13 · ’w2+ 0( ) ’w13 0(. ds cnmb } w2+ 0. w43 0 〉 ; } w13 0. w2+ 0 〉.
w2+ 0 ; w5 · ’w13 0( ) ’w5 0(. ; } w5 0. w13 0 〉.
w13 0 ; ’w07 ) w01 ) w5 ) 0( · ’w5 0( ) /. ; } /. w5 0 〉.
; w5 0.
Kd b‘kbtk ct OFBC c’w(+ cd e ’w( ds cd r‘ cd̀qhud̀d e → ’w(+ cnmmd cdr hmenql‘shnmr hmsd̀qdrr‘msdr- Dm
o‘qshbtkhdq+ rh a drs tmd q‘bhmd cd c’w(+ ‘knqr
e ’w( ; ’w a(1 p’w(. ontq tm bdqs‘hm p’w(.
Tmd enqltk‘shnm d̀kd̀f‘msd cd bdr mnshnmr o‘rrd o‘q kd bnmbdos c&hcd̀‘k c&tm ‘mmd‘t ’unhq ‘oodm,
chbd B-1(-
6-3 Aˆrdr cd Fqz

namdq
Dm e‘hs+ k&‘kfnqhsgld cd F‘trr,Inqc‘m+ ds k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd

ontq cdr onkxm] nldr+ rnms cdtw b‘r rod̀bh‘tw c&tm l]dld ‘kfn,
qhsgld+ c] t ı‘ Atbgadqfdq+ pth odqlds cd sq‘mrenqldq rntr enqld
rs‘mc‘qchrd̀d tm rxrsıdld c&d̀pt‘shnmr onkxmnlh‘kdr- B&drs Atbg,
adqfdq pth+ dm 0854+ ‘ oqnonrd̀ kd mnl cd ∗ a‘rd cd Fq— namdq "+
dm k&gnmmdtq cd rnm chqdbsdtq cd sgıdrd+ l‘hr dm e‘hs bdssd mn,
shnm ‘ d̀sd̀ hmsqncthsd ahdm oktr s]
ns o‘q Fnqc‘m- Mnm rdtkdldms
k‘ mnshnm cd a‘rd cd Fq— namdq intd tm q] nkd bqtbh‘k c‘mr kdr ‘r,
odbsr b‘kbtk‘snhqdr cd k‘ fd̀nld̀sqhd ‘kfd̀aqhptd+ l‘hr dkkd ‘ ‘trrh
cd mnlaqdtrdr ‘ookhb‘shnmr oq‘shptdr dm sgd̀nqhd cdr fq‘ogdr+
b‘kbtk enqldk+ rs‘shrshptd+ qnanshptd+ bqxosnfq‘oghd+ dsb- O‘tk ?kadqs Fnqc‘m
’0726 z 0801(
K&hcd̀d fd̀md̀q‘kd drs k‘ rthu‘msd- ?ffm cd rhlokhffdq tm rxrsıdld
c&d̀pt‘shnmr ’onkxmnlh‘kdr(
e0 ; /. e1 ; /. e2 ; /. . . . . em ; /. ’6-2(
nm ∗ bnlahmd " itchbhdtrdldms kdr d̀pt‘shnmr cd ’6-2( ontq oqncthqd cd mntudkkdr hcdmshsd̀r ’oktr
ı bdssd ffm+ nm dwoknhsd kd e‘hs ptd
rhlokdr(- ?
Rh eg ; / ds ei ; / ‘knqr eg ) f ei ; /-
K‘ chrbtrrhnm cd k&‘kfnqhsgld bnlld sdk drs tm odt sqno knmftd ontq bdr mnsdr+ l‘hr unhbh tm
6-4- ODQLTS9SHNMR 038
6-4 Odqltsˆshnmr
Q‘oodknmr pt&tmd odqltsˆshnm cd > drs rhlokdldms tmd ahidbshnm cd > udqr >+ ds pt&nm cd̀mnsd R,
k&dmrdlakd cdr odqlts‘shnmr cd >+ b&drs,ı
‘,chqd
%
R, 9; {σ 9 > → > | σ drs tmd ahidbshnm{.
Tmd odqlts‘shnm σ cd > ’cd b‘qchm‘k m( drs cnmb tm dmrdlakd cd m bntokdr 9
σ ; {’w. σ’w(( | w ∈ >{.
Mntr ‘kknmr d̀bqhqd Rm okts]

ns ptd R?m[ - Kd b‘qchm‘k cd Rm drs m¸-
Nm odts hcdmshffdq kdr odqlts‘shnmr cd Zm[ ‘tw e‘b́nmr cd ∗ qd̀nqcnmmdq " kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd Zm[- ?hmrh+
dm d̀bqhu‘ms oktr rhlokdldms σg ontq σ’h(+ nm ‘
σ ; σ0 σ1 · · · σm .
O‘q dwdlokd+ kdr 13 odqlts‘shnmr cd R3 rnms 9
R3 ; {0123. 0132. 0213. 0231. 0312. 0321. 1023. 1032. 1203. 1230. 1302. 1320.
2013. 2031. 2103. 2130. 2301. 2310. 3012. 3021. 3102. 3120. 3201. 3210{.
Oˆqsˆfdr
Tm oˆqsˆfd c&tm dmshdq m / / drs tmd khrsd cd̀bqnhrr‘msd c&dmshdqr onrhsher ’/ /( cnms k‘ rnlld cnmmd
m- ?hmrh+ ’6. 6. 3. 3. 3. 1. 0. 0( ’‘trrh cd̀mnsd̀ 66333100( drs tm o‘qs‘fd cd
2/ ; 6 ) 6 ) 3 ) 3 ) 3 ) 1 ) 0 ) 0.
O‘q bnmudmshnm+ k&dmshdq / ‘clds kd o‘qs‘fd uhcd pt&nm cd̀mnsd /- Tm o‘qs‘fd
µ ; ’µ0 . µ1 . . . . . µj (. nt oktr rhlokdldms µ ; µ0 µ1 . . . µj .
cd m / /+ drs cnmb sdk ptd

0- µ0 ≥ µ1 ≥ . . . ≥ µj / /+
1- m ; µ0 ) µ1 ) . . . ) µj -
Nm cd̀mnsd µ ` m kd e‘hs ptd µ rnhs tm o‘qs‘fd cd m- Kdr dmshdqr µg + 0 ≤ h ≤ j+ rnms kdr oˆqsr cd µ+
ds j drs k‘ knmftdtq ’cd̀mnsd̀d Z’µ(( ct o‘qs‘fd µ-
04/ BG9OHSQD 6- 9KFDAQDΓ·(
Nm cd̀rhfmd o‘q ΛZm[ k&dmrdlakd cdr o‘qs‘fdr cd m+ ds nm ‘
ΛZ/[ ; {/{
ΛZ0[ ; {0{
ΛZ1[ ; {1. 00{
ΛZ2[ ; {2. 10. 000{
ΛZ3[ ; {3. 20. 11. 100. 0000{
ΛZ4[ ; {4. 30. 21. 200. 110. 1000. 00000{
6-5 Chˆfqˆlldr cd Edqqdqr
Nm qdoqd̀rdmsd rntudms tm o‘qs‘fd o‘q rnm chˆfqˆlld cd Edqqdqr 2 +

b&drs,ı‘,chqd tm rntr,dmrdlakd cd K · K dm enqld c&∗ drb‘khdq "+
bnlld rths 9
.
?tsqdldms chs+ rh ’h. i( ∈ C ‘knqr bg‘ptd b‘rd ’w. x(+ ‘udb w ≤ h ds

x ≤ i+ drs ‘trrh c‘mr C- Tmd khfmd c&tm ch‘fq‘lld cd Edqqdqr drs
k&dmrdlakd cdr b‘rdr pth nms l]dld rdbnmcd bnnqcnmmd̀d-
M- L- Edqqdqr
Snts m‘stqdkkdldms+ k‘ knmftdtq c&tmd khfmd drs kd mnlaqd cd b‘rdr ’0718z08/2(
cd bdkkd,bh- K‘ khrsd cdr knmftdtqr cdr khfmdr c&tm ch‘fq‘lld cd
Edqqdqr+ nqcnmmd̀d ct a‘r udqr kd g‘ts+ drs bk‘hqdldms cd̀bqnhrr‘msd- B&drs cnmb tm o‘qs‘fd- Nm d̀s‘akhs
‘hmrh tmd bnqqdronmc‘mbd dmsqd o‘qs‘fdr ds ch‘fq‘lldr cd Edqqdqr- Kd ch‘fq‘lld cd k‘ Ehftqd
bh,g‘ts bnqqdronmc ‘t o‘qs‘fd 4310 cd k&dmshdq 01- Oktr fd̀md̀q‘kdldms+ ‘t o‘qs‘fd µ ; µ0 · · · µj
bnqqdronmc kd ch‘fq‘lld cd Edqqdqr ’‘trrh cd̀mnsd̀ µ(
µ 9; {’w. x( ∈ K · K | / ≤ x ≤ j 0. ds / ≤ w ≤ µx 0{. ’6-6(
Ahdm dmsdmct+ tmd bnknmmd ct ch‘fq‘lld cd Edqqdqr µ drs k&dmrdlakd cdr b‘rdr pth nms l]dld
oqdlhıdqd bnnqcnmmd̀d+ ds r‘ gˆtsdtq drs kd mnlaqd cd bdr b‘rdr-
2- Mnlld̀r ˆhmrh dm k¸gnmmdtq cd Mnqlˆm Lˆbkdnc Edqqdqr ’0718,08.2(-

6-6- 9KFNQHSGLD QRJ 040
Sâkdˆtv cd Vntmf
Ontq tm o‘qs‘fd µ cd m+ nm chs ‘unhq tm sâkdˆt cd Wntmf 3 τ + cd enqld λ’τ ( ; µ+ rh nm ‘ tmd

enmbshnm ahidbshud
τ 9 µ → Zm[.
sdkkd ptd
τ ’h. i( , τ ’h→ . i → ( rh ’h. i( , ’h→ . i → (. ’6-7(
Nm cd̀mnsd SntjdZµ[ k&dmrdlakd cdr s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld µ-
ı k‘
Nm qdoqd̀rdmsd rntudms tm sdk s‘akd‘t dm qdlokhrr‘ms bg‘ptd b‘rd b cd µ ‘udb kd u‘kdtq τ ’b(- ?
Ehftqd 6-1+ nm oqd̀rdmsd kdr 05 s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld 2 1 0-
2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4
1 4 1 5 1 4 1 5 2 4 2 5 1 3 1 5
0 3 5 0 3 4 0 2 5 0 2 4 0 1 5 0 1 4 0 2 5 0 2 3
4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5
2 3 2 5 3 5 1 3 1 4 2 3 2 4 3 4
0 1 5 0 1 3 0 1 2 0 2 4 0 2 3 0 1 4 0 1 3 0 1 2
Ehftpd 6-1 z Sntr kdr s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld 210-
6-6 9kfnqhsgld cd Qnahmrnm,Rbgdmrsdc,Jmtsg’∗(
K&‘kfnqhsgld cd Qnahmrnm,Rbgdmrsdc,Jmtsg ’QRJ( ‘rrnbhd ahidbshudldms

