LA QUINUA Au DEPOSIT, YANACOCHA DISTRICT, PERU 305

FIG. 4. A. Highwall in La Quinua Central; proximal facies; upper-sequence gravel. Note two large boulders above truck
and weakly developed stratification dipping gently to the right. B. Rounded boulder from proximal facies of La Quinua Cen-
tral. Note polished striated surfaces. C. Road cut between La Quinua Central and Sur; distal facies. Interbedded gravel,
sand, silty mud and organic (black) layers. Roadcut is approximately 8 m high. D. Unconsolidated ferruginous gravel and in-
durated ledges of ferricrete exposed in Quebrada Shingo, southwestern margin of La Quinua Central. Ferricrete ledge is
approximately 0.75 m thick.

portions of the fans accompanied by a decrease in particle
size (Fig. 4C). These patterns reflect the progressively greater
influence of alluvial processes in distal fan environments.
Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic succession of La Quinua gravel, as typi-
fied by the La Quinua Central deposit, is presented in Figure
5. La Quinua clastic sediments as a whole represent a first-
order depositional sequence. Two internal second-order de-
positional sequences are recognized and are referred to
herein as upper- and lower-sequence gravel. Both resulted
from rapid sediment production in adjacent highlands and
rapid influx to depositional basins in relatively high energy
environments. The second-order depositional sequences are
bounded by horizons reflecting lower energy and/or lower
sediment-flux environments consisting of (1) basal regolith
overlying bedrock, (2) organic and authigenic iron deposits
separating upper- and lower-sequence gravels, and (3) the
modern erosional surface.
Early regolith
A discontinuous sequence of mostly monolithic regolith
consisting of weathered bedrock immediately overlies
bedrock at the base of the gravel section. Regolith represents
initial weathering and erosion of the La Quinua bedrock sur-
face, possibly before the onset of tectonic activity along the
La Quinua fault. Distribution of regolith is poorly known due
to the paucity of drill holes that penetrate bedrock. In some
cases, regolith thickens adjacent to bedrock highs, suggesting
that these were areas of positive topographic relief prior to
basin infill.
Lower-sequence gravel
A thick, transported gravel sequence overlies regolith and is
deposited directly on basement rocks where regolith is absent
(Fig. 6). Coarse fragments consist primarily of silica-, silica-
alunite- and silica-clay–altered volcanic rocks. XRD-XRF
analyses suggest a similar composition within the mud matrix
(Williams and Vicuña, 2000). Lower-sequence gravel reaches
a maximum thickness of 220 m adjacent to the La Quinua
fault and thins to a few meters in the distal fan. In proximal
facies near the La Quinua fault, lower-sequence gravel is
characterized by nonsorted and poorly stratified, muddy,
sandy, pebble-to-cobble gravel (terminology of Folk, 1974).
Proximal facies sediments were deposited subaerially in a
subsiding tectonic basin with little reworking. Sediment

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306 MALLETTE ET AL.

Average, Percent of
Percent gold grade total gold
gravel sand mud g/t reserve
Upper - sequence gravel:
Non sorted, massive to weakly stratified
cobble gravel in proximal facies grades
laterally to moderately sorted pebble
gravel, gravelly sand and silt in distal
facies. Lenses of silty sand occur
throughout. Gravel fragments consist
predominantly of silicified volcanic 69 17 14 0.75 63
fragments. Maximum thickness = 250 m

Ferruginous gravel:
Goethite and hematite superimposed on
basal Upper-sequence gravel; lenses of 68 20 12 0.99 25
ferricrete to ~16 m thick. Maximum
thickness = 90m

Iron - and organic deposits:

Bog-iron, peat, organic-rich mud, and 0.53 1
paleosols. Maximum thickness = ~30 m

Lower - sequence gravel:

Non sorted, massive to weakly stratified
cobble gravel in proximal facies grades
laterally to interbedded sand, silt, and
gravel in distal facies. Gravel fragments
consist of silicified, silica-clay and silica-
alunite altered volcanic fragments. Local
authigenic sulfides. Maximum thickness 57 23 20 0.67 11
= 220 m

Regolith: Monolithic gravel and

saprolite

Bedrock: Dacitic volcanics

FIG. 5. Stratigraphic column for the La Quinua Central gold deposit with average grain size (≥2 mm = gravel, <2 to >0.074
mm = sand, ≤0.074 mm = mud), gold grade, and the relative contribution of each stratigraphic sequence to the total gold
reserve.

