The European Solar Radiation Atlas Vol1 PDF

THE EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS
Vol. 1: Fundamentals and maps
K. Scharmer and J. Greif
Les Presses de lcole des Mines

Paris, 2000
cole des Mines de Paris, 2000

60, Boulevard Saint-Michel, 75272 Paris cedex 06
FRANCE
e-mail : delamare@dg.ensmp.fr
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ISBN : 2-911762-21-5
Dpt lgal : mars 2000
Achev dimprim en France en mars 2000 (Grou-Radenez, Paris)
Tous droits de reproduction, de traduction, dadaptation et dexcution
rsevs pour tous les pays
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS Contents
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................... V
ESRA IN A NUTSHELL .......................................................................................... 3

1
The ESRA-concept................................................................................................................................... 3
Data Base .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Solar Algorithms ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Use of the Tool Box to assess solar system performance ...................................................................... 6
The CD-ROM ........................................................................................................................................... 7
The Atlas Book ......................................................................................................................................... 7
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 9
2 THE CONCEPT OF THE EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION............................ 11

2.1 Geographical area.................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 The content ............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Users of ESRA ........................................................................................................................................ 14
3 BASICS OF SOLAR RADIATION ................................................................... 17

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 17
3.2 The choice of fundamental observational data in relation to mapping possibilities ........................... 17
3.3 Time systems ............................................................................................................................................. 19
3.4 The Julian day and the hour angle......................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Extraterrestrial radiation from the sun................................................................................................. 21
3.6 Geometry of solar movements as seen from the earth.......................................................................... 23

3.6.1 The sun-earth geometry...................................................................................................................... 23
3.6.2 Declination angle ................................................................................................................................ 24
3.6.3 The solar altitude angle ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.6.4 Solar azimuth angle............................................................................................................................. 26
3.6.5 Sunset hour angle and daylength......................................................................................................... 27
3.6.6 Relative daily sunshine duration ......................................................................................................... 27
3.6.7 Angle of incidence .............................................................................................................................. 27
3.7 Choice of calculation times ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.8 The solar radiation at the surface of the earth....................................................................................... 28
3.9 User needs................................................................................................................................................. 30
3.10 Transmission of solar radiation through the cloudless atmosphere................................................... 31
3.10.1 Direct and diffuse irradiation ............................................................................................................ 31
3.10.2 Relative optical air mass.................................................................................................................... 31
3.10.3 The Linke turbidity factor ................................................................................................................. 32
3.10.4 Estimating the Rayleigh optical thickness........................................................................................ 33
3.10.5 Estimating clear sky diffuse irradiance ............................................................................................. 33
3.10.6 The clear sky global irradiation........................................................................................................ 34
3.11 Monthly mean daily global radiation and the monthly mean daily Clearness Index ....................... 34
3.12 Splitting the monthly mean daily global radiation into its beam and diffuse components .............. 35
4 FROM SOLAR MEASUREMENTS TO THE SOLAR DATA BASE .................. 37

4.1 Ground measuring techniques for solar radiation components ........................................................... 37
4.1.1 Sunshine duration................................................................................................................................ 37
4.1.2 Hemispherical solar radiation.............................................................................................................. 38
4.1.3 Terrestrial radiation ............................................................................................................................. 40
4.2 Solar radiation data from satellite images.............................................................................................. 40
4.3 Detection of errors within raw data ........................................................................................................ 40
5 THE ESRA DATABASE .................................................................................... 43

5.1 The reference period and the reference area ......................................................................................... 43
5.2 Ground measured and derived data ....................................................................................................... 43
5.3 Satellite derived data ................................................................................................................................ 44
5.4 Sources of data.......................................................................................................................................... 44

5.5 Data guarantee.......................................................................................................................................... 45
5.6 Maps of solar radiation components....................................................................................................... 46
5.7 Zones of similar irradiation climates ...................................................................................................... 47
5.8 Zones of similar biomass parameters........................................................................................................ 47
5.9 Test, Design and Biomass Reference Years............................................................................................ 48
6 THE ESRA SOFTWARE PACKAGE................................................................. 49

(The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2 : database, models and exploitation software)
6.1 Content of the CD-ROM .......................................................................................................................... 49
6.2 The map mode........................................................................................................................................... 50
6.3 Station mode.............................................................................................................................................. 54
6.4 Sub-menus and examples......................................................................................................................... 55
6.5 Further applications ................................................................................................................................. 62
7 MAPS................................................................................................................. 63
7.1 The geographical are of the Atlas ......................................................................................................... 63
7.2 Ground based measuring stations........................................................................................................... 63
7.3 Global solar irradiation (Ten year average)........................................................................................... 63
7.4 Diffuse solar irradiation (Ten year average) .......................................................................................... 63
7.5 Direct (beam) solar irradiation (Ten year average)............................................................................... 63
7.6 Clearness index (Ten year average) ........................................................................................................ 64
7.7 Zones of similar irradiation climates ...................................................................................................... 64
7.8 Zones of similar biomass productivity parameters................................................................................ 64
REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 65
MAPS.................................................................................................................... 67
ANNEX 1..................................................................SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

A1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 93
A1.2 Basic concepts and General Rules ........................................................................................................ 93
A1.3 Definitions............................................................................................................................................... 95
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 100
ANNEX 2...................................................................................LIST OF STATIONS
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The material provided for this publication came from many sources. The contributions of all organisations and persons mentioned below were greatly appreciated by the authors and the editors. They are
all gratefully acknowledged.
Data on observed daily global and monthly sums of sunshine duration were put at disposal of the
project from the World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC), St. Petersburg (Russia). Additional important
and necessary data of daily sums of sunshine duration were supplied by National Weather Services
and scientific institutes of the following countries. Some of these institutions delivered data on daily
global solar radiation and/or diffuse solar radiation as well. This supporting data was greatly appreciated by the project participants and helped to bring the project into strong forces.
National Weather Services and Institutes which supported the project are set down in alphabetic order.
Austria
Belgium
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Jordan
Malta
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Russia
Switzerland
Sweden
Turkey
United Kingdom
Zentralanstalt fr Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Vienna

Insitut Royal Mtorologique de Belgique, Brussels
Drzavni Hidrometeoroloski Zavod, Zagreb
Meteorological Service, Nicosia
Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Praha and Solar and Ozone Observatory,
Hradec Kralove
Technical University of Denmark
Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki
Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach
GKSS Forschungszentrum, Geesthacht
Zentrum fr Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung, Stuttgart
Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Athens
Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik
Meteorological Service, Dublin
Servizio Meteorologico dellAeronautica Militare, Roma
Meteorological Departement, Amman Civil Airport, Amman
Meteorological Ofiice, Civil Aviation Departement, Luqa
Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, De Bilt
University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute, Bergen
Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, Warszawa
World Radiation Data Centre, St. Petersburg
Schweizerische Meteorologische Anstalt, Zrich
Sveriges Meteorologiska och Hydrologiska Insititut, Norrkping
Turkish State Meteorological Service, Ankara
The Meteorological Office, Bracknell
Satellite images from METEOSAT were supplied to the project by GKSS Research Centre in
Geesthacht, Germany, by Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach, Germany and by NASA Langley Research Centre, USA.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - Acknowledgements
We also have to thank the Centre of Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research, Stuttgart, Germany and
Alain de la Casinire, University Jacques Fourier, Grenoble, France for cooperation on spectral solar
irradiation data.
The origin of other meteorological parameters as daily maximum and minimum air temperatures
and precipitation is a CD-ROM named Global Daily Summary published by the National Climate
Data Centre, Asheville, N.C., USA. Long-term monthly means of air temperature, vapour pressure,
precipitation and atmosphere pressure were contributed from Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach,
Germany.
The Test Reference Years (TRY) are kindly supplied by:
Royal Meteorological Service, Uccle, Belgium

Meteorological Service, Dublin, Ireland
Hungarian Meteorological Service, Budapest, Hungary
Main Geophysical Observatory, St. Petersburg, Russia
National Observatory of Athens, Inst. of Meteorology and Physic of the Atmospheric Environment,
Athens, Greece
German Weather Service, Offenbach, Germany.
For valuable help in establishing the Biomass Reference Years, we thank
P. Vossen, J.R.C. Institute for Remote Sensing Applications, Agriculture Information Systems,
Ispra, Italy
Ghislain Gosse, INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Thiveral, France
Digital information on elevation, water covered areas, coastlines and political borderlines are taken
from topographical maps published by the National Centre of Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Boulder, Co., USA.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell
The European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA) in a nutshell
The ESRA-concept
ESRA is a logical continuation of the European Solar Radiation Atlas of 1984. It covers a wider geographical area and is backed with a data base that is considerably extended both in space and in time
detail. It takes full advantage of recent advances in information technology to present PC based maps
and to provide an associated user friendly software package to enable users to develop their own specific data systematically from the data base (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2 : database
and exploitation software which consists of a CD-ROM with its guidebook. It is a working tool for
engineers and architects,

meteorologists and climatologists,
agronomers and biologists,
settlement-planners
landscape designers
teachers and students,
journalists and
politicians.
The main features of ESRA can be summarised as follows:

The geographical coverage ranges from
30 W to 70 E
29 N to 75 N.
Solar radiation measurements and meteorological values which have served to build-up the radiation maps and the station time series range from
1981 1990.
ESRA is structured in the following way:
Data Base
Retrieval Software
and SolarAlgorithms
Editor
The data base contains all solar radiation information for the whole area and additional meteorological information. The data exist at two main levels, monthly mean daily level, and daily time series
for selected stations. There is also a limited amount of observed data at the hourly time scale.
A set of algorithms which enable the user to compute starting from the values in the data base derived information to match user defined needs.
A software package which allows the systematic inspection of maps, easy retrieval of numeric data,
processing of data under user specification, the editing and saving of results.
Data Base (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

database and exploitation software)
The data base hosts the following information:

A.
Digital maps with pixel size of 5 x 5 (or approximately 10 km x 10 km at 50 N and 40 E)

showing:
geomorphology and country borders,

daily solar irradiation on horizontal planes (monthly and yearly means from the period 1981 1990)
global irradiation,
diffuse irradiation,
direct irradiation,
monthly mean clearness index KT,
solar climate regions,
biomass climate regions.
The maps for global irradiation have been constructed from 10 year averages of observed global irradiation from ground based sites in combination with satellite image data for a shorter period structured together using the co-kriging interpolation method. Diffuse irradiation maps were calculated
from global irradiation maps using the clearness index information with an empirical polynomial regression formula, using regression coefficients adjusted to monthly mean daily global and diffuse radiation measurements in Europe. The direct irradiation is mapped as the difference between global and
diffuse irradiation.
Solar climate regions and biomass climate regions have been calculated by cluster analysis for similar clearness index respectively for similar biomass growth parameters (global irradiation, daily mean
temperatures and daily temperature ranges and precipitation).
B.
Station data (time series from selected ground measuring stations)
Daily values
out of 90 reference stations: 89 stations with global irradiation, 32 stations with sums of sunshine
duration, 86 stations with mean, maximum (85) and minimum temperatures and precipitation,

hourly values:
30 minutes-values:
six stations with sums of sunshine duration and global and diffuse
irradiation on horizontal planes,
one station with sums of sunshine duration and global and diffuse
irradiation on horizontal planes,
monthly values
(not all values are available
for all stations):
695 stations with monthly means of sunshine duration,
586 stations with monthly means of daily sums from 10-year averages
of global irradiation, sunshine duration (556 stations) and monthly
means of minimum and maximum air temperatures (435 stations),
precipitation (435 stations), air pressure (266 stations) and vapour
pressure (274 stations),
595 stations with monthly means of the ngstrm coefficients a + b.
C.
Composed data sets:
six stations (St. Petersburg, Dublin , Brussels (UCCLE), Freiburg, Budapest and Athens) with Test
Reference Years (TRY),
one station (Kobenhaven) with Design Reference Year (DRY),
two stations (Kobenhaven , Ispra) with long Biomass Reference Years (BRY),
five stations (Kobenhaven, Ispra, Passau, Marignane, Brindisi) with short Biomass Reference
Years (BRY).
Solar Algorithms (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

Mathematical models are used to derive input data for scientific and technological problems, like the
irradiation on inclined planes, using the measured data compiled in the data base, which are restricted
to horizontal surfaces. Most of these input data are monthly mean data or daily data. The derived data
can be presented at the finer time scale of one hour using the concept of mean daily profiles of horizontal irradiation (There are only few observed hourly data in the data base). A widespread survey of
literature was performed at the start of the project, and the selected algorithms were validated against
European data. The complete documentation of this area is provided in the ESRA volume 2: database
and exploitation software.
The following algorithmic chains reside as computational facilities within the software package, and
are automatically called, as appropriate, to generate the requested outputs.
Chain 1 -
From Gd (i.e. daily averages of global irradiation) series to series of daily mean profiles of
hourly direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and global irradiation, and respective
daily sums
Chain 2 -
From Gd and Sd (i.e. daily sunshine hours) series to daily mean profiles of hourly average
direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and global illuminance
Chain 3 -
From (Gd)m (i.e. monthly averages of daily means of global irradiation) values to monthly
average daily mean profiles of hourly direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and
global irradiation, and respective daily sums
Chain 4 -
From (Gd)m and Sm values to monthly average daily mean profiles of hourly average direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and global illuminance
10
Chain 5 -
From (Gd)m and (TL)m (monthly average Linke turbidity) values monthly average daily
mean profiles of hourly direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and global irradiation
under cloudless skies, and respective daily sums
Chain 6 -
From (Gd)m and Sm values to monthly average global spectral irradiance values
Chain 7 -
From (Tmin)m and (Tmax)m values (i.e. monthly average minimum and maximum ambient
temperatures) to daily mean profiles of hourly temperature and respective averages
Chain 8 -
From Gd series to cumulative probability and utilizability functions of global and beam
irradiance and respective available energy functions
Chain 9 -
From Gd and Sd series to cumulative probability and utilizability functions of global and
diffuse illuminance and available illuminance functions
Chain 10 - From (Tmin)m, (Tmax)m, Sm, and (pW)m (i.e. monthly average vapour pressure) values to
monthly average downward sky hourly and daily long wave irradiation values.
Chains nos. 1 to 5 and 8 to 10 include the cases of horizontal plane and of tracking or non-tracking
inclined surfaces.
Use of the Tool Box to assess solar system performance

(see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:
Simplified computer models for system performance assessment of four systems are integrated within
the ESRA software package.
Solar water heaters and active solar systems

Photovoltaic systems
Passive solar buildings
Biomass production
Examples are provided using these models in conjunction with the solar radiation data base.
The selection of these simplified models has been based on a detailed analysis of user data needs in
the context of the different computer programmes currently used by professional groups like architects, engineers and agronomists.
The principles of the use of data for simulation are also reviewed and reference is made to a wide
range of simulation models in current use.
The impact of the quality of the solar horizontal data inputs on the assessment of system performance using inclined collection systems has been analysed.
Statistical data have also been prepared demonstrating the significance of inter annual variations in
solar radiation availability in the assessment of long term performance.
11
The CD-ROM (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

As primary tool, the whole ESRA-system is presented on CD-ROM.

Necessary hardware:
PC-compatible (at least 486-DX2-66, preferred Pentium 120)
SVGA display (at least 800 x 600, 256 colours, preferred 1024 x 768 and 64 k colours),
CD-ROM drive (at least speed = x 4, preferably x 8)
Necessary software:
Windows 95 (not installable on Windows 3.1x, nor Windows NT)
The CD-ROM contains
the entire data base,

the retrieval system to select data from the base or from external data input for further purposes,
the 10 algorithmic chains,
some simple models for dimensioning of practical solar energy appliances, solar architecture, biomass production,
software to manage data flow and computation,
visualisation and interactive structures,
editing facilities (printing of tables, maps and graphs),
export of data sets to other external or internal files of the user.
The Atlas Book (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 1:

fondamentals and maps)
The atlas book gives a general survey on solar energy, solar mapping, mapping of solar and biomass
climate regions, the structure of the data base and its main applications. Solar radiation values from the
data base are presented in annual and monthly multi-coloured digital maps.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 1 Introduction
15
1 Introduction
This new European Solar Radiation Atlas ESRA has to be seen as a logical continuation of the
support the European Commission has given to research and demonstration of solar energy through its
Directorate General XII research programme.
The previous atlas (Commission of the European Communities, 1984) has been out of print for
some time, so an updated and improved edition was published in 1996 (Commission of the European
Communities, 1996). These Atlases are based on solar data from the period of 1966 to 1975, and only
the member states of the European Community (with some neighbouring countries) are included.
ESRA was prepared within the framework of the JOULE II programme (1994) by an integrated
group of scientists.
Main contractor and project coordination:
Project coordinator:
Scientific coordination:
GET Gesellschaft fr
Entwicklungstechnologie mbH,
Jlich/Germany
K. Scharmer (GET mbH)
J. Greif (European Commission,
DG XII)
J.K. Page (Em. Prof. University
of Sheffield)
R. Dogniaux (formerly IRM,
Brussels)
Primary data and data base

-
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), Hamburg/Germany
G. Czeplak, U. Terzenbach,
I. Bernhardt
Ecole des Mines, Centre Energtique, Groupe
L. Wald, S. Antoine, O. Bauer,
Tldetection et Modlisation (ARMINES),
L. Beaudoin, H.-G. Beyer,
Sophia-Antipolis/France
E. Franois, M. Lefevre,
N. Poloubinski, Ch. Rigollier
Technical University Denmark, Thermal Insulation H. Lund, J. Mller-Jensen
Laboratory (TUD), Lyngby/Denmark
Institut Royal Mtorologique de Belgique (IRM), A. Joukoff, J. Tempels
Brussels/Belgium
A.I. Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory MGO, E.P. Borisenko, A. Tsvetkov
St. Petersburg/Russia
Task coordinator:
L. Wald (ARMINES)
Solar Algorithms
-
Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia

Industrial, Instituto de Tecnologias Energticas
Departamento de Energias Renovveis (INETI),
Lisbon/Portugal
R. Aguiar, M.J. Carvalho,

M. Collares Pereira
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 1 Introduction
16
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), Hamburg/Germany

University of Sheffield, Sheffield/United Kingdom
Building Research Establishment, Watford/
United Kingdom
Task coordinator:
G. Czeplak
J.K. Page
P. Littlefair
J.K. Page
Software Infrastructure (The CD-ROM)

-
Ecole des Mines, Centre Energtique, Groupe

Tldetection et Modlisation (ARMINES),
Sophia-Antipolis/France
M. Albuisson
User Needs and Validation

