第 43 卷 第 10 期 硅酸盐学报 Vol. 43，No.

10
2015 年 10 月 Octobre 2015
JOURNAL DE LA SOCIÉTÉ CHINOISE DE CÉRAMIQUE

http://www.gxyb.cbpt.cnki.net DOI 10.14062/j.issn.0454-5648.2015.10.07

综合评述

工业和农业废弃物在混凝土中的本地资源化利用：
可持续解决方案
1 2
Arezki TAGNIT-HAMOU ，Monique T TOGNONVI
(1. Département de génie civil, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500, boulevard de l’Université,
Sherbrooke (Québec) J1K 2R1, Canada;
2. Département de génie civil, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500, boulevard de l’Université, Sherbrooke (Québec)
J1K 2R1, Canada)

摘 要：全球变暖是当今社会面临的主要环境问题，是由过量二氧化碳排放造成的。水泥生产过程中石灰石的分解和燃料的
燃烧排放的 CO2 量占据了总排放的 5%~8%。随着民用基础设施建设的快速发展，特别是在中国、印度、中东等发展中国
家，水泥和混凝土使用量飞速增长。采用辅助胶凝材料替代混凝土中水泥的使用量，尤其是工业废弃物，能够显著降低了混
凝土生产过程中的碳排放。然而普通的工业废弃物，如硅灰、粉煤灰、矿粉等并不是全部可以利用的，较远距离运输会造成
CO2 总排放量的增加。然而，铝生产工业的其他副产物和废弃纸泥灰也可以作为辅助胶凝材料进行循环利用的。农业生产中
的废弃物，如甘蔗灰、棕榈油灰、椰子壳灰、稻壳灰等也有火山灰特性，能够将其作为辅助胶凝材料使用。此 外 一 些 天
然 掺 合 料 如 硅 藻 土 含 有 丰 富 的 火 山 灰 活 性 组 分近 年 来 玻 璃 粉 作 为 辅 助 胶 凝 材 料 在 很
多 国 家 广 泛 应 用上述辅助胶凝材料的循环利用能够降低混凝土对环境影响，且能有效减少相关生产费用。

关键词：全球变暖；工业废弃物；农业废弃物；可持续混凝土；火山灰特性

中 图 分 类 号 TQ172 文 献 标 志 码 文 章 编 号 0454–5648(2015)10–1372–13
网 络 出 版 时 间 A 网 络 出 版
地 址

Valorisation des déchets industriels et agro-industriels disponibles localement dans le béton :

Une solution durable

1, Monique T TOGNONVI
Arezki TAGNIT-HAMOU 2 (1. Département de génie civil, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500, boulevard de
l’Université, Sherbrooke (Québec) J1K 2R1, Canada;
2. Département de génie civil, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500, boulevard de l’Université, Sherbrooke (Québec)
J1K 2R1, Canada)

Résumé : Le réchauffement de la planète — l’un des principaux problèmes auxquels nous faisons face aujourd’hui — est causé par
l’émission de gaz à effet de serre dans l’atmosphère. L’industrie du ciment contribue de façon prudente de 5  % à 8 % des émissions
mondiales de dioxyde de carbone (CO2),
principalement par la décomposition du calcaire et la combustion de combustibles fossiles pendant la
production de ciment. Compte tenu de l’augmentation rapide de la demande d’infrastructures civiles de pointe — principalement en
Chine, en Inde, au Moyen-Orient et dans les pays en développement —, les industries du ciment et du béton devraient connaître une
expansion considérable. Le remplacement d’une partie du ciment contenu dans le béton par des matériaux cimentaires
supplémentaires (MCS), généralement des sous-produits industriels, a considérablement réduit l’empreinte carbone du béton.
Pourtant, les MCS ordinaires, comme les fumées de silice, les cendres volantes et les scories, ne sont pas universellement disponibles,
ce qui ajoute aux coûts de CO2 liés au transport. D’autres sous-produits de l’industrie de l’aluminium (c. -à-d. la fritte de verre résultant du traitement
des doublures de pots usés) et les cendres de boues de papier rebut (MSA) peuvent être recyclés dans le béton comme solution de
rechange au MCS. Les déchets agricoles tels que le frêne à bagasse de canne à sucre (ARA), le frêne à huile de palme (POFA), le
frêne de noix de coco (CSA), le frêne d’épi de maïs (CCA), le frêne à enveloppe de riz, qui sont disponibles localement dans de
nombreux pays tropicaux, ont démontré leurs propriétés pozzolaniques, permettre leur utilisation comme matériaux cimentaires de
remplacement. Certains minéraux naturels comme la terre diatomée, qui
2015–04–15 修 订 日 期 2015–07–20 Date de réception : 2015-04-2015. Date révisée : 2015–07–20.
第一作者： Arezki TAGNIT-HAMOU，教授。 Premier auteur : Arezki TAGNIT-HAMOU, professeur.
E-mail: Arezki.Tagnit-Hamou @usherbrooke.ca
第 43 卷 第 10 期 Arezki TAGNIT-HAMOU 等：工业和农业废弃物在混凝土中的本地资源化利用：…… · 1373 ·

sont disponibles dans de nombreuses régions, sont connus pour leur bonne pozzolanicité. Plus récemment, la poudre de verre obtenue
à partir du broyage du verre des bouteilles à déchets, largement disponible dans certains pays, a été introduite en tant que MCS
alternative. Le recyclage de ces MCS de rechange peut réduire l’impact environnemental du béton et les coûts de production
connexes.