‘ bg‘ptd odqlts‘shnm σ tm bntokd cd s‘akd‘tw
ı
’O ’σ(. P’σ(( ; ’O ν . Pν (.
pth rnms qdrodbshudldms ‘oodkd̀r O ,sâkdˆt ds P,sâkdˆt cd σ- Rh k‘ odq,

lts‘shnm σ ’cd̀bqhsd rntr enqld cd lns( oqdmc k‘ enqld
σ ; σ0 σ1 · · · σm .
bdr s‘akd‘tw rnms nasdmtr dm ∗ hmrd̀q‘ms " rtbbdrrhudldms kdr u‘kdtqr σg ds

h+ qdrodbshudldms c‘mr kd O ,s‘akd‘t ds c‘mr kd P,s‘akd‘t- Nm bnlldmbd
F- cd A- Qnahmrnm
‘udb cdtw s‘akd‘tw uhcdr- K&hmrdqshnm rths tm oqnbdrrtr chΨd̀qdms ontq
’08/5 z 0881(
3- =keqdc Wntmf ’0762,083.(-
bg‘btm cdr cdtw s‘akd‘tw- Bd rnms kdr u‘kdtqr σg pth rnms hmrd̀qd̀dr c‘mr kd O ,s‘akd‘t+ s‘mchr ptd bd
rnms kdr onrhshnmr h pth r&hmrıdqdms c‘mr kd P,s‘akd‘t-
C&tmd e‘b́nm fqnrrhıdqd+ nm odts chqd ptd k&hmrdqshnm c‘mr kd O ,s‘akd‘t bnmrhrsd dm tmd b‘rb‘cd cd
qdlok‘bdldms cd u‘kdtqr+ btklhm‘ms o‘q k&‘ints c&tmd mntudkkd b‘rd ı ‘ k&tmd cdr khfmdr : ds k&hmrdqshnm
c‘mr kd P,s‘akd‘t dmqdfhrsqd kdr d̀s‘odr cd bqnhrr‘mbd ct O ,s‘akd‘t-
Hk drs bntq‘ms cd bnlldmbdq k‘ oqd̀rdms‘shnm cd k&‘kfnqhsgld o‘q tm dwdlokd+ okts]
ns ptd cd cd̀bqhqd
enqldkkdldms kd oqnbdrrtr c&dmsqd̀d cd idt- ?hmrh cnmb+ ontq k‘ odqlts‘shnm
σ ; 4 3 7 1 2 5 0 6.
nm ‘ kdr d̀s‘odr rtbbdrrhudr 9
σ 7→ ’O ν . Pν ( σ 7→ ’O ν . Pν (
’‘( 4 · · · 7→ 4 0 4 2
3 7 1 4
4 1
’e( 437125 ··· 7→ 1 2 5 0 2 5
’a( 4 3 · · · 7→ 3 0
4 6
4 1
3 2
’b( 437 ··· 7→ 3 7 0 2
1 7 1 4
4 3 ’f( 4371250 ··· 7→ 0 2 5 0 2 5
3 1
4 6
’c( 4 3 7 1 · · · 7→ 1 7 0 2
3 2
4 2 1 7 1 4
3 7 1 4 ’g( 43712506 7→ 0 2 5 6 0 2 5 7
’d( 43712 ··· 7→ 1 2 0 2
Oktr rod̀bhffptdldms l‘hmsdm‘ms+ ontq snts lns σ ; σ0 σ1 · · · σm 0 σm c&dmshdqr chrshmbsr ’σg ∈ K(+
k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm oqnbıdcd qd̀btqrhudldms bnlld rths-
0- Rh σ drs kd lns uhcd+ ‘knqr ’O ν . Pν ( ; ’/. /(
1- Rhmnm+ σ drs cd k‘ enqld σ ; τ a+ ontq τ ; σ0 σ1 · · · σm 0 + tm lns cd knmftdtq m 0+ ds
a ∈ K- Nm rtoonrd ‘unhq cd̀iı ‘ bnmrsqths ’O σ . Pσ (+ ds nm lnchffd bdr cdtw s‘akd‘tw cd k‘ e‘b́nm
rthu‘msd-
’‘( K‘ u‘kdtq a qdlok‘bd k‘ oktr odshsd u‘kdtq ’pth drs d̀idbsd̀d( cd k‘ oqdlhıdqd khfmd cd O σ pth
drs oktr fq‘mcd ptd a+ r&hk x dm ‘ tmd- K‘ u‘kdtq d̀idbsd̀d drs qd̀btqrhudldms hmrd̀qd̀d c‘mr kd
s‘akd‘t enqld̀ cdr khfmdr 1. 2. . . . cd O σ + ds ‘hmrh cd rthsd- Rh a drs oktr fq‘mc ptd sntsd
kdr u‘kdtqr cd k‘ oqdlhıdqd khfmd+ ‘knqr nm ‘intsd a c‘mr tmd mntudkkd b‘rd ı ‘ k‘ ffm cd bdssd
khfmd- Kd qd̀rtks‘s O ν drs cnmb tm s‘akd‘t rs‘mc‘qc pth chΨıdqd cd O σ + c‘mr r‘ enqld+ o‘q
tmd b‘rd-
6-6- 9KFNQHSGLD QRJ 042
’a( Nm lnchffd kd s‘akd‘t Pσ dm kth ‘ints‘ms tmd b‘rd dm l]dld onrhshnm ptd bdkkd o‘q k‘ptdkkd
O ν chΨıdqd cd O σ + ds cnmmd k‘ u‘kdtq m ı
‘ b‘rd-
Tmd d̀s‘od ct oqnbdrrtr c&hmrdqshnm drs hkktrsqd̀d ı‘ k‘ ffftqd 6-2- Nm hmrıdqd 5 c‘mr kd oqdlhdq s‘akd‘t-
Bdssd hmrdqshnm d̀idbsd 7 cd k‘ oqdlhıdqd khfmd+ ds nm cnhs k&hmrd̀qdq c‘mr k‘ rdbnmcd+ dsb- Kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr
pth rnms ∗cd̀ok‘bd̀r" o‘q k&hmrdqshnm rnms c‘mr kdr b‘rdr dm udqs c‘mr kd rdbnmc s‘akd‘t- K‘ b‘rd pth
01 01
6 6 8
2 8 00 2 7 00
0 1 4 7 0/ ← 5 ; 0 1 4 5 0/
Ehftpd 6-2 z O‘hqd cd s‘akd‘tw rs‘mc‘qcr-
bnmshdms 8 drs k‘ mntudkkd b‘rd-
Oqnoqhd̀sd̀r cd k¸ˆkfnqhsgld QRJ
Dm oktr cd intdq tm q]nkd enmc‘ldms‘k ontq k‘ sgd̀nqhd cd k‘ qdoqd̀rdms‘shnm ct fqntod rxld̀sqhptd+

k&‘kfnqhsgld cd Qnahmrnm,Rbgdmrsdc,Jmtsg ‘ oktrhdtqr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r qdl‘qpt‘akdr- Mntr m&‘kknmr dm
oqd̀rdmsdq ptd ptdkptdr,tmdr ’r‘mr cd̀lnmrsq‘shnm(- K&tmd cdr oqnoqhd̀sd̀r kdr oktr d̀snmm‘msdr drs
‘ k‘ odqlts‘shnm σ 0 ’k&hmudqrd cd σ( kd bntokd cd
bdqs‘hmdldms kd e‘hs ptd k&‘kfnqhsgld ‘rrnbhd ı
s‘akd‘tw ’P’σ(. O ’σ((+ ‘tsqdldms chs
0 0
O ’σ ( ; P’σ(. ds P’σ ( ; O ’σ(. ’6-8(
Ontq tmd odqlts‘shnm σ ; σ0 σ1 · · · σm + tmd rntr,rthsd bqnhrrˆmsd cd σ drs
σg0 , σg1 , . . . , σgj
‘udb h0 , h1 , . . . , hj - O‘q dwdlokd+ 1 4 6 8 drs tmd rntr,rthsd bqnhrr‘msd cd knmftdtq 3 cd
σ ; 1 7 5 4 2 0 3 6 8.
Bdssd cdqmhıdqd odqlts‘shnm ‘clds ‘trrh k‘ rntr,rthsd 1 2 3 6 8 cd knmftdtq 4- Dm e‘hs+ 4 drs k‘ knmftdtq
l‘whl‘kd c&tmd rntr,rthsd bqnhrr‘msd cd σ-
Rnhs σ odqlts‘shnm cd Zm[- ?knqr+ k‘ knmftdtq l‘whl‘kd c&tmd rntr,rthsd bqnhrr‘msd cd σ drs d̀f‘kd
‘ k‘ knmftdtq cd k‘ oqdlhıdqd khfmd ct s‘akd‘t O ’σ(+ nasdmt o‘q k&‘kfnqhsgld QRJ- Bdssd oqnoqhd̀sd̀
ı
drs tshkhrd̀d ontq k&d̀stcd cd bdqs‘hmr ‘kfnqhsgldr+ oktr o‘qshbtkhıdqdldms c‘mr kd cnl‘hmd cd k‘ ahnhm,
enql‘shptd dm qdk‘shnm ‘udb kd rd̀ptdmb́‘fd cd fıdmdr-
6-7 Kd oqnakı
dld ct lns ontq tm fqntod
Tmd oqd̀rdmsˆshnm c&tm fqntod F drs k‘ cnmmd̀d c&tm dmrdlakd

R ; {r0 . r1 . r2 . . . . . rm {.
cd fd̀md̀qˆsdtqr+ ‘udb tm dmrdlakd cd qdkˆshnmr dmsqd bdr fd̀md̀q‘sdtqr- Nm cd̀rhfmd o‘q R ∗ k&dmrdlakd
R ∗ 9; {w | w ∈ R. nı
t w 0
∈ R{.
Bg‘ptd qdk‘shnm drs cd k‘ enqld
w0 w1 · · · wj ; 0.
‘udb kdr wi c‘mr R ∗ - Kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr ct fqntod rnms kdr oqncthsr ffmhr ptdkbnmptdr c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd R ∗ +
lnctkn sntsdr kdr bnmrd̀ptdmbdr cdr qdk‘shnmr-
Tm dwdlokd sxohptd drs 9
R ; {r0 . r1 {.
‘udb bnlld qdk‘shnmr
r10 ; 0. r11 ; 0.
’6-0/(
’r0 r1 (2 ; 0.
C‘mr bd fqntod nm ‘ r0 0 ; r0 + ds r1 0 ; r1 - Hk r&dmrths ptd sntr kdr ‘tsqdr d̀kd̀ldmsr rnms cdr oqncthsr
ffmhr cd k‘ enqld
r0 r1 r0 r1 · · · . nı
t r 1 . r0 r 1 r 0 · · ·
L‘hr nm ‘ ‘trrh r0 r1 r0 ; r1 r0 r1 - Nm bnmbkts ptd kd fqntod bnmshdms sqıdr dw‘bsdldms kdr 5 d̀kd̀ldmsr
cd k&dmrdlakd
{0. r0 . r1 . r0 r1 . r1 r0 . r0 r1 r0 {.
Dm fd̀md̀q‘k+ kd oqnakıdld drs cd r‘unhq c‘mr ptdkr b‘r hk x ‘ d̀f‘khsd̀
=
x 0 x 1 · · · x q ; y0 y 1 · · · y r . ‘udb xg . yi ∈ R ∗ .
lnctkn kdr qdk‘shnmr-
Cd e‘b́nm d̀pthu‘kdmsd+ nm bgdqbgd ı
‘ r‘unhq pt‘mc nm ‘
=
x0 x1 · · · xq yr 0 · · · y1 0 y0 0 ; 0. ’6-00(
lnctkn kdr qdk‘shnmr-Nm chs ct ldlaqd cd f‘tbgd+ cd bdssd
cdqmhıdqd d̀f‘khsd̀+ ptd b&drs tm lns- Kd oqnakıdld ct lns
bnmrhrsd ı‘ r‘unhq qd̀onmcqd ı‘ k‘ ptdrshnm 6-00 ontq snts lns-
Dm 081/+ S‘qrjh ı ‘ cd̀lnmsqd̀ pt&dm fd̀md̀q‘k kd oqnakıdld ct lns
drs hmcd̀bhc‘akd- C‘mr bdqs‘hmr b‘r+ pt‘mc kdr qdk‘shnmr rnms
c&tmd anmmd enqld+ nm bnmm‘]ıs bdodmc‘ms bnlldms qd̀rntcqd
‘kfnqhsglhptdldms kd oqnakıdld ct lns-
?keqdc S‘qrjh
’08/0 z 0872(
6-8- DVDQBHBDR 044
6-8 Dvdqbhbdr
6-0- Lnmsqdq ptd+ ontq sntsd odqlts‘shnm σ ds τ + nm ‘

‘( Kd mnlaqd cd odqlts‘shnmr θ+ sdkkdr ptd θσθ 0 ; τ + drs d̀f‘k ‘t mnlaqd cd odqlts‘shnmr
ρ sdkkdr ptd ρσρ 0 ; σ- Rtffdrshnm 9 Bnmrsqthqd tmd ahidbshnm dmsqd kdr cdtw dmrdlakdr dm
dwoknhs‘ms kd e‘hs ptd+ knqrptd θσθ 0 ; ψσψ 0 + ‘knqr ρ ; ψ 0 θ drs sdk ptd ρσρ 0 ; σ-
a( Lnmsqdq ptd knqrptd k‘ enqld cd σ drs λ’σ( ; µ ; 0c0 1c1 · · · mck kd mnlaqd cd odqlts‘shnmr
ρ sdkkdr ptd ρσρ 0 ; σ drs cnmmd̀ o‘q k‘ enqltkd
yθ 9; 0c0 c0 ¸ 1c1 c1 ¸ · · · mck cm ¸. ’6-01(
Ahdm dmsdmct+ nm cnhs khqd bdssd cdqmhıdqd dwoqdrrhnm dm hmsdqoqd̀s‘ms k‘ mns‘shnm dwonmdmshdkkd
cd k‘ e‘b́nm trtdkkd ontq kdr dmshdqr-
6-1- Bnlahdm x ‘,s,hk cd o‘qs‘fdr cd m dm o‘qsr ‘t oktr d̀f‘kdr ı
‘ 1=
6-2- Nm odts nqcnmmdq k&dmrdlakd cd sntr kdr ch‘fq‘lldr cd Xntmf o‘q hmbktrhnm ’dm s‘ms ptd
rntr,dmrdlakdr cd K · K(- Nm nashdms bd pt&nm ‘oodkkd kd sqdhkkhr cd Wntmf+ cnms unhbh tmd odshsd
o‘qshd ct cd̀ats cd rnm ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd
-- -
- - -- - - - --
-- - - - -
- --
+
1
+ 2 +
1
+ 2
+ +
+
1
+ 2
+
↑
.
Lnmsqdq pt&hk x ‘ ahidbshnm dmsqd s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld µ ’tm o‘qs‘fd(+ ds bgdlhmr ‘kk‘ms cd
/ı
‘ µ c‘mr bd sqdhkkhr+ ds dm cd̀cthqd pt&nm ‘ k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd
∑
eθ ; eµ . ’6-02(
µ≺θ
t µ → µ cd̀mnsd k‘ qdk‘shnm cd bntudqstqd cd k&nqcqd cd Xntmf+ ds eθ drs kd mnlaqd cd s‘akd‘tw cd

nı
Xntmf cd enqld µ-
6-3- Ontq kdr o‘qs‘fdr c&tm l]dld dmshdq m+ nm ‘ k&nqcqd ’o‘qshdk( cd cnlhmˆmbd+ ontq kdptdk nm ‘
µ ≥ µ rh
µ 0 ≤ µ0 .
µ 0 ) µ 1 ≤ µ0 ) µ1 .
--
-
µ 0 ) µ 1 ) · · · ) µ j ≤ µ0 ) µ1 ) · · · ) µj .
nı
t µg ; / rh h / Z’µ(+ ‘udb tmd bnmudmshnm rhlhk‘hqd ontq µ- Kd ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd cd bds nqcqd
rtq k&dmrdlakd cdr o‘qs‘fdr cd 2 drs 9 Sqntudq kd ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd cd bds nqcqd rtq k&dmrdlakd
↗ ↘ ↗ ↘
→ → → →
↘ ↗ ↘ ↗
Ehftpd 6-3 z K&nqcqd cd cnlhm‘mbd ontq m ; 5
cdr o‘qs‘fdr cd 6- ?ssdmshnm+ bd m&drs o‘r tm nqcqd sns‘k-