-
Ecole des Mines de Nantes (ARMINES),

Nantes/France
Task coordinator:
B. Bourges. L. Kadi
B. Bourges
Scientists from this task force have been engaged in similar work for many years, e.g. the European
Solar Radiation Atlas (Commission of the European Communities, 1984), The Solar Microclimate
Project (K. Scharmer et al., 1989), the Daylighting Atlas (D.N. Asimakopoulos et al.,1996), the Solar
Radiation Atlas of Africa (E. Raschke, R. Stuhlmann, W. Palz and T.C. Steemers (Ed.) ,1991), the
Climatic Data Handbook for Europe (B. Bourges (Ed.), 1992), the Atlas of Hydrometeorological Data
(Army Publishing House, Moscow, 1991), the Bavarian Solar and Wind Atlas (Bayerisches Staatsministerium fr Wirtschaft, Verkehr und Technologie (Pub.), 1995) and other solar projects. This experience has enabled the authors to use the most reliable and up to date know-how on data processing,
solar algorithms and mapping techniques as far as the time framework and the financial limits of the
project allowed.
Following the recent rapid development of information technology, it was decided to present the
main part of the Atlas information on CD-ROM (ESRA vol. 2), to be used with personal computers,
so, that the Atlas integrates itself onto the tool-shelf of todays generation of scientists, architects
and engineers.
Nevertheless, some of the key information, including the most important maps, are published in
this book. These give a preliminary information on the Atlas contents and allow for retrieval of
information on strategic scale and should make the reader inquisitive to examine the content of the
CD-ROM (ESRA vol. 2).
The CD-ROM (ESRA vol. 2) is accompanied by a Users Guidebook (ESRA vol. 2) which gives
full details on structure, content, nature and origin of data and the level of confidence as well providing the primary data base for the various derived data sets. Importantly it provides detailed instructions
for the CD-ROM-user.
Any reader, who looks for more basic information is referred to the numerous publications which
have already originated from this project. There are more scientific publications to come, describing
scientific advances achieved during the project including the Book of Algorithms (R. Aguiar and J.
Page, to be published). This publication is the result of a thorough review of mathematical models
actually used in solar radiation calculations. These have been subjected to a detailed validation and
adaptation programme for the meteorological conditions prevailing in the various climatic regions of
the area covered by the Atlas.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 2 The concept of ESRA
17
2 The concept of the European Solar Radiation Atlas
2.1
Geographical area
Map 2.1 shows the geographic exterit of the area for which solar radiation parameters have been established. The mapped zone runs from 30 West to 70 East and from 25 North to 75 North, in other
words from the Azores in the West to Tashkent in the East and from Oasis Kufra in the Sahara to Novaj Semlja in the Barents Sea. The printed maps in this Atlas are in Albers projection. The computer
version gives the same information, but on the canonical Projection shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1: The area covered by ESRA in canonical x-y co-ordinates, x - longitude; y - latitude
2.2
The content
The Atlas is built from two major components:
the data base,
the software package (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2).
18
The data base was compiled from measurements of solar irradiation and of other meteorological and
climatological parameters within the reference period 1st January 1981 to 31st December 1990. Images
from satellites have been used in addition to ground based measurements to prepare clearness index
maps from which the global, diffuse and direct beam irradiation maps were prepared.
From the carefully screened and quality controlled primary data, the following information was
integrated into the data base:
Digital maps with a standard pixel size of 5 x 5 or approximately 10 x 10 km in the centre of the
area covered by the atlas. The following information for each pixel is needed in order to build the
map
geographic position,
altitude,
global, diffuse and direct solar irradiation on horizontal surfaces,
clearness index,
biomass growth parameters and
various types of auxiliary information such as borderlines, country names, map colours, water bodies, etc.
The second data block consists of:
Station data. These are time series of solar and meteorological data from 586 selected ground
measuring stations compiled over various time intervals from 10 year monthly averages to daily,
hourly and half-hourly values. The following physical quantities are available (but not for all stations):
sunshine duration,
global irradiation,
ngstrm coefficients am & bm,
dry bulb air temperatures,
atmosphere pressure,
vapour pressure,
precipitation.
Additionally some composed data sets for individual locations, selected statistically on a month by
month basis from different years observed data, are integrated:
six Test Reference Years (TRY),
one Design Reference Year (DRY), daily level
seven Biomass Reference Years (BRY).
Figure 2.2 shows the position of the ground measuring stations. It is evident from the inhomogeneous distribution, that the digital maps over large parts of the mapped area are strongly based on information from satellite images.
19
Fig. 2.2: Positions of ground based measuring stations
The software package (ESRA vol. 2), together with the data base, allows the user to generate information for research on and application of solar energy.
Data Base
Algorithms and
simple application
models
- digital maps
- station data
Editor
Maps
Graphs
Data listings
Simple solar
applications
Hardcopy
Input for further

calculations
Fig. 2.3: Schematic of the ESRA database and software package
The main part of the software package consists of a selection of algorithms which translate observed data, e.g. global solar irradiation on horizontal plane, sun hours, air temperature, etc. into useful
physical information for users of solar energy, e.g. short wave radiation on an oriented surface at a
20
given hour of a specific day, from direct, diffuse and ground reflected radiation or monthly daily averages, or utilizability functions of global and/or beam irradiance etc..
These calculations in principle can be made for any geographical site inside of the area covered by
the atlas then the calculation starts from the monthly average irradiation values of the solar maps, or
with higher precision from the data base for those sites, where daily measured series are available.
For fast survey calculations simple models are integrated for assessing the performance of solar water
heaters, photovoltaic devices, passive solar buildings and biomass productivity.
2.3
Users of ESRA
The atlas is designed for professional use as well as for research and teaching. It also provides an
overview for those seeking rapid information on the potential of solar energy in Europe. It is applicable to many professional groups.
The first group are:
engineers,
architects.
Their work is supported through the direct access to solar energy information at any specific site in
Europe from the data base of ESRA. The software package permits this primary data to be transformed into technical/energetic information, which in turn can be transformed to provide input parameters for different types of more sophisticated computer programmes which are in use today for
dimensioning of equipment, power generators, assesing solar gains for buildings, designing daylighting or similar problems.
The second group of users are people whose work is connected with vegetation growth:
agronomists and foresters,
landscape designers,
settlement planners.
Special attention has been given to their needs. To assist these fields of work, additonal information
to the solar impact data is supplied for a large number of ground measuring stations on those meteorological parameters which influence biomass production: air temperature, atmosphere pressure, humidity and precipitation.
The maps with areas of similar biomass productivity conditions may help with large-scale biomass
production analysis.
The third group of users, more interested in fundamental problems are:
solar energy research workers,
climatologists,
teachers and students.
A chapter with some fundamental information on solar radiation measurements is included with a
short description of the basic approach used in preparing the solar and meteorological information
entered in the ESRA data base.
The algorithms used are described, including the tests and validation methods which have been used
to select the most appropriate computational chains for inclusion in the software package. The comparatively large number of measuring stations with long-term data provided at high resolution in time
(daily and hourly values) will help in developing and testing of new mathematical models. The solar
21
maps which cover the whole area of the atlas, include areas where up to now only very little or no
information at all on solar energy has been available. This data, together with the meteorological data
sets, can be a valuable source of information for climatologists and for research programmes on global
change of our climate in Europe, especially if read in conjunction with the earlier Atlases.
Last not least, ESRA provides information to people who are concerned with long-term planning
and political issues related to solar energy, biomass production and climatological impact as well as
with public information:
politicians and
journalists.
Here, the Atlas provides with its maps and surveys valuable information which is accessible without
the need to be familiar with all details of data processing and algorithmic calculations.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 3 Basics of solar radiation
23
Basics of solar radiation
3.1
Introduction
Any user of solar energy is interested in the quantity of radiation which can be received and transformed into useful energy at a given time or given time interval at a given geographical place or area.
This is true independently of whether the useful output energy will be in the form of electricity, thermal energy or chemically bound energy, for instance in form of biomass.
It follows that the solar irradiation must be predicted in its spectral form, defining its direction, its
mix of diffuse and beam, its geographical distribution and its distribution with time.
The solar radiation at the outer edge of the atmosphere can be predicted with high precision, as it
depends essentially on astronomical geometric parameters. At the surface prediction is more difficult
because of the interaction of the solar beam with the atmosphere containing aerosols, with varying
cloud cover and with differing soil surfaces. Mean solar radiation is subject to a large number of influences with a broad statistical spectrum which cannot be predicted with mathematical precision.
Thus these influences have to be determined with help of the analysis of historical measurements from
which algorithms are derived which allow together with the known astronomical geometry - the
prediction of the geographical distribution of solar irradiation and its distribution in time within the
bandwidth of known statistical deviations.
The three most important parameters solar geometry, time systems and interactions of solar energy
with atmosphere and earths surface are discussed in this Chapter.
3.2
The choice of fundamental observational data in relation to mapping
possibilities
Data on solar energy may be presented at any chosen level of time. The instantaneous flux of short
wave radiant energy is called the irradiance. It is stated in this Atlas in W/m2.The irradiation is the
integral of the irradiance over any convenient stated period of time.
As compaction is essential for practicability, Meteorological Services present their observed irradiation data at two principle levels of integration time, hour by hour data and day by day data. It is usual
for Meteorological Services to present observed hour to hour irradiation data in solar time, also called
local apparent time (LAT). In this system of time, the movements of the sun are symmetrical about the
North-South line. Month by month monthly means are derived from these primary data. All calculated irradiance and illuminance data in this Atlas are generated in LAT.
The design of the Atlas required making choices of appropriate integration time intervals for the irradiation data to be used to construct the data base and so implicitly for consequent map construction.
The actual data availability was one issue. Data base compactness was a second issue. The day was
selected as the appropriate generally achievable integration period. When using the Atlas, data for time
levels below the day are reached in most cases through calculation using the CD-ROM tool box
24
(ESRA vol. 2), though there are a few example years on the CD-ROM with hourly or half-hourly observed data.
The daily global irradiation on horizontal surfaces, and their corresponding 10 year monthly mean
daily values were selected as the primary observed data to be used in the construction of this Atlas
after appropriate quality control. The irradiation units used are Wh/m2 per day.
As the ground observational sites are very sparse in some parts of the geographic area covered, it
was considered essential for the success of the project to make effective use of available satellite observations to improve spatial coverage. The final mapped 10-year monthly mean daily global irradiation values for horizontal surfaces presented had to be reached through a combination of ground based
observations and satellite observations. These data were complemented by an extensive network of
ground based stations providing year by year observations of monthly mean bright sunshine. These
sunshine data enabled ground based estimates to be made of monthly mean daily global irradiation in
any month in the 10 year data series (1981 - 1990), using the Angstrom formula with its two site specific month by month regression coefficients, am and bm.
It was decided spatial irradiation mapping should only attempted at the monthly mean level and that
the mapping should be confined to horizontal surface data. However, it was decided that the mapping
process and the associated software should be designed so the inputs for slope calculations at the
monthly mean level for any place could be extracted very simply from these maps. Considerations of
practicability led to the decision that 10 yea day by day global irradiation time series data for only a
100 representative sites should be incorporated in the final CD-ROM data sets.
Another policy decision concerned the generation of 10 year mean values of beam and diffuse daily
irradiation on horizontal surfaces. The global irradiation on horizontal surfaces consists of tow parts,
the direct beam irradiation and the diffuse irradiation from the sky. Diffuse irradiation observations
were only available for a limited number of sites in the mapped area. Data were needed for all mapped
pixels. It was essential to fill this important gap. This limited sit of diffuse irradiation observations
from Europe was used to develop computational methods to estimate 10-year daily means of diffuse
irradiance, pixel by pixel. These methods are discussed later. The direct beam was then found by difference. The development of these processes opened up the opportunity of providing mapped values of
10-year monthly mean beam and diffuse irradiation on horizontal surfaces. Such data were not available in previous versions of the European Solar Radiation Atlas.
The final basic mapping concept used in the development of the Atlas was the decision to make systematic use of a key dimensionless ratio called the clearness index, or KT value, as the fundamental
basis for mapping data coordination between ground data and satellite data. This ratio is defined as the
daily global horizontal irradiation at the surface divided by the corresponding daily global irradiation
on a horizontal surface outside the atmosphere. The use of the dimensionless ratio reduces the impacts
of variation of latitude, so bringing out more clearly the effects of mean cloudiness. Clearness index
values may be extracted at the daily level or the monthly mean level. It was decided to include the 10
year monthly mean maps of clearness index in the Atlas. These maps give the user a good idea of the
relative cloudiness of any region. 10 year monthly mean values below 0.30 imply very cloudy climates, while 10 year monthly means above 0.60 imply very sunny climates.
The were no systematic data sets of illuminance. It was decided to adopt the recommendations of
the earlier CEC Daylighting project to enable users to generate illuminance data, presented in kilolux.
In view of the demand for spectral data, it was decided a special study should be commissioned to
develop a spectral irradiation model, and test it against the few European observed spectral data sets
available.
Finally it was recognised that interest often centred on inclined planes. A systematic algorithmic
system for calculating slope irradiances and illuminance had to be created. Any slope models had to be
checked against European slope irradiation observations at the hour by hour level.
25
3.3
Time systems
minutes
The movements of the sun as seen from the earth are obviously a function of time of day. Civil time is
defined for convenience to cover wide geographical areas, for example the Central European Time
(CET.) Zone. Sunrise and sunset times in Civil Time depend on both latitude, which determines the
daylength and also on longitude. Longitude influences the precise times of sunrise and sunset in Civil
Time. Longitude does not influence the daylength. Daylength is determined solely by the date in the
year and the latitude. As one moves eastwards in a given time zone, the sun at any given latitude both
rises earlier and also sets earlier. The shift is 4 minutes earlier per degree of longitude moved to the
East. Civil time is often called Local Mean Time (LMT).
An alternative time system widely used in solar energy studies is Solar Time often called Local Apparent Time (LAT). Noon in solar time is set as the instant when the sun crosses the North South meridian line. This is the moment when the sun has its greatest elevation. Sunrise and sunset are symmetrical about noon in solar time. The sunrise and sunset times in solar time are independent of longitude.
Most Meteorological Services summarize solar irradiation observations on an hour by hour basis using Solar Time. The algorithms used in this Atlas have also been prepared in Solar Time, so it is important sometimes to be able to relate the two systems of time.
The reference longitude for Universal Time (U.T.) is Greenwich, where the longitude is zero. Due
to small motions of the earth about its North South polar axis, there are small differences between
Civil Time and Solar Time at Greenwich. These differences are described by the Equation of Time.
Figure 3.3.1 shows the values of the Equation of Time as a function of day number in minutes. If one
stays in the time zone covered by Greenwich Mean Time, each degree of longitude to the west will
represent a displacement of -1/15 hours (-4 minutes). Civil time is based on defined time zones. A
reference longitude can be ascribed to any defined time displacement. Central European Time is one
hour ahead of GMT.
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
1
31
61
91
121
151
181
211
Julian days
Fig. 3.3.1 The equation of time
241
271
301
331
361
26
The consequent relationship between Civil Time (L.M.T.) and Solar Time (L.A.T.) is given by:
L.A.T. = L.M.T. + ET + ( - R)/15 - c (decimal hours)
where
ET
R
c
is the Equation of Time in decimal hours.

is the longitude in degrees (East positive)
is the longitude of the time zone selected in degrees (East positive)
is the correction for summer time set normally 1 hour in those countries where
summer time is applied.
Each one hour advance on GMT represents a change of 15 degrees in the reference longitude. Each
hour difference behind GMT represents a change of -15 degrees in reference longitude.
The significance of longitude in determining the difference between L.A.T. and L.M.T. is best illustrated by an example drawn within a single time zone.
Oviedo in Spain is at 43 21' N and 5 52' West, Berlin in Germany is 52 28' N and 13 18' E. Warsaw is at 52 16'N and 20 59' E. The Equation of Time on January 29th is -12.95 minutes (see Figure
3.3.1). If it is noon in clock time at Oviedo, the Solar Time will be 10:24. If it is noon in clock time at
Berlin, Solar Time will be 11:40. If it is noon at Warsaw, Solar Time will be 12:11. If the site is close
to the time reference meridian, the differences will be small. Where there are big longitudinal differences as in Oviedo, the differences are very significant. When summer time is in operation, there is an
additional displacement of 1 hour, which may make the displacement between the two systems of time
even larger. In interpreting all hourly graphs and tables from the Tool Box, users must take special
care to remember the data are all presented to the user in Solar Time.
3.4
The Julian day and the hour angle
The time system used for computing the geometric position of the sun is based on the use of the Julian
day, j, to describe the position of the day in the annual sequence of days and the use of the hour angle,
, to describe the time of day as an angle measured from solar noon. The hour angle at solar noon is
set as zero. The Earth rotates about its axis once in 24 hours, so the passage of one hour represents a
15 degree rotation. The hour angle is set as positive after solar noon and negative before solar noon.
Thus 09:00 L.A.T. yields an hour angle of -45o, 15:00 L.A.T. an hour angle of +45o. Table 3.4.1
gives the Julian day number both for non-leap years and for leap years, month by month, as a function
of day number in the month. The Julian day is converted into a Day angle, j', for some calculation
purposes. This is done by multiplying j by 360o and dividing by the mean length of the year (365.25
days taking account of the leap year cycle).
27
Table 3.4.1 The Julian day j corresponding to the i-th day of the month
Month
J for ith day of month
leap year
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
i
31 + i
59 + i
90 + i
120 +i
151 + i
181 + i
212 + i
243 + i
273 + i
304 + i
334 + i
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
(+1)
3.5
Extraterrestrial radiation from the sun
The mean irradiance normal to the solar beam outside the atmosphere of the Earth at mean solar distance is 1367 W/m2. This value is known as the Solar Constant Io. However the earth revolves around
the sun in an elliptical orbit. So the earth is slightly closer to the sun in the Northern Hemisphere winter and slightly further away during the Northern Hemisphere summer. The time of closest approach is
known as the Perihelion and occurs around January 2nd. The point of greatest distance is known as the
Aphelion (see Figure 3.5.1).
Fig. 3.5.1 Elliptical revolution of the earth around the sun
28
The distance between the earth and sun varies by + 1.7%. Following the inverse square law, the
range of the irradiance is + 3.3%. In addition the value of Io varies within a period of 11.2 years by
about 1 W/m2. This is caused by cyclical variations of solar activity. The irradiance falling on a horizontal plane outside the atmosphere, Go is given by:
Go = 1367 sin s W/m2
where
s
(3.5.1)
is the correction to mean solar distance

is the solar altitude in degrees.
is calculated as
= 1 + 0.0334 cos(j'-2.80o), where j' is the day angle
(3.5.2)
Extraterrestrial irradiation, Wh/m^2

per day
The extraterrestrial irradiance falling on a horizontal surface may be integrated over the day to find
the daily irradiation between sunrise and sunset falling on a horizontal surface, God. It is expressed
here in Wh/m2. Figure 3.5.2 shows graphically the variation of God with Latitude and Julian day in the
Northern Hemisphere. Such daily extraterrestrial data are used as denominators in the systematic
analysis of daily irradiation reaching the surface to generate the Clearness Index, Gd/God, from the
observed daily global irradiation, Gd.
14000
12000
Lat. 60 N
Lat. 50 N
Lat. 40 N
Lat. 30 N
Lat. 20 N
Lat. 10 N
Lat. 0 N
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1
51
101
151
201
251
301
351
Julian day number

Fig. 3.5.2 The extraterrestrial irradiation at the top of the atmosphere in the Northern Hemisphere as a function of day in the
year and latitude
The average extraterrestrial irradiance onto the earths atmosphere can easily be estimated using
simple geometric principles. The mean extraterrestrial flux per unit surface area is given by the product of the solar constant and the ratio of2 the area of the cross section R2 divided by the total area of
the surface 4R2 , i.e. 1367/4 = 342 W/m . Refer Figure 3.5.3.
29
Earth, radius R
R
R
Su
equator
Mean solar irradionto earths atmosphere