Mots clés : réchauffement climatique ; les déchets industriels; agro-industrial wastes; du béton durable; pozzolanic properties

Originalité : L’empreinte carbone attribuée au béton devient de plus en plus significative en raison de la teneur en ciment et de
l’augmentation de la demande mondiale de béton. Pour réduire l’impact environnemental du béton, des matériaux cimentaires
supplémentaires tels que le laitier et les cendres volantes sont utilisés pour remplacer une partie du ciment. Cependant, en raison de
l’indisponibilité de ces sous-produits dans certaines parties du monde, leur utilisation induit un coût supplémentaire et des émissions
de CO2 liées au transport. Cet examen vise à démontrer la possibilité d’utiliser les documents disponibles localement comme MCS. Étant donné que le recyclage de

matériaux de construction de rechange disponibles localement dans le béton peut permettre à l’industrie du béton de répondre aux exigences environnementales et d’être, en

même temps, une solution à faible coût quelle que soit la région.
recyclage des déchets industriels et agro-industriels
disponibles localement possédant les
1 Introduction
Le béton reste aujourd’hui l’un des matériaux les plus
utilisés au monde. Le ciment constitue l’élément
principal qui fournit la liaison et les bonnes propriétés
mécaniques du béton. La demande de ciment ne cesse
d’augmenter à mesure que les populations augmentent,
en particulier dans les pays émergents et en
développement. La demande de ciment en 2013 était
estimée à 4 milliards de tonnes métriques[1]. Même sans
tenir compte de l’augmentation prévue de la demande,
l’industrie du ciment produit de 5 à 8 % du dioxyde de
carbone (CO2) résultant des activités humaines.
Selon l’American Concrete Institute (ACI) Board
Advisory Committee on sustainable development (BACSD),
« le béton doit être spécifié, conçu et proportionné en
fonction de son application prévue, en tenant compte de la
durabilité et de la conservation des ressources avec un
impact minimal sur l’environnement; la fabrication de
matériaux, la production de béton et les pratiques de
construction doivent être respectueuses de l’environnement
et le béton dans toutes les applications doit être durable
(vert), et doit être considéré comme tel par les propriétaires
et le grand public » [2]. Dans sa politique de développement
durable, la majorité des industries cimentières s’engage à
réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES),
notamment en diminuant la teneur en clinker d’une tonne de
ciment ou par m3 de béton. L’une des façons les plus
efficaces d’atteindre cet objectif est de remplacer une partie
du clinker par des matériaux cimentaires (MCS)
supplémentaires qui peuvent développer des propriétés
équivalentes ou de qualité supérieure de type ciment à court
ou moyen terme[3]. La plupart des matériaux sont des sous-
produits industriels, y compris les cendres volantes, les
fumées de silice ou les scories de haut fourneau, qui seraient
autrement enfouis[4]. De plus, ces sous-produits industriels,
qui ont fait l’objet d’études approfondies et dont les
propriétés bénéfiques sont bien établies [5], ne sont pas
nécessairement disponibles dans un endroit particulier.
augmentation des coûts de production du béton et donc des
impacts environnementaux dus aux émissions de GES
pendant le transport. Une solution à ce problème peut être le
propriétés pozzolaniques dans d’autres MCS (MCSA).
Des études ont montré que des déchets tels que les
cendres de bagasse de canne à sucre (ARA), les cendres
de carburant à l’huile de palme (POFA), les cendres de
noix de coco (CSA), les cendres d’épis de maïs (CCA), et
la cendre de l’enveloppe de riz — selon les conditions de
calcination — et la poudre de verre, pourrait satisfaire aux
exigences de la norme ASTM C618 et pourrait être
utilisée comme AMCC ayant des propriétés plus ou moins
avantageuses. En outre, les pouzzolanes naturelles, y
compris la terre diatomée, peuvent également être
utilisées lorsqu’elles sont largement disponibles.
Le présent document vise à examiner les documents
disponibles localement (cette liste n’est pas exhaustive)
qui pourraient être utilisés comme MCS. À notre
connaissance, il n’existe pas de données recommandant
d’autres matériaux cimentaires en remplacement du
ciment ordinaire en fonction de la disponibilité. Le
recyclage des matériaux de construction de rechange
disponibles localement dans le béton peut permettre à
l’industrie du béton de répondre aux exigences
environnementales et d’être, en même temps, une solution
à faible coût, quelle que soit la région.

2 Agricultural wastes as ASCMs

2.1 Sugar cane bagasse ash
La cendre de bagasse de canne à sucre (SCBA) est un
sous-produit de l’agro-industrie sucre/alcool
abondamment disponible dans certaines régions du
monde, en particulier au Brésil[6], premier producteur et
exportateur mondial de sucre. Ce produit est répandu en
Asie (Inde, Chine, Thaïlande et Pakistan) et dans les pays
tropicaux, y compris ceux d’Afrique de l’Ouest. La silice
est la principale composante de ces déchets agricoles, qui
peuvent servir de pouzzolane dans la pâte à base de
ciment, le mortier et le béton (tableau 1) [7]. Il contient
également d’autres oxydes métalliques et, selon les
conditions de combustion, du carbone non brûlé qui peut
induire un niveau élevé de perte à l’allumage [8]. De
nombreuses études ont indiqué que l’utilisation de
l’APRA comme remplacement partiel du ciment Portland
peut améliorer les propriétés mécaniques et de durabilité
des matériaux cimentaires [7,9-13] ont étudié les effets
pozzolaniques et de remplissage d’une APRA résiduelle
dans les mortiers. La bagasse de canne à sucre utilisée a
été brûlée dans des chaudières, et selon la teneur en
humidité de la bagasse, la température de combustion
pour obtenir des cendres varie de 700 à 900 . Selon
ces
· 1374 · 《硅酸盐学报》 J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1372–1384 2015 年

