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ANCRAGES DANS LES SOLS
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Mécanique des Sols.
Mécanique des Floches.
Giéologie de l' Ingénieur.

No3-100FTTC
 REVUE FRANçAISE DË GEOTECHNIQUE
Janvier 1978 N'3
-
éditée par la Sarl LE BATIMENT, 6, rue Paul-Valéry, 75116 PARIS

Dlrecteur de la publication :

Directeur de la Publication : P. HABIB M. Pierre HABIB

Secrétariat de rédaction :
Directeur du Comité de Rédaction : P. LONDE
M- J. GRADELER, 9, rue La Pérouse, 75016 PARIS . Té1,720.1020 (Poste 32-19)
Gomité de Rédaction : E. ABSI
Secrétariat technique :
G. CHAMPETIER de RIBES
M. Elie ABSI, C,E.B.T.P., 12, rue Brancion, 75015 PARIS - Té1. 539.22.33
J. GOGUEL
M. HAFFEN
J. KERISEL
G. L'HERITEAU
J. MANDEL Abonnement annuel (4 numéros) :
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M. PANET France : 120 F TTC Etranger : 140 F
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NOUVELLES PRESSES DU CENTRE, 87 - LIMOGES

- Dépôt lésal : t* trimestre 1978
Société Internationale de Mécanique des Sols et des Travaux de Fondation
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Neuvième Congrès International

Ninth Internatio·nal CO.nference

TOKYO 1977

ANCRAGE DANS LES SOLS

GROUND ANCHORS
SESSION SPÉCIALE' N° 4

Organisateu~ : P. H'ABIB (France)

Co-organisateur : A. CROCE (Italie)
 AVANT·PROPOS

La Session Spéciale nO 4 du Congrès International de Mécanique des Sols à Tokyo en juillet 1977
portait sur l'étude des tirants d'ancrages. Elle a été organisée par P. Habib, Directeur de la Revue
Française de Géotechnique et par A. Croce (Italie). La qualité des communications présentées
justifiait leur publication et c'est notre Revue qui s'en est chargé. Nos lecteurs trouveront ainsi dans
ce numéro d'une épaisseur un peu exceptionnelle la documentation la' plus récente sur les ancrages.

P. LONDE,
Directeur du Comité de Rédaction.

2
 INTRO UCTION
By A. CROCE
Presidente della
Associazione Geotechnica 1taliana

1 am honoured to open the Specialty Session n° 4 of the Ninth International Conference

on Sail Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.

The Subject of this Session is:

GROUND ANCHORS
This technique is more and more employed in Civil Engineering to assure safe execution
of deep or very deep excavations, to construct piers, to solve complex foundation problen1s.
At the beginning, more or less twenty years ago, ground anchors appeared to be parti-
cularly suitable for rocky formations where structural discontinuities -like bedding planes,
joints 'and similar~ could be liable to constitute areas of less resistance.
It was essentially a means to correct defects of a natural body, that on the whole was
a compact mass with high resistance to tensile stress.
Doubts on the durability of anchors restricted the use of this technique to temporary
supports of natural or artificial slopes.
. At that time the capability of anchors to be employed in soils was practically ·ignored.
ln the meantime technologies improved iOn two" distinct, but adjacent fields.
Boring machines, new and new injection materials, sophisticated techniques to introduce
and control mixtures in rocks and soils were developed.
Secondary,diaphragm ,valls -which initially were considered as a mean to counteract
seepage- developed quickly in highly reliable static structures.
Wide horizons were opened to ground anchors.
ln the same period, Civil Engineering was challenged ta design heavy constructions with
dimensions unforeseen and unforseeable a few years before.
üld structural support systems failed to give valid answers. New solutions were required.
The general designer very soon underst ood advantages offered by ground anchors from
his point of view. '
The structural engineer very soon, becameaware he should face problems of interactions
between soil or rock and structure.
The general as weIl as structural designers now rely completely upon the skill of geotech-
nicians. A heavy burden, therefore, is on our shoulders. "
- It is up to us to select a mathematical model capable of representing the trlie situation.
Where and how is it possible to perform reliable calculations?

3
 This is, maybe, the most critical question since anchors are to be used not only in domestic
homogeneous,· isotropie rock or soil formations, but also in structurally complex formations
where anchors will be more and more needed.
- It is up to us ta establish correct values of physical and mechanical parameters. We have,
therefore, to plan and perform valuable laboratory as weIl as in situ testing.
- It is up to us to adopt proper technologies both for execution and durability of anchors.
- Last but not least, it is up to us to perform measurements and to understand their results
in time while the construction is running, and afterwards.
The subject «GRüUND ANCHüRS» is extensive; only certain aspects will be discussed
in this Session. .
Prof. P. HABIB, Directeur du Laboratoire de Mécanique des Solides and Présid~nt of the
International Society for Rock Mechanics, organized this Session with his weIl known, deep
.and wide experience in many fields of Geotechnics.
We are grateful to Prof. HABIB as weIl as the Authors of. communications presented to
this Session: they spent effort and time to share with us the best of their knowledge.