/4 = 342 W/m
I
Solar constant
= 1367 W/m
Fig 3.5.3 Available extraterrestrial mean solar irradiance per m2 striking the atmosphere
The considerable modifications introduced by the atmosphere now have to be considered. These
modifications are strongly influenced by the solar geometry, which will be considered first.
3.6
Geometry of solar movements as seen from the earth
3.6.1
The sun-earth geometry
The knowledge of the geometrical parameters describing the position of the sun as seen from the earth
is essential when information on solar radiation for a specific location and time is required. Three fundamental parameters are needed to determine the position of the sun as seen from any point of the
earth.
the Latitude of the site of observation.
the Julian day number.
the time of day expressed as an hour angle from solar noon.
30
3.6.2
Declination angle
The key calculation input for generating the solar geometry is the declination. The declination angle
is the angle between the Equatorial Plane and the line joining the centre of the Earth's sphere to the
centre of the Solar disk. The axis of rotation of the Earth about the poles is set at an angle to the socalled Plane of the Ecliptic. The angle of inclination is 23o 27'. The maximum declination angle of 23o
27' in the Northern Hemisphere occurs at the Summer Solstice, on June 21st. The minimum declination angle of -23o 27' in the Northern Hemisphere occurs at the Winter Solstice on December 22nd.
The declination of the sun is a continuously varying function of time, but the rate of change within a
specific day is small enough to allow the use of a constant value for any Julian day. One parameter,
the Julian day number, enables the solar declination to be established for any point in time with acceptable practical accuracy. For very high accuracy the Year Number, the Longitude of the site and the
precise time of day have to be introduced into the calculation, but this refinement is not usually necessary in most practical studies. Latitude enters in the subsequent geometric calculations.
The following simplified declination formula has been successfully used for many years in the various CEC Solar Radiation Atlas Programmes.
= sin -1{0.3978 sin(j'-80.2o+1.92(sin(j'-2.80o)))} degrees
where
(3.6.1)
j' is the Julian day number expressed as a day angle in degrees.
The formula provides mean daily values averaged over the four year leap year time cycle. Figure
3.6.1 plots the declination calculated with this formula against the Julian Day number.
30.00
Declination degrees
20.00
10.00
0.00
1
51
101
151
201
-10.00
-20.00
-30.00
Julian day number
Fig. 3.6.1 Declination angle as a function of Julian Day number
251
301
351
31
3.6.3
The solar altitude angle
Figure 3.6.2 sets down the geometric definitions of the solar altitude and azimuth angles.
(s
Fig. 3.6.2 Solar azimuth s and solar altitude s seen from an observer at position P
The solar altitude angle (often referred to as solar elevation angle) is calculated as a function of time
of day, expressed as an hour angle using the following formula:
s = sin -1(sin sin + cos cos cos ) degrees
where
(3.6.1)
is the latitude, Northern Hemisphere positive, degrees,
is the solar declination angle, degrees,
is the solar hour angle, degrees.
Time, t, in decimal hours on the 24 hour clock (using Local Apparent Time) is first converted to an
hour angle using:
= 15(t-12) degrees
(3.6.2)
32
3.6.4
Solar azimuth angle
The direction of the sun is given by its azimuth angle. The solar azimuth angle, s, is the angle between the vertical plane containing the direction of the sun, and the vertical plane running true North
South. It is measured from due South in the Northern Hemisphere and from due North in the Southern
Hemisphere. The azimuth angle has a positive value when the sun is to the West of the South-North
meridian, i.e. during afternoon in solar time. These angles may be converted into bearings from true
north, but it is important to adopt the correct definition of azimuth angle in using the algorithms that
follow. Refer Figure 3.6.2. The azimuth angle may be calculated as:
cos s = (sin sin s sin ) /cos cos s
(3.6.3.a)
sin s = cos sin /cos s
(3.6.3.b)
If sin s < 0 then s = cos-1(cos s )

If sin s > 0 then s = cos-1(cos s )
(3.6.3.c)
(3.6.3.d)
(Both formulae are needed in order to attribute the azimuth angle automatically into the correct
quadrant in computing programmes).
Note in the Southern Hemisphere, cos s = - (sin sin s sin ) /cos cos s
plane of ecliptic, plane of

Earths orbit around sun
solstice
21.June
declination
solar hour angle
vernal equinox
solstice
22.December
=0
Fig. 3.6.3 Geometry of the earth-sun system from the viewpoint of an observer at the position P on earths surface.
33
3.6.5
Sunset hour angle and daylength
The sunset hour angle, ss, is the hour angle at sunset. It defines the length of the astronomical day.
The sunset hour angle is easily calculated as cos-1(-tan tan ) degrees; the sunrise hour angle, sr, as
-cos-1(-tan tan ) degrees. Sunrise occurs at a time of (12 - cos-1(-tan tan )/15) hours L.A.T.,
while sunset occurs at time (12 + cos-1(-tan tan )/15 hours L.A.T). The astronomical daylength,
Sod, is given by cos-1(-tan tan )/7.5 hours.
If (-tan tan )>1 then the sun never rises on that day
(Polar winter).
If (-tan tan )<-1 then the sun never sets on that day
(Polar summer).
3.6.6
Relative daily sunshine duration
It is often useful to express the daily observed sunshine in dimensionless terms. This is simply
achieved by dividing the observed daily sunshine Sd by the astronomical day-length, Sod. Thus d =
Sd/Sod. This ratio is called the daily relative sunshine duration, alternatively % possible sunshine. The
monthly mean is (d)m. This dimensionless ratio is widely used in the calculation of mean daily global
radiation from observed mean daily sunshine duration. See below.
3.6.7
Angle of incidence
The beam irradiance on any surface of azimuth orientation and tilt is given by Bn cos (,)
where (,) is the angle of incidence on the specific surface. Its calculation requires a specification
of the orientation of the plane, , as a surface azimuth angle, measured from due South in the Northern
Hemisphere and from due North in the Southern Hemisphere. The inclination angle of the surface, ,
is measured from the horizontal plane.
In the calculation of cos (,), the wall solar azimuth angle is first determined. The wall solar azimuth angle is the angle between the vertical plane containing the normal to the surface and the vertical
plane passing through the centre of the solar disc, i.e. it is the resolved angle on the horizontal plane
between the direction of the sun and the normal to the surface. Its value must lie between -180o and
+180o degrees.
F =
s degrees
(3.6.4)
If F > 180 then F = F - 360o degrees.

If F < 180 then F = F + 360o degrees.
The sign convention normally used in the Northern Hemisphere is as follows, sun anti-clockwise
from normal on plan, sign negative, sun clockwise from normal on plan, sign positive. In the Southern
34
Hemisphere the sun travels in an anti-clockwise direction and the sign convention is changed. In between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, the direction of movement of the sun resolved on plan varies with season. Greater care is then needed with sign conventions.
Defining the surface inclination as , (vertical = 90o), the cosine of the angle of incidence is given
by:
cos (, ) = cos s sin cos F + sins cos
(3.6.5)
If cos (, ) is negative, the sun lies behind the surface.
A simpler form may be used on vertical surfaces:
cos (90, ) = cos s cos F
(3.6.6)
3.7
Choice of calculation times
The ESRA Atlas tool box calculations are normally based on the use of the mid hour times in L.A.T.,
i.e. 09:30, 10:30, except in the sunrise and sunset hours. In these hours, the hour angle used was set
midway between the sunrise hour angle, sr and the hour angle at the end of the sunrise hour at the
start of the day, INT(sr)+1 and midway between the hour angle at beginning of the sunset hour
INT(ss) and the hour angle at sunset, ss, where INT refers to the integer of the expression. Unless
this measure is adopted in the place of the standard mid hour calculation used for other hours, no solar
geometry will be generated if sunrise occurs after the middle of the sunrise hour in the morning or sets
before the middle of sunset hour in afternoon. Furthermore unrepresentatively low mean solar elevations will be calculated for the period if the sun is in fact up.
3.8
The solar radiation at the surface of the earth
The global irradiation is the short wave energy that actually reaches a horizontal surface after all the
absorption and scattering processes. This amount is influenced by the path length through the atmosphere, the clarity of atmosphere, the amount and type of cloud cover.
The interaction of the solar radiation with the atmosphere involves a series of quite complex processes. In order to simplify understanding of the role of the atmosphere, the energetic equilibrium between the atmosphere, the surface of the earth and incoming solar radiation can be separated into three
processes:
1. Solar radiation entering the atmosphere being absorbed and scattered before reaching the ground.
2. Thermal (long wave) radiation originating from the surface of the earth and the atmosphere above.
3. Non-radiative heat and energy transport processes in the atmosphere and between soil and the atmosphere.
This Atlas deals primarily with processes which belong to the first category concerning the short
wave solar radiation in the waveband 0.2 to 4.0 m, though there is a module in the CD-ROM tool
box and in the User's Handbook dealing with the estimation of the long wave radiation balance.
35
The incoming extraterrestrial irradiation enters the atmosphere and interacts with the atmospheric
components, i.e. the various gases, (including water vapour) and the condensed water droplets and
other aerosols. Some of these absorb short wave radiant energy, and others scatter it. In broad terms
Absorption by gas molecules, aerosols and condensed water accounts for 20% of the energy loss.
This results in a heating of the atmosphere.
Back scattering and back reflection mainly from clouds sends 23% of the incoming solar energy
directly back to space.
Averaging over the globe, only 57% of the primary incoming solar energy reaches the ground.
30% of the incident extraterrestrial energy reaches the ground as beam radiation.
27% of the incoming extraterrestrial energy reaches the ground as beam radiation.
Depending on the reflectance of ground for solar radiation (the albedo), 8% of the short wave radiation is reflected back to space from the ground. This occurs with only minor spectral degradation. 49%
of the extraterrestrial flux is absorbed at the surface and is transformed into sensible heat or converted
chemically bound energy forms like biomass, or transformed into other renewable energy (wind, water).
The second path of heat loss to space is through thermal radiation in the band 4.0 to 100 m. The
thermal radiation resulting from the absorption of short wave radiation complements the thermal radiation to space resulting from the Earth's internal geological processes and radioactive decay. The proportion attributable to the solar budget is 49%. There is an added contribution to the outgoing long
wave radiation to space from the short wave energy absorbed in clouds and in the atmosphere. This
brings the absorbed short wave contribution to outgoing thermal radiation to 69% of the incoming
short wave radiation.
The global energy balance of the outer surface of the atmosphere of the earth is thus:
Incoming short wave radiation
Scattered and reflected short wave radiation
Thermal radiation to space
100%
-31%
-69%
Figure 3.8.1 shows these processes in a graphical form.
36
Solar radiation
Fig. 3.8.1 The mean distribution of the solar energy and radiation in the system earth/atmosphere. Modified after Treubert at
al., IPCC 1996
3.9
User needs
Users of solar energy need to be able to establish the following parameters quantitatively:
G(, , t1, t2) the total amount of solar irradation at latitude , longitude , between time t1 and
time t2 on surfaces of any orientation
The relative proportion of beam irradiation and diffuse irradiation.
The spectral breakdown of the radiation at the surface.
37
The Atlas allows the provision of radiation data at a number of time scales. The maps present daily
averages of global, beam and diffuse radiation over each month and also annual averages. The CDROM tool-box (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2) allows breakdown of this primary data to
shorter time intervals.
3.10
Transmission of solar radiation through the cloudless atmosphere
3.10.1
Direct and diffuse irradiation
The global solar irradiation on a horizontal surface has two components, the direct beam component B
and the diffuse component D. Clouds impact strongly on the global radiation received. So it is difficult
to predict the components of global radiation in the presence of clouds. Under clear sky conditions,
reasonably accurate predictions can be made from a knowledge of the solar geometry and the level of
water vapour and particulates in the atmosphere.
3.10.2
Relative optical air mass
The path length through the atmosphere exerts an important influence. This path length is described
by the relative optical air mass m. Its value depends on the solar altitude angle s and on the site atmospheric pressure p, which is influenced by site height above sea level. The value m of the relative
optical air mass can be calculated with an error of less than 0.5% for all solar elevations (F. Kasten &
A.T. Young, 1989) as:
m = (p/po)/{sin s + 0.50572 (s + 6.07995o) -1.6364}
(3.10.1)
where s is the solar altitude in degrees and (p/po) is the pressure correction for station height.
The following simple expression is adequate to estimate (p/po) :
(p/po) = exp(-z/HR)
(3.10.2)
where z is the site elevation above sea level in metres and HR = 8400 m. Figure 3.10.1 gives a
schematic representation of the relative optical air mass at sea level.
38
space, p = 0
atmospheric layer
m=1
m=
1
sin + a ( + b ) c
earth surface at sea level, z = 0 p p0

Fig. 3.10.2 The relative optical air mass m at sea level. It is important for sites significantly above sea level to apply the
correction (p/po).
3.10.3
The Linke turbidity factor
The other factor in the attenuation of the atmosphere is a function of the concentrations of the various
constituents in the atmosphere. Their impacts can be assessed by comparison of the actual observed
optical depth with the theoretical optical depth of a perfectly clean dry scattering Rayleigh atmosphere, r(m). This reference optical depth is a function of air mass. It is calculated as described below.
The ratio of the two optical depths is known as the Linke turbidity factor, TLK. The clear sky beam
irradiance normal to the beam at the surface is calculated as:
Ic = 1367. exp ( - 0.8662 TLK m r(m) ) W/m2
(3.10.3)
where TLK is the air mass 2 Linke Turbidity Factor,

m
is the optical air mass corrected for station height,
r (m) is the Rayleigh optical depth at air mass m,
is the correction factor to mean solar distance.
The beam irradiance on a horizontal surface from the clear sky is calculated by resolving the beam
normal irradiance onto the horizontal plane, as:
B c = 1367. exp ( -0.8662 TLK m r (m) ) sin s W/m2
(3.10.4)
where s is the solar altitude in degrees.

With the formulation now adopted, no solar altitude correction has to be applied to TLK, unlike the
formulation used in earlier versions of the European Solar Radiation Atlases. The two formulations
39
match perfectly at air mass 2, which is used as the reference base for Linke turbidity factor data derived from observations.
The following are rough guide-line values for selecting the Linke turbidity factor. More detailed
methods appropriate for specific sites are given in the User's Handbook.
very clear cold air in winter
TLK = 2
clear warm air
TLK = 3
moist warm air
TLK = 4-6
polluted air
TLK > 6
In Europe there is normally an annual cycle of Linke turbidity factor with the lowest values in December and January and the highest values in July and August. The first step in using these equations
3.10.3 and 3.10.4 is to estimate the Rayleigh optical depth for the perfectly clean dry atmosphere.
3.10.4
Estimating the Rayleigh optical thickness
The Rayleigh optical depth is calculated from the optical air mass by the algorithm as first set down by
Louche, Peri and Iqbal and modified by Kasten (1996). If m<20 then
1/r(m) = 6.6296 + 1.7513 m - 0.1202 m2 + 0.0065 m3 - 0.00013 m4
(3.10.5.a)
where m is the optical air mass.

The polynomial equation fit limit is an air mass less than or equal 20.
If m greater 20, the following expression must be used:
1/r(m) = (10.4 + 0.718 m)
(3.10.5.b)
The Equation 3.10.5a gives unreliable erratic results in this region, and its use should be strictly
avoided in this range.
3.10. 5
Estimating clear sky diffuse irradiance
The detailed estimation of the clear sky diffuse irradiance on horizontal surfaces is discussed in the
User's Handbook. The diffuse irradiance increases as the Linke turbidity factor increases. Figure
3.10.1 illustrates the relationship between diffuse irradiance and Linke turbidity factor as a function of
solar altitude for a sea level site. As the beam irradiance decreases, the diffuse irradiance from the
clear sky increases.
40
Diffuse irradiance, W/m^2
Clear sky diffuse irradiance on horizontal surfaces as a

function of Linke turbidity factor at m.s.d.
400
350
Linke turb 8
300
Linke turb 7
Linke turb 6
250
200
100
Linke turb 5
Linke turb 4
Linke turb 3
50
Linke turb 2
150
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Solar altitude, degrees
Fig. 3.10.1 The clear sky diffuse irradiance falling on a horizontal surface as a function of solar altitude and air mass 2 Linke
turbidity factor, TLK
3.10.6
The clear sky global irradiation
The clear sky global irradiation on a horizontal surface is estimated as the sum of the horizontal beam
irradiance and the horizontal diffuse irradiance. The hour by hour values can be integrated to provide
daily values of clear sky global irradiation on horizontal planes for any Linke turbidity factor. Inputting a Linke turbidity factor of 3.5 enabled Figure 3.10.2 to be calculated. This shows the clear day
global irradiation in the Northern Hemisphere as a function of Latitude and Julian day number for a
Linke turbidity factor of 3.5. The steep fall off in winter at high Latitudes is very evident. The latitudinal gradient of solar global radiation on clear days is very much less in summer.
3.11
Monthly mean daily global radiation and the monthly mean daily Clearness
Index
While God and hence the monthly mean (God)m, can be calculated, Gd has to be either directly observed or indirectly estimated. Cloud cover has a big impact on the monthly mean global irradiation.
Satellite observations allow the cloud cover to be spatially assessed. The impact of cloud on ground
level sunshine availability and on the consequent irradiation is very great.
The monthly mean global radiation data in this Atlas have been compounded from three sources:
Ground stations observing solar radiation and usually sunshine as well.
Ground stations observing only sunshine.
Satellite observations.
41
Ground based sunshine observations can be used to assess monthly mean global radiation. A key
physical concept, fundamental to the development of this Atlas, is the Clearness Index. Its daily value
is calculated as the ratio Gd/God. Graphical values of the denominator God are given in Figure 3.10.1
as a function of Latitude and Julian day number. This daily ratio is often called the daily KT value,
KTd. The monthly mean daily Clearness Index is designated as (KTd)m = (Gd)m/(God)m. This dimensionless quantity is used in many standard calculation procedures.
This monthly mean daily Clearness Index is the primary monthly mapped variable in this Atlas.
A powerful technique, widely used in the development of this Atlas, has been the use of daily observed sunshine data which are more widely available than global radiation data to estimate the Clearness Index from ground observations of sunshine for a number of sites with no radiation observations.
This process has reinforced the more limited ground observed solar radiation data base. The following
relationship called the Angstrom formula was used:
(KTd)m = am + bm(d)m
where
and
am and bm
(d)m
(3.11.1)
are site dependent monthly regression coefficients

