AC Machines

Lecture 8: emf equation and Equivalent Circuit of

an alternator

Mr. Melat Khalil

Email: melat.abdullah@uod.ac
 emf equation

• Let
𝑃 = number of poles;
𝜙 = Flux per pole in Wb;
𝑁 = Speed in 𝑟𝑝𝑚;
𝑓 = frequency in Hz;
𝑍𝑝ℎ = number of conductors connected in series per phase
𝑇𝑝ℎ = number of turns connected in series per phase
𝐾𝐶 = Coil span factor;
𝐾𝑑 = Distribution factor
 emf equation

Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution = 𝑃 𝜙 webers

60
Time take to complete one revolution = second
𝑁
𝑃𝜙 𝑃𝜙𝑁
Average 𝑒𝑚𝑓 induced per conductor = =
60/𝑁 60

Since there are 𝑍𝑝ℎ conductors in series per phase

𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑃𝜙𝑁
Average emf induced per phase, = × 𝑍𝑝ℎ = × 2𝑇𝑝ℎ
60 60
𝑃𝑁
= 4 × 𝜙 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ ×
120
= 4 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ
 emf equation

RMS values of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 induced per phase, 𝐸𝑝ℎ = Average value × form factor
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ × 1.11
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ volt

• Taking into consideration the coil span factor (𝐾𝐶 ) and distribution factor
(𝐾𝑑 ) of the winding.
Actual 𝑒𝑚𝑓 induced per phase, 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 𝐾𝐶 × 𝐾𝑑 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ volt
 Example
A 3-phase, 16 pole synchronous generator has a star-connected winding with
144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 𝑊𝑏, sinusoidally
distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Calculate
1. The frequency;
2. The line induced emf
Solution:
𝑁𝑃 375×16
Line frequency, 𝑓 = = = 50 Hz
120 120
180𝑜 180𝑜
Slot angle, 𝛼 = = = 20𝑜 (Electrical)
No. of slots/pole 144/16
144
No. of slots/pole/phase, 𝑚 = =3
16×3
 𝑚𝛼 3×20°
sin
2
sin
2 sin 30°
Distribution factor, 𝐾𝑑 = 𝛼 = 20°
= = 0.96
𝑚 sin 3 sin 3 sin 10°
2 2
144×10
number of conductors/phase, 𝑍𝑝ℎ = = 480
3
𝑍𝑝ℎ 480
No. of turns/phase, 𝑇𝑝ℎ = = = 240
2 2
Induced emf/phase, 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 𝐾𝐶 × 𝐾𝑑 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 1 × 0.96 × 0.03 × 50 × 240 = 1534 V
Induced line voltage, 𝑉𝐿 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 3 × 1534 = 2657 V
 Example
Find the no-load phase and line voltage of a star connected 3-phase, 6-pole
alternator which runs at 1200 rpm, having flux per pole of 0.1 Wb sinusoidally
distributed. Its stator has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns
and the coil is chorded by 1 slot.
Solution:
8
Coil pitch (span) = × 180° = 160°
9
Coil is short-pitched by 𝛽 = 180° −160° = 20°
Pitch factor 𝐾𝑐 = cos 𝛽 Τ2 = cos 20° Τ2 = 0.98
180𝑜 180𝑜
Slot angle, 𝛼 = = = 20𝑜 (Electrical)
No. of slots/pole 54/6
54
No. of slots/pole/phase, 𝑚 = =3
6×3
 𝑚𝛼 3×20°
sin
2
sin
2 sin 30°
Distribution factor, 𝐾𝑑 = 𝛼 = 20°
= = 0.96
𝑚 sin 3 sin 3 sin 10°
2 2
𝑁𝑃 1200×6
Line frequency, 𝑓 = = = 60 Hz
120 120
Total number of conductors = 54 × 8 = 432
432
number of conductors/phase, 𝑍𝑝ℎ = = 144
3
144
No. of turns/phase, 𝑇𝑝ℎ = = 72
2
Induced e.m.f./phase, 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 𝐾𝐶 × 𝐾𝑑 × 𝜙 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑝ℎ
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44 × 0.98 × 0.96 × 0.01 × 60 × 72 = 1805 V
Induced line voltage, 𝑉𝐿 = 3 × 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 3 × 1805 = 3125 V
 Alternator Equivalent Circuit
• When generator is not loaded, the internal generated voltage 𝐸𝑝ℎ is the
same as the voltage appearing at the terminals of the generator, 𝑉.
• When generator is loaded, a balanced 3-phase current will flow which results
the field excitation and speed being kept constant, but the terminal voltage
𝑉 (phase value) of the alternator decreases due to:
➢Voltage drop 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 where 𝑅𝑎 is the armature resistance per phase.
➢Voltage drop 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿 where 𝑋𝐿 is the armature leakage reactance per phase.
➢Voltage drop because of armature reaction.
• Since the armature or stator winding has some resistance, there will be an
𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 drop when current (𝐼𝑎) flows through it.
• The armature resistance per phase is generally small so that 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 drop is
negligible for most practical purposes.
 Armature leakage reactance (𝑋𝐿)
• When current flows through the armature winding, flux is set up and a part
of it does not cross the air-gap and links the coil sides as shown in figure
below.
• This leakage flux alternates with current and gives the winding self-
inductance.
• This is called armature leakage reactance. Therefore, there will be 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿 drop
which is also reduses the terminal voltage.
 Armature reaction (𝑋𝑨𝑹)
• Load are generally inductive and the effect of armature reaction is to reduce
the generated voltage.
• Since armature reaction results in a voltage effect in a circuit caused by the
change in flux produced by current in the same circuit, its effect is of the
nature of an inductive reactance. Therefore, armature reaction effect is
accounted for by assuming the presence of a fictitious reactance 𝑋𝐴𝑅 in the
armature winding.
• The quantity 𝑋𝐴𝑅 is called reactance of armature reaction.
• The value of 𝑋𝐴𝑅 is such that 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐴𝑅 represents the voltage drop due to
armature reaction.
 Equivalent circuit of alternator
• Figure below shows the equivalent circuit of the loaded alternator for one
phase. All the quantities are per phase.
• Here:
𝐸𝑜 = No-load emf
𝐸 = Load induced emf It is the induced emf after allowing for armature
reaction. It is equal to phasor difference of 𝐸𝑜 and 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐴𝑅.
𝑉 = Terminal voltage. It is less than E by
voltage drops in 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑅𝑎.
Then, 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿)
And, 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎( 𝑗𝑋𝐴𝑅)
 Synchronous reactance (𝑋𝑠)
• The sum of armature leakage reactance (𝑋𝐿) and reactance of armature
reaction (𝑋𝐴𝑅 ) is called synchronous reactance (𝑋𝑆). Note that all quantities
are per phase.
𝑋𝑆 = 𝑋𝐴𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿
• The synchronous reactance is a fictitious reactance employed to account for
the voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature
leakage reactance and the change in the air-gap flux caused by armature
reaction. The circuit then reduces to the one shown below.
 Synchronous impedance (𝒁𝑠)