4
 RAPPORT GÉNÉRAL
par
Pierre HABIB
Laboratoire de Mécanique des Solides
Ecole Polytechnique - Palaiseau (France)
Le thème de la Session Spéciale n° 4 avait pour
but de traiter les ancrages de barres ou de câbles
placés dans des trous forés, puis scellés par des mor-
tiers coulés ou injectés. Le Rapporteur est tout à fait
désolé que le texte du thème n'ait 'pas été plus expli-
cite, car une dizaine de propositions, provenant de
nombreux pays, relatives à des ancrages par plaques
encastrées dans le sol et enterrées ont été faites et
ont dû être refusées. Cependant, deUx communications
sur ce sujet ont été retenues parce qu'elles apportent
une vision inattendue et des résultats généralisables.
Au total, dix-sept communications ont été présentées,
soit presque le même nombre que pour la Session
Spéciale n° 15 du CONGRES INTERNATIONAL DE
MECANIQUE DES SOLS de Mexico en 1969, dernier
Congrès International Olt ce thème a été examiné. A
huit ans d'intervalle, la comparaison est intéressante
et montre à quel point la technique a évolué.
Ainsi, en 1969, les problèmes qui paraissaient les
plus inquiétants étaient le fluage des sols et la cor-
rosion des aciers. Il est bien clair qu'à l'heure actuelle
ces problèmes sont, sinon maîtrisés, du moins suffi-
samment connus pour ne plus être inquiétants et 9 des modèles en sable dans une similitude très pauvre,
l'on sait prévoir aujourd'hui des déplacements différés
acceptables, et réaliser la protection des aciers de façon
suffisante pour éviter les accidents par corrosion.
L'évolution de la technique se retrouve aussi au
niveau de la collecte des informations. En 1969, le
Rapporteur né pouvait pas présenter une bibliographie
sérieuse par absence de documentation. En 1977, il
ne peut pas le faire par excès de documents. Pour
citer deux exemples, je rappelerais que « THE INSTI-
TuT
oN OF CIVIL ENGINEERS » à Londres a orga-
nisé en septembre 1974 une Conférence sur le sujet
« Murs-diaphragmes et ancrages », et en septembre
1976, soit deux ans plus tard, un Séminaire sur
te même sujet. Le deuxième exemple est en France, où
le Bureau Securitas a édité en 1972 un livre de
« Recommandations concernant la conception, le calcul,
l'exécution et le contrôle des tirants d'ancrage » et,
cinq ans plus tard, en 1977, une nouvelle édition
complètement modernisée paraissait nécessaire pour
tenir compte des enseignements acquis lors de la mise
en application de ce premier règlement.
Les communications sur les ancrages, reçues à l'occa-
sion du Congrès de Tokyo, n'épuisent pas le sujet,
mais permettent de conn'aître les soucis actuels de
ceux qui étudient ou réalisent des tirants.
5
Malgré leur grand intérêt, elles ne pourront pas être
toutes présentées au cours de la Session Spéciale n° 4,
faute de temps, et je vais en faire ici un résumé
ordonné en forme de synthèse critique de l'état des
connaissances actuelles.
J'ai dit, il y a déjà huit ans, que le développement
des tirants et ancrages s'était fait dans un dénuement
théorique complet, mais avec un empirisme raisonné.
C'est toujours vrai actuellement et de nombreux au-
teurs construisent des modèles réduits pour élucider
certains aspects du lTIode de fonctionnement des
ancrages.
Nous avons quatre communications qui présentent
des résultats acquis sur modèles réduits. Prenons
l'exemple des tirants trop courts; s'ils sont scellés
dans le coin de Coulomb, leur efficacité est nulle.
Par contre, si les tirants sont très longs, ce n'est
peut-être pas la peine de les allonger davantage. Entre
les deux, il y a une longueur optimale qu'Habib,
Luong, Tcheng et Auger (France) ont cherché à déter-
miner en partant de l'idée que la surface de ruptùre
avait une forme géométrique imposée par la nature
du sol et fonction des forces extérieures. Ils ont utilisé
avec un .modèle simple rigide-plastique qui n'est pas
suffisant pour déterminer les déformations avant la
ruine du prototype mais uniquement la charge de
rupture, ce qui permet ensuite de définir la longueur
optimale du tirant.
Basset (Grande-Bretagne) a utilisé lui aussi une simi-
litude simple mais déjà plus élaborée, avec des modèles
élastoplastiques en argile. Son but est d'essayer de
préciser au moyen .d'essais rapides le mode de fonc-
tionnement d'élargissements localisés de l'ancrage. Leur
distance ne doit pas être inférieure à 2.9 diamètres.
Le terme Ne est alors de 8.5, mais du fait de l'appa-
rition d'un vide derrière l'élargissement, il faut admettre
seulement Ne == 6 pour les essais de longue durée. La
souplesse du câble d'ancrage permet une rupture pro-
gressive de chaque élargissement et adoucit la courbe
efforts-déplacements en tête. Il reste encore, bien en-
tendu, à définir la sécurité au fluage .et la charge
admissible qui ne' sont pas dans la similitude.
Kananyan et trois autres auteurs Russes utilisent
une similitude particulière dite des modèles approxi-
matifs. Pour cela, on construit des modèles géométri-
quement semblables pour des ancrages, pour des
ancrages champignons, pour des plaques enterrées
placés dans le sol réel et après chaque essai, on trace
la courbe réduite 'efforts-déplacements (c'est-à-dire des
efforts divisés par l'effort limite et des déplacements
divisés. par le déplacement Ihnite). On constate que cette
courbe varie peu avec l'échelle du modèle. On cherche
alors la loi de la force limite et celle du déplacement
limite en fonction de l'échelle et on extrapole jusqu'au
réel, ce qui donne une bonne approximation de la
courbe réelle efforts-déplacements.
Enfin, Boon et Craig (Grande-Bretagne) ont réalisé
des essais sur des ancrages en forme de disques, placés
dans un sable, et avec une isimilitude parfaite grâce
à des modèles en centrifugeuse. Ils ont fait appa-
raître un problème très général, qui est la difficulté
de faire des modèles réduits en sable au risque d'avoir
des résultats bien loin du réel. Ils ont montré que les
formules les meilleures donnent des résultats qui sont
trop grands, au moins le double de la résistance à la
rupture vraie : les modèles ordinaires doivent donc
être maniés avec précaution. Souhaitons donc que des
tirants d'ancrage, au sens. où nous l'entendons dans la
Session Spéciale n° 4, soient examinés .un jour en
centrifugeuse. Mais, il ne faudra pas oublier de
simuler la mise en place et sa technologie et notamment
les pressions d'injection.
Lors du Congrès de Mexico, j'avais signalé tout
l'intérêt des essais en vraie grandeur pour l'analyse du
comportement des tirants. Cette recommandation reste
toujours valable et nous avons. reçu des communications
particulièrement enrichiss'antes.
Evangelista et Sapio (Italie) instrumentent avec des
extensomètres électriques deux barres Diwidag verti-
cales placées dans un bain de mortier de 22 cm de
dialnètre qui assure le scellement dans un sol argileux.
Ils font une analyse non linéaire (avec une loi de
comportement hyperbolique) et intègrent la formule
de Mindlin comme si le scellement n'était, qu'un
vulgaire' pieu, mais en admettant que le mortier, du
scellement casse dès que le béton supporte une traction
de 3 MPa (30 kg/cm2). Ils obtiennent ainsi une relation
entre la force et le déplacement en tête qui est bonne,
au moins au début. Par contre, la résistance à la
rupture est tout à fait surévaluée, ce qui montre que
le cisaillement latéral n'est pas uniforme. D'après les
essais d'arrachage, il ne serait pas plus' élevé que le
tiers ou le quart de Cu.
Fujita, Ueda et Kusabuka (Japon) présentent eux
aussi une méthode de calcul non linéaire de la courbe
d'arrachement des tirants. Pour estimer la résistance
au frottement latéral et la longueur du bulbe actif, ils
utilisent un modèle élastoplastique simple à une dimen-
sion et la comparaison avec les essais in-situ permet
d'évaluer les différentes constantes des formules pro-
posées. Une comparaison est faite entre ces constantes
et le nombre N de l'essai de pénétr~tion standard (SPT)
qui permet une évaluation à 20 % de la courbe
efforts-déplacements jusqu'à la rupture.
Bustamante, Delinas et Lacour (France) essaient
jusqu'à rupture, puis terrassent pour déterrer, dix tirants
dans une argile grasse pour évaluer une charge cri-
tique Tc (différente de la charge limite TL de rupture
du scellement) d'où l'on déduit ensuite la traction de
service ou charge admissible TA. C'est une illustration
de la nouvelle norme française proposée par les
« Recommandations » . du Bureau Securitas. Cette
communication contient énormément de résultats. Par
exemple, le fluage sous la charge critique Tc a atteint
1 mm; sous la charge admissible TA' il est seulement
de 0.4 mm; le rapport TAIT L est supérieur à 1.5;
l'effet de groupe est sensible lorsque les tirants sont
scellés à 2 m les uns des autres; la résistance des
6
tirants est proportionnelle, non pas à la pression
d'injection, mais au volume injecté à condition de
limite.r les pertes; d'où l'intérêt d'une injection de
scellement en plusieur~ passes. Dans ces conditions, le
cisaillement mobilisé peut atteindre trois fois CUU"
Ostermayer et Scheele (RFA) essaient en grandeur
nature au laboratoire, puis évidemment' déterrent,
trente tirants scellés sous pression, sous 5 m de
sable graveleux ou de graviers sableux à différentes
