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Introduction à la psychologie cognitive

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 Table des matières

Sommaire.......................................................................................... 7
Préface............................................................................................... 9
Avant-propos..................................................................................... 13

C HAPI TR E 1 La psychologie cognitive : présentation générale........... 15

1. La psychologie cognitive.............................................................. 17
2. Les racines de la psychologie cognitive contemporaine................. 17
2.1. Psychologie structuraliste....................................................... 19
2.2. Psychologie associationniste................................................... 20
2.3. Psychologie béhavioriste........................................................ 20
2.4. Psychologies gestaltiste et fonctionnaliste............................... 21
2.5. Psychologie cognitiviste.......................................................... 22
3. Théories et modèles en psychologie cognitive.............................. 24
4. Théorie du traitement de l’information........................................ 25
4.1. Niveaux d’analyse de la cognition humaine............................. 26
4.2. Architecture cognitive............................................................ 27

C HAPI TR E 2 La reconnaissance des formes et l’attention.................. 33

1. La reconnaissance des formes...................................................... 34
1.1. Approches générales de la reconnaissance des formes............. 35
1.1.1. Approche indirecte............................................................. 35
1.1.2. Approche directe............................................................... 40
1.2. Modèles de la reconnaissance des formes............................... 45
1.2.1. Modèles par appariement de gabarits.................................... 45
1.2.2. Modèles décompositionnels................................................. 46
1.2.3. La théorie de Marr............................................................. 47
1.2.4. La théorie des géons (Biederman)......................................... 50
1.2.5. Percevoir des formes, c’est combiner des informations
multiples.......................................................................... 53
1.2.6. Le rôle de l’attention et du contexte..................................... 56

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2. L’attention.................................................................................. 58
2.1. L’attention sélective............................................................... 59
2.1.1. La théorie du filtre sélectif................................................... 60
2.1.2. La théorie de l’atténuation.................................................. 63
2.1.3. La théorie de la sélection tardive.......................................... 64
2.1.4. Conclusion sur l’attention sélective........................................ 65
2.2. L’allocation des ressources attentionnelles.............................. 66
2.2.1. Distribution des ressources attentionnelles............................. 67
2.2.2. Automatisation des processus cognitifs.................................. 69
3. Conclusions................................................................................. 71

C HAP IT R E 3 La mémoire : registres à court terme............................ 75

1. Une mémoire à très court terme : les registres sensoriels.............. 76
1.1. La mémoire iconique.............................................................. 77
1.2. La mémoire échoïque............................................................. 79
2. La Mémoire de Travail................................................................. 80
2.1. Capacités et durée de la MDT................................................. 81
2.2. L’oubli de l’information en MDT............................................. 83
2.3. Le rappel en MDT.................................................................. 90
2.4. La représentation des informations en MDT............................ 93
2.4.1. Code verbal...................................................................... 93
2.4.2. Code visuel....................................................................... 95
2.4.3. Codes sémantiques............................................................. 97
3. Vers un modèle de la MDT.......................................................... 99
3.1. Le modèle de Baddeley.......................................................... 99
3.2. Arguments empiriques........................................................... 101
3.3. Conclusions............................................................................ 106

C HAP IT R E 4 MLT : stockage et récupération de l’information........... 111

1. Le stockage des informations en mémoire................................... 112
1.1. Comment étudie-t‑on la mémoire ?........................................ 113
1.2. Le mécanisme de répétition mentale de maintien................... 114
1.3. Les mécanismes de répétition mentale d’élaboration.............. 119
1.4. Les souvenirs « flashs » : des mécanismes d’encodage
sans répétition ?.................................................................... 122
2. La récupération des informations en mémoire.............................. 125
2.1. Les effets de contexte............................................................ 126
2.2. Les effets de délai et d’interférence........................................ 131
2.3. Les effets de testing............................................................... 136
2.4. Les faux souvenirs.................................................................. 138
3. Conclusions................................................................................. 146