6-4- K&nqcqd ’sns‘k( kdwhbnfqôghptd+ rtq kdr o‘qs‘fdr cd m+ drs bdkth ontq kdptdk µ , µ+ rh k‘ oqdlhıdqd
chΨd̀qdmbd mnm mtkkd+ µg µg + drs onrhshud- Ontq m ; 3+ nm ‘ cnmb
0000 , 100 , 11 , 20 , 3
Lnmsqdq ptd k&nqcqd kdwhbnfq‘oghptd drs tmd dwsdmrhnm khmd̀‘hqd cd k&nqcqd cd cnlhm‘mbd- B&drs,ı‘,chqd
ptd k&nqcqd kdwhbnfq‘oghptd drs tm nqcqd sns‘k sdk ptd
µ≥µ hlokhptd µ ≤ µ.
6-5- Bnmbdunhq cdr oqnbd̀ctqdr pth+ ontq tmd odqlts‘shnm σ cd Zm[ cnmmd̀d rntr enqld cd lns+
‘( b‘kbtkd k‘ cd̀bnlonrhshnm bxbkhptd cd σ-
a( sqntud tmd qdoqd̀rdms‘shnm cd σ bnlld oqncths cd sq‘mronrhshnmr ‘ci‘bdmsdr-
b( sqntud sntsdr kdr qdoqd̀rdms‘shnmr ’cd knmftdtq lhmhl‘kd( cd σ bnlld oqncths cd sq‘mronrh,
shnmr ‘ci‘bdmsdr-
6-6- D̀bqhqd tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth sqntud sntr kdr o‘qs‘fdr cd m dm o‘qsr oktr odshsdr nt d̀f‘kdr ı
‘ j-
6-8- DVDQBHBDR 046
6-7- Bnmbdunhq tmd oqnbd̀ctqd pth sqntud sntr kdr s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld cnmmd̀d-
6-8- Bnmbdunhq cdr oqnbd̀ctqdr pth qd̀‘khrdms k&‘kfnqhsgld QRJ+ b-,ı

‘,c- 9 b‘kbtkdms kd bntokd ’O . P( ı‘
o‘qshq cd σ- Sdrsdq k&d̀mnmbd̀ ’6-8(-
9mmdvd 9
Tm rntob́nm cd knfhptd
Ontq cd̀udknoodq cdr oqdtudr+ hk drs md̀bdrr‘hqd cd bnmm‘]ısqd kdr l‘mhotk‘shnmr knfhptdr cd a‘rd- Mntr
m&‘kknmr hbh m&dm q‘oodkdq ptd ptdkptdr oqhmbhodr- Hmenqldkkdldms+ tm d̀mnmbd̀ ’l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr( drs
tmd ogq‘rd pth ‘flqld tm bdqs‘hm e‘hs ’l‘sgd̀l‘shptd(- K&hlonqs‘ms drs cd ontunhq cd̀sdqlhmdq rh
k&d̀mnmbd̀ drs ∗ uq‘h " nt ∗ e‘tw "- Tmd oqdtud drs bnmrshstd̀d c&tm dmbg‘]ımdldms cd cd̀ctbshnmr
knfhptdr+ ı‘ o‘qshq cd e‘hsr bnmmtr ’nt c&‘whnldr(+ ‘udb bnlld bnmbktrhnm kd e‘hs ptd k&d̀mnmbd̀ ’pt&nm
bgdqbg‘hs ı ‘ oqntudq( drs uq‘h- K‘ enqld c&tmd oqdtud cd̀odmc enqsdldms cd k‘ enqld cd k&d̀mnmbd̀ ı‘
oqntudq- Nm cd̀bqhs bdr enqldr onrrhakdr bh,cdrrntr-
ı o‘qshq c&d̀mnmbd̀r bnmmtr > ds A+ nm odts enqldq cd mntud‘tw d̀mnmbd̀r ‘t lnxdm c&nod̀qˆshnmr
?
knfhptdr- Nm ‘ kdr d̀mnmbd̀r 9
0- ’> ds A(+ pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh > ds A kd rnms sntr kdr cdtw+
1- ’> nt A(+ pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh > drs uq‘h nt A drs uq‘h+
2- ’¬>(+ pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh > drs e‘tw+
3- ’> ⇒ A(+ pth m&drs e‘tw ptd knqrptd > drs uq‘h ds A drs e‘tw+
4- ’> ⇔ A(+ pth drs uq‘h dw‘bsdldms pt‘mc > ds A rnms sntr kdr cdtw uq‘h+ nt sntr kdr cdtw
e‘tw-
C‘mr k‘ cdrbqhoshnm cd bg‘btmd cdr nod̀q‘shnmr+ nm cd̀bqhs ptdkkd drs k‘ e‘b́nm cd oqnbd̀cdq ontq
oqntudq k&d̀mnmbd̀ bnlonrd̀+ ı ‘ o‘qshq cd rdr bnlonr‘msdr- K&nod̀q‘shnm c&d̀pthuˆkdmbd ∗ ⇔ " odqlds
cd bnlo‘qdq k‘ ud̀q‘bhsd̀ c&d̀mnmbd̀r knfhptd- ?hmrh+ k&d̀mnmbd̀ ’> ⇔ A( rd enqltkd ‘trrh
> rh ds rdtkdldms rh A.
nt l]dld ’> rrh A(- Bd rnms chudqrdr e‘b́nmr c&dwoqhldq kd e‘hs ptd > rnhs uq‘h drs d̀pthu‘kdms ‘t e‘hs
ptd A kd rnhs- K&nod̀q‘shnm c&hlokhbˆshnm ∗ ⇒ " bnqqdronmc ı ‘ k‘ cd̀ctbshnm knfhptd- ?hmrh+ k&d̀mnmbd̀
’> ⇒ A( rd enqltkd ‘trrh
rh > ‘knqr A.
048
05/ 9MMDVD 9- TM RNTOB́NM CD KNFHPTD
Bd rnms chudqrdr e‘b́nmr c&dwoqhldq kd e‘hs ptd A rnhs uq‘h rd cd̀cths ct e‘hs ptd > k&drs- ?tsqdldms
chs+ tmd oqdtud cd ’> ⇒ A( ontqq‘ rd cd̀qntkdq bnlld rths- Nm rtoonrd ptd > drs uq‘h+ ds nm
lnmsqd pt&tm dmbg‘]ımdldms knfhptd cd cd̀ctbshnmr oqntud ptd A k&drs ‘knqr enqbd̀ldms-
C‘mr tmd rd̀qhd cd l‘mhotk‘shnmr knfhptdr+ hk drs ‘fqd̀‘akd cd r‘unhq pt‘mc nm odts qdlok‘bdq tmd
‘flql‘shnm o‘q tmd ‘tsqd pth kth drs knfhptdldms d̀pthu‘kdmsd ’dm drod̀q‘ms pt&dkkd rnhs oktr e‘bhkd
‘ lnmsqdq(- Kdr qıdfkdr ct bˆkbtk cdr oqnonrhshnmr dwokhptdms pt‘mc hk drs onrrhakd cd qdlok‘bdq tm
ı
d̀mnmbd̀ o‘q tm d̀mnmbd̀ pth kth drs knfhptdldms d̀pthu‘kdms- Nm ‘ o‘q dwdlokd 9
0- ¬’> ds A( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’¬> nt ¬A(+
1- ¬’> nt A( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’¬> ds ¬A(+
2- ’> ⇒ A( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’¬A ⇒ ¬>(+
3- ’> ⇒ A( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’¬> ds A(+
4- ’> ⇔ A( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’> ⇒ A( ds ’A ⇒ >(
Bg‘btm cd bdr b‘r qdoqd̀rdmsd tmd rsq‘sd̀fhd onsdmshdkkd cd oqdtud+ rh k&d̀mnmbd̀ drs cd k‘ anmmd enqld-
Bdssd khrsd drs hmbnlokıdsd+ l‘hr dkkd bnloqdmc kdr oqhmbho‘kdr rsq‘sd̀fhdr trtdkkdr-
Bdqs‘hmr d̀mnmbd̀r enms hmsdqudmhq tmd uˆqhâkd+ ds rnms uq‘hr ontq bdqs‘hmdr u‘kdtqr cd bdssd u‘qh‘akd-
Nm d̀bqhs O ’w( ontq bd fdmqd c&d̀mnmbd̀r+ ‘udb w k‘ u‘qh‘akd+ ds nm chs pt&nm ‘ tm oqd̀chbˆs- Hmenq,
ldkkdldms+ b&drs tmd ogq‘rd ‘udb w bnlld rtids- Sxohptdldms+ nm odmrd ı ‘ O bnlldms d̀s‘ms tmd
oqnoqhd̀sd̀ ptd w odts ‘unhq ’nt o‘r(- O‘q dwdlokd+ nm ‘
– O ’w( ; ’w drs tm mnlaqd o‘hq(+ nt
– O ’w( ; ’w drs d̀f‘k ı
‘ 0(+
– dsb-
Ontq bg‘ptd a+ u‘kdtq onrrhakd 0 cd w+ nm ‘ tm d̀mnmbd̀ O ’a( pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh a
∗ onrrı ı o‘qshq cd oqd̀chb‘sr cnmmd̀r+ nm odts enqldq cd mntud‘tw oqd̀chb‘sr ‘t
dcd " k‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ O - ?
lnxdm cdr nod̀q‘shnmr knfhptdr 9 ’O ’w( ds P’w((+ ’O ’w( nt P’w((+ ’¬O ’w((+ dsb- Ahdm dmsdmct+ nm ‘
cdr oqd̀chb‘sr ı
‘ oktrhdtqr u‘qh‘akdr+ oqdm‘ms k‘ enqld O ’w. x( o‘q dwdlokd-
?t lnxdm c&tm oqd̀chb‘s+ nm odts enqldq kdr d̀mnmbd̀r knfhptdr
0- ’∀w O ’w((+ pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh O ’a( drs uq‘h ontq sntsdr k‘ u‘kdtq onrrhakd cd w+
1- ’∃w O ’w((+ pth drs uq‘h rh ds rdtkdldms rh hk dwhrsd a+ tmd u‘kdtq onrrhakd cd w+ ontq k‘ptdkkd
O ’a( drs uq‘h-
Nm ‘ kdr d̀pthu‘kdmbdr knfhptdr
0- ¬’∀w O ’w(( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’∃w ¬O ’w((+
1- ¬’∃w O ’w(( rh ds rdtkdldms rh ’∀w ¬O ’w((-
0- Cˆmr tm dmrdlakd / cnmmd̀-