compacités et avec différentes longueurs de scellement,
et ils donnent une relation avec le SPT. Avant la
rupture, on voit apparaître des effets visqueux dans
le matériau pulvérulent : au fur et à m~sure que la
charge augmente, les contraintes évoluent et se. redis-
tribuent vers le pied du scellement. A l'approche de
la rupture, il suffit d'attendre pour voir cette redis-
tributi~n se produire. L'effet est d'autant plus sensible
qu'on est proche de la rupture et il peut, mener à la
ruine différée. L'origine de cette viscoplasticité est un
problème pour toute la Mécanique des Sols, mên1e
si le phénomène n'est pas douteux.
Je signale au passage que Wernick (RFA) estime
dans sa communication que dans le cas des sables, les
forts cisaillements correspondant au frott~ment latéral
sont dus à l'effet de la dilatance dans la bande étroite
autour du· scellement où le glissement se produit. Il
souligne que l'hypothèse de la coaxialité des tenseurs
contraintes et accroissements de déformations devrait
être revue du fait de 'la dilatance.
Littlejohn, Bruce et Deppner (Grande-Bretagne) ana-
lysent cinquante-sept tirants de forte capacité dans un
grès stratifié, donc des tirants au rocher. Il s'agit d'un
sujet marginal .à la Mécanique des Sols, mais les
résultats méritent qu'on s'y attarde pour de nombreuses
raisons. Le poids d'un cône de demi-angle au sommet
égal à 45°, à partir du pied du scellement est insuf-
fisant pour donner les forces constatées. La rupture, est
essentiellement guidée par les joints verticaux et hori-
zontaux. Littlejohn propose la formule P (kN) == 600 d2
(d == profondeur en mètre). La rupture se produit à
l'interface coulis-tendon, bien que cette aire soit plus
grande que celle de l'interface coulis-roche. Il faut
donc ne pas mettre trop de tendons dans le même
scellement, et il est conseillé de ne pas dépasser une
section d'acier supérieure à 10 % de l'aire de la
section droite du scellement.
Tous les essais cités permettent de prévoir la résis-
tance d'un ancrage par analogie.
!(ramer (RFA) va plus loin encore dans un travail
très original. Abandonnant tout espoir de calculer la
résistance d'un ancrage, il utilise les résultats de cent
trente essais, une moitié dans l'argile, l'autre dans les
sables, pour faire de la statistique et des corrélations.
Il établit une formule dont l'écart maximal avec les
essais ne dépasse pas 60 kN. Comme toute statistique,
il faut rester dans le domaine d'application, mais à
partir d'un grand nombre d'essais, -le résultat paraît
intéressant.
Enfin, pour terminer avec les essais en place, il
faut signaler la communication de Yen et Young (USA),
qui présentent des essais. très sophistiqués d'ancres
marines enterrées à cinq diamètres, ce qui est une
grande profondeur pour une ancre, mais ce qui est'
très peu pr.ofond pour un ancrage de Génie Civil. Ce
texte est donc tout à fait hors du sujet; mais il est.
extrêmement intéressant car les auteurs ont montré le
rôle de la .succion derrière l'ancrage et celui de la
pression interstitielle devant l'ancrage qui' atteint 30 0/0
de la résistance au début du chargement, pour des
 essais d'arrachage en conditions non drainées dans
des argiles molles. En fait, ce sont presque des vases,
déposées sous leur poids propre, consolidées par sur-
charge, avec une teneur en eau importante mais cons-
'tante; il s'agit d'argiles toujours peu résistantes, ave~
des cohésions de l'ordre de 1 à 10 kPa (10 g/cm2 a
100 g/cm2). L'ancre étant chargée à 1/4, 1/2, .3/4 de
la charge .de -rupture instantanée, on observe d'ab"o~d
une consolidation puis un fluage. A 1/4 de la reSIS-
tance instantanée, les déplacements cessent rapidement.
Compte tenu de la très faible résistance de ces maté-
riaux, on peut donc dire que le fluage d';tn ancrage l?-e
commence à devenir un danger qu'à partir d'un certaIn
seuil et que ce seuil n'est jamais petit devant la
résistance instantanée~
Une communication traite de technologie et une
autre décrit une grande réalisation. Tomiolo (Italie)
décrit le nouveau tirant de la Société Rodio. C'est
un tirant à cable protégé par une feuille plastique
avec scellement dans une plaque de pied en acier.
L'injection se fait à partir d'un tube à manchettes
central. L'avantage est la ré-injection toujours ~ossible
et le fait que le bulbe de scellement travatlle en
, compression, donc sans risque de fissuration du mor-
tier par traction. La trans~ission des contraintes dans
le sol a été mise en évidence par des mesures exten-
sométriques.
Fenoux (France) a présenté la réalisation d'une
enceinte spectaculaire en par.ois de 30 m, souten~es par
des tirants de 2 000 kN (200 t) pour la fOUIlle de
17.5 m de l'usine électro-nucléaire de Blaye. Les tirants
ont été tendus à la moitié de la,., èharge de service, de
façon à éviter de grands mouvements d'aller et retour'
lors de la mise en tension, puis pendant le dragage.
Au cours de l'exécution de la fouille, les tirants et les
parois très instrumentés, ont été suivis av~c soin, ce
qui est nécessaire pÇ>ur un ouvrage de cette Importance.
Mazurkiewicz et Najder' (Pologne) ont étudié l'in-
fluence du mode de réalisation sur le comportement
des ancrages dans des sols sableux avec intercalations
7
d'argile. Ce qui est essentiel, c'est de bien enlever
la bentonite. Pour le reste, si la réalisation est bien
faite, les résultats sont semblables et les paramètres
significatifs sont les conditions du sol ·autour du corps
injecté. Les auteurs ont constaté que la durée qui
sépare la prise du scellement de l'essai d'arrachage n'a
pas d'influence sur la résistance., '
La seule communication qui ait présenté un calcul
du comportement sol-paroi-tirant d'ancrage en fonc-
tion de la raideur de l'appui et de la rigidité de la
paroi est celle de Popescu et Ionescu (Roumanie). Ils
utilisent un module de réaction non-linéaire et la
comparaison avec des calculs par la méthode des élé-
ments finis est très acceptable, tout en utilisant des
calculs beaucoup moins coûteux. Il est probable que,
ce résultat est surtout valable pour les contraintes dans
la paroi ou les tirants.
Enfin, la communication de da Costa Nunès et
Dia (Brésil) est plus une leçon de Mécanique des Sols
qu'un exposé sur les tirants, d'ancrage. Ils décrivent le
remarquable sauvetage d'une paroi ayant présenté des
déplacements atteignant jusqu'à 25 .cm. La force por-
tante de chaque tirant a été vérifiée et la force
résiduelle adonné la pOl.;1ssée du sol, ce qui a permis
ensuite les renforcements de tirants nécessaires.
En conclusion de ce rapide tour d'horizon, on
peut dire, que les essais systématiques en vrai gran~eur
constituent aujourd'hui encore la source la plus rIche
d'enseignement du comportement des tirants. Certes,
de tels essais sont chers, et il faut profiter de l'occa-
sion de grands travaux pour faire des essais en place.
L'intérêt des réunions internationales est évidemment
de montrer des réalisations ou des technologies nou-
velies dans le vaste domaine du Génie Civil, mais,
c'est surtout de mettre en commun des expériences
coûteuses faites un peu partout au monde et c'est la
raison pour laquelle je voudrais remercier ici., après
nos hôtes Japonais, tous les auteurs de GommunlcatIons
et tous ceux qui ont bien voulu nous tenir informés
de leurs travaux.
 GENERAL REPORT
by
Pierre HABIB
Laboratoire de Mécanique des Solides
Ecole Polytechnique . Palaiseau . France
Special Session n° 4 deaIt with the topic of anchoring
bars or cables placed in bored hales, then bedded by
poured or injected mortars. The Rapporteur deeply
regrets that the topic was not more explicitly defined
in the programme text. Because of this lack of preci-
sion, about ten proposaIs from numerous countries
dealing with ground anchors by plates set in and
embedded in the soil "Were sent in, but had to be
refused. However, two papers on this subject were
retained since they contributed unexpected light on
the problem, also resu1ts which could be generalized.
Altogether 17 papers were submitted, that is almost
the same number as for Special Session n° 15 at the
I.S.S.M.F.E. congress in Mexico in 1969, the most
recent international congress where this topic was
examined. Th~ comparison is interesting after an eight
year interval and shows the extent of. technical develop-
ment.
In 1969 the problems which seemed most disturbing
were the creep of soils and corrosion of steels. 1t is
clear that at the present time these problems are, if not .
mastered, at least sufficiently known, to be no longer
sources of anxiety. 1t is now possible to forecast
acceptable deferred displacements and to ensure appro-
priate protection of steels to avoid accidents through
corrosion.
Technical development is also 'obvious on the infor-
mation level. In 1969 the· Rapporteur could not. present
a valid bibliography through lack of documentation.
In 1977 he still could not do so but this time because
therewere too many documents. To quote two
examples, 1 would recall that the Institution of Civil
Engineers organized in London in September 1974 a
conference on the topic «Diaphragm wal1s and ground
an.chors» and in September 1976, that is two years
'after, a seminar on exactly the same subject: The