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C HAPI TR E 5 MLT : Systèmes et représentations mnésiques............... 151

1. Existe-t-il plusieurs mémoires à long terme ?................................ 152
1.1. Critères de validation d’une classification................................ 153
1.2. L’exemple de la distinction entre mémoire implicite
et mémoire explicite.............................................................. 156
1.3. Conclusion............................................................................. 164

2. Représentations imagées de l’information.................................... 165

3. Représentations en réseaux sémantiques...................................... 170
3.3.1. Postulats et principes du modèle........................................... 170
3.3.2. Validations expérimentales du modèle................................... 172
3.1. Problèmes expérimentaux...................................................... 173
3.1.1. Effets de fréquence et de ressemblance sémantique................. 174
3.1.2. Effets de typicalité............................................................. 175
3.2. Les modèles de jugement de la ressemblance.......................... 177
3.2.1. Le modèle de Smith et collaborateurs.................................... 177
3.2.2. Le modèle des contrastes proposé par Tversky......................... 180
3.3. Conclusion............................................................................. 182
4. Représentations propositionnelles et schématiques....................... 183
4.3.1. Validations expérimentales.................................................. 186
4.1. Représentations schématiques................................................ 187
4.1.1. Qu’est-ce qu’une représentation schématique ?....................... 187
4.1.2. Validité psychologique........................................................ 189

5. Conclusion.................................................................................. 190

C HAPI TR E 6 Le raisonnement.......................................................... 195

1. Raisonnement conditionnel..........................................................
197
1.1. Qu’est-ce qu’un énoncé conditionnel ?................................... 197
1.2. Données empiriques sur le raisonnement conditionnel............ 201

1.3. Raisonnement conditionnel et raisonnement scientifique........ 204

2. Le raisonnement syllogistique...................................................... 207
2.1. Qu’est-ce qu’un syllogisme ?................................................... 208
2.2. Performances des sujets en résolution de syllogismes.............. 210
2.3. Pourquoi certains syllogismes sont-ils plus difficiles
que d’autres ?........................................................................ 210
2.3.1. Hypothèse d’atmosphère..................................................... 211
2.3.2. Hypothèse de conversion illicite............................................ 212
2.3.3. Hypothèse diagrammatique................................................. 213
3. Théories du raisonnement déductif.............................................. 214
3.1. La théorie des modèles mentaux............................................ 214
3.2. Les théories de la logique mentale......................................... 216

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4. Le raisonnement inductif............................................................. 218

4.1. Comment étudier le raisonnement inductif ?.......................... 220
4.2. Stratégies d’induction : la formation de concepts.................... 223
5. Conclusion.................................................................................. 225

C HAP IT R E 7 Jugements de probabilités et prises de décision............ 231

1. L’approche « classique » de la prise de décision :
la théorie de la décision rationnelle.............................................. 233
1.1. Postulats de la théorie............................................................ 233
1.2. Exemples............................................................................... 234
1.3. Implications : axiomes de la décision rationnelle..................... 235

2. Jugements de probabilité............................................................. 237

2.1. Les jugements probabilistes et statistiques.............................. 237
2.2. Le recours à des heuristiques.................................................. 238
2.2.1. Heuristique de disponibilité................................................. 245
2.2.2. Heuristique d’ancrage et d’ajustement................................... 245
2.3. Les effets de la formulation.................................................... 246
2.4. Les effets de prise de distance et de conscience....................... 248
2.4.1. Mécanismes inconscients dans la prise de décision................... 250
3. Prise de décision : théories........................................................... 256
3.1. La théorie du prospect........................................................... 256
3.2. La théorie des modèles mentaux............................................ 258
3.2.1. Postulats........................................................................... 258
3.2.2. Validations expérimentales.................................................. 260
4. Conclusion.................................................................................. 262

C HAP IT R E 8 La résolution de problèmes.......................................... 267