9mmdvd A
9vhnlˆshptd cd kˆ sgd̀nqhd cdr

dmrdlakdr
K‘ oqd̀rdms‘shnm bh,cdrrntr md uhrd pt&ı

‘ cnmmdq tmd hcd̀d cd bd ı
‘ ptnh odts qdrrdlakdq tmd sgd̀nqhd
‘whnl‘shptd cdr dmrdlakdr- Ontq dm r‘unhq oktr+ hk e‘ts rthuqd tm bntqr rtq kd rtids+ nt bnmrtksdq
tm khuqd oktr rod̀bh‘khrd̀+ bnlld
I-,K-Jqhuhmd+ Sgd̀nqhd ˆwhnlˆshptd cdr dmrdlakdr+ Oqdrrdr Tmhudqrhs‘hqdr cd Eq‘mbd+ 0858-
Hk dwhrsd oktrhdtqr rxrsıdldr ‘whnl‘shptdr enqldkr ontq k‘ sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr- K&tm cdr oktr bnmmtr
drs kd rxrsıdld YEB cd Ydqldkn,Eq‘dmjdk ’‘udb k&‘whnld ct bgnhw(- K&‘whnl‘shptd YEB rd cd̀bqhd
c‘mr kd bnmsdwsd ct b‘kbtk cdr oqd̀chb‘sr ‘udb qdk‘shnm c&d̀f‘khsd̀- Sntsd k‘ sgd̀nqhd d̀s‘ms enqltkd̀d
dm sdqld c&dmrdlakdr+ nm cnhs rd q‘oodkdq ptd kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr c&dmrdlakdr rnms ‘trrh cdr dmrdlakdr-
Snts drs+ dm ptdkptd rnqsd+ bnmrsqths ı‘ o‘qshq cd k&dmrdlakd uhcd- ?hmrh nm ‘tq‘ kdr dmrdlakdr sntr
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K‘ qdk‘shnm c&‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd w ∈ > ds k‘ mnshnm c&dmrdlakd md rnms cd̀ffmhdr ptd o‘q kd e‘hs pt&dkkd
r‘shrenms kdr ‘whnldr rthu‘msr- K‘ qdk‘shnm c&hmbktrhnm > ⊆ A drs cd̀ffmhd o‘q
’> ⊆ A( rrh ∀w ’w ∈ > ⇒ w ∈ A(.
050
051 9MMDVD A- 9VHNL9SHPTD CD K9 SGD̀NQHD CDR DMRDLAKDR
0’ ?vhnld çdvsdmrhnmVkhsd̀- Cdtw dmrdlakdr rnms d̀f‘tw+ rh ds rdtkdldms r&hkr nms kdr l]dldr
d̀kd̀ldmsr- Dm enqltkd+
∀> ∀A Z∀w ’w ∈ > ⇔ w ∈ A( ⇒ ’> ; A([. ’A-1(
1’ ?vhnld cd kV oVhqd- Ontq sntr dmrdlakdr > ds A+ nm odts bnmrsqthqd tm dmrdlakd B cnms kdr
rdtkr d̀kd̀ldmsr rnms > ds A- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm odqlds hbh cd bnmrsqthqd
B 9; {>. A{.
Dm enqltkd+
∀> ∀A ∃BZ∀w ’w ∈ B( ⇔ ’w ; > nt w ; A([. ’A-2(
2’ ?vhnld cd kV qd̀tmhnm- Ontq snts dmrdlakd >+ nm odts bnmrsqthqd tm dmrdlakd A cnms kdr
rdtkr d̀kd̀ldmsr rnms sntr bdtw pth rnms d̀kd̀ldmsr cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd >- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm odqlds hbh k‘
bnmrsqtbshnm cd k&dmrdlakd ⋃
A 9; w.
w∞,
Dm enqltkd+
∀> ∀A ∃BZ∀w ’w ∈ B( ⇔ ’w ; > nt w ; A([. ’A-3(
3’ ?vhnld cd k¸dmrdlakd cdr oVqshdr- Ontq snts dmrdlakd >+ nm odts bnmrsqthqd k&dmrdlakd A
cdr rntr,dmrdlakdr cd >- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm odqlds hbh k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm cd k&dmrdlakd
A 9; {w | w ⊆ >{.
Dm enqltkd+
∀> ∃A ∀w’w ∈ A( ⇔ ’w ⊆ >(. ’A-4(
4’ ?vhnld cd k¸hm mh- Bds ‘whnld odqlds cd bnmrsqthqd ’‘t lnhmr tm( dmrdlakd hmffmh- B&drs
k&dmrdlakd
> 9; { ¬.
{¬{.
{¬. {¬{{.
{¬. {¬{. {¬. {¬{{{.
{¬. {¬{. {¬. {¬{{. {¬. {¬{. {¬. {¬{{{{{. . . .{.
Bds ‘whnld odqlds ‘trrh ’‘udb kdr oqd̀bd̀cdmsr( cd bnmrsqthqd k&dmrdlakd K cdr dmshdqr onrhsher- Dm
enqltkd+
∃> ’¬ ∈ >( ds ’w V {w{ ∈ >(. ’A-5(
052
5’ Rgd̀lV çVvhnldr cd bnloqd̀gdmrhnm- Ontq snts dmrdlakd >+ nm odts bnmrsqthqd kd rntr,
dmrdlakd A cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > pth r‘shrenms tmd oqnoqhd̀sd̀ O ’dwoqhld̀d c‘mr kd k‘mf‘fd cd k‘ sgd̀nqhd
cdr dmrdlakdr(- ?tsqdldms chs+ nm odqlds hbh k‘ bnmrsqtbshnm cd
A 9; {w ∈ > | O ’w({.
Dm enqltkd+
∀x0 · · · ∀xm ∀> ∃A ∀wZ’w ∈ A( ⇔ ’w ∈ > ds O ’w. x0 . . . . . xm ((. ’A-6(
Kdr xg rnms hbh rhlokdldms cdr o‘q‘lıdsqdr ‘twhkh‘hqdr cnms nm ontqq‘hs ‘unhq adrnhm ontq enqltkdq
oktr e‘bhkdldms k‘ oqnoqhd̀sd̀ O - Nm chs pt&nm ‘ tm ∗ rbgd̀l‘ " c&‘whnldr+ o‘qbd pt&hk x ‘ tm ‘whnld
ontq bg‘ptd bgnhw cd O -
6’ Rgd̀lV çVvhnldr cd qdlokVbdldms- Ontq snts dmrdlakd > ds sntsd qdk‘shnm enmbshnmmdkkd
E + nm ‘ tm dmrdlakd
A 9; {x | w ∈ > ds E ’w. x({.
Ontq dwoqhldq bdbh dm enqltkd ’rhlokhffd̀d 0 (+ q‘oodknmr c&‘anqc ptd E drs tmd qdk‘shnm enmbshnmmdkkd+
nm d̀bqhs Enjbr’E (+ rh ds rdtkdldms rh
Enjbr’E ( rrh ∀w ∀x0 ∀x1 Z’E ’w. x0 ( ds E ’w. x1 (( ⇒ ’x0 ; x1 ([.
?knqr k&‘whnld rd oqd̀rdmsd bnlld
Enjbr’E ( ⇒ ∀> ∃A ∀x Zx ∈ A ⇔ ∃w ’w ∈ > ds E ’w. x(([.
7’ ?vhnldr cd enmcVshnm- Ontq snts dmrdlakd > mnm uhcd+ hk dwhrsd tm dmrdlakd A+ ‘oo‘qsdm‘ms
‘ >+ pth m&‘ ‘tbtm d̀kd̀ldms dm bnlltm ‘udb >+ b&drs,ı
ı ‘,chqd ptd
> ∩ A ; ¬.
Dm enqltkd+
∀>Z’> 6; ¬( ds ∃A ’A ∈ > ds > ∩ A ; ¬([. ’A-7(
8’ ?vhnldr ct bgnhv- Ontq snts dmrdlakd >+ c&dmrdlakdr mnm uhcdr+ kd oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm cdr
d̀kd̀ldmsr cd > drs mnm uhcd- Dm enqltkd+
∏
Z∀w ∈ > ’w 6; ¬([ ⇒ w 6; ¬. ’A-8(
w∞,
0- Kˆ enqltkˆshnm oktr itrsd eˆhs ôoˆqˆ]ısqd cdr oˆqˆlıdsqdr cˆmr B bnlld cˆmr k¸ˆvhnld oqd̀bd̀cdms-
053 9MMDVD A- 9VHNL9SHPTD CD K9 SGD̀NQHD CDR DMRDLAKDR
9mmdvd B
Mnshnmr çˆkfı
daqd
Hbh+ nm q‘oodkkd bdqs‘hmdr mnshnmr c&‘kfıdaqd pth rnms tshkdr ontq mnsqd ‘ooqnbgd ‘kfnqhsglhptd cdr
l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr-
B-0 OnkxmY
nldr
Nm chs pt&nm ‘ tm onkxm]

nld e cd cdfqd̀ cdf’e ( ; m+ dm k‘ u‘qh‘akd w+ rh
e ’w( ; am wm ) am 0w
m 0
) . . . ) a0 w ) a+ . ’B-0(
‘udb am 6; /- Kdr ag rnms kdr bndflbhdmsr cd e - Cdtw onkxm]

nldr
e ’w( ; am wm ) am 0 wm 0 ) . . . ) a0 w ) a+ .
’B-1(
f’w( ; aj wj ) aj 0 wj 0 ) . . . ) a0 w ) a+ .
rnms d̀fˆtw rh ds rdtkdldms r&hkr nms l]dld cdfqd̀ ds l]dld bndflbhdmsr- B&drs cnmb chqd pt&nm ‘
m ; j. ds ag ; ag . ontq / ≤ h ≤ m.
Nm cd̀mnsd qdrodbshudldms o‘q NZw[+ QZw[+ ds "Zw[ k&dmrdlakd cdr onkxm]

nldr ontq kdrptdkr kdr bn,
‘ N+ Q nt "- Ontq rhlokhffdq k‘ chrbtrrhnm+ nm
dflbhdmsr rnms rtoonrd̀r ‘oo‘qsdmhq qdrodbshudldms ı
cd̀mnsd C k&tm cd bdr chudqr bnmsdwsdr-
nldr e ds f c‘mr CZw[ drs tm onkxm]
K‘ rnlld ds kd oqncths cd onkxm] nld c‘mr CZw[+ ds nm ‘
cdf’e ) f( ≤ l‘w’cdf’e (. cdf’f((. ’B-2(