auteurs [13], XRD analyse couplée à la méthode de
Rietveld a révélé la présence de (24 4)% de phase
amorphe, en plus de quartz et cristobalite phases
cristallines. Il a été démontré que, lors du remplacement
de 35 % en volume de ciment Portland par de l’APRA
avec un rapport masse eau/liant de 0,52, l’activité
pozzolanique d’une APRA dépend de manière
significative de la taille et de la finesse des particules.
Depuis l’indice pozzolanique à 28 jours d’hydratation
augmente fortement avec la taille des particules
décroissante
Tableau 1 Exemple de composition chimique de certaines SBCA recueillies dans la littérature.
et une finesse croissante. Les mêmes auteurs [14] dans un
autre travail basé sur le broyage ultrafin des cendres de
bagasse de canne à sucre ont confirmé ces résultats en
produisant un béton à haute performance incorporant des
ARA ultrafines obtenues par broyage fin. Ils ont souligné
que le broyage de SBCA à des valeurs de D80 (80% de
passage taille ou en dessous d’environ 60 μm) et des
surfaces spécifiques de Blaine supérieures à 300 m2/kg a
donné des produits qui peuvent être classés comme
pozzolans.

Composition chimique/%
ARA Réf. [15]
Réf. [13] Réf. [16] Réf. [7]
S1 S2 S3
SiO2 78.3 61.0 69.4 56.0 66.6 63.2
Al2O3 8.6 0.09 11.3 12.4 9.5 9.7
Fe2O3 3.6 0.09 5.4 6.5 10.1 5.4
CaO 2.2 6.0 2.5 0.8 1.4 8.4
Na2O 0.12 0.70 0.09 0.0 0.22
K2O 3.5 9.0 3.5 0.9 3.2
MnO 0.48
MgO 8.7 1.3 0.48 0.92 2.9
TiO2 1.4 2.7 2.4
BaO
P2O5 8.3 1.6 1.0 1.0
SO3 1.8 1.0 0.10 2.9
LOI 0.42 5.7 1.6 18.0 4.3 6.9
SiO2+Al2O+Fe2O3 86.2 61.1 86.1 74.9 86.2 78.3

L’ARA est généralement obtenue dans des conditions de Singh N B, et al. [7] ont constaté que le remplacement
combustion non contrôlée dans des chaudières de de 10 % du ciment par de l’ARA donnait une résistance à
cogénération. Par conséquent, les cendres peuvent contenir la compression supérieure à celle du témoin (sans ARA).
des particules noires en raison de la présence de carbone et Le mélange
de silice cristalline, lorsque la combustion se produit à des
températures élevées (supérieures à 800 ) ou pendant
une période prolongée. La température de
calcination semble avoir un effet significatif
sur la réactivité et, par conséquent, sur
l’activité pozzolanique des ARA. Ainsi, la
qualité des cendres peut être améliorée en
contrôlant des paramètres tels que la
température, le taux de chauffage, le temps de
trempage et l’atmosphère. Frias M, et al. [15] qui ont
étudié l’effet des conditions de combustion sur la pozzolanicité de différents types
de cendres de bagasse de canne à sucre provenant des mêmes déchets de bagasse
produits dans une usine de sucre, ont conclu que, afin de développer de bonnes
propriétés pozzolaniques, ces sous-produits doivent être bien gérés avant d’être
utilisés comme combustibles. Cela signifie enlever tous les contaminants pour
obtenir seulement bagasse propre et contrôler la température de calcination autour
de 800
. Cordeiro G.C., et al. [16] ont toutefois supposé que 600 est la
température la plus appropriée pour produire des pozzolanes à partir d’ARA. Au-
delà de cette température, le degré cristallin augmente, diminuant ainsi la phase
amorphe.
On a également constaté que le ciment résiste mieux à un
environnement agressif. Ces résultats sont conformes à
ceux obtenus par Rukzon et Chindaprasirt [18], qui ont
signalé que l’utilisation de 10 % de cendres de bagasse
produisait des bétons ayant une bonne résistance et une
faible porosité. Les auteurs ont également supposé
qu’une substitution allant jusqu’à 30 % des cendres de
bagasse pourrait produire du béton plus solide [17].
Le tableau 1 présente la composition chimique de
l’ACFSG selon différentes études. Comme le montre le
tableau 1, l’ACFSG est principalement composée de
dioxyde de silicium (plus de la moitié) et est donc
considérée comme son ingrédient principal. Il est
également important de noter que l’ACFSG satisfait aux
exigences générales de l’ASTM C618 pour la pozzolane
de classe N, qui précise que les cendres doivent contenir
au moins 70 % de SiO2+Al2O3+Fe 2O3.
D’après la simulation Fairbairn, et al. [18] ont
démontré que le ciment mélangé ARA réduit les
émissions de CO2 de 519,3 kilotonnes par année, ce qui montre
l’avantage environnemental de l’utilisation de ce sous-
produit dans les matériaux de construction.
2.2 Cendres de combustible à l’huile de palme
La cendre de combustible de l’huile de palme
(POFA), un autre déchet agricole peut être recyclé dans
le béton comme ASCM. Ce produit est obtenu sous
forme de cendres sur la combustion de feuilles d’huile de
palme ou de fibres et de coquille de palmiste comme
combustible dans la chaudière d’huile de palme.
第 43 卷 第 10 期 Arezki Tagnit-Hamou 等：当地工业和工农业废弃物在混凝土中的资源化利用：…… · 1375 ·