second example is in France, where the Bureau
Securitas edited a publication in 1972 entitled «Recom-
mandations concernant la conception, le calcul, l'exé-
cution et le contrôle des tirants d'ancrage» (recommen-
dations for the design, computation, construction and
inspection of· anchorage ties) and five years' later in
1977 a completely updated edition proved necessary to
take into account the experience acquired during
application of the first set of rules.
The papers on ground anchors sent in for the
Tokyo Congress are not exhaustive, but reveal the
present concern of those designing or constructing ties.
In spite of their importance, it will not be possible
to present them all during the Special Session n° 4
because of lack of time, so 1 will sum them up here in
a classified critical outline of the state-of-the-art.
1 stated eight years ago that the development of
ties and ground anchors had been achieved in the
face of complete dearth of theoretical knowledge but
backed up .by an empirical rationale. This is still
true to-day and numerous authors build small-scale
8
models to clear up certain aspects of ground anchor
behaviour. We have four papers which present resu1ts
obtained from small-scale models. In the case of ties
which are too short for example, if they are fixed in
the Coulomb wedge, their effectiveness is reduced to
~ero. On the other hand, if the ties are too long, it
lS perhaps not worth lengthening them more. Between
the two there is an optimal Iength which Habib,
Luong, Tcheng and Auger (France) have endeavoured to
determine using as a. basis the idea that the failure
surface has a geometrical shape imposed by the type
of soil and dependent on external forces. They used
models in sand with very poor similitude with a simple
rigid-plastic model which is not sufficient to determine
the deformations before the prototype's failure, but
only the failure load, which however offers the possi-
bility of defining the optimal length of the tie.
Bassett (G.-B.) also used simple similitude however
a little more sophisticated w ith elastoplastic models in
1
clay. His aim ·using quick tests is to try to obtain
precise information on how localised widenings perform
on ground anchors. Their distance must not be 1ess
than 2.9 dianleters. The term Ne is then 8.5 but
because a void appears behind the widening, a value • 1
of Ne :::: .6 must be accepted for long-term testing. The
flexibility of the anchor cable ensures progressive
failure of each widening and slows down the load-
displacement curve at the top. Naturally there still
remains .to qefine the creep safety and the acceptable
load WhlCh are not included in the similitude.
I<ananyan and three other Russian authors use a
particular approach which they calI «approximate
model similitude». Geometrically similar models are
built for ground anchors, flared anchors, for buried
plates in real soil, and after each test the reduced
load-displacement curve is traced (that is' .to say the
loads divided by the limit load and the displacements
divided by the limit displacement). This shows that
this curve varies little \V~ith the model scale. The
Iaws of the limit force and of the limit displacement
are investigated according to the scale, and extra-
polation carried out to reach real conditions, which
gives a good approximation of the practical load-
displacement curve. \
Boon and Craig (G.-B.) have carried out tests 'on
disc-shap~d ground anchors placed in sand with perfect
similitude achieved through centrifugaI models. They
_have underlined a very general problem which is the
difficulty of building small-scale models in sand with
the risk of resu1ts well out of the realm of practice.
They have shown that the best formulae give -resu1ts
which are high, at least double the real failure strength;
. ordinary models must therefore be handled 'with care.
Let us hope then that ground anchor ties, as we mean
them in Special Session nO 4, will one day be examined
by the centrifugaI method.· But it will be essential
not to forget to simulate placing and its technology and
especially the grouting pressures.
 During the Mexico Congress, 1 pointed out aIl the
interest of full-scale testing in the analysis of tie
performance. This recommendation holds and we have
received particularly enlightening papers.
Evangelista and Sapio (Italy) equip with electric
strain gauges two vertical Diwidag bars placed in a
22 cm 0 mortal' paste bedding in a clayey soil. They
draw up a non-linear analysis (with a hyperbolic beha-
viour law) and integrate the Mindlin formula as if the
bedding were nothing but an ordinary pile but admitt-
ing that the bedding mortar breaks as soon as the
concrete is put to a tensile load of 3 MPa (30 kg/cm2).
In this. way they obtain a relation between the force
and the top displacement which is valid, at least at
first. On the other hand, the failure strength is quite
overrated, which shows that the side shear is not·
uniform. From the pull-out tests, it would not be
higher than 1/3 or 1/4 of CU'
Fujita, Ueda and I(usabuka (Japon) also show a non-
. linear design method for the tie pull-out curve. To
estimate side friction and the length of the bulb of
active pressure, they use a simple unidimensional elas-
toplastic model: the comparison with in situ tests
makes it possible to evaluate the different constants of
the formulae proposed. A comparison is made bet-
ween these constants and the number N of the standard
penetration test which gives an evaluation to 20% of
the load-displacement curve up to failure.
Bustamante, Delmas and Lacour (France) carry out
tests to failure and then uncover to investigate the
behaviour of ten ties in heavy clay to assess a critical
load T c (different from the limit load TL of the
bedding failure) whence they deduce the service tensile
load or allaw:able load TA' This is an illustration of
the new French standard proposed by the Bureau
Securitas Recommendations. This paper includes a
wealth of results. For example, the creep under critical
loadTc reached 1 mm, under the allowable load TA
it was only 0.4 mm, the TA/TL ratio is higher than
1.5; the group effect is felt when the ties are fixed at
2 m intervals; the strength of the ties is proportional,
nat to the injection pressure, but to the volume injected
pravided the losses are limited, hence the impo~t~nce
of fixing grouting in several l'uns. In these condItions,
the mobilized shear may reach three times C we
Ostermayer and Scheele (GFR) have undertaken fu11-
scale investigation in the laboratory where they test and
then uncover for observation thirty ties bedded under
pressure, under 5 m of gravely sand o~ san~y gravel.at
different rates of compactness and wlth different fIX-
ing lengths. They then state this inrelation to the soil
pressure test. Before rupture, they note viscous effects
on the granular material. As the load increases, th~
stresses develop and are redistributed towards the base
of the bedding. This redistribution becomes obvious
near failure. The effect is felt a11 the more as failure
approaches and it can lead to deferred c?l1aps~. Th.e
origin of this viscoplasticity is a problem Invoiving soIl
mechanics generally, even if the phenomenon l'aises no
doubts.
Whilst on the subject, 1 should like to point out that
Wernick (GFR) in his paper considers that in the case
of sand, high· shear corresponding to side friction is
due to the dilatancy effect in the narrow strip around
the bedding where sliding occurs. He emphasizes the
need for reexamining the hypothesis of coaxiality of
stress and increasing deformation tensors in the light
of dilatancy.
Littlejohn, Bruce and Deppner (G.-B.) analyse 57
high bearing capacity ties in a stratified sandstone, this
9
is therefore an example of rock based ties. This is a
marginal subject for soil mechanics but the results are
worthy of note for numerous reasons. The weight
of a cone with top half angle equal to 45° from the
bedding foot is not sufficient to produce the fo~ces
recorded. Failure is essentia11y dictated by vertIcal
and horizontal joints.. Littlejohn proposes the formula
P (kN) == 600 d 2 (d == depth in metres). Failure
occurs at the grout/tendon interface, although this
surface is larger than that of the grout/rock interface.
1t is essential then not to put too many tendons in the
same bedding and advisable not to exceed a steel
section over 10% the surface of the bedding straight
cross section.
AlI the tests quoted offer the possibility of forecast-
ing the anchorage strength by analogy.
I(ramer (GFR) goes even further with very original
work. Abandoning aIl hope of calculating the strength
of ground anchors, he uses the results of 130 tests,.
half in clay, half in sand, to draw up statistics and
correlations. He sets up a formula where the maximum
variation with tests will not exceed 60 kN. As with
all statistics it is preferable to stay in a practical range,
·but once a large number of tests have been undertaken,
the results become interesting.
Finally to complete the subject of in situ tests, 1
must mention the paper by Yen and Young. (USA) who
describe very sophisticated tests with marine anchors