cdf’e · f( ≤ cdf’e ( ) cdf’f(. ’B-3(
054
055 9MMDVD B- MNSHNMR Ç9KFDAQD
Nm ‘ cd oktr k‘ chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd
e ’w( ; p’w( · f’w( ) q’w(. ‘udb / ≤ cdf’q( , cdf’f(. ’B-4(
ontq c&tmhptdr onkxm] nldr p’w( ds q’w( c‘mr CZw[- Bdr onkxm] nldr rd b‘kbtkdms bnlld rths+ o‘q
qd̀btqqdmbd rtq kd cdfqd̀- Rh cdf’e ( , cdf’f(+ ‘knqr p’w( 9; / ds q’w( 9; e ’w(- Rhmnm+ ‘udb kdr bnmudm,
shnmr dm ’B-1( nm ‘ m ≥ j+ ds hk x ‘ tm tmhptd onkxm] nld E ’w( sdk ptd
am m j
e ’w( ; w f’w( ) E ’w(.
aj
Hk drs snts rhlokdldms nasdmt o‘q k‘ rntrsq‘bshnm e ’w( ’am <aj ( wm j f’w(- O‘q qd̀btqqdmbd+ nm odts
e‘hqd k‘ chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd cd E ’w( o‘q f’w(+ othrptd cdf’E ( , cdf’e ( 9
E ’w( ; P’w( · f’w( ) Q’w(. ‘udb / ≤ cdf’Q( , cdf’P(. ’B-5(
ds ‘knqr kdr onkxm] nldr bgdqbgd̀r rnms p’w( 9; ’am <aj ( wm j ) P’w(+ ds q’w( 9; Q’w(- Nm chs ptd f’w(
chuhrd e ’w(+ rh kd qdrsd cd k‘ chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd cd e drs f drs mtk-
Nm chs ‘trrh ptd a ∈ C drs tmd qˆbhmd cd e ∈ CZw[ rh
e ’a( ; /. ’B-6(
Rh a drs tmd q‘bhmd cd e + ‘knqr e ’w( ; p’w( ’w a( ontq tm bdqs‘hm onkxm] nld p’w(- Dm dΨds+ nm kd
ud̀qhffd dm oqnbd̀c‘ms ı
‘ k‘ chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd cd e ’w( o‘q w a+ ontq nasdmhq
e ’w( ; p’w( ’w a( ) q. ‘udb cdf’q( ; /.
Nm bnmbkt ptd q drs tmd bnmrs‘msd- Dm d̀u‘kt‘ms bg‘ptd ldlaqd cd bdssd cdqmhıdqd d̀f‘khsd̀ dm a+ nm
bnmrs‘sd ptd q cnhs dm e‘hs ]dsqd d̀f‘k ı
‘ /- Tm ‘qftldms rdlak‘akd lnmsqd pt&nm ‘
e ’w( ; ’w a0 ( ’w a1 ( · · · ’w aj ( p’w(. ontq tm bdqs‘hm p’w(.
rh kdr ag rnms cdr q‘bhmdr chrshmbsdr cd e ’w(-
B-1 Fqntod ds ˆmmdˆtv
Tm fqntod drs tm dmrdlakd F ltmh c&tmd nod̀q‘shnm ‘rrnbh‘shud+ ‘udb d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd+ ‘hmrh pt&tm
hmudqrd ontq bg‘ptd d̀kd̀ldms cd F- Nm ‘cnosd eqd̀ptdlldms tmd mnsˆshnm ltkshokhbˆshud f · g ontq
bdssd nod̀q‘shnm+ ‘udb 0 cd̀rhfm‘ms k&d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd- K&hmudqrd cd f drs ‘knqr f 0 - Bdodmc‘ms+ rh
k&nod̀q‘shnm drs ‘trrh bnlltsˆshud+ nm tshkhrd o‘qenhr tmd mnsˆshnm ˆcchshud f)g+ ‘udb / ontq k&d̀kd̀ldms
mdtsqd- ds f ontq k&hmudqrd cd f-
B-1- FQNTOD DS 9MMD9TV 056
K&nqcqd c&tm fqntod F drs rhlokdldms tm ‘tsqd mnl ontq kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr cd F- Tm rntr,
fqntod cd F drs tm rntr,dmrdlakd G cd F+ pth bnmshdms k&hcdmshsd̀+ k&hmudqrd cd bg‘btm cd rdr d̀kd̀ldmsr+
ds pth drs edqld̀ o‘q oqncths+ b-,ı‘,c- 9 rh g0 ds g1 rnms c‘mr G ‘knqr g0 · g1 drs ‘trrh c‘mr G- Rh F
drs ffmh+ ‘knqr k&nqcqd c&tm rntr,fqntod cd F chuhrd k&nqcqd cd F-
Nm ‘ kdr fqntodr
’0( K&dmrdlakd S cdr dmshdqr+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm-
’1( K&dmrdlakd N) + cdr mnlaqdr q‘shnmmdkr mnm mtkr+ ‘udb k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
’2( Kdr odqlts‘shnmr c&tm dmrdlakd ‘udb k‘ bnlonrhshnm-
’3( K&dmrdlakd cdr ‘tsnlnqoghrld c&tm fq‘ogd ‘udb k‘ bnlonrhshnm-
’4( K&dmrdlakd cdr l‘sqhbdr m · m cd cd̀sdqlhm‘ms mnm mtk+ ‘udb k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
’5( C‘mr Xm + k&dmrdlakd cdr dmshdqr qdk‘shudldms oqdlhdq ı
‘ m ‘udb k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
B-1-0 9mmdˆtv ds hcd̀ˆtv
Tm ˆmmdˆt drs tm dmrdlakd P ltmh cd cdtw nod̀q‘shnmr ’rntudms cd̀mnsd̀dr qdrodbshudldms ‘cchshud,
ldms ds ltkshokhb‘shudldms(- Nm cdl‘mcd ptd ’P. )( enqld tm fqntod+ ptd k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm rnhs
‘rrnbh‘shud ‘udb tm d̀kd̀ldms mdtsqd ’rntudms cd̀rhfmd̀ o‘q 0(+ ds dmffm ptd k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm rnhs chrsqh,
atshud rtq k&‘cchshnm ’‘ts‘ms ı‘ f‘tbgd pt&ı
‘ cqnhsd(- K&‘mmd‘t drs chs bnlltsˆshe rh k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm
drs bnllts‘shud-
Nm ‘ kdr ‘mmd‘tw
’0( K&dmrdlakd S cdr dmshdqr+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
’1( K&dmrdlakd Sm cdr dmshdqr lnctkn m+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
’2( K&dmrdlakd CZw[ cdr onkxm]nldr+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm-
’3( K&dmrdlakd cdr l‘sqhbdr m · m ’ı ‘ bndflbhdms c‘mr tm ‘mmd‘t P(+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm 9
L ) O. ‘udb ’L ) O (gi 9; Lgi ) Ogi .
t k&‘cchshnm c‘mr kd ldlaqd cd cqnhsd drs bdkkd cd P( : ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm 9
’nı
m
∑
L · O. ‘udb ’L · O (gi 9; Lgj · Oji .
j90
t kdr nod̀q‘shnmr c‘mr kd ldlaqd cd cqnhsd rnms bdkkdr cd P(-

’nı
’4( K&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr e 9 > → P ’ontq P tm ‘mmd‘t(+ ‘udb k&‘cchshnm 9
e ) f 9 > → P. cd̀ffmhd o‘q ’e ) f(’w( 9; e ’w( ) f’w(.
ds k‘ ltkshokhb‘shnm 9
e · f 9 > → P. cd̀ffmhd o‘q ’e · f(’w( 9; e ’w( · f’w(.
057 9MMDVD B- MNSHNMR Ç9KFDAQD
Tm rntr,dmrdlakd H+ c&tm ‘mmd‘t P drs tm hcd̀ˆk + rh ds rdtkdldms rh

’h( / ∈ H+
’hh( rh e ds f rnms c‘mr H+ ‘knqr e ) f drs c‘mr H+
’hhh( rh e ∈ H ds q ∈ P + ‘knqr q · e ∈ H-
Ontq e0 + e1 + . . .+ em cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd P+ nm cd̀mnsd } e0 . e1 . . . . . em 〉 kd oktr odshs hcd̀‘k cd P pth
bnmshdmmd kdr eg - Hmsthshudldms+ nm odts odmrdq pt&nm ‘ tm rxrsıdld c&d̀pt‘shnmr
e0 ; /. e1 ; /. . . . . em ; /. ’B-7(
ds ‘knqr f drs d̀kd̀ldmsr cd k&hcd̀‘k H rh ds rdtkdldms rh nm odts cd̀cthqd k&d̀pt‘shnm f ; / cdr d̀pt‘shnmr ’B-7(-
Dm o‘qshbtkhdq+ ontq snts c c‘mr P+ nm ‘
} c 〉 ; {q · c | q ∈ P{.
B&drs k&dmrdlakd cdr ltkshokdr cd c-
B-1-1 9mmdˆt Dtbkhchdm
Rnhs P tm ‘mmd‘t ontq kdptdk k‘ rdtkd e‘b́nm c&‘unhq e · f ; / drs knqrptd e ; / nt f ; /- Nm chs
ptd P drs tm ˆmmdˆt dtbkhchdm+ rh nm ‘ tmd enmbshnm ∆ 9 P → K+ ontq k‘ptdkkd nm ‘ tmd chuhrhnm
‘,chqd ptd+ ptdkptd rnhs a ds a c‘mr P+ hk dwhrsd p ds q sdkr ptd
dtbkhchdmmd- B&drs,ı
a ; p · a ) q. ‘udb q ; /. nı
t ∆’q( , ∆’a(.
C‘mr tm ‘mmd‘t dtbkhchdm+ nm ‘ tmd mnshnm cd oktr fqˆmc bnlltm chuhrdtq - C‘mr kd b‘r cd k&‘mmd‘t
S+ k‘ enmbshnm ∆ drs k‘ u‘kdtq ‘arnktd- C‘mr kd b‘r cd CZw[+ b&drs kd cdfqd̀ cdr onkxm] nldr pth intd bd
q]
nkd- Nm chs ptd c drs tm fktr fq‘mc chuhrdtq ontq kdr d̀kd̀ldmsr e0 + e1 + . . .+ ej + rh nm ‘
’c( ; } e0 . e1 . . . . . ej 〉.
Kd sgd̀nqıdld drs ptd c‘mr tm ‘mmd‘t dtbkhchdm+ hk dwhrsd sntintqr tm sdk c- C‘mr k‘ ldrtqd nı t r‘
chuhrhnm dtbkhchdmmd drs dΨdbshud ’rd b‘kbtkd(+ nm odts ‘ookhptdq k&‘kfnqhsgld c&Dtbkhcd ‘t b‘kbtk ct
OFBC c‘mr tm ‘mmd‘t dtbkhchdm-
9mmdvd C
Bˆkbtk enqldk
C-0 Hmsqnctbshnm
Kdr rxrsıdldr cd b‘kbtk enqldk odqldssdms cd l‘mhotkdq bnmbqıdsdldms cdr naidsr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr
‘arsq‘hsr cd e‘b́nm qhfntqdtrd- Bdk‘ u‘ cdr mnlaqdr dmshdqr+ q‘shnmmdkr+ qd̀dkr nt bnlokdwdr ’ds cdr
b‘kbtkr rtq bdtw,bh( : ı
‘ cdr l‘mhotk‘shnmr c&nod̀q‘sdtqr rtq cdr dro‘bdr cd enmbshnmr : dm o‘rr‘ms o‘q
tm u‘rsd rodbsqd cd mnshnmr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr cd k&‘kfıdaqd+ ct b‘kbtk+ cd k&‘m‘kxrd bnlokdwd+ cd k‘
sgd̀nqhd cdr mnlaqdr+ dsb- Snts rxrsıdld cd b‘kbtk enqldk ’R‘fd+ L‘okd+ dsb-( odqlds+ dmsqd ‘tsqdr+
cd l‘mhotkdq cdr dmrdlakdr+ cdr enmbshnmr+ cdr khrsdr+ ds chudqrdr bnmrsqtbshnmr kdr bnmbdqm‘ms-
C-0-0 Lôkd
C‘mr bd rxrsıdld cd b‘kbtk enqldk+ tmd rdrrhnm cd sq‘u‘hk drs tm oqnbdrrtr hmsdq‘bshe pth bnmrhrsd ı‘
cnmmdq ‘t rxrsıdld tmd hmrsqtbshnm cd b‘kbtk ds nm nashdms ‘knqr bnlld qd̀rtks‘s k‘ u‘kdtq ct b‘kbtk
cdl‘mcd̀ ’‘oo‘q‘hrr‘ms dm akdt(- Kd rxrsıdld ‘flbgd ‘tsnl‘shptdldms kd rxlankd ∗ / " bg‘ptd enhr
pt&hk drs oq]ds ı
‘ dΨdbstdq tmd oqnbg‘hmd hmrsqtbshnm- Kd ∗ : " rhfmhffd k‘ ffm cd k&hmrsqtbshnm cnmmd̀d+
ds k‘ sntbgd ∗ qdstqm " ’nt ∗ dmsdq "( cd̀bkdmbgd kd b‘kbtk- ?hmrh+ nm odts cdl‘mcdq cd b‘kbtkdq
/ fbc’w25 0. w13 0( :
w01 0
Hbh+ k‘ enmbshnm L‘okd ∗ fbc " sqntud ptd w01 0 drs tm 0 oktr fq‘mc bnlltm chuhrdtq cdr onkxm]nldr
w25 0 ds w13 0-
Dm oktr c&dΨdbstdq cdr b‘kbtkr dwokhbhsdr+ hk drs onrrhakd cd cnmmdq cdr mnlr ı
‘ bdqs‘hmr naidsr ‘t
lnxdm k&‘rrhfm‘shnm ∗ 9; - Nm odts cnmb onrdq
"
0- Othrptd cd̀ffmhs ı̂ tm ltkshokd rbˆkˆhqd oq]ds-
058
06/ 9MMDVD C- B9KBTK ENQLDK
/ w 9; 0// :
w 9; 0//
Cnqd̀m‘u‘ms+ w ‘tq‘ k‘ u‘kdtq 0//+ ds k&dwoqdrrhnm 1w oqdmcq‘ cnmb k‘ u‘kdtq 9

/ 1w :
015654/5//1171183/03856/21/4265
Hk e‘ts ahdm chrshmftdq bdssd ‘rrhfm‘shnm cd k‘ qdk‘shnm l‘sgd̀l‘shptd trtdkkd ∗ ; " c&d̀f‘khsd̀-
?tw ffmr c&tmd tshkhr‘shnm uq‘hldms dflb‘bd cdr rxrsıdldr cd b‘kbtkr enqldkr+ k‘ b‘o‘bhsd̀ pth drs cd
knhm k‘ oktr hlonqs‘msd drs k‘ onrrhahkhsd̀ cd cd̀ffmhq cd mntudkkdr enmbshnmr ’nt oqnbd̀ctqdr( cd b‘kbtk+ ı‘
o‘qshq cd bdkkdr cd̀iı
‘ bnmmtdr- Nm ‘ ‘hmrh tm qhbgd dmuhqnmmdldms cd oqnfq‘ll‘shnm rod̀bh‘khrd̀d ontq
kdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr- B&drs mntudkkdr enmbshnmr odtudms rd cd̀ffmhq cd mnlaqdtrdr e‘b́nmr+ l‘hr bdkkd
pth drs k‘ oktr m‘stqdkkd drs oqna‘akdldms uh‘ k‘ qd̀btqrhuhsd̀- ?hmrh nm odts hmsqncthqd k‘ enmbshnm 9
/ E 9; m /
he m ≤ 0 sgdm 0
dkrd E ’m 0( ) E ’m 1(
ff 9
Cnqd̀m‘u‘ms+ ∗ E " drs k‘ enmbshnm c&tmd u‘qh‘akd pth b‘kbtkd ’qd̀btqrhudldms( kdr mnlaqdr cd Ehan,
m‘bbh- Nm ‘tq‘ cnmb 9
/ E ’1/(:
0/835
Kdr bg‘mfdldmsr cd khfmdr ds kdr dro‘bdr rtookd̀ldms‘hqdr m&nms hbh ‘tbtm dΨds rtq kd b‘kbtk- Hkr md
rdqudms pt&ı‘ chronrdq k‘ cdrbqhoshnm cd k‘ enmbshnm ∗ E " cd l‘mhıdqd oktr ‘fqd̀‘akd- Mnql‘kdldms+ kd
qd̀rtks‘s c&tmd sdkkd hmrsqtbshnm drs c&‘flbgdq kd sdwsd cd k‘ enmbshnm ‘hmrh cd̀ffmhd- Kd e‘hs c&tshkhrdq kd
∗ 9 "+ okts] ns ptd kd ∗ : " bnlld hmchb‘shnm cd ffm cd k&hmrsqtbshnm+ d̀uhsd bds ‘flbg‘fd ‘rrdy hmtshkd-
Sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr dm LVokd
‘ k&dmrdlakd {a. a. b{ dm onr‘ms