is the monthly mean relative sunshine duration.
It follows that
(Gd)m = (am + bm(d)m ) (God)m
(3.11.2)
Site dependent values of am and bm are available in the ESRA Database (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2) as quality controlled values calculated from 10 year daily series of observed sunshine and observed global radiation for a large number of sites.
The satellite data base was then related to this expanded ground data base expressed in the dimensionless form of monthly mean daily Clearness Indices. Readers should note the mapped values of
monthly mean global radiation, beam and diffuse radiation provided in this Atlas were derived from
the satellite interpolated (KTd)m mapped values, pixel by pixel.
3.12
Splitting the monthly mean daily global radiation into its beam and diffuse
components
The diffuse radiation data presented in the maps of this Atlas are all estimated data. Observed monthly
mean diffuse radiation data were available for a number of sites. These data were used to construct a
polynomial model to estimate the ratio of the monthly mean daily diffuse irradiation to the monthly
mean daily global irradiation, (Dd)m/(Gd)m from the monthly mean daily Clearness Index, (KTd)m.
The basic model took the form:
(Dd)m/(Gd)m = co + c1 (KTd)m + c2( (KTd)m)2 + c3 ( (KTd)m)3
If (Dd)m/(Gd)m >1 then (Dd)m/(Gd)m = 1
(3.12.1)
42
The coefficients co, c1 c2, c3 were derived dividing the observed data into 4 latitude bands grouped
in 4 seasons. The monthly mean diffuse maps were developed from the monthly mean daily clearness
index maps, pixel by pixel, using the above equation using the appropriate coefficients for the latitude
band and the season for each pixel. For details refer to the User's Handbook (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2).
If (KTd)m falls to 0.2 virtually all the radiation is diffuse and there is practically no beam radiation.
In very sunny climates between 20% and 30% of the radiation on horizontal surfaces is diffuse. More
typically the beam diffuse mix lies in the range 40%-60% according to mean sunniness. Diffuse radiation thus forms a significant part of the resource.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 4 From solar measurements

to the solar database
43
4 From solar measurements to the solar data base
Two types of solar radiation measurements used for the Atlas have to be distinguished: ground based
measurements made at specific sites at the earths surface and measurements derived from satellite
images covering a certain section on earth with restricted solution. Geostationary satellites which have
a fixed position respective to the Earth routinely measure the energy reflected by the system
earth/atmosphere in different wave length bands. Thus they are capable of observing the same wide
geographical area with a high repetition in time. The images provided by satellites are very useful in
meteorology for daily forecasting or for the monitoring of devastating tropical cyclones. They are frequently displayed on TV channels and are well known to people. A series of METEOSAT satellites
have been observing Europe and Africa. These data have been of primary interest in the construction
of this Atlas.
4.1
Ground measuring techniques for solar radiation components
There are four basic types of measuring instruments for radiation components: sunshine recording,
pyrheliometers, pyranometers and pyrgeometers. The first one delivers information on sunshine duration. The second delivers information on short wave beam radiation normal to the beam. The third
measures the hemispherical short wave solar diffuse and global radiation. The last measures long
wave terrestrial radiation. Most solar energy measuring instruments have digitised data outputs stored
by computers. Errors within these data are mainly caused by insufficient maintenance and calibration
but also by using unsuitable instruments.
4.1.1
Sunshine duration
The most simple and widely used instrument for registration of sun hours is the Campbell-Stokes Heliograph (Fig. 4.1.1). The key component is a glass bowl working as a burning glass. It burns a track in
a registration paper if sun is shining with sufficient intensity. The threshold intensity normal to the
solar beam for registration of sunshine by this measuring technique is about 120 W/m2 . There are four
main types of errors in sunshine duration regristration with this type of instrument:
the overburning of the registration paper during intermittened sunshine which results in overestimates of sunshine duration,
the threshold sensitivity of the Campbell-Stokes recorder of 120 W/m2 which results in underestimates of sunshine duration,
the analysis of the registration paper made by hand may cause additional errors in either direction,
and finally deteriorations of the performance of the glass sphere caused by weather phenomena like
rain or hoarfrost and by insufficient maintenance which results in underestimates of sunshine duration.
44

Fig 4.1.1 Campbell-Stokes-Heliograph
New types of sunshine recorders based on photoelectric measuring techniques combined with a digitised data output, generally stored by computer, could minimise the possible errors except those due to
the soiling of the instrument. The threshold value of 120 W/m2 is implemented artificially to meet a
WMO convention which aims to keep data measured with different types of instruments homogeneous. This requirement has to be respected especially at higher latitudes, where elevation of sun may
be small all day causing errors in the registration of sunshine.
4.1.2
Hemispherical solar radiation
The horizontal solar irradiance is generally measured with pyranometers (Fig. 4.1.2). One measuring
principle used is based on the differences of temperature between two thermo-elements with different
heat capacities. Protected against long wave radiation and other weather influences by a special glass
dome, only letting solar radiation from 0.3 to 3 m pass, the solar radiation heats one element. Simultaneously the other element is heated by electricity to keep the same temperature. The squared power
of the electric heating is then proportional to the solar energy. The calibration factor has to be determined for each individual pyranometer. The accuracy of well calibrated and modern pyranometers is
about 2% but may be deteriorate considerably in case of insufficient maintenance or in case of operating instruments of moderate quality. Pyranometers are used for measuring the global solar radiation as
the total energy of solar irradiance from all directions of the sky including the beam solar radiation.
For measuring diffuse radiation a shading disk or ring is fitted to the pyranometer shading the suns
direct radiation. When shading rings are used, measured data have to be corrected for the shaded part
of the sky. The correction depends on the radius and the width of the shadow ring. Further advice on
the use of pyranometers is given in standard ISO 9060. This ISO standard can act as a guideline in
choosing the right detector specification.

45
Fig 4.1.2 Pyranometer
To complete the list of instruments measuring solar radiation quantities the pyrheliometer for recording direct solar radiation has to be mentioned. The registration method is again based on temperature differences caused by heating of absorbing planes, but the instrument itself is constructed in a
different way. It has to be oriented exactly in direction of the suns disk. New types of pyrheliometer
mounted on automatic tracking supports therefor are very expensive. Fig 4.1.3 shows an example for
a roof installed solar tracker. Unfortunately pyrheliometers are generally not used within routine observations because direct solar radiation can be easily derived from the difference between global and
diffuse radiation. Indeed routine measuring of all three radiation quantities would make the detection
of errors within one quantity easier.
Fig. 4.1.3 Solar tracker, equipped with a pyrheliometer, the tubular instrument on the left, and three horizontal pyranometers,
using two shading disks
46

4.1.3
Terrestrial radiation
Pyrgeometers are used for measuring the terrestrial long wave radiation. They differ essentially from
pyranometers in the composition of the dome, which is mirrored in a way that as much as possible
short wave radiation from the sun is reflected. The material used only allows infrared radiation from 3
to 50 m to pass. Nevertheless, about 3 % of the short wave radiation still penetrates the dome and
increases the thermopile output. To reduce this pyrgeometers should be used in combination with a
shading disk to exclude effects of direct solar radiation.
4.2
Solar radiation data from satellite images
Meteorological satellites are generally equipped with sensors having broad spectral bands and thus
observe most of the sunlight reflected by the system earth/atmosphere. Several methods have been
developed to derive the global solar radiation impinging at ground from these remote measurements.
Most of them are based upon the same principles. The radiation received by a location under clear-sky
can be modelled either by empirical laws or by sophisticated numerical models of the radiative transfer within the atmosphere. The energy measured by the satellites sensor at a specific instant is compared to this clear-sky radiation. The discrepancy is a function of the optical thickness of the atmosphere which is interlinked to the clearness index. The clearness index is the ratio of the global solar
radiation to the extraterrestrial radiation. The accuracy of these data is not as good as ground measured
data. For the Mser-Raschke model (W. Mser, E. Raschke, 1984) tests have shown that the modelled
daily totals of global solar radiation deviates from ground measurements by about 10% during summer
and by about 20% during winter. When considering monthly means the deviation reduces to about 5%
(F.J. Dieckmann et al., 1988). These deviations are caused mainly by insufficient estimation of the
atmospheric transmission in the presence of clouds but also by an insufficient temporal sampling rate
of the satellite images which is mostly hourly. Ground based data are measured generally with a sampling rate of a minute and record therefore micro-scale processes in variation of solar radiation. In
contrast, satellite derived data with an hourly sampling rate record only meso-scale processes. Nevertheless, satellite derived data offer a unique possibility for assessing the solar radiation in areas where
ground based measurements are scarce or even non-existent.
4.3
Detection of errors within raw data
When taking observations and processing their results, errors may be made which should be detected
and corrected. The major responsibility for the correctness of ground measured solar radiation data
remains with the national services or the bodies delivering these data, except for data that were delivered explicitly with reference to a missing validation. The results of radiation measurements should be
checked in two stages: a technical control and a quality control. The technical control deals with the
correctness of arithmetic calculations, the quality control with physical agreement of the observed
parameter to other radiation parameters. For measured data which are used in this Atlas, it was assumed that all data had passed already through a technical control. Because of different quality control
methods all daily totals of solar radiation data were controlled using the following steps:

47
solar radiation values had to be less than extraterrestrial values, sunshine duration values had to be
less or equal the corresponding astronomical value,
solar radiation values had to lie within the range of the expected clear-sky extreme values considering the influence of the atmospheric layer,
values of solar radiation parameters had to be in a specific range compared with nearby station values with allowance for their spatial variability
basic relationships between different radiation components should be fulfilled
variation of the relative terms G/G0 of the Angstrom regression should lie within a defined range.
Obviously erroneous values are rejected from the entire data set in contrast to questionable data.
These are marked with an indicator in order not to reject values that may be still of scientific interest.
With the quality control algorithms used (U. Terzenbach, 1995) a rate of about 4% of the entire solar
radiation data had to be rejected or marked as questionable.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 5 The ESRA database
49
5 The ESRA database
5.1
The reference period and the reference area
The data base of ESRA, available on the CD-Rom of the European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2, has
been constructed in order to allow proper descriptions of the irradiation both in space and time,
permitting an appropriate exploitation of the data to derive information of ahigher level. The user of
solar data generally needs exact information on the distribution of solar energy in space and in time.
He expects that the future trend can be extrapolated from historical measurements. As long term measurements are available only from a limited number of unevenly distributed stations, and as older
measurements often are not fully reliable, it was decided to adopt the following framework:
The reference period for the bulk of data selected was between 1981 to 1990. This statement is valid
for the ground measured data of solar radiation and other meteorological parameters. Satellite derived
data, which were used to obtain information in areas, where no ground measurement stations were
available and to aid interpolation, do not cover the whole period.
The area covered by the Atlas extends from 25 North to 75 North and from 30 West to 70 East,
and thus includes the whole of geographical Europe, North Africa and the western part of Asia.
5.2
Ground measured and derived data
The many year measurement series of solar irradiation and sunshine duration from the European radiometric and synoptic network stations were collected and quality controlled in a common data base.
The list of sites is given in Annex 2.
Measurements of daily sums of global solar irradiation on the horizontal plane within the period 19811990 were delivered by the World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC), Saint Petersburg (Russia), and by
several national weather services in Europe (see Table 5.1). Data for 586 sites were provided.
Daily sums of observed diffuse solar radiation on the horizontal plane within the period 1981-1990
were available for 63 sites with nearly complete measurements for 36 sites.
Hourly sums of global and diffuse solar irradiation on the horizontal plane were available for the following sites:
Belgium (1981-1990)
Cyprus
Germany (1981-1990)
Norway (1981-1990)
Sweden
Uccle, Ostende, Melle

Athalassa (1984-1990)
Hamburg, Braunschweig, Wahnsdorf, Trier, Wrzburg, Weihenstephan
Bergen
Lulea (1983-1990), Stockholm (1986-1990), Norrkpping (1984-1989), Lund (1983-1990)
Daily sums of sunshine duration were available at 586 sites. Sunshine duration data delivered by
WRDC provided only monthly sums. Sunshine duration for 691 sites were supplied as monthly sums,
with nearly complete observations, that is at least 96 monthly sums, for 558 sites.
50
Hourly means of spectral solar irradiance measurements were recorded at Uccle, in Belgium, Grenoble,
in France, and at two stations in Germany. The spectral range is 320 - 1050 nm within the period 19891991 for Stuttgart-Vaihingen and Widderstall. Hourly datasets for 2700 hours were supplied for StuttgartVaihingen and 1000 hours for Widderstall.
Radiation data and other meteorological data were calculated for the period 1981-1990 as long time
monthly means (12 values per site and per parameter) for the following parameters:
daily sum of horizontal global irradiation (588 sites)

daily sum of sunshine duration (558 sites)
daily minimum air temperature (254 sites)
daily maximum air temperature (254 sites)
daily sum of precipitation (254 sites)
atmospheric pressure (247 sites)
water vapour pressure (254 sites)
The coefficients am and bm of the ngstrm regression were derived at 199 sites with available daily
values of sunshine duration and global solar irradiation by regression methods. Finally 141 pairs of
ngstrm coefficients of excellent quality were obtained using the remaining sites, called reference
sites.
The number of sites with available monthly means of global solar irradiation (observed and estimated)
increased to 610 by using the ngstrm regression at sites where only sunshine duration measurements
are available, or at sites where the number of observations of daily global solar irradiation was small and
their monthly mean values were not representative for the whole period 1981-1990.
5.3
Satellite derived data
Images originating from the geostationary Meteosat satellite have been processed by several weather
services and research institutes for the assessment of the global irradiation on horizontal plane (see
e.g., Grter et al. 1986). Some of these satellite-derived assessments have been made available to the
Atlas project for the construction of the final maps in the CD-ROM (the European Solar Radiation
Atlas, vol. 2). The existing maps offered various geographical coverages, spatial resolutions and temporal coverages, making their merging into a single map difficult. Major datasets were the following:
World, without poles regions (SRB project, Anonymous 1994)
Western and Central Europe (Solar radiation atlas of Africa 1991)
Western and Central Europe
resol. about 180 km

resol. about 50 km
resol. about 10 km
1985-1988
1985-1986
1983-1985
5.4
Sources of data
Measurements of daily sums of global solar irradiation and monthly sums of sunshine duration were
supplied by the World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC), Saint Petersburg (Russia). Additional data of
daily sums of sunshine duration were provided by several national weather services and scientific institutes. Some of these delivered measurements of global and diffuse radiation as well, on a daily or
hourly basis. Several maps of satellite-derived global radiation were also kindly supplied to build the
Atlas. The support provided from these data was greatly appreciated by all project participants. All
these institutions are especially thanked for their good will and co-operation. Table 5.1 lists the supporting institutions.
51
Table 5.1 List of institutions that have supplied data for the construction of the Atlas (alphabetic order)
Country
Austria
Belgium
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Jordan
Malta
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Russia
Switzerland
Sweden
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States of America
Organisation
Zentralanstalt fr Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Wien
Institut Royal Mtorologique de Belgique, Bruxelles
Drzavni Hidrometeoroloski Zavod, Zagreb
Meteorological Service, Nicosia
Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Praha
Solar and Ozone Observatory, Hradec Kralove
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Section for Agrohydrology and Bioclimatology, Taastrup
Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki
Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach
GKSS - Forschungszentrum, Geesthacht
Zentrum fr Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung, Stuttgart
Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Athens
Hungarian Meteorological Service, Budapest
Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik
Meteorological Service, Dublin
Servizio Meteorologico dell'Aeronautica Militare, Roma
Joint Research Center of the European Commission, Ispra
Meteorological Department, Amman Civil Airport, Amman
Meteorological Office, Civil Aviation Department, Luqa
Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Institut, De Bilt
University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute, Bergen
Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, Warsaw
World Radiation Data Centre, St. Petersburg
Schweizerische Meteorologische Anstalt, Zrich
Sveriges Meteorologiska och Hydrologiska Institut, Norrkping
Turkish State Meteorological Service, Ankara
Meteorological Office, Bracknell
NASA Langley Research Centre, Virginia
NCDC, Asheville, North Carolina
Data for the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) have been provided by the World Radiation Data Centre, St
Petersburg, Russia; all the countries of the former USSR are not listed, only Russia.
The Test Reference Years (TRY) were kindly supplied by Institut Royal Mtorologique de Belgique (Uccle), Irish Meteorological Service (Dublin), Hungarian Meteorological Service (Budapest),
Greek National Observatory (Athens), Deutscher Wetterdienst (Freiburg). The Design Reference Year
(DRY) for St. Petersburg and Copenhagen as well as the Biomass Reference Years (BRY) were compiled during the realisation of this Atlas.
Digital information on terrain elevation were taken from the ETOPO5 digital terrain model, freely
available from the National Centre of Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Boulder, Co., USA. Coastlines,
water bodies, and borders originated from the Defence Mapping Agency (USA). All this information was
corrected for Europe during the realisation of the Atlas, using the maps published by Institut Gographique National (France) and other geographical atlases.
Names of countries originated from the CD-ROM GEOname digital gazetteer, from GDE Systems,
Inc., USA.
5.5
Data guarantee
The database was subjected to quality control procedures. These checking procedures enabled a number of data errors to be corrected. While checks have been applied in the development of the database,
52
neither the European Commission, nor the institutions responsible for the realisation of the Atlas, nor the
publisher can accept any guarantee or any liability arising from potential defects in the data given in this
publication or on the CD-ROM (the European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2). Users must therefore make
their own judgements on the reliability of any data provided in this publication and on the CD-ROM (the
European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2).
A complete list of station data available in the database is compiled in Annex 2.
5.6
Maps of solar radiation components
The database comprises digital maps of solar radiation components. That means for each pixel (approximate size: 10 km) within the whole geographical area covered by this Atlas, values of solar radiation components are available. These maps are ten-years averages of monthly means of daily sums of
global irradiation on horizontal plane, of its diffuse and direct components and of the clearness index.
The maps have been constructed taking advantage of both kinds of data. Ground measurements and
satellite observations have been combined to provide an unique set of consistent information on solar
radiation, thus enhancing the quality of the predicted spatial distribution of the solar radiation, compared with pure interpolation between ground measurements.
Co-kriging technique was used for merging both types of data. The two datasets were subjected to
separate processing to prepare them for application within the co-kriging technique.
In brief, this technique is a linear interpolation technique, making use of weights which are defined
according to the effective distance between the location under concern and the neighbouring WMO
stations. The definition of these weights takes into account the structure of the spatial correlation of
the latitude-free clearness indices computed on the one hand from the observations made by the WMO
network, and on the other hand from the satellite dataset, as well as of the cross-correlation between
both datasets. This procedure is fully described in detail and justified in Beyer et al. (1997).
This procedure provided maps of the ten-years average of the monthly means of clearness index for
the whole area. From these twelve maps, a yearly mean was computed.
Starting from these 12 maps of clearness index, the twelve maps for the monthly means of daily
sums of global irradiation on the horizontal plane, as well as the yearly mean, were computed. Maps
are made up of pixels. Each pixel is coded on one byte, that is it can only take values in the range of 0
to 255. The irradiations were converted into bytes. It follows from this digitisation that there is an
uncertainty of 25 Wh m-2 in the reading of the value of any pixel on the map.
The maps for the diffuse component were calculated by using the appropriate algorithm
( Dd ) m
= C0 + C1 (KTd ) m + C 2 (KTd ) 2m + C3 (KTd )3m
(Gd ) m
with KT from the clearness index maps and C0, C1, C2 calculated with a regression process for three
latitude bands and for four seasons using measured diffuse irradiation values.
This algorithm was applied on the maps of global irradiation and clearness index. The uncertainty
factor for the global radiation and beam radiation maps is 25 Wh m-2. Twelve monthly maps plus the
yearly average were thus constructed.
Finally, the direct component was mapped by calculating the difference between the global and the
diffuse component for each pixel. Again, thirteen maps were made, including the yearly mean. The
uncertainty factor is 50 Wh m-2
These results are stored for each pixel in the database.
53
5.7
Zones of similar irradiation climates
The irradiation maps give a pattern with high resolution in space from which the user can extract easily the monthly mean of daily sums of global, diffuse and direct irradiation in time as an average over
the ten Reference Years 1981 1990. Due to this averaging the fine structure of irradiation is not
available for each pixel but the user is referred to the geographically nearest ground measuring station
where long-term measuring series are available.
Nevertheless each station exhibits to its own specific microclimate. The nearest station may not be
representative of the site selected by the user.
To overcome this situation, 20 zones have been defined, within which the average variation of the
yearly mean of the clearness index KT is small. Then one or more stations were selected which exhibit the best agreement with the zones average KT as representative station of each zone.
The long-term measured series of these representative stations are considered to be the best choice
for a user, who wishes to link his selected site to the available long-term measurements.
Nevertheless, the reference station values are not identical with the selected site, but a simple proportionality relationship can be used for fine structure studies. The proportionality factor can be calculated using the relation of the monthly mean KT of the reference station KTm, ref.st. and the site KTm
site. Thus the irradiation at any time at the site can be approximated by
G (t )site
G m, site
KTm, ref. st
G(t) ref.st.
Gm ref.st.
KTm , site
(5.7.1)
Now, G(t)site could be Gd, site, Gh, site and similar for D(t) and B(t). For further details please consult
the ESRA User Guidebook (the European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2).
5.8
Zones of similar biomass parameters
Both, solar radiation and other meteorological parameters are important in biomass productivity.
Monthly means of daily sums of global irradiation, mean temperature and daily temperature variation
and precipitation have been calculated from 503 measuring stations.
Nineteen zones of similar biomass climate (biomass zones) have been defined. A clustering procedure
similar as for the zoning of the clearness index was used. The parameters used in the clustering procedure
(Tmean, Tmax - Tmin,), global irradiation and precipitation are uncorrelated as far as possible.
Biomass production in most cases is influenced in the same direction by high temperatures, high global
irradiation and (sufficient) high precipitation. However there are crop-specific threshold values or nonlinearities for all three parameters. The same applies to many other problems, for which these daily data
could be useful.
The clustering procedure was run for the full year, for the growing season (April through September)
and for the heating season (October through March). However, the length of the growing season depends
on crop types. Furthermore both seasons are latitude dependent. However the clustering procedure was
forced to use constant length for both seasons for all stations.
The result is a map of zones of similar biomass parameters which can be displayed and scrutinised from
the CD-ROM (the European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2). The limits should be considered with care.
One or more measuring stations were selected as representative of each of these zones. For these
stations, daily values for mean, maximum and minimum temperatures, daily sums of precipitation,
54
atmospheric pressure, water vapour pressure and global irradiation are available from the database on
CD-ROM.
5.9
Test, Design and Biomass Reference Years
Test reference years (TRY), design reference years (DRY) and biomass reference years (BRY) are
special time-series of meteorological and radiation parameters, extracted from continuous observations
spanning over ten or more years.
TRYs and DRYs are made up of hourly values of several parameters using twelve months selected
from different years. These reference years are "typical" years, which means that every month is selected, according to criteria based on the statistical distribution of the important parameters. For example, the Danish method used in some countries for the generation of the test reference years is based
on minimal departures of monthly means and monthly standard deviations of daily mean temperature,
daily maximum temperature, and daily sums of global irradiation from the long term series values in
each month, using at least 10 years data. This mathematical selection is combined with a more general
climatological evaluation incorporating 10 - 20 parameters.
The main reason for constructing a reference year for a particular site is to give industrial engineers,
consultants, architects, and research institutions a standardised set of climate data to be used as input data
for computer simulations of complicated systems needing more than one climate parameter, and normally also containing non-linearities. Reference years with hourly data are often used for calculations of
indoor climate, building energy consumption or energy conservation measures; however many other uses
have been observed.
Such reference years describe a typical year. They are not suitable for tasks for which weather extremes occurring with frequencies less than once per year are required.
BRYs are made up of time-series of daily values for a year assembled of twelve months out of ten or
more years or for ten or more consecutive years. They can be used for computer simulations, where daily
data are sufficient. BRYs have been developed for five stations only for this Atlas. For the multi-year
BRYs each month has been ranked using four parameters: daily sum of global irradiation and of precipitation, daily mean temperature and relative humidity.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 6 The ESRA software package
55
6 The ESRA software package (The European Solar Radiation Atlas,