embedded five diameters, which is an impressive depth
for an anchor, but rather shallaw for civil engineering
anchoring. This text is therefore quite beside the point,
but it is extremely interesting since the authors show
the l'ole of suction behind the anchorage and that of
pore pressure in front of the anchorage which reaches
30% of the strength at the beginning of loading for pu11-
out tests in non-drained conditions, in soft clay. In fact
they are almost muds, deposited under their own
weight, consolidated by overloading with a high but
constant water content. These are low-strerigth clays,
with cohesion rates around 1 to 10 kPa (10 g/cm2 to
100 g/cm2). 'With the anchor loaded to 1/4, 1/2, 3/4
instantaneous failure load, the result is first cOI).solida-
tion then creep. At a quarter of the instantaneous
strength the displacements cease rapidly. Taking into
account these materials low strength, we can state that
ground anchor creep becomes dangerous only froni a
certain threshold and that this threshold is never low
in the face of instantanteous strength.
Two other papers deal, one w;Îth the technology and
the other with a description of a large undertaking.
Tomiolo (Italy) describes the new tie at the Rodio
Company. 1t is a plastic-coated cable tie bedded in
a steel foot plate. The injection was carried out with a
central sleeved tube. The advantage is that reinjection
is always possible and that the bedding bulb performs
under compression, therefore there is no risk of crack-
ing of mortar due to tensile stress. The transmission
of stresses in the soil was revealed by strain gauge
measurement.
Penoux (France) presented a paper on the construc-
tion of a spectacular excavation with 30 m wa11s,
supported by 2 000 kN (200 t) ties for the 17.5 m
excavation at the Blaye nucieal' power station. The
ties were tensioned to haif the service Ioad, so as to
a·void extensive forward and' backward movements
when terisioning, then during dredging. During exca-
vation the behaviour of the ties and the wa11s fu11y
equipped with measurement instruments was followed
carefully, as is necessary for engineering works of this
importance.
 Mazurkiewicz and Najder (Poland) studied the influ-
ence of the construction method on the behaviour of
anchors grounded in sand with insertions of clay. 1t
is essential to carefully remove the bentonite. Apart
from this, if the construction is properly carried out,
the results are similar and the significant parameters
are the soil conditions around the injected element.
The authors have found that the lapse of time between
the bedding setting and the pull-out test has no influence
on the strength.
The only paper which presents computation of the
soil-wall-anchorage tie behaviour in relation to the
stiffness of the support and rigidness of the w'all is
that by Popescu and Ionescu (Romania). They use a
non-linear reaction modulus and the comparison with
the finite element calculation method is very acceptable,
with the added advantage of being less costly. 1t is
probable that this result is especially valid for stresses
in the wall or the ties.
Finally the paper by Da Costa Nunès and Dia (Brasil)
is more a lesson in soil mechanics than a paper on
10
, anchorage ties. They describe the remarkable salvage
of a Wiall where displacements up to 25 cm had been
recorded. The bearing capacity of each tie was checked
and the residual force revealed the earth pressure,
which made it possible to calculate the tie reiriforcements
necessary.
To conclude this quick survey, it seems possible to
say that systematic full-scale testing still represents
to-day the finest source of information on the behaviour
of ties. Such tests are indeed costly and it is advisable
to take advantage of opportunities of extensive construc-
tion to undertake in situ tests. The importance of
international meetings is obviously to give information
on new achievements and technology in the wide field
of civil engineering but even more, such meetings
help us to pool experience acquired throughout the
world. This is why 1 should like to thank first our
Japanese hosts and then all the authors of papers and
those who have so kindly submitted information on
their work.
 UNDERREAMED.GROUND.ANCHORS
Ancrage d.ans le sol avec élargissement
by
Richard H. BASSETT
University of London King's College - Civil engineering Strand-London WC 2R 2LS - Great Britain
SOMMAIRE
Les ancrages dans le sol acquièrent une impor-
tance grandissante pour les appuis de murs de
soutènement, aussi bien en terrains cohérents qu'en
terrains non-cohérents. Pour les sols cohérents, le
rendement de la portance d'un ancrage augmente
avec la construction d'élargissements sur le fût.
Les formules empiriques qui permettent de calculer
cette charge utile proviennent de la théorie des
pieux. L'étude examine, au moyen d'expériences
en laboratoire, les caractéristiques suivantes des
ancrages à élargissements de diamètre: influence
des distances entre les' élargissements,· influence
du nombre de ceux-ci et relation entre rigidité du
sol et rigidité' du câble de l'ancrage. L'observation
des mécanismes de rupture montre que les élé-
ments individuels de la formule empirique sont
justifiés, ce qui permet de suggérer des valeurs
pour les dimensionner. .
INTRODUCTION
The rapid increase in the economic importance of
holding back permanent retaining wall structures by the
use of anchor ties was indicated by Ostermayer (1974).
The exponential increase suggested has continued
unabated and in the author's personal experience
appears to be coupled with a continuous demand for
increased load capacity. Practical anchoring techniques
fall into two distinct catagories,
a) Pressure' grouted or regrouted shafts, relying on the
adhesion bond between the face of a grout. mortar
body and the soil (most commonly used in cohesion-
less soils and rock), or
b) Open drilled shafts in which the anchorage zone
is deliberately expanded in diameter to form a series
of bells or underreams (most commonly used in
THE UNDERREAMED ANCHOR PRINCIPLE
Straight shaft, pressure grouted anchors have been
used in cohesive materials but boring the hole
invariably results in the remoulding of a thin layer of
soil adjacent to the final anchor member. The consi-
derable, consequent reduction in strength can rarely be
compensated for even by pressure grouting. Under-
reams cut out iuto undisturbed soil at intervals along
11
SUMMARY
Ground anchors are becoming increasingly impor-
tant for supporting retaining walls in both cohesive
and non-cohesive soils. In cohesive soils the
efficiency of an anchor's carrying capacity is
improved by forming underreams on the shaft.
Empirical formulae for calculating their load capacity
have been developed from piling philosophy. The
paper examines by controlled laboratory experi-
ments the following features of underreamed
anchors: The influence of the spacing of under-
reams, the influence of the number of underreams
and' the relationship between the soil sti·ffness and
the anchor tendon stiffness. The observed faiture
mechanisms show that the format of the empirical
formula is justified and values for design constants
are suggested.
self supporting soils from fine cohesive clays to
moderately hard rocks).
Although a considerable body of 'literature has now
been collected, Littlejohn (1975), these predominantly
concern either practical examples, wall-anchor inter-
action studies or fundamental laboratory tests of anchor
plate systems in dry sand. Little fundamental study,
with the exception of Ostermayer (1974), appears to'
be available to justify the empirical design formula
(Littlejohn 1970a 1970b) recominended for the real
construction methods.
The author has been working on both groups. But
this paper will present only' data obtained from a
controlled laboratpry examination of the behaviour of
multi-underreamed anchors in. a very low permeability,
saturated, uniform, cohesive material.
the shaft induce a cylindrical shear failure although
intact· soil (fig. 1). Various patented cutting tech-
niques are employed in the U .1(. the blade cutter
of Universal Anchorage Limited and the, expanding
brush of the Cementation Company are typîcal
instances.
 Dr. Littlejohn (1970a 1970b) presented an empirical 1) ADHESION FAILURE UNSUITABLE
formula (1) for estimating the ultimate capacity of this ON SHAFT STRATA
type of anchor based quite logically on piling philosophy SUITABLE
ii) END BEARING FAILURE BEARING
rc IN CLAY STRATA
W ult == Ne . (D2 - d}) 4 . Cu + rc D . lu . Cu +
ts.rcds.ls.cu (1) (iJOCOHESIVE FAiLURE
end bearing + capacity of underream length + capacity THROUGH CLAY
SHAFT DIAMETER
of shaft length.
d.
The author, Bassett (1970) in his discussion to this
paper and in Bassett (1971) had derived a similar
formula (2) based on the full scale testing of sorne
500 production clay anchors but the author included a
reduction coefficient tu to be applied to the capacity of
the underream length and questioned Littlejohn's Ne
value (see Littlejohn's reply (1970) c).
Il
"V u1t == Ne . (02 ~ d}) 4 . Cu + tu· II . D .lu· Cu +
ts . II . d s . ls . Cu (2) Fig. 1. - Diagram of an underream anchor.