?hmrh+ nm odts cnmmdq kd mnl > ı
/ > 9; {a. a. a. b. a. a{ :
> 9; {a. a. b{
Nardqunmr hbh ’bnlld kd udts k‘ sgd̀nqhd( ptd k‘ qd̀od̀shshnm c&tm d̀kd̀ldms m&‘ ‘tbtm dΨds- Ahdm
dmsdmct+ nm ‘ ‘trrh kdr nod̀q‘shnmr trtdkkdr rtq kdr dmrdlakdr
/ {a. a. b{ hmsdqrdbs {a. b. c{ :
{a. b{
C-0- HMSQNCTBSHNM 060
/ {a. a. b{ tmhnm {a. b. c{ :

{a. a. b. c{
/ {a. a. b{ lhmtr {a. b. c{ :
{a{
Dm o‘rr‘ms+ qhdm m&dlo]dbgd c&tshkhrdq ‘arsq‘hsdldms bdr nod̀q‘shnmr rtq cdr dmrdlakdr A ds B mnm
rod̀bhffd̀dr- ?hmrh+ nm nashdms
/ ’A tmhnm C( hmsdqrdbs ’B tmhnm C( :
’A V C( ∩ ’B V C(
/ A lhmtr A :
¬
Nm odts sdrsdq k&d̀f‘khsd̀ c&dmrdlakdr+ ds k&‘oo‘qsdm‘mbd ı

‘ tm dmrdlakd+ dm dwoknhs‘ms k‘ enmbshnm
∗ du‘ka " pth b‘kbtkd k‘ u‘kdtq knfhptd c&tmd dwoqdrrhnm- ?hmrh+ nm ‘
/ du‘ka’{a. a. b{ ; {a. b. c{( :

e‘krd
/ du‘ka’{a. a. b{ ; {a. b. a{( :
sqtd
/ a hm {a. b. a{ :
a ∈ {a. a. b{
/ du‘ka’a hm {a. b. a{( :
sqtd
K‘ enmbshnm ∗ mnor " drs sqıdr fd̀md̀q‘kd- Dkkd odqlds cd bnlosdq kd mnlaqd c&nod̀q‘mcdr c‘mr tmd
dwoqdrrhnm- Dm o‘qshbtkhdq dkkd cnmmd kd mnlaqd c&d̀kd̀ldmsr c&tm dmrdlakd- Bdodmc‘ms+ ontq e‘bhkhsdq
k‘ bnloqd̀gdmrhnm+ hk drs onrrhakd cd kth cnmmdq tm rxmnmxld dm onr‘ms 9
/ b‘qc 9; mnor 9
O‘q k‘ l]dld nbb‘rhnm+ nm rd odqlds cd ldssqd dm ok‘bd kdr ‘tsqdr rxmnmxldr 9
/ ˆ#)ˆ 9; ˆtmhnmˆ 9
/ ˆ#,ˆ 9; ˆlhmtrˆ 9
K&tshkhr‘shnm ct b‘q‘bsıdqd ∗ # "+ c‘mr ∗ #) "+ drs md̀bdrr‘hqd dm L‘okd knqrpt&nm cd̀rhqd bnmrhcd̀qdq
cd mntud‘tw nod̀q‘sdtqr ahm‘hqdr ‘udb tmd mns‘shnm ∗ hmffwd "- B&drs ‘trrh tmd o‘qshbtk‘qhsd̀ cd k‘
rxms‘wd cd L‘okd pth enqbdms k&tshkhr‘shnm cdr ∗ ˆ " ‘t lnldms cd k&d̀s‘akhrrdldms cd bdr rxmnmxldr-
061 9MMDVD C- B9KBTK ENQLDK
Ontq cd̀bqhqd tm dmrdlakd cd k‘ enqld {f’w( | w ∈ >{+ nm odts tshkhrdq k‘ enmbshnm L‘okd ∗ rdp " pth
odqlds cd bnmrsqthqd cdr rd̀ptdmbdr cd u‘kdtqr f’w( ontq w u‘qh‘ms c‘mr >- Othrptd k&dmrdlakd > ‘
cd̀iı
‘ d̀sd̀ cd̀ffmh ’l‘hr o‘r f(+ nm nashdms 9
/ {rdp’f’w(. w hm >({( :
{f’a(. f’a(. f’b({
nt dmbnqd+ ‘udb k‘ enmbshnm cd Ehanm‘bbh E 9

/ {rdp’E ’w(. w hm {0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8{({( :
{0. 1. 2. 4. 7. 02. 10. 23. 44{
?tsqdr nod̀qVshnmr- Nm odts cd̀ffmhq c&‘tsqdr nod̀q‘shnmr trtdkkdr rtq kdr dmrdlakdr bnlld bh,
cdrrntr- Rh > ; {w{ ) A+ kd b‘kbtk cd k&dmrdlakd OZ>[ cdr o‘qshdr cd > drs a‘rd̀ rtq k‘ qd̀btqqdmbd 9
OZ>[ ; OZA[ ) {B ) {w{ | B ∈ OZA[{. ’C-0(
?udb tmd rxms‘wd kd̀fıdqdldms chΨd̀qdmsd cd bdkkd cd̀iı

‘ tshkhrd̀d+ nm dwoknhsd bdssd qd̀btqqdmbd ontq
nasdmhq k‘ mntudkkd enmbshnm
/ O 9; oqnb’>( knb‘k w. A 9
he > ; {{ sgdm {{{{
dkrd w 9; no’0. >( 9 ’w drs kd oqdlhdq d̀kd̀ldms c‘mr >(
A 9; > # {w{ 9
O ’A( #) {rdp’ B #) {w{+ B hm O ’A({
ff
dmc 9
?oqıdr ‘unhq bnmrhcd̀qd̀ kd b‘r rod̀bh‘k > ; ¬+ nm bgnhrhs w bnlld d̀s‘ms kd oqdlhdq d̀kd̀ldms cd >+ ds k‘
bhmpthıdld khfmd qdoqncths ’oqdrptd ffcıdkdldms( kd ldlaqd cd cqnhsd cd ’C-0(- Nm nashdms ‘hmrh tmd
enmbshnm b‘kbtk‘ms k&dmrdlakd O ’>( cdr o‘qshdr cd > 9
/ O ’{a. a. b{( :
{¬. {a{ . {a{ . {b{ . {a. a{ . {a. b{ . {a. b{ . {a. a. b{{
?u‘ms cd bnmrsqthqd kd oqncths b‘qsd̀rhdm bnlld nod̀q‘shnm ahm‘hqd+ nm q‘oodkkd pt&dm L‘okd tm
bntokd+ mnql‘kdldms cd̀mnsd̀ ’w. x( c‘mr cdr bnmsdwsdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr+ drs okts] ns cd̀mnsd̀ Zw. x[- Bdbh
drs c]
t ‘t e‘hs ptd kdr o‘qdmsgıdrdr trtdkkdr rnms qd̀rdqud̀dr ı
‘ c&‘tsqdr ffmr rxms‘whptdr- Nm onrd cnmb
/ ˆ#Wˆ 9; oqnb’>. A( knb‘k w. x 9
{rdp’rdp’Zw. x[ . w hm >(. x hm A({
dmc 9
C-0- HMSQNCTBSHNM 062
?knqr+ nm nashdms
/ {a. a. b{ #W {a. a{ :
{Z0. a[. Z0. a[. Z1. a[. Z1. a[. Z2. a[. Z2. a[{
ds ‘trrh
/ {a. a. b{ #W {{ :
¬
bnlld hk rd cnhs- Nm odts l‘hmsdm‘ms nasdmhq k‘ enmbshnm pth b‘kbtkd k&dmrdlakd cdr qdk‘shnmr dmsqd
> ds A+ rhlokdldms dm onr‘ms 9
/ Qdk‘shnmr 9; ’>. A( / O ’> #W A( 9
ds cnmb nm odts dmrthsd b‘kbtkdq ptd
/ Qdk‘shnmr’{a. a{. {w. x{( :
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/ Enmbs 9; ’>. A( /
he > ; {{ sgdm {{{{
dkrd w 9; >Z0[ 9
{rdp’rdp’e #) {w. x{ . x hm A(. e hm Enmbs’> # {w{. A(({
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ds ‘knqr
/ Enmbs’{a. a{. {/. 0{( :
{{Za. /[. Za. /[{ . {Za. /[. Za. 0[{ . {Za. 0[. Za. /[{ . {Za. 0[. Za. 0[{{
Tmd bnmrsqtbshnm rhlhk‘hqd odqlds c&nasdmhq k&dmrdlakd cdr lnsr cd knmftdtq j+ rtq tm ‘kog‘ads >+
‘t lnxdm cd k‘ enmbshnm L‘okd ∗ b‘s " pth bnmb‘sıdmd cdtw lnsr-
/ Lnsr 9; ’>. j( /
he j ; 0 sgdm >
dkrd {rdp’rdp’b‘s’v. w( . w hm >(. v hm Lnsr’>. j 0(({
ff 9
/ Lnsr’{a. a. b{. 2( : >
ˆˆˆ. ˆâ. ˆˆb. âˆ. âa. âb. ˆbˆ. ˆba. ˆbb.
aˆˆ. aâ. aˆb. aaˆ. aaa. aab. abˆ. aba. abb.?
bˆˆ. bâ. bˆb. baˆ. baa. bab. bbˆ. bba. bbb
063 9MMDVD C- B9KBTK ENQLDK
C-0-1 Rˆfd
Sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr dm RVfd

9mmdvd D
Mnsˆshnmr
≥ nt ≤ 9 tmd qdk‘shnm c&nqcqd+ Rdbshnm 4-01-

|>| 9 kd b‘qchm‘k c&tm dmrdlakd >+ Rdbshnm 1-1-
|v| ds |v|w 9 k‘ knmftdtq ct lns v+ kd mnlaqd c&nbbtqqdmbdr cd k‘ kdssqd w c‘mr kd lns v+
Rdbshnm 5-1-
Zm[ 9 k&dmrdlakd trtdk cd b‘qchm‘k m+ Rdbshnm 1-1-
@
g∞G >g ds > · A 9 oqncthsr b‘qsd̀rhdmr c&dmrdlakdr+ Bg‘ohsqd 1-

g∞G >g ds > ) A 9 tmhnmr chrinhmsdr c&dmrdlakdr+ Bg‘ohsqd 1-
>m ds >· 9 kdr lnsr cd knmftdtq m rtq >+ kd lnmn—ıcd cdr lnsr rtq >+ ’5-1(-
AgiZ>. A[ 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr ahidbshudr cd > udqr A+ ’1-11(-
B 9 odqlts‘shnmr bxbkhptdr rtq >- Rdbshnmr 6-4-
δ’Z( 9 cd̀oknxd̀ c&tm nqcqd sns‘k+ ’3-0/(-
ε nt 0 9 kd lns uhcd+ Rdbshnm 5-1-
∣
e ∣B 9 k‘ enmbshnm e qdrsqdhmsd ‘t rntr,dmrdlakd B+ ’1-05(-
e j 9 j,hıdld hsd̀qd̀ ontq k‘ bnlonrhshnm cd e + Rdbshnm 0-4-
eθ 9 mnlaqd s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld µ+ Bg‘ohsqd 6-
Em 9 kdr mnlaqdr cd Ehanm‘bbh ’4-23(-
EnjbrZ>. A[ 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr cd > udqr A+ Bg‘ohsqd 1-
f ◦ e 9 bnlonrd̀ cd enmbshnmr f ds cd e + ’0-5(-
γ0 · γ1 9 bnlonrd̀ cd bgdlhmr+ Rdbshnm 4-3-
064
065 9MMDVD D- MNS9SHNMR
Fon 9 fq‘ogdr nqhdmsd̀r+ Rdbshnm 4-1-

FoY 9 fq‘ogdr rhlokdr+ Rdbshnm 2-1-
X ’w. x( 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr bgdlhmr cd knmftdtq Z ‘kk‘ms cd w ı
‘ x c‘mr kd fq‘ogd f+ Rdbshnm 4-3-
f
Hc, 9 k‘ enmbshnm hcdmshsd̀ rtq >+ Bg‘ohsqd 1-