1. L’approche gestaltiste.................................................................. 269
1.1. Les étapes de la résolution de problème................................. 269
1.2. Tentatives de validation expérimentale................................... 272
1.2.1. L’effet d’incubation............................................................ 272
1.2.2. L’effet d’insight................................................................. 275
1.2.3. L’effet de la représentation................................................. 277
1.3. Conclusion de l’approche gestaltiste....................................... 280
2. L’approche cognitiviste................................................................ 280
2.1. Distinctions entre types de problèmes..................................... 281
2.1.1. Problèmes mal définis......................................................... 281
2.1.2. Problèmes bien définis........................................................ 283

3. Détermination des stratégies générales de résolution de problème.... 285

3.1. La méthode des protocoles verbaux........................................ 286
3.2. La théorie de Newell et Simon : GPS....................................... 289

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3.3. La représentation des problèmes............................................ 291

3.3.1. Validations expérimentales.................................................. 292
3.4. La recherche de la solution..................................................... 293
3.5. Les obstacles à la résolution de problème............................... 296
3.5.1. La fixité fonctionnelle......................................................... 296
3.5.2. L’ancrage dans un contexte, ou effet « Einstellung »................ 297
4. Validité écologique et résolution de problème.............................. 300
4.1. Variabilité stratégique en résolution de problème................... 301
4.2. Qu’est-ce qu’une stratégie ?................................................... 303
4.3. Variabilité stratégique et performances en résolution
de problèmes......................................................................... 306
4.3.1. Performances stratégiques et effets expérimentaux.................. 307
4.4. Validité écologique et résolution de problème : conclusions.... 309
5. Conclusion.................................................................................. 310

C HAPI TR E 9 Le langage................................................................... 317

1. Langage : définition....................................................................
319
1.1. Caractéristiques linguistiques.................................................. 319
1.2. Les niveaux d’analyse d’une langue........................................ 320

2. La structure d’une langue............................................................ 321

2.1. Contraintes sublexicales et lexicales........................................ 321
2.1.1. Contraintes sublexicales...................................................... 321
2.1.2. Contraintes lexicales........................................................... 323
2.2. Contraintes syntaxiques.......................................................... 324
2.2.1. Analyse de l’organisation d’une phrase.................................. 325
2.2.2. Analyse des règles de construction d’une phrase...................... 326
2.3. Contraintes pragmatiques...................................................... 327
2.3.1. Les actes de langage........................................................... 327
2.3.2. Les maximes de la conversation............................................ 329
3. La compréhension du langage..................................................... 330
3.1. Méthodes d’étude de la compréhension du langage............... 330
3.2. Effets des contraintes sublexicales.......................................... 331
3.2.1. Perception de la parole : effets expérimentaux........................ 332
3.2.2. Un modèle de la perception de la parole................................ 333
3.3. Effets des contraintes lexicales................................................ 335
3.3.1. Reconnaissance des mots : effets expérimentaux..................... 335
3.3.2. Reconnaissance des mots : modèles....................................... 338
3.4. Effets des contraintes syntaxico-sémantiques.......................... 343
3.4.1. Effet des mots et des constituants......................................... 343
3.4.2. Extraction de la structure syntaxique..................................... 345
3.4.3. Utilisation des marques de surface........................................ 349
3.5. La compréhension de textes................................................... 350

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4. La production du langage............................................................ 353

4.1. La production orale................................................................ 353
4.1.1. Modèle de Bock et Levelt (1994)........................................... 354
4.1.2. Modèle de Dell (1986)......................................................... 355
4.1.3. Données empiriques sur la production orale........................... 356
4.2. La production écrite............................................................... 358
4.2.1. Le modèle de Hayes et Flower (1980)..................................... 358
4.2.2. Données empiriques sur la production écrite........................... 359
4.2.3. Conclusion sur la production écrite........................................ 366
5. Conclusion sur la psychologie du langage.................................... 366

Glossaire............................................................................................ 371
Bibliographie...................................................................................... 383

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