Vnder the author's direction Potts (1973) set out to

investigate both the fundamental components of this
empirical equation and possible alternative analytical
approaches. His work on the following is presented
here:-
(i) The examination of the behaviour of a single under-
ream in order to measure the Terzaghi bearing
capacity factor Ne and to assess the influence of
the cavity which forms below an underream on
rapid loading.
(ii) The examination of the mechanism of failure to
justify the format of t~e empirical equation (2).
(iii) The examination of the influence of varying the
spacing of underream bells.
(iv) The effect on the load capacity of increasing the
number of underreams and to relate this effect to
the ratio between the stiffness of the anchor tendon
system and the equivalent response stiffness of the
soil deformation mechanism.

EQUIPMENT AND TEST PROCEDURE

AlI the tests described wer~ performed on a saturat-

ed, remoulded, reconsolidated, London clay with the
following specification;
Water content 43 0/0
LL . 86 °10
PL 23 °10
PI 63 °10
Liquidity Index 0.35
V ndrained triaxial shear
strength 40 KN/m2 •
This is in good agreement with Skempton and Nor-
they (1953). The data indicated an undrained E
(at 1/2% strain) == 15 X 105 N/m2 •
The anchor was formed of 30 mm diameter, stiff,
aluminium discs sorne of which incorporated a strain
gauged load Jransducer. These discs represented the
underream bells and were connected by various lengths
of rod, hollow hypodermic tube, or stiff springs
to represent the tendon system. The load carrying
zone formed by the discs was deeply embedded (depth/
diameter > 15) in the clay contained in a 380 mm
dia. X 900 mm high cylindrical container (fig. 2).
The lateral pressure in the soil was initialIy fixed and
monitored by instrumented bolts.
AlI tests were performed at a constant pull out rate of
1.7 X 10-2 mm/s. For saturated, remoulded London
clay this is effectively rapid and undrained.

Fig. 2. - Photograph of the test equipment.

12
 THE SINGLE UNDERREAM
Two initial tests were performed on single discs the where P s is the pressure required to expand the cavity
first with a hollow tube tendon venting the area below C
the disc to atmosphere, the second with a solid stem. and -a is the . ratio of the cavity volume to the volume
The results are shown in figure 3 as curve A and curve of the plastic zone.
B respectively.
The vented disc, A, reaches its initial failure in end •
l • e. aC
=
(
"( 1 -
E
v) 2 Cu
)
. (ii)
bearing at approximately 1 mm displacement. Curve B
shows a similar basic format the pressure difference for v == 0.5 (undrained), Cu 40 kN/m2 ,
between Curve A and B representing the suction on E == 15 X· 105 N/m2
the underside of the disc is shown in figure 4. Ps == 188 kN/m2

Cur~ a #6fut"O/ suclion

I~O /
_----4 __"
be/ow undvf'&Jm.

2.

Fig. 3. - Load-displacement for a single

underream.

100

DI.sp/acemet1f in ",,,,.
(}5 /'0 2.0 3'0.

Fig. 4. - Suction-displacement below

a single underream.
1

- -\- - - - -
./.,.--
:..::::.~.~-:-- -- -
, ...-.....-
~.:..:--• .::--=-'
.~.
~.

---"
- -- - - - - - - - - - ~

2 Suc1ion & /ow

uncklYmm I~? oJ:notpheres

A suction. pressure of one atmosphere is developed

after only 0.15 mm displacement and reaches a peak
in excess of this at 0.25 mm there after progressively
decreasing. This is presumably due to evapouration at
the free clay surface and a reduction in suction as
water vapour fills the cavity. 1t is significant that
a vacuum cannot be maintained even at this high rate
of strain.
Pùtts (1973) adopted the expanding plastic cavity
approach to provide a theoretical peak value for the
ultimate load capacity of this single underream. He
adopted from the work of Bishop, Hill and Mott (1945)
the equation:
and over the area of the underream disc for a half
cavity is equivalent to a force of: - 137 N.
This value is drawn on figure 3 and is the theoretical
estimate for the maximum value of curve A. The
.agreement is seen to be reasonably good. Swain (1976)
has developed a similar theoretical argument but used
a more extended approach to give the complete load-
displacement relationship up to the initial ,failure.
The Conventional Terzaghi bearing capacity and the
piling approach to this problem suggests a value of
Ne == 9. (This value of Ne is used by Littlejohn 1970a

Ps = +
Cu ( 1 - 3 loge +) (i)
1970b). The experimental value for Curve A is
Ne == 5.4 and for the total load including the suction
component in Curve B is Ne == 8.6 ..

13
 VERTIFICATION Of THE MECHANISM POSTULATE IN THE EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
AND THE INFLUENCE OF UNDERREAM SPACING:

As all the subsequent test series described in this

paper allowed no venting below the bottom underream
the higher value of Ne == 8.4 was a~opted to include
the suction component.
To check the failure mechanism an underream
spacing of i.5 D, consistent with practice, was adopted.
This model was tested using a split sample, the clay
surface being marked with a fine horizontal grid.
During the test this grid was examined and typical
photographs are shown in figure 5.
The ruptures seemed ta justify the empirical approach,
assuming two major components (1) end bearing .on the.
top underream and (11) a waisted plug like component
for the m'ain anchorage length. The pictures did howe-
ver show a distinct indication of an end bearing passive
cone above aIl the underreams before the plug failure
was fully forlned. This observation suggested that a
transfer from the plug failure mechanism to a num.ber
of separate end bearing failures \vould almost cer-
tainly occur when the load capacity between two
underreams reached the value of an end bearing failure,
perhaps even earlier.
i.e. if the distance between two underreams L is thought Fig. 5 b. - Plug failure.
of as a dünentionless ratio X diameter of underream
(D)
the critical spacing ratio. is equal to 3.4. Using the
. ~ Lt
1 . e .L == (1)\ X D
fully vented cavity value ( DL) . reduces to 2.1.
ent
then for equal capacity 0lf a plug failure and an end
bearing .failure A series of unvented, rapid loading tests were carried
out using 3 underream discs at spacings of 1.5 D:
tu . Cu . TI . D. (~) . .D == Ne . Cu . (D2 - d s2). TI
4
2 D: 2.25 D: 3 D and 4 D. The results are shown in
ent figure 6.
L \ Ne ( D2 - d/ )
or ( D) crit = 4fu
,
• D2
L ToT;J1... Lo~D
as d s is small cOlnpared to D then D . 1: /OlN.
cnt e
Section 5 of this paper will indicate the determi-
nation of tu == 0.63 and for this value and Ne == 8.5
7

~D 3D 4~

Spac/n'j 0+ Undvru;mJ

Fig. 5 a.- End bearing cones. Fig. 6. - Load capacity-underream spacing.

14
 Fig. 7. - Load-displacement
characteristics for 3 under-
reams spaced at 3D.

3 5

. The theoretical increase in ultimate load up to
~ = 3.4 is also show. The predicted form is closely
adhered to but deviation to an end bearing failure is
earlier than expected i.e. at approx. 2.9 D. This was
in fact expected as the full Ne value of 8.5 should not
.apply to the 2nd and 3rd underreams in end bearing
because their capacities will obviously be reduced by
the suction zone forming below the disc above. At
the experimental ( ~). . of 2.9 this suggests that. if
cnt
Ne == 8.5 applies to the top underream plate a value of
only 6.6 is possible on the two lower plates. Separate
measurements of the loads on each underream at a
spacing of 3 D confirm this figure 7.
240 N are carried on the top plate and a total of 380
on the lower two. It should be noted from this graph
that the peak capacity of a L == 3 X D set up was
not achieved until a displacement of 4 mm had
occured - whereas study of aIl Potts (1973) data
shoyved that a 1.5 D spacing achieved peak after
approximately a 2 Inm displacement.
The maxiInun1 effective spacing appeared to be 2.9 D
but in view of the earlier comments on loss of capacity,
Ne reducing to 5.4, with time as seepage relieves the
vacuum and in order to limit displacements under load,
a practical spacing of 2 - 2.25 D should be adopted.
This conclusion is in very close agreement with Mohan,
et al (1969) on Inulti-underream piles.

THE MAGNITUDE OF THE FRICTION tu & INFLUENCE Of TENDON 5TIFFNE55

/'
In view of the data in section 4 the dual mechanism /
. L
was certainly mobilised at D ratios of less than 2.
• 1
A further serIes of tests were therefore performed at
L '
the D ratio of 1.5 with 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 underream
plates connected with
(i) 'solid rods, and (ii) stiff coil springs.
The peak results of the solid rod series are shown in
figure 8. The dotted line represents the load capacity
8
given by Littlejohhn's equation (1), full Cu mobilised
on the whole underream plug i.e. tu in equation (2) == 1.
The experimental data indicates a reduction to an tu ,
of between 0.63 and 0.79.
This result appears to justify the authors original
4
postulation in (1970) but it does not identify the cause.
The waisted shape, i.e. the reduced D, of the failure
plugs seen in figure 5b and the influence of the under-
ream tips seem possible causes but detailed .work by
Swain (1976) on the strain patterns round underreams
suggests that the rapid migration of .excess pore
pressure above the underreams to the pltig shearing 2
zone causes noticeable softening, even at rapid loading
Numbcr 0+ UnJer~
rates. l5po~ "5D)
Figure 8 does however indicate a progressive and
virtually linear rise in ultimate capacity with each Fig. 8. - Load capacity. Number of underreams.