GjiZ>. A[ 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr hmidbshudr cd > udqr A+ ’1-15(-
λ ` m 9 λ o‘qs‘fd cd m+ Rdbshnm 6-4-
H ) H→ 9 tmhnm cd k‘mf‘fdr+ Rdbshnm 5-2-
H · H→ 9 oqncths cd k‘mf‘fdr+ Rdbshnm 5-2-
H· 9 d̀snhkd cd k‘mf‘fdr+ Rdbshnm 5-2-
ΛZm[ 9 dmrdlakd cdr o‘qs‘fdr cd m+ Rdbshnm 6-4-
π’ ( 9 oqnidbshnm c&tm ‘qaqd ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms+ ’3-0/(-
O ’σ( 9 O ,s‘akd‘t cd σ rdknm k‘ bnqqdronmc‘mbd QRJ+ Rdbshnm 6-6-
O 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr o‘qshdr+ ’1-2(-
O j 9 o‘qshdr ı
‘ j,d̀kd̀ldmsr+ 1-2(-
P’σ( 9 P,s‘akd‘t cd σ rdknm k‘ bnqqdronmc‘mbd QRJ+ Rdbshnm 6-6-
Rm 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr odqlts‘shnmr ’1-11(-
IrYZm[ 9 dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr cd rs‘shnmmdldms ’3-02(-
ItoiZ>. A[ 9 k&dmrdlakd cdr enmbshnmr rtqidbshudr cd > udqr A+ ’1-17(-
t · u 9 bnmb‘sd̀m‘shnm cdr lnsr t ds u+ Rdbshnm 5-1-
vj 9 othrr‘mbd j,hıdld c&tm lns v+ ’5-4(-
w →≤ x nt w → x 9 w drs bntudqs o‘q x ’nt x bntuqd w( c‘mr k&nqcqd ≥+ Rdbshnm 4-01-
w ∨ x ds w ∧ x 9 rtoqdltl ds hmffltl cd w ds x+ Rdbshnm 4-01-
χA 9 k‘ enmbshnm b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd c&tm rntr,dmrdlakd A+ ’1-06(-
SntjdZµ[ 9 dmrdlakd cdr s‘akd‘tw cd Xntmf cd enqld µ+ Bg‘ohsqd 6-
Ahakhnfqôghd
Z0[ D,., Admcdp Zmc R,F, ShkkhZlrnm+ Entmcˆshnmr ne =ookhdc Bnlahmˆsnqhbr+ ?cchrnm,
Vdrkdx+ 0880-
Z1[ B, Adpfd+ Oqhmbhodr cd Bnlahmˆsnhqd+ Ctmnc+ 0857-
Z2[ E, Adpfdpnm+ =kfdaqˆhb Bnlahmˆsnqhbr ˆmc Bnhmuˆqhˆms Poˆbdr+ BLR Sqd‘shrd hm L‘sgdl‘,
shbr+ BLR ds ?-J- Odsdqr+ 1//8-
Z3[ E, Adpfdpnm& F, KZadkkd ´ O, Kdpntw+ Droıdbdr cd rsqtbstqdr ds bnlahmˆsnhqd cdr rsqtb,
stqdr ânqdrbdmsdr+ Otakhb‘shnmr ct K?BHL 08+ TP?L+ Lnmsqd̀‘k+ 0883-
Z4[ E, Adpfdpnm& F, KZadkkd ´ O, Kdpntw+ Bnlahmˆsnqhˆk Podbhdr ˆmc Sqdd,Khjd Psqtbstqdr+
Dmbxbknodch‘ ne L‘sgdl‘shbr ‘mc hsr ?ookhb‘shnmr 56+ B‘laqhcfd Tmhudqrhsx Oqdrr+ 0887-
• Sdwsd c&hmsqnctbshnm ‘tw droıdbdr ’dm ‘mfk‘hr(
• Rhsd Vhjhodch‘ rtq kd droıdbdr
Z5[ E, Adpfdpnm Zmc R, Oknteed+ Bnlotshmf sgd Fdmdqˆshmf Etmbshnm ne ˆ Pdqhdr Fhudm hsr
Ehqrs Edv Sdqlr+ Dwodqhldms‘k L‘sgdl‘shbr 0+ 0881+ 2/6z201-
Z6[ L, AnmZ+ = Uˆkj Sgqntfg Bnlahmˆsnqhbr . =m Hmsqnctbshnm sn Dmtldqˆshnm ˆmc Fqôg
Sgdnqx+ Vnqkc Rbhdmshffb+ 1//5-
Z7[ B,K, Antsnm+ Mhl) ˆ fˆld vhsg ˆ bnlokdsd lˆsgdlˆshbˆk sgdnqx+ ?mm- L‘sg- Oqhmbdsnm+
Rdqhdr 1+ 2+ 08/1+ 24z28-
Z8[ ., BZxkdx+ = sgdnqdl nm sqddr+ Pt‘qs- I- Otqd ?ook- L‘sg- 12 ’0778(-
Z0/[ R, Dhkdmadpf+ =tsnlˆsˆ) Kˆmftˆfdr ˆmc Lˆbghmdr+ ?b‘cdlhb Oqdrr Unk- ?+ 0863 : ds Unk-
A+ 0865-
Z00[ Og, EkZinkds ds P, Rdcfdvhbj+ =mˆkxshb Bnlahmˆsnqhbr+ B‘laqhcfd Tmhudqrhsx Oqdrr+
1//8- ?trrh chronmhakd fq‘sthsdldms rtq kd rhsd 9
gsso9..‘kfn-hmqh‘-eq.fi‘inkds.Otakhb‘shnmr.annj-oce
Z01[ L, Ekdtpx+ Cdtw oqnakdldr cd fdnldsqhd cd rhstˆshnm+ Intqm‘k cd l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr d̀kd̀ldms‘hqdr
’0772(+ 146z150-
066
067 AHAKHNFQ9OGHD
Z02[ P,K, FpZgZl& C,D, Jmtsg& Zmc N, OZsZrgmhj+ Bnmbqdsd Lˆsgdlˆshbr+ ?cchrnm,Vdrkdx+
0878-
Z03[ O,L, Fptmcx+ Lˆsgdlˆshbr ˆmc Fˆldr+ Dtqdj‘+ 1+ 0828+ 5z7- Qd̀d̀chsd̀+ 16+ 0853+ 8z00-
Z04[ E, GZpZpx+ Fqôg Sgdnqx+ ?cchrnm,Vdrkdx+ 0861-
Z05[ E, GZpZpx Zmc D, OZkldp+ Fqôghbˆk Dmtldqˆshnm+ ?b‘cdlhb Oqdrr+ 0862-
Z06[ ., HnxZk+ Tmd sgd̀nqhd bnlahmˆsnhqd cdr rd̀qhdr enqldkkdr+ ?cu‘mbdr hm L‘sgdl‘shbr 31 ’0870(+
0z71-
Z07[ CnmZkc Jmtsg+ Sgd =qs ne Bnlotsdq Oqnfqˆllhmf+ ?cchrnm,Vdrkdx+ 2,hıdld d̀chshnm+ 0886-
O‘fd vda cd Cnm Jmtsg
Z08[ F, Jnmgdhl ds A, Sdhrr+ =m nbbtoˆmbx chrbhokhmd ˆmc ôokhbˆshnmr+ RH?L I- ?ookhdc L‘sg-
03 ’0855(+ 0155z0163-
Z1/[ H, KZadkkd+ Sgd̀nqhd cdr fqôgdr+ Lnctkn d̀chsdtq+ Lnmsqd̀‘k+ 0870-
Z10[ L, KnsgZhpd+ Bnlahmˆsnqhbr nm Unqcr+ Dmbxbknodch‘ ne L‘sgdl‘shbr Unk- 06+ ?cchrnm,
Vdrkdx+ 0872-
Rhsd Vhjhodch‘ rtq k‘ bnlahm‘snhqd cdr lnsr
Z11[ H,S, Lnnm+ Bntmshmf Kâdkkdc Sqddr+ B‘m‘ch‘m L‘sgdl‘shb‘k Lnmnfq‘ogr 0+ BLR+ 086/-
Z12[ L, Odsjnurdj& G, Shke& ds C,Wdhkadpfdp+ =:A+ ?-J- Odsdqr+ 0885- ?trrh chronmhakd
fq‘sthsdldms rtq kd rhsd 9
gsso9..vvv-l‘sg-todmm-dct.∼vhke.Cnvmkc-gslk
Z13[ F, OnkxZ Zmc P,B, PdZc+ Bnlahmˆsnqhˆk Dmtldqˆshnm ne Fqntor) Fqôgr ˆmc Bgdlhbˆk
Bnlontmcr+ Roqhmfdq,Udqk‘f+ 0876-
Z14[ P, Oxjd+ Sgd rtoqdltl ˆmc hmffltl ne sgd Onhrrnm oqnbdrr+ ?mm- L‘sg- Rs‘shrshbr 2. ’0848(+
457z465-
Z15[ B, Rbgdmrsdc+ Knmfdrs hmbqdˆrhmf ˆmc cdbqdˆrhmf rtardptdmbdr+ B‘m‘c- I- L‘sg- 02 ’0850(+
068z080-
Z16[ M, RknZmd ds R, Oknteed+ Dmbxbknodchˆ ne Hmsdfdq Pdptdmbdr+ ?b‘cdlhb Oqdrr+ 0884-
gsso/..ndhr-nqf.bk_rrhb.Mdhr-gslk
z
Z17[ P, O, RopZftd Tadq lˆsgdlˆshrbgd Iˆloerohdkd S] ngnjt L‘sgdl‘shb‘k Intqm‘k+ 30+ 08/5+
327z333-
Z18[ P,O, RsZmkdx+ =bxbkhb nqhdmsˆshnmr ne fqôgr+ Chrbqdsd L‘sg-+ 4 ’0862(+ 060z067-
Hmcdv
‘mmd‘t b‘qsd+ 70
hcd̀‘k+ 057 ct‘kd+ 72
sqnohb‘k+ 008 hrsgld+ 71
‘mshrxld̀sqhptd+ 021 bndflbhdms
‘q]dsd ahmnlh‘k+ 07
hmbhcdmsd+ 56 bnlokd̀ldms+ 34
‘qanqdrbdmbd+ 84 btad+ 54
aq‘mbgd+ 85
k‘qfdtq+ 85 cd̀bhc‘akd+ 45
oqnenmcdtq+ 85 cdfqd̀
‘qaqd dmsq‘ms+ 0/6
ahm‘hqd+ 86 rnqs‘ms+ 0/6
bqnhrr‘ms+ 87 rthsd+ 66
ahm‘hqd bqnhrr‘ms ch‘fq‘lld
cd̀oknxd̀+ 88 bnknmmd+ 04/
kdbstqd hmffwd+ 88 Edqqdqr+ 04/
oqnidbshnm+ 88 g‘tsdtq+ 04/
aq‘mbgd khfmd+ 04/
cqnhsd+ 86 ch‘fq‘lld cd G‘rrd+ 017
f‘tbgd+ 86 chΨd̀qdmbd+ 34
dmq‘bhmd̀+ 84 chuhrd+ 0
edthkkd+ 82 cnlhm‘mbd+ 044
enqld+ 86 Cxbj+ lns cd+ 03/
mndtc+ 82
nqcnmmd̀+ 0// d̀kd̀ldms
q‘bhmd+ 84 qd̀btqqdms+ 00/
‘tsnl‘sd+ 030 dmcnenmbshnm+ 00/
d̀s‘s+ 030 Dmrdlakd
L‘mcdkaqns+ 23
ahidbshnm+ 4/ dmrdlakd
cdr o‘qshdr+ 32
b‘qchm‘k+ 31 o‘hqd+ 33
068
07/ HMCDV
dmrdlakd uhcd+ 31 ‘q]dsd