sorting and stratification increase in medial and distal facies
where interbedded sequences of pebble gravel, muddy sand,
and silt are exposed in canyons and intersected in drill holes.
These features, in combination with finely laminated clayey
silt beds, presence of laminated and disseminated organic
material, and load cast structures, suggest low-energy deposi-
tion in shallow aqueous environments interrupted by periodic
high-energy depositional events.
Lower-sequence sediments are mostly white to light gray in
color; iron oxides are absent to minor. In some areas, particu-
larly in deeper portions of the basin, both primary and authi-
genic sulfide minerals are observed. Primary sulfides include
pyrite, chalcopyrite, and covellite as mineral grains within
gravel clasts and as loose grains in the sand and silt matrix.
Authigenic sulfides include pyrite, marcasite, and chalcocite.
Authigenic sulfides form irregular pods and disseminations
within the sediments and crusts on rock fragments. Chalcan-
thite forms crusts on sulfidic surface exposures and is com-
monly observed on dry days following rain storms.
Deposits related to reduced siliciclastic influx
A thin but laterally extensive sequence of organic and au-
thigenic ferruginous deposits overlies lower-sequence gravels
(Fig. 6). Deposits of organic-rich mud, peat, and bog iron re-
flect equilibrium within the depositional environment with
increased vegetation cover and decreased siliciclastic input to
the basin. Individual peat beds are up to a few meters thick,
consist of matted plant material, and were deposited in bog
environments. Some laterally continuous, organic-rich sedi-
ments may represent paleosols, similar to the modern 1-m-
thick organic horizon that marks the present-day La Quinua
surface. Paleosols mark third- and fourth-order depositional

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 LA QUINUA Au DEPOSIT, YANACOCHA DISTRICT, PERU 307

GOLD DISTRIBUTION
A’
A

3500

0.35 g/t 1.00 g/t 1.50 g/t

A’
A STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

3500

Organic-rich
Volcanic Lower-sequence Upper-sequence
sediments, peat,
bedrock gravel gravel
and bog-iron

IRON OXID E & SULFIDE/SULFATE A’

A
DISTRIBUTION

300 m
3500

Strong iron oxides, Sulfide: pyrite, marcasite, 300 m

hematite>goethite Cu sulfides, and sulfates

FIG. 6. Northeast-southwest cross section through the La Quinua Central gold deposit (see Fig. 3), showing gold-grade
distribution, major stratigraphic units, and zones of secondary oxide-sulfide precipitation.

sequence boundaries. Horizons of nearly pure goethite over-
lie organic material and reach a maximum thickness of 30 m.
Goethite is often porous with abundant fossil plant casts.
Thinner deposits likely represent bog iron formed at or very
close to the paleosurface in flooded environments. Thicker
deposits may have formed as surficial terraces over iron-satu-
rated springs as suggested by Williams and Vicuña (2000).
Upper-sequence gravel
Coarse-grained gravel immediately overlies peat and bog-
iron deposits (Fig. 6). The sequence attains a maximum thick-
ness of 250 m and represents a return to high-energy condi-
tions with greatly increased siliciclastic sediment influx to the
basins. Upper-sequence gravel consists primarily of oxidized,
limonitic, silica-altered volcanic fragments. Current mine
faces expose a thick section of nonsorted pebble-to-cobble
gravel; occasional boulders of 3- to 4-m diam float in a
muddy-sandy-gravel matrix (Fig. 4B). Proximal facies de-
posits are nonstratified to weakly stratified. Stratification is
manifest by weak ferruginization and small-scale channel, lag,
and/or talus deposits at unit tops. Strata are warped into open
parallel folds likely due to postdepositional tectonic adjust-
ments in underlying bedrock and/or differential movement
along the La Quinua fault. Lenses of fine-grained, slightly
gravelly silt and sand are interbedded within upper-sequence
gravels. Fine-grained lenses increase in abundance and even-
tually merge downfan to become the predominant lithology
in distal facies.
Ferruginous gravel
The basal portion of upper-sequence gravel contains abun-
dant authigenic goethite and earthy hematite disseminated in
the mud matrix and coating rock fragments (Fig. 6). Locally,
the gravel is cemented by iron oxide-forming ferricrete (Fig.
4D). Ferruginous gravel attains a maximum thickness of 90 m
adjacent to the La Quinua fault. In cross section, the body is
wedge shaped and thins from proximal to distal fan. The
wedge shape may indicate that the source of iron was upslope
in the Yanacocha Sur-Yanacocha Oeste areas. Alternatively, or
in combination with an upslope source, leaching from the
overlying gravel pile could have provided iron for goethite
and hematite precipitation. A thicker gravel section, as devel-
oped near the La Quinua fault, would provide more primary
iron oxide and iron-bearing minerals for remobilization and
precipitation at the redox boundary below. The modern redox
boundary within La Quinua gravel corresponds closely with