vol. 2: database and exploitation software,
CD-Rom and guidebook)
6.1
The CD-ROM: necessary requirements and content
6.1.1
Computational resource requirements
The complete ESRA software package is available on CD-ROM. It works on personal computers under Windows 95. The following hardware is necessary:
PC-compatible (at least 486-DX2-66, preferred Pentium 120)
SVGA display (at least 800 x 600, 256 colours, preferred 1024 x 768 and 64 k colours),
CD-ROM drive (at least speed = x 4, preferably x 8)
Necessary software:
Windows 95 (not installable on Windows 3.1x, nor Windows NT)
The complete user instruction is integrated in Chapter 4 of the Users Guidebook.
6.1.2
Content of the CD-ROM
The main contents of the CD-ROM are:
The map data base, consisting of the geographical and solar irradiation mapping data,
The solar and meteorological data from ground measuring stations,
the algorithmic chains,
the application models,
the output programme which generates maps, charts and tables from the database and initiates calculations run with inputs from the data base.
The computional chains are explained in the Chapter ESRA in a nutshell.
These elements are accessible under the following operational modes using the relevant sub-menus:
the map mode allows the user to visualise the maps from the data base,
the station mode allows the user to consult data from measuring stations integrated in the data base,
56
the sub-menu data base allows the user to visualise measured climatolotical data for any selected
site with data,
the sub-menu calculation produces derived data with the help of the integrated algorithmic chains,
the sub-menu applications permits the calculation of the impacts of sun radiation on water heater,
PV-system and passive solar building performance,
the sub-menu draw allows the production of diagrams and spread-sheets with data from the database or calculated by the calculation sub-menu.
6.2
The map mode
The map mode is used to view maps from the data base on the computer screen. As an example, Fig.
6.2.1 shows the direct solar irradiation on horizontal plane over the mapped area. This map in reality ,
in computational terms, is composed of the solar direct irradiation map of June with an overlay, showing frontiers, oceans and other water bodies. The irradiation values are suppressed over the water bodies. However, the irradiation information over the water is available as is shown in Fig. 6.2.2. This
presents the complete irradiation pattern, covering the whole geographical area. Nevertheless, it is
difficult to work with such a map unless further information and orientation aids are integrated. It
should be noted, that in Fig. 6.2.1 the computer screen does not show the entire geographical zone.
Fig. 6.2.1 Example of a map : average daily direct irradiation over Europe in June. Access to the whole mapped area is obtained by scrolling the map using the scroll bars.
57
The integrated colour-bar with gradation indicates visually the intensity of irradiation. The mouse
pointer can be used for precise information in our example, it is located at 53 0 N and 13 20 E
where the June average for direct irradiation is 2,025 Wh m-2 . For a selected site at 43 40 N and 6
55 E the closest ground measuring station which is available from the database is Nice at 43 39 N
and 7 12E.
Similar maps can be produced for the following quantities:
10 year monthly daily means of global, diffuse and direct irradiation on horizontal plane and for the
monthly mean clearness index KT, one map per month plus the yearly average,
countries, relief, measuring stations, solar radiation zones, biomass zones and two maps of global
irradiation from the Upper Rhine valley with high precision information.
The daily irradiation information is given in steps of 50 Wh m-2 for global and direct irradiation and
25 Wh m-2 for diffuse irradiation.
Fig. 6.2.2 Average daily direct irradiation in June over the area covered by the Atlas
The following options exist within the map mode:

Draw: this option allows the user to draw diagrams of available parameters over the day, the
month and the whole year for a selected site. Figure 6.2.3 gives an example.
58
Monthly Averages (1981-1990) Hourly and Daily Irradiations (Azim: 0/Tilt: 50)
Global Irradiation
KWh/m
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
24
18
0
12
6
Months (5015' / 74' / from map)9
6
12
Hours
Fig. 6.2.3 10 year mean hourly global irradiation on a South oriented plane with 50 tilt for a site at 50 15and 7 4 calculated with chain 3 from monthly averages
Calculation: Starting from the parameters displayed on the map for a selected site, derived values
can be calculated. As the irradiation maps in the data base can provide only daily means of
monthly averages as input parameters, only Chain 3 can be used. This generates monthly average
daily mean profiles of hourly direct, sky diffuse, ground reflected diffuse and global irradiation as
well as the respective daily sums (see Fig. 6.2.4). If the Linke turbidity factor is available for the
site, monthly average daily mean profiles of hourly direct, sky diffuse and ground reflected diffuse
and global irradiation under cloudless sky as well as the respective daily sums may be calculated
using Chain 5. Fig. 6.2.5 shows an example, where the default values of the CD-ROM have been
used where the Linke turbidity factor TLK has been set at a constant value of 3.0 for all months.

Monthly Averages (1981-1990) Hourly and Daily Irradiations (M=January)
0.2
Global
Direct
Diffuse
Reflected
0.18
(Azim: 0 / Tilt: 50)
0.16
kWh/m
59
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
9
12
15
Hours (5015' / 74' / from map)
18
21
24
Fig. 6.2.4 10 year mean hourly irradiation in January on a south-oriented flat plate collector with a 50 tilt at a location of
50 15 N and 7 4 E. Ground albedo 0.2.
Monthly average Hourly and Daily clear sky Irradiation (M=January)

0.8
Global
Direct
Diffuse
Reflected
kWh/m
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
9
12
15
Hours (5015' / 74' / from map)
18
21
24
Fig. 6.2.5 Mid month hourly clear sky irradiation on a south-facing, 50 tilted flat plate collector in January with TLK = 3.0.
Ground albedo = 0.2
60
Application: makes use of simple model calculation for solar hot water heaters, PV-generators and
passive solar buildings.
Animation: shows a movie of the twelve monthly maps in sequence
Copy: allows the displayed maps, graphs and tables to be into the Windows-Clipboard. The graphs
and maps these can be printed with the draw-option.
6.3
Station mode
In order to obtain data from a specific station, it is possible to start in the map mode and select as
indicated in Fig. 6.2.1 the indicated nearest station. It should be noted that in all these cases this is
the geographically nearest station. In contrast, when working with zones or biomass zone maps, the
indicated station is not the geographically nearest site but the most representative site for that specific
zone. Alternatively, a station can be selected from the station list of Annex 2 using the station name or
the stations WMO number.
The station mode supplies data as represented in Figure 6.3.1
The tabulated data of the station can be visualised on the screen in addition to the identification parameters of the station.
Fig. 6.3.1 Typical display for a ground measuring station when working under station mode, with sub-menu Database and
option daily
61
6.4
Sub-menus and examples
Certain of sub-menus allow the user to work with daily irradiation data for some 89 stations:
Data base sub-menu is used to visualise the data available in the data base for the identified station
on the screen.
With help of the following options specific parts of the data set in the data base can be selected:
climatological data set: 10 year monthly mean observed data (1981 1990) in all stations (see
Fig. 6.4.1)
monthly data set: monthly sums of sunshine duration in the period 1981 - 1990 (all stations)
daily data set: long-term series of daily observed values of meteorological parameters in the
period 1981 - 1990 (89 representative stations)
hourly data set: long-term series of hourly observed values of meteorological values (only few
stations)
half-hourly data set: long-term chains of half-hourly averages of irradiation and sunshine duration (only one station: UCCLE).
Fig. 6.4.1 Climatological means of monthly means in the period 1981 - 90 in Uccle.
Calculation: This sub-menu is the interface to the ten algorithmic chains as described earlier and
can be applied to map data as well as to station data, but is dependent on the availability of the necessary inputs for individual algorithmic chains. The following options are available under this submenu:
62
options: permits the choice of site input data defined by the user for blackbox calculations (tilt,
azimuth, etc....) also allows for adjustment of Linke turbidity factor and ground albedo
solar irradiation: calls in Chain 1 for generation of hourly and daily mean irradiation values or
Chain 3 for monthly averaged daily mean profiles,
clear sky irradiation: calls in Chain 5 for hourly and daily clear sky irradiation,
illuminance: calls in Chain 4 for hourly values,
sky downward longwave irradiation: calls in Chain 10 for monthly average, hourly and daily
longwave irradiation from the sky alone,
spectral irradiation: calls in Chain 6 for average spectral irradiance
temperature: calls in Chain 7 for calculation of hourly mean temperature values,
statistics: calls in Chain 8 and 9 for irradiance and illuminance probability and utilizability based
calculations
use your own data: permits the use of the blackbox chains with external input data supplied by
the user
radiation summary: permits the user to display the summary of horizontal surface irradiation parameters.
Fig. 6.4.2 6.4.8 show some examples.
Hourly and Daily Irradiations (period 1/1990) (H=00-24 )
4
Global
Direct
Diffuse
Reflected
kWh/m
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
Days
15
20
(5048' / 421' / Uccle)
25
30
Fig. 6.4.2 Day by day irradiation in January 1990 on a south-oriented flat plate solar collector with 50 tilt at Uccle (calculated with chain 1). Note (H = 00 - 24) in the header indicates a daily sum has been extracted. Ground albedo 0.2
63
Monthly Average (1981-1990) Hourly and Daily Illuminances (M=January)

18
Global
Direct
Diffuse
Reflected
16
12
10
8
6
Klux
(Azim: 45 / Tilt: 90)
14
4
2
0
0
9
Hours
12
15
(5048' / 421' / Uccle)
18
21
24
Fig. 6.4.3 Monthly average hourly illuminance on a South-West oriented vertical window at Uccle in January presented as an
average daily profile (calculated with chain 6) . The ground reflected component was calculated from a ground albedo of 0.2
Monthly Average (1981-1990) Hourly and Daily sky downward long wave irradiation (M=January)
0.244
Global
0.242
kWh/m
0.24
0.238
0.236
0.234
0.232
0.23
9
Hours
12
15
(5048' / 421' / Uccle)
18
21
24
Fig. 6.4.4 Monthly mean hourly long-wave irradiation from the sky alone in January on a 50 tilted collector at Uccle calculated with chain 10
64
Monthly Average (1981-1990) Hourly and Daily Ambient Temperatures (M=January)
Temperature
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
9
Hours
12
15
(5048' / 421' / Uccle)
18
21
24
Fig. 6.4.5 10 year monthly mean hourly temperature in January at Uccle calculated with chain 7
1.4
Monthly Average Global Spectral Irradiation on Horizontal plane (M=January)

Global
1.2
Wh/m/nm
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
400
500
600
700
800
Nanometers (5048' / 421' / Uccle)
900
1000
Fig. 6.4.6 10 year monthly mean daily global spectral irradiation in January at Ucle calculated with chain 6.(Horizontal
surface is the only option).
65
Summary of solar data (From daily values) - Irradiation
12
Gmean
Gmax
Gmin
G0
Dmean
10
kWh/m
4
5
6
7
8
Months (5048' / 421' / Uccle)
10
11
12
Fig.6.4.7 Summary of monthly irradiation data on horizontal plane for Uccle obtained by using radiation summary for
the period 1981 - 90. Gmax is the absolute maximum daily irradiation in any month. Gmin is the absolute minimum daily irradiation in any month.
Summary of solar data (From daily values) on normalised values
0.8
G/G0
Ktmax
Ktmin
D/Gmean
S/S0
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
4
5
6
7
8
9
Months (5048' / 421' / Uccle)
10
11
12
Fig. 6.4.8 Summary of monthly solar data (normalised) from radiation summary in Uccle in the period 1981 - 90
66
Reference Years: is a sub-menu which allows the user to examine data from Reference Years.
While data from Design Reference Years and Biomass Reference Years only can be visualised on
the screen and transferred to the text editor for further use, the Test Reference Year data for Dublin
airport, Uccle, Budapest, Athenai Observatory and St. Petersburg Observatory can be processed by
the algorithmic chains, the applications sub-menu and the draw sub-menu.
Applications: is a sub-menu which allows the user to calculate the performance of some simple
types of solar applications. There are five system options:
1 - yearly energy output from a solar water heater

2 - photovoltaic grid connected system
3 - photovoltaic stand-alone system with batteries
4 - daily energy output from a solar water heater
5 - passive solar heating (direct gain) in buildings
Figure 6.4.9 gives the example of a PV stand-alone system with batteries and Fig. 6.4.10 for solar
gain in a passive solar house with one south-oriented window.
Fig. 6.4.9 Sizing of a stand-alone PV-system with battery. Design power output is 1 kWh per day with 24 volt and battery
autonomy for 10 days without sunshine
67
The first line on the screen display shows the site coordinates and the orientation of the collector.
The programme selects the monthly averages of daily sums of global irradiation for the site from the
database. The next block in the table shows the monthly averages of the electric load, the desired
autonomy and the voltage of the system. These are user inputs. The blackbox module sizes the system,
i.e. the normalised PV-peak power and the battery capacity needed. In addition, the critical months for
the panel sizing and the battery sizing are identified.
Fig. 6.4.10 Calculation of gross solar gains, gross space heating and consequent net space heating load for a building with
vertical South double glazied windows at Uccle, Belgium. Heating period October through May.
The passive solar heating direct gain module calls in the necessary climate data of the site and the
window orientation selected. The monthly mean daily solar irradiation on the window, and the mean
maximum and minimum temperatures are extracted on a month by month basis. These values appear
at the top of Figure 6.4.10. The user then enters the building parameters, and the heating period. The
heating base temperature also has to be defined. In the evaluation, the number of degree days are estimated and the gross heat load. The gross solar heat gain through the window is calculated using the
window area and the transmission of the window type selected. The gross space heating load is calculated and the net space heating load is found from the difference.
68
Draw: This is a sub-menu which is used to plot data displayed as diagrams on the screen. Two options are available:
draw 2D: under this option, two-dimensional diagrams are produced (Figures 6.4.2 6.4.8 are
produced with this sub-menu).
draw 3D: permits the production of three-dimensional graphs (see Fig. 6.2.3).
6.5
Further applications
The direct and well organised access to a large number of solar and meteorological data as well as to
composed data sets (TRY, DRY, BRY) opens a wide potential of preparing input files for more complex applications. For instance, synthetic programmes as TRNSYS can be operated with site specific
data sets which can be generated using the data files of the ESRA CD-ROM. Climatologists may
profit from the systematically organised and quality controlled meteorological data sets as well as
biologists, agronomists, town planners and landscape designers. Users of ESRA have at their disposal
high quality long-term data sets as well as good coverage over large geographical areas from the solar
maps.
This information will improve the quality of the prediction of direct or indirect solar impact as well
for individual solar application as for large scale planning.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 7 Maps
69
7 Maps
7.1 The geographical area of the Atlas