dmshdqr dwsqd̀lhsd̀+ 52
lnctkn m+ 08 ‘q]dsdr+ 52
d̀s‘s ‘qaqd+ 61
ffm‘k+ 032 edthkkd+ 61
hmhsh‘k+ 032 aho‘qsh bnlokds+ 54
antbkd+ 58
e‘bd+ 70 bg‘]ımd+ 68
edqldstqd sq‘mrhshud+ 008 bgdlhm+ 58
Edqqdqr ats+ 58
ch‘fq‘lld+ 04/ bnlonrd̀+ 6/
enmbshnm+ 8 bnlonr‘akdr+ 6/
ats+ 8 dtkd̀qhdm+ 63
b‘q‘bsd̀qhrshptd+ 38 knmftdtq+ 58
bnlonrd̀+ 0/ o‘r+ 58
cd oqd̀ed̀qdmbd+ 0/0 qdsntqmd̀+ 6/
cd rs‘shnmmdldms+ 0/1 rntqbd+ 58
hcdmshsd̀+ 0/ bnknq‘shnm+ 74
hmidbshud+ 40 bnlokds+ 54
hmudqrd+ 4/ bnlonr‘msd bnmmdwd+ 60
hmudqrd ı‘ cqnhsd+ 42 bnmmdwd+ 60
hmudqrd ı‘ f‘tbgd+ 41 bdmsqd+ 62
qdrsqhbshnm+ 38 ch‘lıdsqd+ 62
rntqbd+ 8 chrs‘mbd+ 62
rtqidbshud+ 42 dwbdmsqhbhsd̀+ 62
enmbshnm ϕ c&Dtkdq+ 10 q‘xnm+ 62
enq]ds+ 0/2 bxbkd+ 55+ 60
eq‘bshnm bnmshmtd+ 14 dtkd̀qhdm+ 63
bnmudqfdms+ 27 chrbqds+ 54
cd̀udknoodldms+ 15 enq]ds+ 61
g‘lhksnmhdm+ 60
fq‘ll‘hqd+ 03/ hrnlnqoghrld+ 66
cd̀qhu‘shnm+ 03/ j,bnknqh‘akd+ 74
qıdfkd+ 03/ lhmdtq+ 7/
fq‘ogd edqldstqd+ 7/
bxbkd mnlaqd
g‘lhksnmhdm+ 60 bgqnl‘shptd+ 74
‘bxbkhptd nqhdms‘shnm+ 00/
othsr+ 002 nqhdms‘shnm ‘bxbkhptd+ 003
rntqbd+ 002 ok‘m‘hqd+ 70
HMCDV 070
onkxm]nld bgqnl‘shptd+ 74 hmsdqrdbshnm+ 0+ 33

qdftkhdq+ 56
r‘fhss‘k+ 00/ idt
enmbshnm
rhlokd+ 52
Roq‘ftd,Fqtmcx+ 02/
rnllds+ 52
Fqtmcx
cdfqd̀+ 56
mnx‘t+ 02/
hrnkd̀+ 56
hlo‘qsh‘k+ 018
unhrhm+ 56
M ,onrhshnm+ 018
unhrhm‘fd+ 56
O ,onrhshnm+ 018
rnlldsr ‘ci‘bdms+ 52
rnlld chfhs‘kd+ 02/
rntr,fq‘ogd+ 57
hmcths+ 57 k‘mf‘fd+ 027
u‘ktd̀+ 006 d̀snhkd+ 027
fq‘ogd ‘bxbkhptd kdssqd+ 025
q‘mf+ 002 nbbtqqdmbd+ 026
q‘mf c&tm rnllds+ 003 lns+ 025
fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀+ 0/6 bnmb‘sd̀m‘shnm+ 026
‘bxbkhptd+ 002 knmftdtq+ 026
‘qb+ 0/6 lnmn—ıcd cd+ 026
antbkd+ 0/6 othrr‘mbd cd+ 026
ats+ 0/6 uhcd+ 025
bg‘]ımd+ 001 mns‘shnm ‘cchshud+ 028
bnlokd̀ldms‘hqd+ 0/7 oqncths+ 027
bnmmdwd+ 001 mnm,‘lahftd+ 028
enqsdldms+ 001 qdbnmm‘hrr‘akd+ 032
hmudqrd+ 0/7 qdbnmmt+ 032
hrnlnqoghrld+ 0/8 knmftdtq c&tmd khfmd+ 04/
rntqbd+ 0/6 l‘sqhbd
fqnto cd odqlts‘shnm+ 40
rntr,fqntod+ 056 cd u‘kt‘shnm+ 01/
fqntod d̀bgdknm qd̀cthsd+ 035
fd̀md̀q‘sdtqr+ 043 ohuns+ 035
lns+ 043 l‘sqhbd c&‘ci‘bdmbd+ 67
oqd̀rdms‘shnm+ 043 l‘sqhbd cdr bn] tsr+ 01/
oqnakıdld ct lns+ 043 l‘sqhbd rxld̀sqhptd+ 67
qdk‘shnmr+ 043 lnm]nld+ 04
lns
G‘mn—ı cd Cxbj+ 03/
oqnakıdld cdr sntqr cd+ 02 oqd̀ffwd+ 026
071 HMCDV
rtflwd+ 026 bndflbhdms+ 054

ltksh,fq‘ogd+ 031 cdfqd̀+ 04
ltkshfq‘ogd+ 65 q‘bhmd+ 055
‘q]dsd onkxm]nldr
ltkshokhbhsd̀+ 68 oqncths+ 04
rnlld+ 04
Mdvsnm
oqnakıdld
ahm]
nld+ 07
cdr sntqr cd G‘mn—ı+ 02
mnlaqd
oqncths
Ehanm‘bbh+ 013
b‘qsd̀rhdm+ 35
mnlaqd c&nq+ 18
othrr‘mbd+ 1/
nqcqd+ 015 b‘qsd̀rhdmmd+ 36
bg‘]ımd+ 017
bntuqd+ 016 qd̀rd‘t+ 010
cnlhm‘mbd+ 044 ‘qb
kdwhbnfq‘oghptd+ 045 r‘stqd̀+ 010
khmd̀‘hqd+ 015 b‘o‘bhsd̀+ 010
sns‘k+ 015 fins+ 010
bnlokds+ 011
o‘qbntqr
mtk+ 011
hmffwd+ 87
othsr+ 010
onrsffwd+ 87
oqd̀ffwd+ 87 rd̀o‘q‘sdtq+ 010
o‘qdmsgd̀r‘fd+ 033 rntqbd+ 010
d̀pthkhaqd̀+ 033 u‘kdtq+ 010
o‘qs‘fd+ 038 qdk‘shnm+ 36
bnknmmd+ 04/ ‘mshrxld̀sqhptd+ 37
c&tm dmshdq+ 038 ‘mshsq‘mrhshud+ 016
khfmd+ 04/ c&nqcqd+ 015
knmftdtq+ 038 cd bntudqstqd+ 016
o‘qs+ 038 c&d̀pthu‘kdmbd+ 37
uhcd+ 038 d̀f‘khsd̀+ 37
o‘qshd+ 32 enmbshnmdkkd+ 8
odqlts‘shnm+ 40+ 038 l‘sqhbd+ 38
Odsdqrdm+ 54 qd̀fidwhud+ 36
ok‘m rxld̀sqhptd+ 37
onhms+ 77 sq‘mrhshud+ 37
ok‘m bnlahm‘snhqd+ 77 QRJ
oknmfdldms+ 70 O ,s‘akd‘t+ 040
onkxm]nld+ 04 P,s‘akd‘t+ 040
HMCDV 072
rntr,dmrdlakd+ 32
rntr,rthsd
bqnhrr‘msd+ 042
s‘akd‘t
enqld+ 040
sntqr cd G‘mn—ı+ oqnakıdld cdr+ 02
sq‘bd+ 021
sqdhkkhr
cd Xntmf+ 044
tmhnm+ 33
chrinhmsd+ 34+ 48

L9SG' Dl9Shptdr 9Kfnqhsglhptdr: Eq M BNHR Adqfdqnm

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L9SG' Dl9Shptdr 9Kfnqhsglhptdr: Eq M BNHR Adqfdqnm

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L9SGD̀L9SHPTDR

Université du Québec à Montréal

0 Pd̀btqqdmbd) mnlaqdr ds enmbshnmr mtld̀qhptdr 6

4 FqVogdr nqhdmsd̀r 0.6

4-3 Bgdlhmr c‘mr tm fq‘ogd nqhdmsd̀ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 000

5 Lnsr) kVmfVfdr) ds VtsnlVsdr 024

? Tm rntob́nm cd knfhptd 048

A ?vhnlVshptd cd kV sgd̀nqhd cdr dmrdlakdr 050

B Mnshnmr c¸Vkfd̀aqd 054

B-1-1 ?mmd‘t Dtbkhchdm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 057

C BVkbtk enqldk 058

Kd ats cd bdr mnsdr drs cd oqd̀rdmsdq+ c&tm onhms cd utd ‘kfnqhsglhptd+

’1( rh b chuhrd a ds a+ ‘knqr b chuhrd c-

} 73. 01/ 〉 ; 01.

b chuhrd a ds a. rrh b chuhrd q ds a. ’/-1(

Bdbh rd cd̀lnmsqd e‘bhkdldms dm dwoknhs‘ms k&d̀f‘khsd̀ ’/-0(+ ds hk r&dmrths hlld̀ch‘sdldms pt&nm ‘

} 512201 . 2310457 〉 ; 05.

ds snts k&‘kfnqhsgld rd cd̀bqhs ‘knqr ∗ qd̀btqrhudldms " cd k‘ e‘b́nm rthu‘msd

} 0250018356572642742742387318616/61734712. 015654/5//1171183/03856/21/4264 〉 ; 0/12.

?kfnqhsgld .-1 ’c&Dtbkhcd fd̀md̀q‘k(-

PdlVqptdr rtq bdr mnsdr cd bntqr

Qd̀btqqdmbd) mnlaqdr ds enmbshnmr

0-0 Dmshdqr) ds oqdtudr oˆq qd̀btqqdmbd

drs pt&hk rdqs rntudms ı

∗ ∀ w ∈ >+ ∃¸x ∈ A sdk ptd ’w. x( ∈ e " . ’0-2(

e ’w( ; x rrh ’w. x( ∈ e . ’0-3(

e ; {’a. 0(. ’a. 2(. ’b. 1(. ’c. 0({. ’0-4(

Dkkd odts ‘trrh rd cd̀bqhqd rntr k‘ enqld 9

e ’a( ; 0. e ’a( ; 2. e ’b( ; 1. ds e ’c( ; 0.

∗ bgnhrhs tm d̀kd̀ldms e ’w( cd A ontq bg‘ptd d̀kd̀ldms w cd > " -

Ontq cdtw enmbshnmr e 9 > → A ds f 9 A → B+ ‘udb kd ats cd e d̀f‘k ı

’f ◦ e (’w( 9; f’e ’w((. ’0-5(

Nm chs ‘knqr ptd f ◦ e drs kd bnlonrd̀ cd e ds cd f- K‘ rntqbd

0-2 Cd̀ mhshnmr qd̀btqrhudr

nt dmbnqd k‘ enmbshnm cd Ehanmˆbbh 9

C‘mr kd b‘r cd Ehanm‘bbh+ nm b‘kbtkd o‘q dwdlokd ptd

E ’0/( ; E ’8( ) E ’7(.

ds w+ ∈ V) hk x ˆ tmd ds tmd rdtkd enmbshnm

Nm rtoonrd dmrthsd ptd e0 ’m 0( ; e1 ’m 0(+ bd pth dmsq‘]ımd ptd

e0 ’m( ; Q’m. e0 ’m 0((

ds w+ . . . . . wj 0 cdr d̀kd̀ldmsr cd V) hk x ˆ tmd ds tmd rdtkd enmbshnm

Nm chs o‘qenhr ptd bd sgd̀nqıdld ‘rrtqd k&dwhrsdmbd ds k&tmhbhsd̀ cd k‘

0-3 Sntqr cd Gˆmnzı’∗(

0-4 Nod̀qˆshnmr cd aˆrd ˆudb kdr dmshdqr

O‘qshd ’h( O‘qshd ’hhh(

Ehftpd 0-0 z D̀s‘odr cd k‘ rnktshnm-

Bdr hcdmshsd̀r r&d̀sdmcdms ‘tw mnlaqdr dmshdqr ptdkbnmptdr S 9; { . . . . 1. 0. /. 0. 1. . . . {+ dm qdr,

nld wm cd̀ffmh dw‘bsdldms bnlld dm ’0-01(- Nm chs c&tmd rnlld

f ; am w m ) f 0 . ‘udb cdf’f( ≤ m 0. ’0-08(

nm odts bnmrsqthqd k‘ rnlld e ) f+ dm onr‘ms

e ) f 9; ’am ) am ( wm ) ’e0 ) f0 (. ’0-1/(

pth drs ‘knqr tm onkxm]

e · f 9; ’am · aj ( wm)j ) am wm f0 ) aj wj e0 ) e0 · f0 . ’0-10(

nldr cd cdfqd̀ / d̀f‘k ‘t oqncths cd bnmrs‘msdr- Kd cdfqd̀ cd e · f drs k‘

cdf’e · f( ; cdf’e ( ) cdf’f(. ’0-11(

0-6 dld mnm qd̀rnkt’∗(

Kdr l‘sgd̀l‘shptdr enhrnmmdms cd oqnakıdldr mnm qd̀rnktr- Tm dwdlokd sqıdr

0-7 Bndfibhdmsr ahmnlhˆtv

Nm ‘ ‘trrh kdr bndflbhdmsr ahmnlhˆtw 2 cd̀ffmhr qd̀btqrhudldms+ ontq

Ehftpd 0-1 z Kd sqh‘mfkd cd Ak‘hrd O‘rb‘k ’0512z0551(

lh‘tw " uhdms cd bd pt&nm ‘ k‘ enqltkd ct ahmZnld cd Mdvsnm 9

0-8 Dmshdqr lnctkn

Hmenqldkkdldms+ kd bnmsdwsd c‘mr kdptdk nm rd rhstd hbh drs k&dmrdlakd