15
 Load
12.

, ~ undUrYlOrns

4
--- l

2. .s , 7 • 9
Humber of Uncl~rNl.Dms.
Fig. 9. - Load capacity at various displacements. IJi.splD cern ent:

Fig. Il. - Idealised load-displacement for 2, 3 and 4 un-

derream anchors.

Loo.d. additional underream. If howerver additional data

showing .the load capacity at various displacements is
lOta1 Lood 011 added to figure 9; then at an overall safety factor of
1 2 it is apparent that very little is gained by the use of
1 more than 6 underreams.
1
1 .1t was suspected that the significance of displacement
1
1
would be further accentuated in very stiff soils. In the
1 absence of equipment capable of testing marI or shale
the soil properties were kept consistent and this feature
I End ~(UJrjn9 Load was examineci-.·· by reducing the stiffness of the inter..

(_._._-.L.__ _
'~2 .5'hta~ lLJad
/T-r _. -.
01) "\ • - .
: on
1··
Top Undvrmm connecting tendon member.
The test series described above was repeated,-
~ = 1.5, with stiff coil springs in place of the solid
n"'r1k ~~I7?_"_"-:,:+_I'-'-''- __ rods (*).
"" l ,"'> ,
/..: ,<,'''; 1 1
"".. 1";' / ~ P/ug Sf1to,. LoaCl on (*) The stiffness ratio of K soil : Ktendon for the rods was
V ~_,-.,,,, . :Botfom.l1ndvrr.am 1: 20 where K soil is the mean load-displacement slope
~- 1 for the soil at 1/2 mm displacement and Ktendon == the
elastic load-displacement value.

Fig. 10. - Idealised load-displace-

_0 .-
ment for a 3 underream anchor.

z . Ff'!j Sf1mr I{n

oIJ ..----- --"
---.--
/L
.;+' R'iJ Spaclflg.
.. ~
__ . ~ Sr'Ï>q
J
]J~forrrx/ÎàtJ

Fig. 12. - Experimental load-dis- 1 ----

placement curves for anchors con- 1 --
nected by spring units. O, 10 JO 40
.JJJ.Jp/acl!menf ln mm.
16
 An idealised summation of the behaviour of a 3
underream anchor with weak spring connection is
shown in figure 10. (Potts 1973).
The total load curve shows three distinct changes
in slope as each successive underream fails. In figure
Il the concept is extended to 2, 3 and 4 underream
groups.
The corresponding experimental data is given in
figure 12. The correct trend is observed, little of
significance resulting from the use of more than two
CONCLUSIONS
The tests have indicated the validity of the compo-
site empirical equation (2) provided that the .~
spacing of the underream bells is maintained definitely
bélow 2.9 and if displacements are a limiting factor it
is recommended that a value of ~ of approximately
2 should be adopted. 1ts use also implies that the
stiffness ratio between the soil and the anchor tendon
allows the \vhole system of underreams to be deve-
loping the failure mechanism when the initial end
REFERENCES
BASSETT (R.H.). - Contribution to the Proc. of the
Conf. on «Ground Engineering», p. 89-94.· ICE
London (1970). . author.
BASSETT (R.H.). ---:- Contribution to Session IV of
the 5th European Conf. on Soil Mech & Found.
Eng., Vol.· 2, p. 330-334, Madrid (1971).
BISHOP (R.F.), HILL (R.) & MOTT (N.F.). - «The
Theory of Indentation and Hardness Tests», Proc.
Phys. Soc., Vol. 57, Part 3 (1945).
LITTLEJOHN (G.S.). - (1970) a) «Soil Anchors»,
Proc. of the Conf. on «Ground Engineering», ICE
London. (1970) b) Contribution to the Consult-
ing Engineers. May 1970. (1970) c) Author's
.r eply to the Contributions to the Conf. on «Ground
Engin~ering», ICE London.
17
underreams. The displacements in this series are some
ten times larger than those previously measured. This
is due to the unrealistically soft spring tendon members,
the stiffness ratio is K soil : Ktendon == 7 : 1 (*).
ln real practice the stiffness ratio of say London
Clay to cable anchor tendon is thought to be between
1 : 5 and 1: 3 and of Keuper MarI to cable anchor
tendon nearer 2 : 1 or 1 : 1. So the indications from the
soft spring tests may in fact ·be more representative
than those of the solid bar series.
bearing failure condition is reached by the top
underream
The end bearing factor Ne appears to be approxi-
mately 8.5 for rapid short duration loads but it is
recommended that a value reduced .to 6 should be
adopted for permanently loaded situations.
The research described above continues to be deve-
loped to broaden its scope. Aiso several real problelns
still remain unanswered. A particularly important one
is the effects of cyclic loading and very long term
creep «settlement» on the carrying capacity and·
deformations and th~se are now being investigated.
LITTLEJOHN (G.S.) (1975). - «List of Ground An-
chorage References» supplied privately to the
MOHAN (D.), MURTHY (V.N.S.) & JAIN (G.S.). -
«Design & Construction of Multi-Underream Piles»,
Proc. 7th, Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. & Pound. Eng.,
Mexico (1969).
OSTERMAYER (H.). - «Construction, Carrying Beha-
viour and Creep Characteristics of Ground An-
chors». Proc. of Conf. on Diaphragm Wall &
Anchorages. LCE, London (1974).
POTTS (D.M.). - «The Performance of Multi-
Underreamed Ground Anchor in Clay Soils»,
Part III Research Project Dept. of Civil Eng.,
King's College, London (1973) .
SWAIN (A.). - «Model Ground Anchors in Clay»,
Ph.D. Thesis.. Cambridge (1976).
 MODEl GROUND ANCHORS UNDER GRAVITATIONAl
AND CENTRIFUGAl ACCELERATIONS
Modèles réduits d'ancrage au sol en gravité normale ou en centrifugeuse
M.P. BOON
John Laing ,Construction Ltd., formerly research student University of Manchester, England.
and
W.H. CRAIG
Lecturer, Simon Engineering Laboratories, University of Manchester, England
SOMMAIRE
On traite de deux séries d'essais dans lesquels
des plaques circulaires d'ancrage de 25 mm de
diamètre, enfouies dans des couches de sable sec
à l'intérieur d'un conteneur de 0.770 X 0.770 X
0.500 m, ont été testées sous un régime de
contraintes correspondant aux ancrages in situ.
Les niveaux des contraintes ont été obtenus, soit
par un vide à l'intérieur de la maquette dont la
surface- supérieure était scel.lée par une, membrane
en caoutchouc, soit par des forces centrifuges.
On présente des courbes efforts-déplacements
pour des plaques d'ancrage verticales, tirées vers
l,a paroi du conteneur, ainsi que le changement de
la distribution de la contrainte normale sur ces
parois pour des valeurs différentes de la position
de l'ancrage.
On trouve que la flexibilité du conteneur est
critique- pour le résultat des essais sous vide. Par
contre, les modèles en centrifugeuse où les mouve-
ments latéraux sont bloqués, donnent des résultats
plus réalistes.
En utilisant cette technique, on a mesuré des
variations importantes de la force d'arrache-ment,
au fur et à mesure que l'ancrage passe d'une
position horizontale à une position verticale. Les
forces d'arrachement sont inférieures à celles
présentées normale-mer:tt par d'autres auteurs.
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate resistance to tensile loading of buried
plate anchors in sand has been studied by many au-
thors and of the design methods proposed, that develop-
ed by Meyerhof and Adams (1968) and Meyerhof
(1973) has the widest use, being applicable to anchors
of any shape at any inclination from horizontal to
vertical.
Most of the data which have been used to justify
this or any other design method of general application
have been provided by small scale laboratory models.
However, scale effects in model work on cohesionless
soils give rise to uncertainty in the extrapolation of
results to field situations. The reduction of the mobilis-
18
SUMMARV
Two series of model experiments are reported
in which circular plate anchors, 25 mm diameter,
buried in beds of dense dry sand within a
container 0.770 X 0.770 X 0'.500 m, have been tested
at effective stress levels appropriate ta field
anchors.
These stress levels have been obtained by eva-
cuating the void space within the container which
was sealed at the surface by a flexible membrane
and exposed to exterrial atmospheric pressure or
by the action of inertial accelerations generated
within a centrifuge.
Load-deflection data are presented for vertical
anchor plates pulled towards the boundaries of
the- container together with changes in normal
pressure distribution at these boundaries for a
range of initial anchor positions.
Flexibility of the container is shown to have a
critical effect on the results from the evacuated
models. .
The· centrifuge models in which boundary deflec-
tion is restrained are shown to give' more realistic
results and using this technique significant changes
in anchor pull-out load have been measured for
variations in anchor inclination from horizontal to
vertical. The pull-out loads have generally been
lower than those predicted by other researchers.
ed angle of friction 0 under increasing mean principal
stress levels is weIl known - typically for a dense
sand a reduction of the order of 5 degrees in 0 per
log cycle of effective stress. Associated with this
reduction is a transition from brittle to plastic failure
in soil elements and a trend towards increased displa-
cements at failure, relative to model size.
De Beer (1970), Graham (1974) and Aboshi (1975)
among others have reported a change from overall
shear failure in small models of foundations under
compressive loading, to, punching shear at larger sizes
and higher stresses. Mikasa and Takada (1973) have
performed centrifugaI model tests on both shallow
 and deep foundations under compressive loads and
_have presented visual evidence of the difference in
failure mode of the same model between tests at unit
gravity and others at 60 g. Krebs Ovesen (1975) has
summarised the findings of his 6wn centrifuge expe-
riments along with those of Mikasa and Takada and of
Cherkasov et al. (1970) and has shown that the
variation in model failure loads associated with the
different modes of failure at different accelerations is
consistent with substantial reductions in 0 with stress
level increases. The results of centrifuge tests by
Yamaguchi et al. (1976) on surface and -shallow
foundations show similar effects.
The implication is that more realistic design infor-
mation for tension carrying foundations may be obtain-
ed from model experiments carried out at or close to
field stress levels. In this context the centrifuge mode!
is an attractive alternative to full scale experimentation.
·The S.E.L. centrifuge has a capacity to acceleràte
upto 2,000 kg of soil to 140 g, i.e. an acceleration
factor N == 140, and has been used well within this
limit in a programme of testing model anchors in sand
at inclinations from horizontal to vertical. A bolted
aluminium container 0.770 m square X 0.500 m deep,
with 16 mm walls was used for most of the expe-
riments. The container was filled with air dry Mersey
River sand deposited from a roller spreader. The
range of porosities measured after deposition was
0.353 - 0.359 corresponding to a relative density of
approximately 95%. The anchor plates were 25 mm
diameter, 8 mm thick, attached to steel rods 4.75 mm
diameter and were placed in every case at a depth
300 mm, below the upper, level soil surface at an incli-
nation which varied from test to test but always coaxial
with the load -to be applied. Full details of the expe-
rimental techniques are given by Boon (1975).