Map 1 shows the geographical area of the Atlas in Albers-projection, with relief overlay and country
borders.
7.2
Ground based measuring stations
Map 2 shows the measuring stations used in preparing this Atlas. Annex 2 gives a list with all necessary information.
7.3
Global solar irradiation (Ten year average)
Maps 3 to 6 show the monthly means of daily sums of global solar irradiation on horizontal plane for
March, June, September and December. Map 7 gives the annual mean.
Maps 8 and 9 show an example of a high resolution digital map for monthly means of daily sums of
global irradiation of the Upper Rhine Valley.
7.4
Diffuse solar irradiation (Ten year average)
Maps 10 13 show the monthly means of daily sums of diffuse irradiation on horizontal planes for
March, June, September and December. Map 14 shows the ten annual means.
7.5
Direct (beam) solar irradiation (Ten year average)
Maps 15 18 show the monthly means of daily sums of direct solar irradiation on horizontal plane for
March, June, September and December. Map 19 gives the annual mean.
70
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 7 Maps
7.6
Clearness index (Ten year average)
Maps 20 23 show the monthly mean of daily sums of the clearness index for March, June, September and December.
Map 24 gives the annual mean.
7.7
Zones of similar irradiation climates
Map 25 shows 20 zones with similar irradiation climates defined by cluster analysis.
7.8
Zones of similar biomass productivity parameters
Map 26 shows 19 zones of similar biomass productivity parameters.
THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS References
71
References
Anonymous (1994). SRB (Surface Radiation Budget) dataset document. NASA Langley Research Center, Maryland, USA.
R. Aguiar et al. (to be published), Book of Algorithms
N. Asimakopoulos et al. (1996), European Daylighting Atlas. Published for the Commission of the European Communities
by National Observatory of Athens, Greece
Atlas of hydrometeorological data (1991). Europe vol. 1. In Russian. Published by Army Publishing House, Moscow. 371p.
Bayerisches Staatsministerium fr Wirtschaft, Verkehr und Technologie (Pub.), Bayerischer Solar- und Windatlas (1995),
Bayerisches Staatsministerium fr Wirtscahft, Verkehr und Technologie, Pringenregentenstrae 28, 80538 Mnchen
Beyer H. G., Czeplak G., Terzenbach U. and Wald L. (1997). Assessment of the method used to construct clearness index
maps for the new European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA). Solar Energy, 61, 6, 389-397.
B. Bourges (Ed.) (1992), Climatic Data Handbook for Europe. Climatic Data for the Design of Solar Energy Systems. Published for the Commission of the European Communities. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht/Boston/London
Commission of the European Communities, European Solar Radiation Atlas (1984), Volume I, (2nd edition) F. Kasten, H.J.
Golchert, R. Dogniaux, M. Lemoine, Ed., W. Palz, Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne
Commission of the European Communities, European Solar Radiation Atlas (1997). W. Palz, J. Greif (Ed.), Springer Verlag
Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York ISBN 3-540-61179-7
Commission of the European Communities, Solar Radiation Atlas of Africa. E. Raschke, R. Stuhlmann, W. Palz and T.C.
Steemers (Ed.) (1991), A.A. Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield
Diekmann, F.J. et al.: An operational estimate of global solar irradiance at ground level from METEOSAT data: results from
1985 to 1987, Meteorol. Rundschau 41, 65-79 (1988).
ESRA - European Solar Radiation Atlas (1994), JOULE II project no. JOU2-CT-94-00305
Grter W., Guillard H., Mser W., Monget J.-M., Palz W., Raschke E., Reinhardt R. E., Schwarzmann P. and Wald L.
(1986). Determination of solar radiation at ground level from images of the earth transmitted by meteorological satellites,
Solar Energy R&D in the European Community, Series F, vol. 4: Solar radiation data from satellite images, D. Reidel
Publishing Co. for the Commission of the European Communities, 100 p.
ISO, Solar Energy - Specification and classification of instruments for measuring hemispherical solar and direct solar radiation. Instrumental Standard ISO 9060. International Organisation for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland (1990).
F. Kasten,and A.T.Young (1989), Revised optical air masstables and approximation formula. Appl. Optics 28, 4735-4738 9).
Mser, W. and E.Raschke: Incident solar radiation over Europeestimated from METEOSAT data. (1984) Jour. of Climate
and Appl. Meteorology 23, 166-170.
K. Scharmer et al. (1989), Solar European Microclimates. Final Report. EC-Contract no. EN3S-00490-D(B)
Terzenbach, U.: Quality control algorithms on solar radiation data. Internal paper of ESRA Project No. JOU2-CT94-0305,
Task II Algorithms (1995).
Treuberth, K.E., J.T.Houghton, L.G.Meira-Filho: The Climate System: an overwiew. Climate Change 1995: Contribution of
Working Group I to the Second Assesment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 58 (1996)
WMO: Meteorological aspects of the utilization of solar radiation as an energy source. (1981) Geneva: Secretariat of the
World Meteorological Organization, Techn. Note No. 172; WMO-No. 557, 122
Annex 1 Symbols and Definitions
Annex 1
73
Symbols and Definitions
A1.1
Introduction
During the second meeting of Task II Group (Lyon, 30th November) it was decided to elaborate a
document containing the symbols and definitions necessary to the European Solar Radiation Atlas
project. This proposal is based on previous work of European Community Experts, namely the work
of Dogniaux et al. (1984). The structure of this reference is used here as the basis for the introduction
of new proposals of symbols. The elaboration of this document is also based on proposals contained
in other references, namely the previous version of the Solar Radiation Atlas, (1984), the list of
symbols used within Eufrat Project (B.Bourges, 1992). Other sources are those from the list of
symbols of the CIE, TC-4.2.Daylighting (Draft for discussion, Nov., 1986) and Daylighting in
architecture. A European Reference Book (1993).
A1.2
Basic concepts and General Rules
Based on R.Dogniaux et al. (1984), some basic concepts and general rules are first established.
Basic concepts:
Solar radiation at the earth surface - radiation between 0.29m and 4m (corresponding to 99% of
the sun's radiation reaching the earth)
Terrestrial radiation - radiation above 4m.
Radiance - radiant power per unit area per unit solid angle (steroradian) (Wsr-1m-2)
Irradiance - radiant power per unit area (Wm-2)
Irradiation - radiant energy per unit area (Wh m-2 or Jm-2)
For the terms Luminance and Illuminance see the definitions given in Daylighting in architecture.
An European Reference Book (1993)
General rules:
For radiance and luminance the symbol used is L with subscripts e and v, respectively. For
irradiance and illuminance the proposed symbols are listed below. Luminance values will always have
the subscript v.
G - global irradiance or illuminance values
D - diffuse irradiance or illuminance values (diffuse component of solar radiation)
I - normal direct irradiance or illuminance values (normal beam component of solar radiation)
74
B - direct irradiance or illuminance values (beam component of solar radiation)

R - reflected irradiance or illuminance values
Symbols used for irradiance, irradiation and illuminance are all referred to horizontal planes
except in the case of symbol I for normal direct irradiance. For tilted planes azimuth and slope are
indicated in brackets, e.g.
G - Global irradiance on the horizontal plane
G(,) - Global irradiance on a plane of azimuth and slope
Letter I is also used for irradiance on a solar collector, which is calculated based on the beam,
diffuse and reflected components of solar radiation, with expressions depending on collector type (see
e.g. Rabl (1985)). Symbols specifically referred to collector performance are listed in a separate table
(see Table A1.3.4).
The basic time intervals to which the irradiation values refer are identified by the following
subscripts:
h
d
m
hourly values
daily values
mean monthly values
When these subscripts are used in combination, a bracket is used, e.g. (Gd)m will stand for monthly
mean daily horizontal global irradiation.
Other subscripts used are:
0
g
c
b
max
min
extraterrestrial or astronomical values

ground related values
clear sky (i.e. cloudless sky) values
overcast sky values
maximum value of some quantity
minimum value of some quantity
This way of indicating time scales and averages was adopted also in view of the ability to provide a
clear translation to constant, parameter and variable names used in computer programming.
Superscript * is used to indicate radiation threshold levels and angles related to points on the the sky
dome.
This description of the system used for symbols and nomenclature, as well as the listing provided in
the following tables, are however not exhaustive. In particular contexts other symbols have been
formed which are defined locally in the texts produced.
75
A1.3
Definitions
Table A1.3.1. Angles (rad.)
Symbol
Definition
j'
Day angle, i.e. day in the year expressed as an angle from the start of the year
Azimuth angle of a plane, i.e. the angle between the projection of the normal on the
horizontal and true south (in northern hemisphere) or true north (in southern
hemisphere). East negative. West positive
Sky point azimuth. Measured from due south in northern hemisphere north (in southern
hemisphere. East negative. West positive)
Solar azimuth. Measured from due south in northern hemisphere: west from south
positive, east from south negative
Wall solar azimuth angle, i.e. the angle between the vertical plane containing the
normal to the surface and the vertical plane passing through the centre of the solar disk
Inclination angle of a plane with respect to the horizontal plane
Sky point elevation i.e. altitude angle above horizon of a point in the hemisphere
Vertical shadow angle, also called vertical profile angle
Solar elevation i.e. altitude angle above horizon
Solar declination i.e. the angle between the sun's rays and the equatorial plane. Positive
in northen hemisphere summer
Solar zenith angle i.e. angle between the vertical and the centre of the sun's disc: /2 s
Sky point zenith angle i.e. angle between vertical and the point in the hemisphere: /2
Angle of incidence between the sun's rays and an inclined plane
with azimuth and inclination
Longitude (sign convention East of Greenwich positive)
Latitude (sign convention North of Equator positive)
Solar hour angle. Measured from solar noon: p.m. is positive
Sunset hour angle (-s: sunrise hour angle)
*
s
F
*
*vert
s
s
*
(,)
76
Table A1.3.2. Radiation related quantities with dimensions

Symbol
Definition
Unit
AT
(AT)m
Thermal amplitude of ambient temperature for a certain day

Monthly average thermal amplitude
C
C
B
Bc
Bch
Bcd
Bd
(Bd)m
Bh
(Bh)m
(B(t))m
Bv
Direct irradiance, i.e. direct solar irradiance on the horizontal B = I cos s

Clear sky direct irradiance
Hourly clear sky direct irradiation
Daily clear sky direct irradiation
Daily direct irradiation, i.e. daily integral of direct irradiance
Monthly mean daily direct irradiation
Hourly direct irradiation, i.e. hourly integral of direct irradiance
Monthly mean hourly beam irradiation
Monthly mean beam irradiance at time t
Illuminance from direct sunlight on a given surface
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
lux
D
Db
Dbh
Dbd
Dc
Dch
Dcd
Dd
(Dd)m
Dh
(Dh)m
(D(t))m
Dv
Diffuse irradiance, i.e. irradiance from the sky on the horizontal

Overcast sky diffuse irradiance
Hourly overcast sky diffuse irradiation
Daily overcast sky diffuse irradiation
Clear sky diffuse irradiance
Hourly clear sky diffuse irradiation
Daily clear sky diffuse irradiation
Daily sky diffuse irradiation, i.e. daily integral of irradiance from the sky
Monthly mean daily sky diffuse irradiation
Hourly diffuse irradiation, i.e. hourly integral of irradiance from the sky
Monthly mean hourly diffuse irradiation from the sky
Monthly mean diffuse irradiance received from sky at time t
Diffuse illuminance on a given surface
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
lux
E()
Spectral irradiance, i.e. irradiance (direct, diffuse or global) per unit band width centered
at a wavelength
Wm-2nm-1
G
Gb
Gc
Gch
Gcd
Gd
(Gd)m
Gh
(Gh)m
(G(t))m
Gv
Gvb
Gvc
Global irradiance: sum of diffuse and direct irradiance

Overcast sky global (=diffuse) irradiance
Clear sky global irradiance
Hourly clear sky global irradiation
Daily clear sky global irradiation
Daily global irradiation, i.e. daily integral of global irradiance
Mean monthly daily global irradiation
Hourly global irradiation, i.e. hourly integral of global irradiance
Monthly mean hourly global irradiation from the sky
Monthly mean global irradiance received from sky at time t
Global illuminance on a given surface
Illuminance from an unobstructed overcast sky on a given surface
Illuminance from an unobstructed cloudless sky on a given surface
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
lux
lux
lux
G0
Wm-2
G0d
(G0d)m
Solar constant, i.e. annual mean value of the extraterrestrial irradiance

normal to beam (1367 W.m-2)
Daily extraterrestrial global irradiation on a horizontal plane
Monthly mean daily extraterrestrial global irradiation on a horizontal plane
I
Ic
Ich
Icd
Normal direct irradiance, i.e. direct solar irradiance normal to beam

Clear sky direct irradiance normal to beam
Clear sky hourly direct irradiation normal to beam
Clear sky daily irradiance normal to beam
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
77
Table A1.3.2 Contd Radiation related quantities with dimensions

Symbol
Id
(Id)m
Ih
(Ih)m
(I(t))m
Definition
Daily normal direct irradiation
Monthly mean daily normal direct irradiation
Hourly normal direct irradiation
Monthly mean daily extraterrestrial global irradiation on a horizontal plane
Monthly mean direct irradiance normal to the beam at time t
Unit
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
K0
K
Kb
Kg
Ksky
Luminous efficacy of extraterrestrial radiation

Luminous efficacy of global radiation
Luminous efficacy of beam radiation
Luminous efficacy of ground reflected diffuse radiation
Luminous efficacy of sky diffuse radiation
lm W-1
lm W-1
lm W-1
lm W-1
lm W-1
L
L
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wm-2
L*
Le
Le(*,*)
Lv
Lv(*,*)
Terrestrial irradiance, i.e. long-wave radiation of terrestrial origin

Incoming terrestrial irradiance from the sky, i.e. long wave radiation from the atmosphere
falling on a horizontal surface
Outgoing terrestrial irradiance, from the ground towards the sky, i.e. long wave radiation
from a horizontal surface emitted upwards towards the atmosphere
Incoming terrestrial irradiance emitted from the sky falling on an inclined surface of tilt
and azimuth
Terrestrial irradiance emitted from the ground and sky obstructing surfaces falling on an
inclined surface of tilt and azimuth
Net longwave balance on horizontal surfaces (L - L)
Radiance
Radiance of a sky element at zenith angle * and azimuth *
Luminance
Luminance of a sky element at zenith angle * and azimuth *
Cloud amount
okta
Rg(,)
Rgd(,)
Rgh(,)
(Rg(,,t))m
Wm-2
Wh m-2
Wh m-2
Wm-2
Rv
Reflected diffuse irradiance from the ground (reaching an inclined surface)

Daily ground reflected diffuse irradiation
Hourly ground reflected diffuse irradiation
Monthly mean irradiance on a surface of tilt and azimuth at time t due to ground
reflected radiation
Monthly mean hourly irradiation on a surface tilt and azimuth due to ground
reflected radiation
Reflected illuminance
Radiation wavelength
nm
SB
Stephan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4)
Wm-2 K-4
L
Lsky (,)
Lg(,)
(Rgh(,))m
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wm-2
Wsr-1m-2
Wsr-1m-2
cd m-2
cd m-2
Wh m-2
lux
78
Table A1.3.3. Other quantities and functions with dimensions

Symbol
Definition
Unit
E
ET
Energy transfer over defined period

Equation of time used in conversion from LAT to LMT
Wh or J
h
day number in year, i.e. Jan. 1st = 1, , Feb. 1st =32, Mar. 1st = 60 in non leap year, or
61 in leap year
day
LAT
LMT
Local apparent (solar) time

Local mean (clock) time
h
h
M (no suffix)
M (w/suffix)
Mass
Mass flow rate
kg
kg s-1
p
p0
pw
Atmospheric pressure
Mean atmospheric pressure at sea level
Partial vapour pressure
Pa
Pa
Pa
Sh
Hourly sunshine duration, i.e. for a certain hour of the day, measured sunshine duration
for which direct irradiance exceeds a certain threshold
Daily sunshine duration, i.e. measured sunshine duration for which direct irradiance
exceeds a certain threshold (this occurs in DRYs and TRYs)
Astronomical hourly sunshine duration, i.e. normally 1 hour, except in the sunrise and
sunset hour
Astronomical daily sunshine duration or daylength, i.e. the time during which the solar
elevation is positive (no correction for refraction is made)
Monthly mean astronomical daily sunshine duration, i.e. the monthly mean time between
sunrise and sunset (no correction for refraction is made)
Decimal h
h
h
h
C
C
C
C
Tm
Tmax
(Tmax)m
Tmin
(Tmin)m
Time in decimal hours, usually in LAT, except in some TRYs and DRYs
Time of a maximum event in the day
Time of a minimum event in the day
Temperature (also referred as ambient or dry bulb temperature)
Daily mean temperature
Hourly mean temperature
Monthly mean daily profile of temperature, i.e. value of the hourly mean monthly
temperature for time t.
Monthly mean temperature
Maximum temperature for a certain day
Monthly average of maximum daily temperatures
Minimum temperature for a certain day
Monthly average of minimum daily temperatures
wind speed at measurement height (usually 10 m)
ms-1
w
W(x*)
Precipitable water content of the atmosphere

Available energy for threshold x* of parameter x
kg m-2
Wh m-2
Station height above sea level
Sd
S0h
S0d
S(0d)m
t
tmax
tmin
T
Td
Th
Thm(t)
h
h
h
h
C
C
C
C
C
79
Table A1.3.4 Dimensionless quantities and functions

Symbol
Definition
am, bm
Angstrom regression coefficients (monthly basis) in Gd/G0d = am + bm (Sd/S0d)
F(x < y)
Distribution function for value y of parameter x (also referred as cumulative frequency curve)
KTd
(KTd)m
KTh
Daily clearness index for global irradiation on a horizontal plane, i.e. Gd/G0d
Monthly average daily clearness index for global irradiation on a horizontal plane, i.e. Gh/G0h
Hourly clearness index for global irradiation on a horizontal plane
m or AM
Relative optical air mass, i.e. the length of path through the atmosphere traversed by the direct solar
beam, expressed as a multiple of the path to a point at sea level with the sun at zenith (the latter is called
AM 1, extraterrestrial is called AM 0).
Fractional cloud amount
ri()
View fraction of the sky dome, i.e. the fraction of the sky dome that is viewed
by an inclined plane with tilt angle
View fraction of the ground, i.e. the fraction of the ground that is viewed
by an inclined plane with tilt angle
rg()
TL(m)
TL
TLK
(TLK)m
Linke turbidity factor. Ratio of the observed optical thickness of the atmosphere (due to scattering and
absorption) to the theoretical optical thickness of a dry and dust free Rayleigh clear sky at air mass m. Its
value is dependent on the formula used to calculate the Rayleigh optical thickness.
Linke turbidity factor for AM 2
Linke turbidity factor for AM 2, calculated using the Kasten formulation for the Rayleigh optical
thickness
Monthly mean Linke turbidity factor for AM 2, calculated using the Kasten formulation for the Rayleigh
optical thickness
Angstrom turbidity coefficient i.e. the spectral extinction coefficient of the atmosphere
due to gases and aerosol particles
Rayleigh optical thickness

(of a dry and clean atmosphere when only Rayleigh scattering occurs)
Sun-Earth distance correction factor