L’huile de palme est largement produite dans plusieurs
pays d’Asie, dont la Malaisie[19], la Thaïlande et
l’Afrique (Nigeria, Ivory Cost,…). Ce produit a été
reconnu mondialement comme une grande contribution à
la construction de bâtiments en raison de son activité
pozzolanique[20-22]
. En général, après combustion, on produit
environ 5 % de cendres de combustible à base d’huile de
palme en poids de déchets solides [23]. La qualité des
cendres de POFA dépend fortement du système
d’exploitation du moulin à huile de palme lié au carbone
non brûlé[24]
. Sous combustion contrôlée, les cendres fines
qui en résultent contiennent moins de carbone non brûlé
et présentent d’excellentes propriétés pozzolaniques.
Selon Abou[20], le POFA est un matériau pozzolanique
et peut être utilisé comme remplacement partiel du
ciment jusqu’à 35% pour produire un mélange de mortier
avec une résistance similaire à un mortier de contrôle.
Abdulawal et Hussin [25] ont supposé que 30 % est le taux
de remplacement optimal du ciment avec la cendre de
combustible de l’huile de palme. Selon ces auteurs, le
gain de force le plus élevé a été atteint à ce niveau après
28 jours de
Tableau 2 Composition chimique de certains POFA consignée dans la littérature.
hydratation. Pour Sata V, et al., [26] le niveau optimal est de
20 %. À ce niveau, le béton à base de POFA a donné une
résistance à la compression plus élevée que ceux contenant
des fumées de silice à 5 %. Pourtant, ces auteurs ont déclaré
que le béton contenant jusqu’à 30 % de POFA fin fournissait
une résistance à la compression de 28 jours de l’ordre de
79,8 à 85,9 MPa, ce qui est de 3 à 11 % supérieur à celui du
béton témoin et que la chaleur d’hydratation était réduite de
15 %. Les excellentes propriétés pozzolaniques du POFA
sont certainement liées à sa teneur élevée en silice (>50 %)
et à sa finesse, qui est inférieure à celle du ciment Portland
ordinaire[26-27]. Le tableau 2 énumère la composition
chimique du POFA trouvé dans la littérature. En général,
comme dans le cas de l’ACFSG, lorsque le POFA est bien
brûlé (faible LI), sa composition est conforme à la norme
ASTM C618. Le pourcentage total de ses oxydes varie
généralement entre 50% et 80%, selon le traitement
thermique [25,28]. Il a ensuite été signalé que la plupart des
POFA satisfont aux exigences à classer entre la classe C et
la classe F selon la norme ASTM C 618[25].

Composition chimique/%
POFA
Réf. [25] Réf. [33] Réf. [30] Réf. [24] Réf. [32]
SiO2 43.6 59.6 63.6 67.1 57.7
Al2O3 11.4 2.5 1.6 6.1 4.5
Fe2O3 4.7 5.0 1.4 5.9 3.3
CaO 8.4 4.9 7.6 5.6 6.5
Na2Oeq 2.3 5.7 4.6 3.7 5.9
MnO 0.12
MgO 4.8 4.5 3.6 3.1 4.2
P2O5 3.6 3.6
SO3 2.8 1.3 0.20 0.32 0.20
LOI 18.0 8.3 9.6 0.32 10.5
SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 59.7 67.2 66.6 79.1 65.5

Tangchirapat W et al.[29] ont signalé que le remplacement de La noix de coco est un déchet largement disponible en
10 % à 30 % de la teneur en ciment du béton par du POFA moulu a non
Afrique et en Amérique du Sud [34]. La coquille est
seulement augmenté la résistance à la compression, mais aussi réduit le retrait
habituellement le soleil
de séchage et la perméabilité à l’eau par rapport au mélange témoin.
Chindaprasirt P, ont observé une résistance accrue à la
et al. [30]
pénétration des ions chlorure lorsqu’une partie de la teneur en ciment du béton
a été remplacée par du POFA. Selon ces auteurs, la résistance est plus grande
avec des niveaux de remplacement allant jusqu’à 40%. AbdulAwal A S M ,
et
ont souligné qu’un fort remplacement du ciment par du POFA
al. [31]
(jusqu’à 50 %) dans le mortier a considérablement réduit la dilatation en raison
de la réaction alcali-silice. Les études de Jaturapitakkul C,
et al. [32] sur
l’aspect de la durabilité du béton à base de POFA ont montré que le POFA au
sol peut réduire l’expansion et la perte de compression en raison d’une attaque
au sulfate. La réduction est importante lorsque la finesse de l’AACP augmente.

2.3 Coconut shell ash

séché, suivi d’une combustion à l’air libre non contrôlée
pour produire des cendres [35]. Il y a très peu de
recherches sur la pertinence des cendres de noix de coco
(CSA) comme MCS pour le béton.
Le juge Utsev et al. [35] ont indiqué que le PAD
contient 38 % de SiO2, 24 % d’Al2O 3 et 15,5 % de Fe2O3, ce
qui répond à l’exigence de 70 % (SiO2+Al2O 3+Fe2O3) pour la

pozzolane en vertu de la norme ASTM C 618. Ils ont suggéré que de 10 % à

15 % de la CSA peut remplacer le ciment dans le béton sans effets négatifs

majeurs sur les propriétés mécaniques à un âge précoce. Malgré le fait que ce

matériau semble avoir des propriétés pozzolaniques, il n’y a pas de données

disponibles sur le comportement à long terme du béton CSA. Further study is

needed on CSA effects on concrete mechanical and durability properties prior

to its use as an ASCM. Even though CSA is not widely used as a

supplementary cementitious material, several authors found that coconut shell

can be used as a coarse aggregate to produce lightweight concrete [36-38]