• The synchronous impedance is the fictitious impedance employed to

account for the voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the
actual armature resistance, the actual armature leakage reactance and the
change in the air-gap flux produced by armature reaction.
• synchronous impedance , 𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆
• 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑍𝑆
 Phasor diagram of a loaded alternator

• Consider a Y-connected alternator supplying inductive load, the load pf angle

being 𝜙.
• Figure below shows Y-connected alternator supplying inductive load (lagging
p.f.). While figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit of the alternator per phase.
All quantities are per phase.
 Phasor diagram of a loaded alternator
• Figure below shows the phasor diagram of an alternator for the usual
case of inductive load.
• The armature current 𝐼𝑎 lags the terminal voltage 𝑉 by p.f. angle 𝜙.
• The phasor sum of 𝑉 and drops 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 and 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿 gives the load induced
voltage 𝐸. It is the induced e.m.f. after allowing for armature reaction.
• The phasor sum of 𝐸 and 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐴𝑅 gives the no-load
emf 𝐸𝑜.
• Note that in drawing the phasor diagram either
the terminal voltage 𝑉 or armature current 𝐼𝑎
may be taken as the reference phasor.
 Example
A 500 KVA, 3-phase, star-connected alternator has a rated line-to-line voltage of 3300 V. The resistance
and synchronous reactance per phase are 0.3Ω and 4 Ω respectively. Calculate the line value of the emf
generated at full-loud, 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Solution:
500×103
F.L. output current, 𝐼𝑎 = = 87.5 A
3 × 3300

Figure below shows the phasor diagram of the alternator. Note

that current 𝐼𝑎 has been taken as the reference phasor.
From the phasor diagram, we have,

𝐸𝑜 = (𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 +(𝑉 sin 𝜙 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 )2

cos 𝜙 = 0.8 and sin 𝜙 = 0.6
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 87.5 × 0.3 = 26.25 V and 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 = 87.5 × 4 = 350 V
Terminal voltage/phase, 𝑉 = 3300/ 3 = 1905 V

𝐸𝑜 = (1905 × 0.8 + 26.25)2 +(1905 × 0.6 + 350)2 = 2152 V

Line emf = 3 𝐸𝑜 = 3 × 2152 = 3727 V
 Example

A 60 KVA, 220 V, 50 Hz, single-phase alternator has effective resistance of 0.016 Ω and an armature
leakage reactance of 0.07 Ω. Find the voltage induced in the armature when the alternator is
delivering rated current at a load p.f. of (1) unity, and (2) 0.7 leading.
Solution:
60×103
rated current, 𝐼𝑎 = = 272.72 A
220

Terminal voltage/phase, 𝑉 = 220 V

𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 272.72 × 0.016 = 4.3 V
𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝐿 = 272.72 × 0.07 = 19 V
(1) @ unity p.f.
𝐸𝑜 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 +(𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝐸𝑜 = (220 + 4.3)2 +(19)2 = 225 V

(2) @ 0.7 p.f. leading

𝐸𝑜 = (𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 +(𝑉 sin 𝜙 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝐸𝑜 = (220 × 0.7 + 4.3)2 +(220 × 0.7 − 19)2 = 208 V