Long wave emittance of a surface involved in long wave heat exchanges
Efficiency of a step or an overallprocess, used in conjunction with suffixes
(x*)
Utilizability function for threshold x* of parameter x
Ground albedo, i.e. reflectivity of the ground for solar radiation
Daily fraction of bright sunshine, Sd/S0d, also referred to as the sunshine fraction or the relative duration
of bright sunshine
Monthly mean percentage of daily possible sunshine, often called monthly relative sunshine duration,
i.e. (Sm/(S0m)
m
(x*)
Utilizability function, i.e. fraction of the total energy available above a defined reference threshold
radiation x*
Acknowledgements
In the 2nd draft important suggestions made by R. Dogniaux, B. Bourges and P. Littlefair were
included. The 3rd, 4th and 5th drafts also included suggestions from J. Page and R. Aguiar.
80
References
C.E.C. European Solar Radiation Atlas (1984): Vols. I and II. EUR 9344 and 9345; Publisher: Verlag TUV Rheinland
C.E.C. Climatic Data Handbook for Europe (1992): Climatic data for the design of solar energy systems. Edited by Bernard
Bourges, Kluwer Academic Publishers
C.E.C. Daylighting in architecture (1993): A European reference book. Edited by N.Baker, A.Fanchiotti, K.Steemers, James
&James (Science Publishers) Ltd
Guide on daylighting of building interiors, Part I. CIE, Technical Committee TC-4.2. Daylighting (1986): Draft for
discussion at the Second International Daylighting Conference, Long Beach, California, USA, November
Dogniaux, R. et al. (1984): Solar Meteorology (Units and Symbols), recommendations by the solar energy R&D programme
of the European community. Int.Journal of Solar Energy, vol.2, page 249-255, 1984.
Rabl, A. (1985): Active solar collectors and their applications. A. Rabl, Oxford University Press
Annex 2 List of Stations
Annex 2
81
List of stations
This annex provides the list of ground-measuring stations whose data are published in the CD-ROM.
The countries are ranking by alphabetic order, according to their names in English. Within a country,
stations are ordered by their number in the list of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
The spelling of the names is similar to what appears onto the screen using the companion software.
The selected font in this software is Arial, which is available in each PC. Accordingly, a limited
number of characters are available, i.e. the English characters only.
For each station are given its WMO number, its name, its geographical co-ordinates (in hundredths
of degrees) and elevation above mean sea level (in meters).
Some indicators provide information on the availability of data for each station. Under the heading
Daily values:
Gd stands for daily sums of global horizontal irradiation (units are Whm-2)
S stands for daily values of sunshine duration (unit is 0.1 h)
T stands for daily temperature and precipitation values
Under the heading Month:
Sm stands for monthly means of sunshine duration (unit is 0.1 h)
Under the heading Ten-year average:
Gdm stands for ten-year averages of monthly means of daily sums of global irradiation (units are
Whm-2)
Sm stands for ten-year averages of monthly means of daily values of sunshine duration (unit is 0.1
h)
Tm stands for ten-year averages of monthly means of daily values of minimum and maximum
temperatures
rrm stands for ten-year averages of monthly sum of precipitation
pm stands for ten-year averages of monthly means of daily values of air pressure
pwm stands for ten-year averages of monthly means of daily values of water vapour pressure
Table A2.1. List of the measuring stations included in the ESRA database
WMO
number
11013
11028
11035
11036
11037
Name of the station

Austria
Steyr
St. Poelten
Wien / Hohe Warte
Wien Schwechat Airport
Gross Enzersdorf
lat.
lon.
4807
4820
4825
4812
4820
1460
1562
1637
1657
1657
elev.
309
272
203
183
153
Daily values
Gd
S
T
x
-
x
-
x
-
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
pwm
x
x
-
82
Table A2.1 Contd. List of the measuring stations included in the ESRA database
WMO
Name of the station
number
11150 Salzburg Airport
11155 Feuerkogel
11212 Villacheralpe
11231 Klagenfurt
11240 Graz-Thalerhof Airport
11290 Graz Universitaet
11320 Innsbruck Universitaet
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
4780
4782
4660
4665
4698
4708
4727
1300
1373
1367
1433
1545
1545
1138
434
1618
2140
448
342
366
577
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
26850
33008
Belarus
Minsk
Brest
5387
5212
2753
2368
234
144
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
06407
06428
06430
06432
06447
06448
06449
06454
06457
06468
06476
06478
06479
06485
Belgium
Oostende / Middelkerke
Munte
Melle
Chievres
Uccle
Stabroek
Gosselies
Dourbes
Gembloux
Gorsem
St. Hubert
Bierset
Kleine Brogel
Nadrin
5120
5093
5098
5057
5080
5133
5047
10
5058
5083
5003
5063
5117
5015
287
373
383
383
435
437
445
436
469
518
540
545
547
568
5
55
17
63
100
5
187
240
159
39
556
191
65
405
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
-
13242
13354
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Banja Luka
Sarajevo
4478
4382
1722
1833
153
510
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
-
15511
15526
15552
15613
15614
15635
15655
15712
Bulgaria
Lom
Pleven
Varna
Cherni Vrah
Sofia Observatory
Chirpan
Burgas
Sandanski
4382
4342
4320
4258
4282
4220
4248
4152
2325
2457
2792
2327
2338
2533
2748
2327
32
64
41
2286
586
173
16
206
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
14216
14219
14235
14236
14240
14246
Croatia
Rijeka / Kozala
Parg
Puntijarka
Zagreb / Gric
Zagreb / Maksimir
Varazdin
4533
4560
4592
4582
4582
4630
1445
1463
1597
1598
1603
1638
120
863
988
157
123
167
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
83
WMO
Name of the station
number
14258 Daruvar
14283 Osijek / Zeleno Polje
14284 Pula
14314 Mali Losinj
14321 Rab
14323 Senj
14324 Zavizan
14328 Ogulin
14330 Gospic
14370 Slavonski Brod
14428 Zadar / Puntamika
14438 Sibenik
14442 Knin
14445 Split / Marjan
14447 Hvar
14452 Lastovo
14472 Dubrovnik / Gorica
14480 Sinj
14481 Krizevci
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
4560
4553
4487
4453
4475
4498
4482
4527
4455
4517
4413
4373
4403
4352
4317
4277
4265
4372
4603
1723
1873
1385
1447
1477
1490
1498
1523
1537
1800
1522
1592
1620
1643
1645
1690
1808
1667
1655
161
89
30
53
24
26
1594
328
564
88
5
77
255
122
20
186
52
308
155
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
17600
17601
17607
17609
Cyprus
Acheila / Paphos
Akrotiri
Athalassa
Larnaca
3473
3458
3515
3488
3248
3298
3340
3363
45
23
162
2
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
11406
11438
11448
11457
11487
11502
11518
11519
11520
11603
11628
11649
11683
11698
11710
11723
11755
11782
11790
Czech Republic
Cheb
Tusimice
Plzen
Churanov
Kocelovice
Usti n. Labem
Praha / Ruzyn
Praha / Karlov
Praha / Libus
Liberec
Kosetice
Hradec Kralove
Svratouch
Kucharovice
Luka
Brno / Turany
Straznice
Ostrava / Mosnov
Ostrava / Poruba
5008
5038
4967
4907
4947
5068
5010
5007
5000
5077
4953
5018
4973
4888
4965
4915
4888
4968
4980
1240
1333
1328
1362
1383
1403
1428
1442
1445
1502
1508
1583
1603
1608
1695
1670
1732
1812
1825
471
321
364
1122
522
376
380
262
303
400
470
285
737
339
518
238
187
256
242
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
06101
06163
Denmark
Toldboden / Kobenhavn
Risoe / Roskilde
5568
5570
1260
1208
20
2
x
-
x
x
x
-
84
WMO
Name of the station
number
06182 Taastrup / Kobenhavn
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
5567
1230
28
03952
03953
03955
03957
03960
03962
03964
03965
03967
03969
03970
03971
03974
03976
03980
Eire
Roches Point
Valentia Observatory
Cork Airfield
Rosslare
Kilkenny
Shannon Airfield
Galway
Birr
Cascement Aerodrome
Dublin Airport
Claremorris
Mullingar
Clones
Belmullet
Malin Head
5180
5193
5185
5225
5267
5270
5328
5308
5330
5343
5372
5353
5418
5423
5537
-825
-1025
-848
-633
-727
-892
-902
-788
-643
-625
-898
-737
-723
-1000
-733
40
9
153
23
63
14
18
70
97
68
69
101
87
9
20
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
26038
Estonia
Tallin
5942
2480
44
02805
02807
02836
02864
02875
02897
02903
02910
02911
02917
02920
02929
02935
02944
02952
02958
02963
02966
02970
02972
02974
02976
02981
Finland
Utsjoki Kevo
Ivalo
Sodankylae
Kemi
Oulu
Kajaani
Kruunupyy
Valassaaret
Vaasa
Kuopio
Ylistaro
Joensuu
Jyvaeskylae
Tampere-Pirkkala
Pori
Lappeenranta
Jokioinen
Utti Lentokenttae
Maarianhamina
Turku / Abo
Helsinki / Vantaan
Kotka Rankki
Korppoo Utue
6975
6862
6737
6578
6493
6428
6372
6343
6305
6302
6293
6267
6240
6142
6147
6108
6082
6090
6012
6052
6032
6037
5978
2703
2742
2665
2458
2537
2768
2315
2107
2177
2780
2250
2963
2568
2358
2180
2815
2350
2693
1990
2227
2497
2697
2138
107
143
179
10
12
132
24
4
4
94
26
116
141
112
13
105
104
99
4
49
51
11
9
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
07024
07027
France
Cherbourg
Caen
4965
4918
-147
-45
139
78
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
85
lon.
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
WMO
Name of the station
number
07061 St. Quentin
07070 Reims
07110 Brest
07130 Rennes
07145 Trappes
07150 Paris le Bourget
07156 Paris Montsouris
07180 Nancy / Essy
07186 Phalsbourg
07190 Strasbourg
07197 Colmar
07221 Ile de Noirmoutier
07222 Nantes
07240 Tours
07255 Bourges
07265 Auxerre
07280 Dijon
07300 Saint Sauveur
07306 La Roche sur Yon
07315 La Rochelle
07385 Macon
07434 Limoges
07460 Clermont Ferrand
07480 Lyon
07503 Biscarosse
07510 Bordeaux / Merignac
07517 Captieux
07524 Agen
07558 Millau
07586 Carpentras
07591 Embrun
07610 Pau
07630 Toulouse
lat.
pwm
4982
4930
4845
4807
4877
4897
4882
4868
4877
4855
4792
4700
4717
4745
4707
4780
4727
4670
4670
4615
4630
4587
4578
4572
4443
4483
4418
4418
4412
4408
4457
4338
4363
320
403
-442
-173
202
245
233
622
730
763
740
-233
-160
72
237
355
508
-233
-138
-115
480
118
317
495
-125
-70
-28
60
302
505
650
-42
137
98
95
99
37
168
66
75
225
377
153
211
2
27
108
161
207
222
32
90
4
221
396
332
200
33
49
132
61
715
99
871
188
152
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
07635
07643
07645
07650
07678
07690
07739
07747
07761
Carcassonne
Montpellier
Nimes
Marignane
Toulon / Ile du Levant
Nice
Odeillo
Perpignan
Ajaccio
4322
4358
4387
4345
4303
4365
4248
4273
4192
232
397
440
523
647
720
212
287
880
130
5
60
6
110
4
1580
43
6
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
37549
Georgia
Tbilisi
4168
4495
490
10015
10020
Germany
Helgoland
List / Sylt
5418
5502
790
842
4
33
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
86
WMO
Name of the station
number
10033 Flensburg
10035 Schleswig
10040 Ploen
10091 Arkona
10113 Norderney
10141 Hamburg Sasel
10147 Hamburg Airport
10161 Boltenhagen
10162 Schwerin
10166 Heiligendamm
10170 Rostock Warnemuende
10177 Teterow
10184 Greifswald
10203 Emden Hafen
10224 Bremen
10261 Seehausen
10270 Neuruppin
10280 Neubrandenburg
10289 Gruenow
10291 Angermuende
10313 Muenster
10317 Osnabrueck
10338 Hannover
10348 Braunschweig
10361 Magdeburg
10378 Potsdam
10381 BerlinDahlem
10384 BerlinTempelhof Airport
10393 Lindenberg
10406 Bocholt
10410 Essen
10411 Gelsenkirchen
10419 Luedenscheid
10430 Bad Lippspringe
10438 Kassel
10444 Goettingen
10449 Leinefelde
10452 Braunlage
10453 Brocken / Harz
10458 Harzgerode
10460 Artern
10466 Halle / Saale
10469 Leipzig Airport
10474 Wittenberg
10480 Oschatz
10486 Dresden Wahnsdorf
10488 Dresden Airport
10496 Cottbus
10499 Goerlitz
10501 Aachen
lat.
lon.
5478
5453
5417
5468
5372
5365
5363
5400
5365
5415
5418
5377
5410
5335
5305
5290
5290
5355
5332
5303
5195
5225
5247
5230
5212
5237
5247
5247
5222
5183
5140
5150
5122
5178
5130
5155
5140
5173
5180
5165
5138
5152
5142
5188
5130
5112
5113
5178
5117
5078
945
955
1040
1343
715
1012
1000
1120
1138
1185
1208
1262
1340
720
880
1173
1282
1320
1393
1400
758
805
970
1045
1158
1308
1330
1340
1412
653
697
708
763
883
945
995
1032
1060
1062
1113
1130
1195
1223
1265
1310
1368
1378
1432
1495
607
elev.
58
59
26
42
29
49
14
15
59
21
4
46
2
5
24
21
38
73
55
56
60
104
56
83
79
107
51
50
98
24
152
63
465
162
237
175
356
615
1142
404
164
96
131
105
150
246
222
69
237
213
Daily values
Gd
S
T
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
pwm
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
87
WMO
Name of the station
number
10517 Bonn Friesdorf
10519 Bonn Roleber
10532 Giessen
10548 Meiningen
10552 Schmuecke
10554 Erfurt Airport
10555 Weimar
10567 Gera / Leumnitz
10577 Chemnitz
10578 Fichtelberg
10582 Zinnwald
10609 Trier
10628 Geisenheim
10637 Frankfurt am Main
Airport
10655 Wuerzburg
10671 Coburg
10708 Saarbruecken
10729 Mannheim
10739 Stuttgart
10761 Weissenburg
10763 Nuernberg
10803 Freiburg
10863 Weihenstephan
10866 Muenchen Riem
10893 Passau
10929 Konstanz
10961 Zugspitze
10962 Hohenpeissenberg
16619
16622
16627
16641
16648
16654
16674
16682
16690
16701
16714
16716
16719
16723
16724
16726
16732
16744
16746
Greece
Trikkala
Thessaloniki
Alexandroupolis
Kerkyra
Larissa
Arta
Aliartos
Andravidha
Korinthos
Athinai / Filadelfia
Athinai / Observatory
Athinai / Helliniki
Zakynthos
Samos Airport
Argos / Pyrgela
Kalamata
Naxos
Santorini
Souda
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
5070
5073
5058
5057
5065
5098
5098
5088
5080
5043
5073
4975
4998
5005
715
720
870
1038
1077
1097
1132
1213
1287
1295
1375
667
795
860
65
160
201
450
937
312
275
311
418
1219
877
278
111
111
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
4977
5028
4922
4952
4883
4902
4950
4800
4840
4813
4858
4768
4742
4780
997
1098
712
855
920
1097
1108
785
1170
1170
1347
918
1098
1102
275
331
325
106
318
428
312
308
472
530
412
450
2960
990
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
3955
4052
4085
3962
3963
3917
3838
3792
3798
3805
3797
3790
3762
3770
3760
3707
3710
3642
3548
2177
2297
2592
1992
2242
2100
2310
2128
2273
2307
2372
2373
2090
2692
2278
2202
2538
2543
2412
112
8
7
2
73
10
110
17
12
136
107
28
8
2
100
6
9
40
146
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
88
WMO
Name of the station
number
16749 Rodos
16754 Heraklion
16759 Timbakion
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
3640
3533
3500
2808
2518
2475
4
37
7
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
-
x
-
12772
12805
12812
12840
12843
12882
12892
12942
12975
12982
Hungary
Miskolc
Sopron
Szombathly
Budapest
Budapest / Lorinc
Debrecen
Nyiregyhaza
Pecs
Szarvas
Szeged
4810
4768
4727
4752
4743
4748
4802
4600
4687
4625
2078
1660
1663
1903
1918
2163
2173
1823
2053
2010
233
233
220
118
138
110
105
202
85
82
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
04030
04056
04063
04099
Iceland
Reykjavik
Hveravellir
Akureyri
Haganes
6413
6487
6568
6558
-2190
-1957
-1808
-1707
52
641
23
280
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
40179
40180
40184
40199
Israel
Bet Dagan
Tel Aviv Airport
Jerusalem
Eilat
3200
3200
3178
2955
3482
3490
3522
3495
30
40
809
12
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
16020
16033
16045
16052
16059
16061
16064
16067
16072
16080
16090
16099
16105
16110
16120
16134
16140
16148
16149
16153
16158
Italy
Bolzano
Dobbiaco
Udine / Rivolto
Monte Pian Rosa
Torino / Caselle
Torino / Bric della Croce
Novara / Cameri
Ispra
Mt. Bisbino
Milano / Linate
Verona / Villafranca
Treviso / San Angelo
Venezia / Tessera
Trieste
Genova / Sestri
Monte Cimone
Bologna / Borgopanigale
Cervia
Rimini
Capo Mele
Pisa / Santo Giusto
4647
4673
4598
4593
4522
4503
4552
4582
4587
4543
4538
4565
4550
4565
4442
4420
4453
4422
4403
4395
4368
1133
1222
1303
770
765
773
867
860
907
928
1087
1218
1233
1375
885
1070
1130
1230
1262
817
1038
241
1222
51
3480
301
709
178
200
1319
107
67
18
2
20
2
2173
36
6
12
221
6
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
89
WMO
Name of the station
number
16181 Perugia
16191 Falconara Marittima
16197 Elba / Monte Calamita
16219 Monte Terminillo
16224 Vigna di Valle
16230 Pescara
16239 Roma / Ciampino
16252 Campobasso
16261 Foggia / Amendola
16289 Napoli
16310 Capo Palinuro
16320 Brindisi
16350 Crotone
16362 Lamezia Terme
16400 Isla Ustica
16420 Messina
16429 Trapani
16453 Gela
16470 Isla Pantelleria
16480 Cozzo Spadaro
16520 Alghero / Fertilia
16531 Olbia
16550 Capo Bellavista
16560 Cagliari / Elmas
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
4308
4362
4273
4247
4208
4243
4180
4157
4153
4085
4002
4065
3900
3890
3870
3820
3792
3708
3682
3668
4063
4090
3993
3925
1250
1337
1040
1298
1222
1420
1255
1465
1572
1430
1528
1795
1707
1625
1318
1555
1250
1422
1197
1513
828
952
972
905
208
12
396
1874
266
10
105
793
57
88
184
10
155
15
242
54
7
11
191
46
23
11
138
18
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
40250
40270
40310
Jordania
H-4
Amman Airport
Ma'an
3250
3198
3017
3820
3598
3578
686
767
1069
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
28952
35394
35700
35796
35925
38001
Kazakhstan
Kustanaj
Karaganda
Gur'yev
Balhas
Sam
Fort Shevchenko
5322
4980
4702
4690
4542
4455
6362
7313
5185
7500
5620
5025
171
555
0
423
82
-20
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
40582
Kuwait
Kuwait Airport
2922
4798
55
26422
Latvia
Riga
5697
2407
40100
Lebanon
Beyrouth Khald
3382
3548
29
06990
Liechtenstein
Vaduz
4713
952
460
90
WMO
number
Name of the station
lat.
lon.
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
pwm
26629
Lithuania
Kaunas
5488
2388
73
06590
Luxembourg
Luxembourg
4962
622
376
13583
13586
Macedonia
Bitola
Skopje / Petrovac
4105
4197
2137
2165
586
238
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
16597
Malta
Luqa / Malta
3585
1448
91
60101
60105
60107
60115
60120
60127
60135
60136
60141
60150
60155
60156
60160
60165
60178
60185
60190
60191
60195
60200
60210
60220
60230
60250
60265
60285
60318
60340
Morroco
Tanger
Larache
Al Hoceima
Oujda
Kenitra
Taza
Rabat-Sale
Sidi Slimane
Fes Sais
Meknes
Casablanca
Nouasseur
Ifrane
El Jadida
Khouribga
Safi
Kasba Tadla
Beni Mellal
Midelt
Bouarfa
Rachidia
Essaouira
Marrakech
Agadir
Ouarzazate
Tan-Tan
Tetouan
Nador
3573
3518
3518
3478
3430
3422
3405
3423
3397
3388
3357
3337
3350
3323
3288
3228
3253
3237
3268
3257
3193
3152
3162
3038
3093
2847
3558
3515
-592
-613
-385
-193
-660
-400
-677
-605
-498
-553
-767
-758
-517
-852
-690
-923
-628
-640
-473
-195
-440
-978
-803
-957
-690
-1115
-533
-292
16
47
12
465
5
509
76
52
572
549
57
200
1664
270
771
45
518
468
1515
1142
1037
7
464
32
1136
229
5
7
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
06211
06212
06213
06214
06235
06240
Netherlands
Gemert
Numansdorp
Dedemsvaart
Schiermonnikoog
De Kooy
Amsterdam / Schiphol
5155
5173
5260
5347
5292
5230
568
443
647
617
478
477
0
0
10
15
0
-4
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
91
WMO
Name of the station
number
06260 De Bilt
06270 Leeuwarden
06275 Deelen
06280 Eelde
06290 Twente
06310 Vlissingen
06350 Gilze-Rijen
06380 Zuid / Limburg
06395 Harderwijk
06396 Ijmuiden
06397 Heel
06398 Scheveningen
06399 Tollebeck
lat.
lon.
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
pwm
5210
5322
5207
5313
5227
5145
5157
5092
5235
5247
5118
5208
5267
518
575
588
658
690
360
493
578
562
463
590
427
567
2
0
50
4
36
8
11
114
0
0
0
0
0
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
-
01316
Norway
Bergen
6040
532
41
12100
12145
12195
12230
12280
12345
12372
12415
12469
12471
12491
12595
12600
12625
12690
Poland
Kolobrzeg
Gdynia
Suwalki
Pila
Mikolaski
Kolo
Warszawa
Legnica
Sulejow
Belsk
Pulawy
Zamosc
Bielsko Biala
Zakopane
Lesko
5418
5452
5410
5313
5378
5220
5228
5120
5135
5183
5142
5070
4980
4930
4947
1558
1855
2295
1675
2158
1867
2097
1620
1987
2080
2195
2325
1900
1995
2233
3
22
193
72
140
116
98
122
188
180
147
211
398
857
420
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
3967
3852
3867
-3112
-2863
-2722
28
60
74
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
3775
3263
3872
4113
4020
3702
3857
4042
3983
4180
1673
-2567
-1690
-915
-860
-842
-797
-790
-755
-748
-673
-2295
35
58
77
93
141
7
309
1380
386
691
54
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
08503
08506
08511
08513
08522
08535
08546
08549
08554
08557
08568
08570
08575
08594
Portugal
Corvo (Azores)
Horta (Azores)
Angra do Heroismo
(Azores)
Ponta Delgada (Azores)
Funchal (Madeira)
Lisboa
Porto
Coimbra
Faro
Evora
Penhas Douradas
Castelo Branco
Braganza
Sal
92
WMO
number
15085
15090
15120
15247
15260
15310
15360
15420
15450
15480
20046
20069
20292
20674
20891
22113
22165
22217
22550
22602
22837
23205
23219
23330
23418
23472
23552
23711
23724
23804
23884
23933
26063
26477
27037
27196
27595
27612
27613
28225
28275
28440
28698
28722
Name of the station
Romania
Bistrita
Iasi
Cluj / Napoka
Timisoara
Sibiu
Galati
Sulina
Bucuresti
Craiova
Constanta
Russia
Polar GMO IM.E.T.
Krenkelja
Ostrov Vize
GMO IM.E.T. Fedorova
Ostrov Dikson
Khatanga
Murmansk
Kanin Nos
Kandalaksha
Arkhangel'sk
Reboly
Vytegra
Nar'jan / Mar
Khoseda Khard
Sale Khard
Pechora
Turukhansk
Tarko Sale
Troicko-Pecerskoe
Nyaksimvol
Syktyvkar
Bor
Khanty Mansiysk
St. Petersburg
Observatory
Velikie Luki
Vologda
Kirov
Kazan
Moscwa
Moscwa University
Perm
Tobol'sk
Ekaterinsburg
Omsk
Ufa
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lon.
4713
4717
4678
4577
4580
4550
4515
4450
4423
4422
2450
2763
2357
2125
2415
2802
2967
2613
2387
2863
366
102
410
86
443
71
3
90
192
13
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
-
8062
5805
20
7950 7698
7772 10428
7350 8023
7198 10247
6897 3305
6865 4330
6713 3243
6458 4050
6382 3082
6102 3645
6765 5302
6708 5938
6653 6653
6512 5710
6578 8795
6492 7782
6270 5620
6243 6087
6167 5085
6160 9000
6097 6907
5997 3030
11
13
47
33
46
49
26
13
181
59
7
84
35
56
32
27
107
50
96
63
40
4
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
5638
5928
5865
5578
5575
5570
5802
5815
5680
5493
5475
98
118
164
64
156
192
161
44
237
94
197
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
3060
3987
4962
4918
3757
3750
5630
6818
6063
7340
5600
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
lat.
pwm
93
WMO
Name of the station
number
28900 Samara
34122 Voronez
34172 Saratov
34646 Volgodonsk
34731 Rostov na Donu
34824 Primorsko-Ahtarsk
34880 Astrakhan
35121 Orenburg
35358 Turgay
37050 Pyatigorsk
37099 Sochi
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
5325
5170
5157
4773
4725
4603
4627
5175
4963
4405
4358
5045
3917
4603
4225
3982
3815
4803
5510
6350
4303
3972
44
164
156
104
77
5
18
109
123
0
0
x
-
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
60033
60060
60096
Former Spanish Sahara