with flexural behavior
· 1376 · 《硅酸盐学报》 J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1372–1384 2015 年

comparable to that of other types of lightweight concrete its use can be drawn.
[38]
. Moreover, many investigations showed that coconut
Table 3 Chemical composition of CCA [46]
fiber (coir) can reinforce concrete tensile and flexural
[39-42]
strength . Coconut waste appears to be 100% recyclable Mass fraction/%
as a construction material. Mineral
2.4 Corn-cob ash CCA1 CCA2 CCA3
Corn cob is the waste product obtained from corn, SiO2 67.3 65.4 66.4
which is one of the most important cereal crops in sub -
Al2O3 7.3 9.1 6.0
Saharan Africa. Corn is widely cultivated throughout the
Fe2O3 3.7 5.6 4.0
world, and more corn per weight is produced annually
than any other grain. In 2012, over 850 000 tonnes of CaO 10.3 12.9 11.5
corn were produced worldwide. The United States was Na2Oeq 2.8 3.7 4.1
the largest producer with about 32% of the world MgO 1.8 2.3 2.0
production. Africa produced only 9% of the world’s corn. SO3 1.1 1.1 1.0
[43] Corn-cob ash (CCA), obtained after grinding SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 78.4 80.1 76.4
and burning corn cob in the open air at a temperature of
around 650 ℃ for 8 hours, has a high silica content [44]. 2.5 Rice-husk ash
According to Adesanya D A, et al.[45], corn-cob ash c The husk covering rice grains constitutes about 20%
o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n 6 6 % o f s i l i c a wi t h a SiO of paddy rice widely produced in the world, especially in
2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 content varying from 77% to 80% and
Asia (China and India are the two main rice producers).
can be used as an ASCM. The optimum level of CCA [49] Rice is also largely produced and consumed in Africa,
replacement from a structural-load viewpoint is estimated especially West Africa. Rice-husk ash (RHA) is obtained by
to be 8% [46] due to the high water demand of this burning rice husk at temperatures between 600℃ and 700
material . The co mpressive strength of CCA-blended- ℃[50]. This product is a highly reactive pozzolanic material
cement concrete was lower than the control at early ages, suitable for use in lime–pozzolana mixes and for Portland
but improved significantly, outperforming the control at cement replacement. It contains a high amount of silica (85% to
later ages (>120 days). [46] Oladipupo O S, et al. [47] also 90%), and its lime reactivity depends on a combination of three
investigated a CCA-based concrete, but their study factors, namely the amorphous silica content, particle-size
focused only on 28-day properties, which is not enough distribution, and specific surface. Actually, RHA consists of
for curing concrete incorporating such additions. very fine particles and develops a highly reactive surface
Although there has been little research on CCA-based (Blaine fineness ~1 000 m 2/kg) [51] like silica fume. Table 4
concrete, CCA seems to have some potential as an shows examples of chemical composition of RHA. Research on
ASCM; further investigation is required. Kevern J T, et producing rice-husk ash (RHA) that can be incorporated to
al.[48] reported that corn-husk ash (another corn waste concrete and mortars are not recent. In 1973, Metha P.K,et al.
[52]
product) has potential for use as an ASCM due to its high investigated the effect of pyroprocessing on the pozzolanic
silica content (37%–38%). Nevertheless, this material reactivity of RHA. Since then, several studies have been
also contains 24%–28% of K2O, which could have a conducted proving the high pozzolanicity of RHA [51, 53-55]. This
negative impact with respect to alkali-silica reaction. material can also be used for making high-performance
Therefore, further investigation on the pozzolanicity and concrete, which means high workability and long-term
durability of corn-ash- based concrete needs to be done durability of the concrete[56-57]. Due to its high fineness, this ash
before any conclusions about has also filler properties comparable to those of silica fume.

Table 4 Chemical composition of RHA from literature data

Chemical composition/%

RHA Ref. [61]

Ref. [51] Ref. [59] Ref. [60]