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308 MALLETTE ET AL.
the boundary between the upper and lower gravel sequences
and more precisely with organic deposits below and ferrugi-
nous deposits above (Fig. 6). Iron-bearing ground waters
moving through or along the top of lower-sequence gravels
would deposit iron oxides when encountering oxygenated
conditions at the base of upper-sequence gravels.
There is an overall transition from predominantly goethite
at the base of the ferruginous gravel horizon to predominantly
hematite at the top. Within this larger goethite-to-hematite
transition are smaller scale (1–10 m thick) transitions. These
cycles may represent seasonal or longer duration positions of
the paleowater table where goethite formed in a saturated or
near-saturated oxidizing environment at the water table and
hematite formed above in the vadose zone. Alternatively,
hematite may have formed by dehydration of precursor
goethite with seasonal or longer term lowering of the water
table.
Timing of ferruginization is not precisely known but ap-
pears to have been relatively late. Ferruginization may post-
date deposition of upper-sequence gravel. Notably, both
goethite and earthy hematite are precipitating on natural and
man-made exposures at La Quinua today.
Present-day processes
La Quinua is currently in a state of net erosion. Grasses
covering the fan surfaces form a dense root mat that limits
erosional severity. However, when the vegetative root mat is
breached, downcutting progresses rapidly through unconsol-
idated sediments carving vertical- to near-vertical–walled
canyons up to 35 m deep. During the annual rainy season,
and particularly during high-precipitation El Niño events,
large volumes of rainwater funnel through these canyons.
High-flow events cause undercutting and calving of the
canyon walls. Large volumes of sediment are then trans-
ported down the canyons, but because sediment production
is almost entirely internal to the fans, the overall process is
destructive.
Mineralization
La Quinua is a mostly unconsolidated gravel-hosted dis-
seminated gold deposit derived from erosion of nearby vol-
canic-hosted epithermal gold deposits. Gold is extremely fine
grained and is present both as primary disseminated particles
in rock fragments and as liberated silt- to clay-sized particles
in gravel matrix. Because much of the gold at La Quinua ap-
pears to be physically transported from the adjacent source
deposits, comparisons could be made to placer deposits. La
Quinua differs from alluvial placers in that gold does not
occur in localized paystreaks but instead is broadly dissemi-
nated with gradual lateral- and vertical-grade variations.
Spatial distribution of gold
Vertical and lateral distribution of gold throughout La
Quinua Central is shown in Figures 3, 5, and 6. In plan view
(Fig. 3) the footprint of gold mineralization is distinctly fan
shaped. Upslope apices of gold shapes at La Quinua Norte
and Central coincide closely with the modern Quebradas La
Pajuela and Quinua Corral. At La Quinua Central, upper-se-
quence gravel and ferruginous gravel carry 88 percent of the
gold resource reserve (Figs. 5–6). Stratigraphic distribution of
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gold in La Quinua sediments is attributable to gold distribu-
tion with respect to alteration facies in the source deposits.
Primary gold is generally more abundant, and of higher
grade, in the silica-altered volcanic rocks at Yanacocha Sur
and Oeste, as opposed to silica-alunite– and silica-clay–al-
tered rocks. Lower-sequence gravels at La Quinua are char-
acterized by silica-clay– and silica-alunite–altered clasts,
whereas upper-sequence gravels are predominantly altered
only to silica. La Quinua sediments reflect original hy-
drothermal alteration facies in the source deposits but in an
inverted vertical succession.
Gold particle size distribution
Primary volcanic-hosted gold deposits at Yanacocha Sur
and Yanacocha Oeste are typified by micron-sized, dissemi-
nated, and fracture-controlled gold (Turner, 1997; Harvey et
al., 1999; Teal et al., 2002). At La Quinua, gold occurs as both
liberated particles in the silt and clay matrix and as dissemi-
nations within gravel fragments. Gold panning and Gemini
table tests have recovered occasional sand-sized gold particles
(62–220 µm) but these are rare. Metallurgical leach tests (6-
in columns) indicate gold recoveries of approximately 75 per-
cent for upper-sequence gravels and 60 to 70 percent for
Lower-sequence gravels, with standard cyanide concentra-
tions. Leach-recovery tests suggest that gold particle sizes are
predominantly in the ~10- to 20-µm range (Larry Todd and
César Vidal, pers. commun., 2002).
Figure 7 shows the distribution of gold within sediment-
size classes in upper-sequence gravel from current mine
faces. Gold grade typically increases from coarser to finer
fractions. Total gold content is roughly equal in the gravel and
silt plus clay fractions with a lesser percentage in the sand
fraction. Results shown in Figure 7 are somewhat biased to
the fine fraction because large cobbles and boulders are usu-
ally excluded from granulometric-assay tests due to collection
and processing limitations. Chip samples from larger cobbles
and boulders commonly contain 1.0 g/t gold.
The distribution of gold shown in Figure 7 is explained by
progressive mechanical disaggregation of gold-mineralized
fragments during transport. In primary hard-rock deposits at
Yanacocha Sur and Yanacocha Oeste, gold is disseminated
and associated with silica-altered volcanic rocks and occurs as
limonite-after-sulfide plus gold fracture fillings (Harvey et al.,
1999; Teal et al., 2002). As primary deposits eroded and min-
eralized material was transported downslope to the La
Quinua basin, large fragments tended to break down along
preexisting fractures. Thus, fine-grained gold and limonite
that occupied the fractures were exposed to abrasion and re-
leased to the mud matrix. Original fracture-hosted gold was
progressively added to the mud fraction as transportation and
fragmentation continued. As rock particles were reduced in
size, they ultimately reached a nominal fracture spacing. Gold
grade of the sand-sized particles reflects grade of the dissem-
inated gold component minus fracture-related gold.
Source and transport of gold
La Quinua gold was sourced in the Yanacocha Sur-Yana-
cocha Oeste area and transported to the La Quinua and La
Pajuela basins as disseminated gold in clasts of primary ore
and as silt- to clay-sized liberated gold grains. However, the