El Aaiun
Sidi Ifni
Dakhla
2717
2937
2372
-1322
-1018
-1593
64
50
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
40360
40362
40375
40394
40400
40416
Saudi Arabia
Guriat
Rafha
Tabuk
Hail
Wejh
Dhahran
3142
2963
2837
2743
2623
2627
3727
4348
3658
4168
3643
5015
509
449
778
1015
20
26
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
11816
11858
11903
11933
11934
11978
Slovakia
Bratislava
Hurbanovo
Sliac
Strbske Pleso
Poprad / Tatry
Trebisov
4817
4787
4863
4912
4907
4867
1712
1820
1915
2008
2025
2173
292
119
316
1353
718
107
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
-
13015
13105
Slovenia
Ljubljana / Bezigra
Portoroz
4607
4552
1452
1357
299
92
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
08001
08015
08023
08025
08042
08045
08075
08083
08130
08141
08160
08161
Spain
La Coruna
Oviedo
Santander
Bilbao
Santiago / Labacolla
Vigo / Peinador
Burgos / Villafria
Logrono
Zamora
Valladolid
Zaragoza Airport
Zaragoza
4337
4335
4347
4330
4290
4222
4237
4247
4150
4165
4167
4163
-842
-587
-382
-293
-843
-863
-363
-238
-573
-477
-102
-90
58
335
64
40
370
245
894
364
670
734
257
221
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
94
WMO
Name of the station
number
08181 Barcelona Airport
08184 Gerona
08210 Avila
08213 Segovia
08215 Navacerrada
08220 Madrid Universidad
08222 Madrid Barajas
08232 Molina de Aragon
08261 Caceres
08272 Toledo
08301 Palma de Mallorca
08306 Palma de Mallorca / San
Juan
08314 Mahon
08329 Badajoz
08359 Alicante
08390 Sevilla / Tablada
08391 Sevilla / San Pablo
08419 Granada Aiport
08430 Murcia
08433 Murcia / San Javier
08482 Malaga Airport
08487 Almeria Airport
08495 Gibraltar
lat.
lon.
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
pwm
4128
4190
4067
4095
4078
4045
4042
4085
3947
3988
3955
3955
207
277
-452
-412
-402
-372
-368
-188
-633
-405
262
273
4
143
1130
1005
1894
664
655
1056
405
515
6
4
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
3987
3888
3837
3737
3742
3718
3800
3778
3667
3685
3615
423
-697
-50
-600
-590
-378
-117
-80
-448
-238
-535
87
198
81
8
34
567
61
5
16
15
5
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
02045
02185
02226
02283
02415
02435
02483
02513
02571
02590
02627
02641
Sweden
Kiruna Geofysika
Lulea
Oestersund
Umea / Robacksdalen
Karlstad
Borlaenge Airport
Stockholm
Goeteborg
Norrkoeping
Visby Airport
Lund
Vaxjoe / Kronoberg
6783
6555
6318
6382
5937
6043
5935
5770
5858
5767
5572
5693
2043
2213
1450
2025
1347
1550
1807
1200
1625
1835
1322
1473
408
17
376
10
46
153
30
5
5
51
73
182
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
06601
06604
06605
06609
06610
06612
06616
06619
06620
06621
Switzerland
Basel Binningen
Neuchatel
Chasseral
Moleson
Payerne
La Chaux de Fonds
Fahy
La Fretaz
Schaffhausen
Guettingen
4755
4700
4713
4655
4682
4708
4743
4683
4768
4760
758
695
707
702
695
680
695
658
862
928
316
485
1599
1972
490
1018
596
1202
437
440
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
95
WMO
Name of the station
number
06628 Plaffeien
06631 Bern / Liebefeld
06633 Buchs / Suhr
06639 Napf
06643 Wynau
06645 Ruenenberg
06650 Luzern
06655 Engelberg
06659 Pilatus
06660 Zuerich SMA
06664 Reckenholz
06669 Laegern
06670 Zuerich Airport
06672 Altdorf
06673 Waedenswil
06679 Taenikon
06680 Saentis
06681 St. Gallen
06685 Glarus
06700 Geneve-Cointrin
06702 La Dole
06705 Changins
06711 Pully
06712 Aigle
06716 Fey
06717 Grand St. Bernard
06720 Sion
06722 Evolene / Villaz
06724 Montana
06727 Visp
06730 Jungfraujoch
06734 Interlaken
06735 Adelboden
06744 Grimsel Hospiz
06745 Ulrichen
06748 Zermatt
06750 Guetsch
06753 Piotta
06756 Comprovasco
06759 Cimetta
06760 Locarno / Monti
06762 Locarno / Magadino
06770 Lugano
06771 Stabio
06780 Weissfluhjoch
06782 Disentis
06783 San Bernardino
06786 Chur-Ems
06788 Hinterrhein
06791 Corvatsch
lat.
4675
4693
4738
4700
4725
4743
4703
4682
4698
4738
4743
4748
4748
4687
4722
4748
4725
4743
4703
4625
4643
4640
4652
4633
4618
4587
4622
4612
4632
4630
4655
4667
4650
4657
4650
4603
4665
4652
4647
4620
4617
4617
4600
4585
4683
4670
4647
4687
4652
4642
lon.
727
742
808
793
778
788
830
842
825
857
852
840
853
863
868
890
935
940
907
613
610
623
667
692
727
717
733
752
748
785
798
787
757
833
832
775
862
868
893
880
878
888
897
893
982
885
918
953
918
982
elev.
1042
565
387
1406
422
610
456
1035
2106
556
443
868
436
449
463
536
2490
779
515
420
1670
430
461
381
737
2472
482
1825
1508
640
3580
580
1320
1980
1345
1638
2287
1007
575
1672
366
197
273
353
2690
1190
1639
555
1611
3315
Daily values
Gd
S
T
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
pwm
x
x
x
x
-
96
WMO
number
06792
06793
06794
06798
Name of the station
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
Samedan
Davos
Robbia
Scuol
4653
4680
4635
4680
988
982
1007
1028
1705
1592
1078
1298
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
40001
40007
40061
40080
Syria
Kamishli
Aleppo
Palmyra
Damascus
3702
3618
3455
3342
4122
3722
3830
3652
452
390
395
610
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
17029
17030
17061
17062
17130
17220
17280
17300
Turkey
Samsun
Samsun
Istanbul Gebze
Istanbul Goztepe
Ankara
Izmir
Diyarbakir
Antalya
4127
4128
4080
4097
3995
3843
3788
3687
3630
3633
2943
2908
3288
2717
4018
3073
162
4
130
33
891
25
686
50
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
38507
38687
38880
Turkmenistan
Krasnovodsk
Chardzhou
Ashkhabad
4003
3908
3797
5298
6360
5833
89
36
228
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
03005
03017
03026
03049
03063
03066
03072
03091
03100
03112
03115
03136
03137
03159
03160
03162
03169
03170
03204
03224
03240
03257
03282
United Kingdom
Lerwick
Kirkwall Airport
Stornoway
Cape Wrath
Aviemore
Kinloss
Kinbrace
Aberdeen
Tiree
Dunstaffnage
Onich
Auchincruive
Whithorn
Edinburgh East Craigs
Edinburgh Airport
Eskdalemuir
Mylnefield / Dundee
Shanwell
Ronaldsway Airport
Hazlerigg
Boulmer
Leeming
Whitby
6013
5895
5822
5862
5720
5765
5823
5720
5650
5647
5672
5547
5470
5595
5595
5532
5645
5643
5408
5402
5542
5430
5448
-118
-290
-632
-500
-383
-357
-392
-222
-688
-543
-522
-457
-442
-333
-335
-320
-307
-287
-463
-275
-160
-153
-62
82
26
9
112
220
7
103
65
12
3
15
48
40
61
41
242
30
4
16
95
23
40
41
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
97
WMO
Name of the station
number
03302 Valley
03318 Blackpool Airport
03322 Aughton
03334 Manchester Airport
03356 Cawood
03360 Finningley
03377 Waddington
03415 Shawbury
03468 Kirton
03470 Denver Complex
03496 Hemsby
03500 Gogerddan
03502 Aberporth
03534 Elmdon / Birmingham
Airport
03561 Silsoe
03570 Broom's Barn
03586 Honington
03655 Wallingford
03660 Grendon Underwood
03679 Rothampstead
03680 Hoddesdon
03715 Cardiff / Wales Airport
03720 Long Ashton
03721 Yeovilton
03740 Lyneham
03763 Easthampstead/ Bracknell
03774 Crawlay
03776 London Gatwick Airport
03779 London Weather Centre
03790 East Malling
03797 Manston
03808 Camborne
03827 Plymouth Mount Batten
03829 Bude
03862 Bournemouth Airport
03863 Efford
03870 Rustington
03894 Guernsey
03895 Jersey Airport
03917 Belfast / Aldergrove
33345
33393
33837
33946
34300
Ukraine
Kiev
L'vov
Odessa
Simferopol
Khar'kov
Uzbekistan
lat.
lon.
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
pwm
5325
5377
5355
5335
5383
5348
5317
5280
5293
5258
5268
5243
5213
5245
-453
-303
-292
-227
-115
-100
-52
-267
-5
35
168
-402
-457
-173
11
10
54
78
6
17
70
72
4
3
13
40
133
96
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
5202
5227
5233
5160
5190
5180
5178
5140
5143
5100
5150
5138
5108
5115
5152
5128
5135
5022
5035
5083
5078
5073
5082
4943
4922
5465
-42
57
77
-117
-102
-35
0
-335
-267
-263
-198
-78
-22
-18
-12
45
135
-532
-412
-455
-183
-157
-52
-260
-220
-622
59
75
54
49
70
128
47
67
51
18
156
73
144
62
77
37
55
87
50
15
11
16
8
101
84
81
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
5040
4982
4648
4502
4993
3045
2395
3063
3398
3628
179
325
64
205
152
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
98
WMO
Name of the station
number
38262 Cimbaj
38413 Tamdy
38457 Tashkent
13274
13295
13378
13461
13462
13481
Yugoslavia
Beograd
Negotin
Kopaonik
Bar
Podgorica / Golubovci
Pristina
elev.
Daily values
Gd
S
T
Month
Ten-year average
Sm
Gdm Sm Tm rrm pm
lat.
lon.
pwm
4295
4173
4127
5982
6462
6927
66
220
428
x
x
x
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
4480
4423
4328
4210
4237
4265
2047
2255
2080
1910
1925
2115
132
42
1711
4
33
573
x
-
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-

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THE EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS

Vol. 1: Fundamentals and maps

K. Scharmer and J. Greif

Les Presses de lcole des Mines

cole des Mines de Paris, 2000

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS Contents

ESRA IN A NUTSHELL .......................................................................................... 3

Data Base .................................................................................................................................................. 4

Solar Algorithms ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Use of the Tool Box to assess solar system performance ...................................................................... 6

The CD-ROM ........................................................................................................................................... 7

The Atlas Book ......................................................................................................................................... 7

2 THE CONCEPT OF THE EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION............................ 11

3 BASICS OF SOLAR RADIATION ................................................................... 17

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS Contents

3.6 Geometry of solar movements as seen from the earth.......................................................................... 23

4 FROM SOLAR MEASUREMENTS TO THE SOLAR DATA BASE .................. 37

5 THE ESRA DATABASE .................................................................................... 43

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS Contents

5.4 Sources of data.......................................................................................................................................... 44

6 THE ESRA SOFTWARE PACKAGE................................................................. 49

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS Contents

ANNEX 1..................................................................SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

ANNEX 2...................................................................................LIST OF STATIONS

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - Acknowledgements

Zentralanstalt fr Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Vienna

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - Acknowledgements

Royal Meteorological Service, Uccle, Belgium

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell

The European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA) in a nutshell

engineers and architects,

The main features of ESRA can be summarised as follows:

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell

Data Base (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

The data base hosts the following information:

Digital maps with pixel size of 5 x 5 (or approximately 10 km x 10 km at 50 N and 40 E)

geomorphology and country borders,

Station data (time series from selected ground measuring stations)

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell

Composed data sets:

Solar Algorithms (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell

Use of the Tool Box to assess solar system performance

Solar water heaters and active solar systems

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS - ESRA in a nutshell

The CD-ROM (see The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 2:

As primary tool, the whole ESRA-system is presented on CD-ROM.

the entire data base,

The Atlas Book (The European Solar Radiation Atlas, vol. 1:

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 1 Introduction

Primary data and data base

Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), Hamburg/Germany

Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia

R. Aguiar, M.J. Carvalho,

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 1 Introduction

Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), Hamburg/Germany

Software Infrastructure (The CD-ROM)

Ecole des Mines, Centre Energtique, Groupe

User Needs and Validation

Ecole des Mines de Nantes (ARMINES),

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 2 The concept of ESRA

2 The concept of the European Solar Radiation Atlas

THE SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS 2 The concept of ESRA