UY USA

SiO2 89.3 87.0 87.3 87.2 88.0

Al2O3 0.70 0.84 0.22 0.15
Fe2O3 0.56 0.73 0.28 0.16 0.1
Na2Oeq 1.1 1.7 3.1 3.5
 LOI 4.1 5.1 2.1 6.6 8.1
SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 90.6 88.6 87.8 87.5 88.1
第 43 卷第 10 期 Arezki Tagnit-Hamou 等：当地工业和工农业废弃物在混凝土中的资源化利用：……
Local availability and a simple processing of
controlled combustion motivates the use of RHA in rural
Africa. Based on the methods of concreting and rice-husk
burning used in rural areas of Burkina Faso, et al.[58]
developed a simple technique to process, characterize and
use RHA (Fig. 7). They reported that cement can be
replaced with up to 20% RHA without compromising
mechanical performances[58]. The authors conducted field
applications of concrete containing RHA from Burkina
Faso (BF), and produced a rice drying slab in Banzon
(BF), a part of the rice transformation center.
3 Industrial wastes as ASCM
3.1 Spent pot liner from aluminum industry
The aluminum industry generates a considerable
amount of spent pot liners (SPLs), which contain
leachable cyanides and fluorides, creating a serious
environmental problem in various parts of the world.
Aluminum plants are therefore faced with high costs
throughout the process of recycling the waste generated.
So far, the most common way of disposing of the waste
has been burying it in landfill sites, thereby
contaminating sites and generating complaints from
neighbors.
Recent investigations performed by Tagnit-Hamou
A,et al.[62] showed that glass frit resulting from SPL
processing (CALSiFrit or glass frit) contains about 32%
by weight of amorphous silica and can be used as an
ASCM. Its chemical composition is provided in Table 5.
[62]
Table 5 Chemical composition of glass frit
Mineral Glass frit
SiO2 31.7
Al2O3 23.4
Fe2O3 3.4
CaO 14.6
Na2O 10.0
MgO 0.76
SO3 - from literature data
CaF2 9.4
LOI <1.0
After processing in various way, ground CALSiFrit
with a fineness similar to that of cement can be used at up
to 25% to replace part of the cement in concrete [62-63].
The authors deem that such a material has better
rheological and mechanical properties and durability than
blast-furnace slag. Performance in terms of drying
shrinkage, surface scaling, alkali–silica reaction, and
chloride-ion permeability have shown that concrete with
glass frit has a very good potential for long-term
resistance.
3.2 Wastes glass powder
In addition to these mineral admixtures, the use of
glass powder obtained from grinding mixed waste-bottle
Glass powder
Ref. [70]
· 1377 ·
glass in concrete has attracted much research interest.
Nonrecycled glass accounts for the highest amounts of
waste produced in some countries and represents a major
environmental issue. Unlike other forms of waste—
including paper and organic constituents—waste- glass
bottles remain stable after disposal in landfills. Although
glass can be used several times without significant
changes in its chemical and physical properties, glass
recycling remains negligible, except in the case of clear
glass. In North America, clear glass can, for example, be
reused as deposit bottles. Moreover, postconsumer waste
glass can be recovered for recycling by the glass-
manufacturing industry to make products such as
container glass, flat glass, and insulating wool as well as
for uses that do not involve remelting. An alternative to
recycling is using waste glass in concrete, since
conventional SCMs are not available in many parts of the
world. For example, Quebec (Canada) has to import fly
ash and slag from Ontario, the Maritimes, or the United
States[64], which involves additional transportation costs
and CO2 emissions. The development of new SCMs such
as glass powder, which is widely available, has both
economic and ecological advantages. Such products have
been covered by CSA A3004 guide since 2008. In 2008,
244,000 tonnes of glass on average were produced in
Quebec[65]. The use of glass powder in concrete is a very
interesting avenue for its valorization since its chemical
and mineralogical composition can confer valuable
properties to concrete in replacing a fraction of the
cement.
Works based on the use of finely ground glass as partial
replacement of cement in a cement-based system began in
1970[66-69]. Analysis of the chemical composition revealed
that the mixed glass contained a high level of amorphous
silica content (SiO 2: 70%–75%), suggesting that it could
possess pozzolanic properties (Table 6).
Table 6 Chemical composition of glass powder collected
Chemical composition/%
Ref. [71] Ref. [80]
 SiO2 72.70 72.80 72.20
Al2O3 1.60 1.40 1.50
Fe2O3 0.39 0.48
CaO 11.50 4.90 11.40
Na2O 12.90 16.30 12.90
K2O 0.54 0.30 0.43
MnO
MgO 1.20 3.40 0.80
LOI 0.38 0.36

SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 74.70 74.20 74.20

· 1378 · 《硅酸盐学报》 J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1372–1384
Glass powder is known to decrease the compressive
strength of concrete at early age due to its dilution effect,
because reactive cement particles are replaced with glass
powder. In general, glass powder’s pozzolanic properties
are at their highest after 56 days, achieving compressive
strength equal or higher than that of a control concrete
(without glass powder). Zidol et al. [70,73] showed that
glass powder can significantly improve the resistance to
chloride-ion penetration (ASTM C1202), thereby
increasing concrete durability. According to these authors,
the decrease in chloride-ion penetration results from
refining of the pore network due to the pozzolanic
reaction of the glass powder. They also pointed out that
glass powder performs better in the presence of water,
since the permeability seems to be similar regardless the
water-to-binder ratio (Fig. 1). In addition, glass powder
shows good synergy with metakaolin (MK) in concrete,
since metakaolin improves the early age performance of
concrete due to its fineness[70].
a) 28 d
b) 56 d
c) 91 d
Fig. 1 Chloride ion permeability of concrete after moisture
curing
[70]
2015 年
Tagnit-Hamou A, et al. [74] conducted field trials using
concrete incorporating 10 to 30 % of glass powder as
cement replacement in Quebec (Canada). They reported
that, although at early ages, the compressive strengths of
glass powder-based concrete used in slabs and sidewalks
were lower than those of the corresponding control
mixture, they met the required strength at 28 days and
even exceed the 91-day strength. They also showed that
concrete incorporating glass powder exhibited similar or
better splitting strength as well as higher resistance to
chloride-ion penetration.
The durability aspects of concrete containing glass
powder has been investigated[75-76], reported that concrete
incorporating up to 30 % of glass powder exhibited good
freeze-thaw resistance regardless of the water-to-binder
ratio. Nassar R. U. D, et al. [77] studied the durability of
concrete incorporating glass powder and concluded that
using ground waste glass as partial replacement for
cement in concrete can significantly enhance durability
characteristics, including sorption, chloride permeability,
and freeze–thaw resistance. According to these authors,
this was achieved due to improved pore-system
characteristics, filling effect of glass particles, and
conversion of CH into C–S–H available in the old
mortar/cement paste attached to the surface of recycled
aggregate, since they also use recycled aggregate
concrete as aggregate. Studies carried out by some
researchers [78-82] indicated that replacing cement with
ground glass improves the concrete’s compressive
strength as well as resistance to alkali–silica reaction
(ASR) at later ages. In most cases, this depends on the
replacement rate and the fineness of glass used [75,83-87].
According to these authors, fine glass powder can also
play the role of an ASR inhibitor in glass-aggregate
mortar.
3.3 Wastepaper sludge ash
The pulp-and-paper industry generates a significant
amount of waste in the form of deinking sludge. The
main recycling and disposal routes for the sludge are
spreading as agricultural fertilizer, composting,
landfilling, and use in the brick-making industry [88].
Recently, the use of sludge as cementitious material has
attracted much interest. Studies performed on the
calcination of wastepaper sludge indicated encouraging
pozzolanic properties. According to Pera ,et al.,[89] sludge
calcination at 700 ℃or 750 ℃ for 2 to 5 hours leads to
the formation of highly reactive metakaolin that can be
used as cementitious materials. These results have been
confirmed by Frias M., et al.,[90] who studied the effect of
the calcination temperature on the chemical and
mineralogical composition and the pozzolanicity of the
sludge from the Holmen paper mill in Madrid. These
authors determined that a temperature of 650°C or higher
yielded calcined sludge with good pozzolanic activity,
similar to that of silica fume. Garcia R, et al. [91]
第 43 卷第 10 期 Arezki Tagnit-Hamou 等：当地工业和工农业废弃物在混凝土中的资源化利用：…… · 1379 ·

performed similar studies and reached the same
conclusion. These temperatures completely destroyed the
organic matter and transformed kaolinite into metakaolin.
Moreover, to minimize the negative environmental
impact and costs related to waste landfilling, some paper
mills use a fluidized-bed boiler (BFB) fired by its own
sludge as a raw fuel to produce part of the energy needed
for operations. Burning this biomass residue, however,
generates another type of waste: fly ash. Indeed, the
process generates a significant amount of wastepaper-
sludge ash (WSA) that must be dumped in landfills. The
burned biomass is generally composed of the sludge from
the water-treatment process (primary and secondary
sludge), deinking sludge, and wood waste from
construction and demolition. The sludge is incinerated
under high pressure at temperatures ranging from 750 ℃
to 950 ℃, followed by quenching at about
200 ℃. A filtration system collects the ash from the flue
gases[92-93], combustion temperatures can reach 1 200℃
with rapid cooling between 200 ℃and 400 ℃. Such high
temperatures are required to destroy dioxins[93]. Instead of
the pozzolanic properties developed by wastepaper sludge
when calcined above 650 ℃[89-91], WSA develops hydraulic
properties [92-95] and may not contain high quantity of
metakaolin. There can be large differences in terms of
physicochemical properties due to changes in the process
conditions and the sludge’s initial composition. Table 7
provides examples of chemical composition. The works of
Mozaffari E, et al. [96] and Bai J, et al. [94] on the behavior of
WSA from the Aylesford paper mill (Aylesford Newsprint
Ltd., UK), showed these ashes are hydraulic because they
set in the presence of water and also activate slag. Given
their porous nature,
however, their water demand is very high. In addition,
they tend to expand at very early age, a phenomenon that
the authors link to the high free-lime content of WSA
(about 5%), inducing early low mechanical performance.
Wet milling prior to mixing and using another admixture,
such as ground granulated blast-furnace slag, could
improve its mechanical properties [96].
Davidenko et al. [92] recently studied the effect of five
WSAs from a pulp-and-paper plant near Sherbrooke
(Quebec, Canada) (see Table 7) on the properties of
cement pastes. These ashes contained mainly lime (CaO),
silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2 O3). Their SO3 content
varied from 1.9 to 7.1%; loss on ignition (LOI) was
between 4% and 13%, depending on the conditions. The
high LOI value in some cases suggests the presence of
unburned carbon. It is important to note that SO3 content
and LOI of cementitious materials are limited to 5% and
6%, respectively, by ASTM C618. Based on chemical
composition and hydraulic properties, these WSAs can be
classified as Class C fly ash even if the sum of the oxides
(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) was lower than the 50%
recommended in ASTM C618[92].
WSAs contain several crystalline phases (Fig. 2)
such as free lime (CaO), anhydrite (CaSO 4), calcite
(CaCO3), gehlenite (Ca2Al2 SiO7), calcium aluminate
(C3A) and calcium silicate (C2S) . Periclase (MgO),
portlandite (Ca(OH)2), quartz and cristobalite (SiO 2),
anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8), yeelimite (Ca4Al6(SO4)O12) and
graphite (C) can also be present[92].
Figure 3 shows the microstructure of different
phases present in WSA[92]. Unlike particles of ordinary
fly ash, WSA particles are not always spherical. In
addition to calcium aluminosilicate phases, carbon and
free lime are also present.

Table 7 Chemical composition of WSA collected from the literature %

Réf. [92]

Mineral WSA in Ref.[94] WSA in Ref. [95]

OPC WSA1 WSA2 WSA3 WSA4 WSA5

SiO2 20.9 24.90 26.60 29.10 20.20 22.00 25.70 28.00

Al2O3 5.1 14.10 14.40 14.50 10.20 13.30 18.90 13.20

Fe2O3 2.1 1.7 1.80 2.40 1.90 1.60 0.9 1.30

CaO 63.70 45.10 35.20 32.90 44.40 50.60 43.50 45.50

MgO 2.10 1.90 2.40 3.00 2.10 2.60 5.20 4.00

Na2Oeq 0.9 1.20 0.94 1.30 0.90 0.90 2.40 0.9

SO3 3.30 1.90 3.40 4.60 4.30 7.10 1.10 1.30

LOI 1.0 6.40 12.60 7.50 13.10 3.70 1.20 5.70

SiO2+Al2O3+ Fe2O3 40.60 42.80 46.00 32.20 36.90 45.40 42.50

Free lime 0.6 11.60 4.70 3.40 6.90 12.60

Calcite 16.30 5.70 6.10 25.30 10.20
· 1380 · 《硅酸盐学报》 J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1372–1384 2015 年

These ashes can replace up to 20% of Portland cement

in concrete [92]. Pastes containing 20% of WSA as
cement replacement show autoclave expansion (ASTM
C151) of less than 0.8%, which is the limit specified in
ASTM C618. As already observed by Mozaffari E, et al.
[93]
and Bai J, et al.[94], the water demand is high when
mixed with slag. Diversity in the form of particles,
microporosity, and particle size, in addition to the
quantities of free lime, could account for the high water
demand [92-98]. The rheological properties of pastes are
significantly affected by WSA and highly dependent on
WSA calcite and sulfate contents as well as WSA
Fig. 2 X-ray diffractogram of WSA samples[92]
fineness [92]. According to Banfill P,et al.[99] WSA has a
A- Anhydrite; An - Anorthite; C -Graphite; CaO -Free lime , CC̅ -
filler effect due to its calcite and high fineness, which
Calcite;C3A- Calcium aluminate;C2S -Calcium silicate; Cr - Cristobalite; E -
affect paste rheological properties.
Ettringite; G - Gehlenite; P- Portlandite; Q - Quartz; Y- Yeelimite

(a) Calcium alumino-silicate phases (b) Calcium alumino-silicate phases

(c) Calcium alumino-silicate phases (d) Free lime phase

(e) Carbon phase

[92]
Fig. 3 SEM image of WSA particles: glassy phase
第 43 卷第 10 期 Arezki Tagnit-Hamou 等：当地工业和工农业废弃物在混凝土中的资源化利用：…… · 1381 ·

In general, WSA shows good activity in the presence
of cement (<75%) at 28 days, but it depends significantly
on the fineness[92]. At early age, fine WSA particles
accelerate cement hydration, promoting the development
of mechanical properties. On the long term, the free-lime
content influences strength development [92].
Xie A, et al.[100] studied different binder combinations
incorporating WSA and different SCMs with water-to-
cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) of 0.40. Two binary
mixtures with 20% and 40% WSA, three ternary mixtures
containing 20% WSA, and one traditional SCM (silica
fume [SF], granulated blast-furnace slag [GBFS] and
metakaolin [MK]) were
studied and compared to a control mixture made with
100% ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The results
(Figure 4) showed that WSA negatively impacted
concrete workability, confirming the high water demand
of WSA. On the other hand, the presence of WSA only
slightly reduced the early strength, while all binary and
ternary concrete mixtures had 91-day compressive
strengths as high as or higher than that of the control
concrete. In addition, the use of WSA in the binary and
ternary mixtures decreased the concrete’s chloride
permeability at later age, reduced autogeneous shrinkage,
and lowered expansion due to alkali–silica reaction
(ASR).

(a) Compressive strength of WSA-based mortars (b) Compressive strength of binary and ternary concrete incorporated WSA

(c) Permeability of concrete containing WSA (d) Autogenous shrinkage of concrete containing WSA

Fig. 4 Characterization of mixture incorporating WSA

Control–100% OPC (HP Te); HP20–Binary mixture 20% WSA;HPS5–Ternary mixtures 20% WSA with 5% silica fume (HP S5) ; HP L12–Ternary mixtures
[100]
20% WSA with 12% slag ; HPM8–Ternary mixtures 20% WSA with 8% metakaolin .

Recycling WSA produced by burning deinking sludge
in concrete appears promising. The properties of the final
material, however, depend, to a great degree, on the ash’s
chemical composition and fineness, which vary widely
since these parameters depend, in turn, on the burning
conditions and initial combustible materials.
4 Effect of alternative cementitious
materials on cement hydration
This paper shows the possibility of using alternative
cementitious materials based on availability. This section
provides a brief understanding of the cement hydration in
the presence of ASCMs. It is important to mention that,
as wastes, these materials vary considerably in their
effect on concrete. However, as in the case of silica fume
and fly ash, most of ASCMs viewed here have
pozzolanic properties and can replace part of cement in
concrete. Such materials contain a certain amount of
reactive silica, which can react with the portlandite
formed during cement hydration. This allows the
formation of an additional C-S-H reinforcing concrete
performance in terms of resistance and durability.
In general, using ASCM reduces the water demand of
concrete[75]. Nevertheless, this strongly depends on the
fineness. Since it is well known that very fine SCMs can
increase the water demand [51]. In addition, the form and
the microporosity of particles can also increase the water
demand[92]. The workability is generally improved, but it
also depends on the fineness and the microporosity of
· 1382 · 《硅酸盐学报》 J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1372–1384
particles [92]. Another advantage of using ASCMs is the
fact that most of them including glass powder [75,101]
lower the heat of hydration. Accordingly, their use will
reduce the amount of heat build up in a concrete
structure.
WSA and CALSiFrit have a certain hydraulic
properties due to their high calcium and aluminum
content[62-63,92]. Therefore, their behavior can be
comparable to that of slag in cement medium.
5 Conclusion
Owing to the rapid population growth and to the
increase in the demand for advanced civil infrastructure,
the building and construction sectors are of key
importance throughout the world. In an effort reduce
transportation-related CO2 emissions, the valorization in
concrete of agricultural wastes, natural pozzolans, and
industrial waste that are locally available remains one
way to make the construction industry more economical
and ecological.
In developing countries, where significant quantities
of agro-industrial wastes are available and less managed,
more collaboration between industrial sectors and
researchers must be encouraged in order to assess the
possibility of recycling these by-products as construction
materials.
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