TESTS AT UNIT GRAVITY

In order to carry out preliminary experiments at number of plate anchors initially located· at different-
field stress levels without using the centrifuge the distances from the wall with a suction of 66 kN/m2
upper sand surface was covered by a thin rubber applied in each case. The anchor shaft load in the
membrane and the void space of -the soil mass was absence of a -plate was found to be consistently less
subjected to a partial vacuum. than 0.08 kN. Defining failure arbitrarily at a deflec~
-Horizontal anchors were pulled by a pneumatic jack tion of 30% of the plate diameter the failure load is
towards a wall of the container instrumented with seen, fig. 2, to be sensibly independent of location
total stress transducers. The- anchor itself passed relative to the wall in the range 6 - 12 plate diameters.
through a lubricated sleeving at the wall and the
FAILURE LOAD
jack reaction was taken by a mounting frame of steel (kN)
sections. Fig. 1 shows load-deflection results for a
1·5 x
x
)-4 x
x
o 1-3 x
ANCHOR. LOAD
2-0
(kN)
(TESTS AT.tg)
6 X
4 8
100 200

INITrAL ANCHOR DISTANCE FR.OM WALL

x
o Fig.2.
1-5
~
In a further series of tests on inclined anchors the
applied suction was lowered to 57- kN/m2 and the
o~ pneumatic jack, suitably mounted on the reaction
frame, pulled the anchor rod either through a sleeve
X (TESTS AT 19) in the metal -wall or through the rubber membrane.
~ Results, fig. 3, show that the failure load increased as
INITIAL DISTANCE FROM WALL
1-0 0 the inclination from the horizontal increased. The
X
o 150 mm
test arrangement is shown in fig. 4.
6 w ~- 250 mm
a: - FAILURE LOAD
:::> (kN)
0 -J x 300 mm 1·7
X ;{
u-
6
0
)-5
0·5
X
x
1

r
(TESTS AT 19)

1
10 20 ,
1
o
ANCHOR DISPLACEMENT (mm) INCLINATION OF ANCHOR ROD TO HORIZONTAL

Fig. 1. Fig. 3.

19
 Fig. 4.

Under the action of the applied suction the box
walls dcflected inwards by upto 0.4 mm and the total
stresses measured on the boundaries indicated initial
K values (K == cr' HI cr'v) of approximately unity. The
results of the pull-out tests are consistent with. an
initial hydrostatic pressure distribution yielding a bed
of essentially uniform strength at aIl depths and the
higher loads on v.ertical anchors are associated with
increased gravity effects in this direction.

TESTS UNDER INCREASED ACCELERATIONS

The SEL centrifuge has a rigid rotor 7.32 m in

diameter which moves in a horizontal plane, generat-
ing a radial acceleration. In order to keep the free
soil surface perpendicular to the acceleration, as in
the field, this surface must be in a vertical plane and
to achieve this with minimal disturbance it is necessary
to fit a thin membrane over the surface and to apply
a small suction to the sand. mass until sufficient radial
acceleration has been generated to hold the' soil în
place.
The model box was packed into a rigid container
and with all four walls fully supported internally
the suctÎon was applied before the whole assembly was
lowered into the test position, fig. 5. The suction
was released when accelerations reached 5 g and the
anchors tested under a steady accelerations of 26 g at
the radius of the anchor plate, 2.94 m. Changes in
wall pressure over the acceleration increment after

~ 1

Fig. 5.

20
 ~ kN 1m
2

+10

40
t kN/m
.
2

40
kN/m ë

30 30

A
-10

20

kN/m 2
""0 10 10

r---+
0 0
15 mm 5

B C

WALL PRESSURE CHANGES V ANCHOR M OVE t.1 E NT

kN/m t

40

releasing the suction were consistent with 1< == 0.25.

At 26 g the models simulated field anchors 0.65 m in
diameter at depths of 7.4 m. 30

Failure loads for a series of 'horizontal' anchors

were again sensibly independent of initial position
within the range tested, fig. 6, but the changes in
measured wall pressure were greatly influenced by
this variable, fig. 7. Detailed study of a single test 20
with the anchor plate initially 8 diameters from the wall
+5
shows the development of pressure changes across and

o ~_.--J._-~----l---"'-m""

~
. FAILURE LOAD 10
(kN)
x
3·0

x x
)(
2·5 ~ -10

0
1
(TESTS AT 26 9) 1°
2'~ 1
E F
8 16 Diameters
1 1 1 1 1 1
100 300 500 mm INITIAL ANCHOR DISTANCE
INITIAL ANCHOR ·DISTANCE FROM WALL
+ 150 mm )( 250mm
FROM WAL~
o 200 mm • 500 mm
Fig. 6.

21
down the wall, fig. 8. The changes are symmetrical
across the wall at the anchor level but are substan- FAILURE LOAD
tially higher below the anchor than above. t . (l~ N)

Limited results for tests on inclined anchors also ~AEYERHOF (1973)

5
carried out with N == 26, fig. 9, show a significant
reduction in pull-out loads at inclinations of 45° and /
90° from those measuied on horizontal anchors. This ·4
figure also shows the failure loads predicted by ~he
method of Meyerhof (1973) for a mean unit weight
under centrifugaI acceleration of 415 kN/m3 and a 3
unique angle of friction of 41° measured in triaxial
GROSS DISPLACEMENT
compression, for Mersey River sand at an appropriate
mean stress level. In every case the prediction exceeds 2
the observed failure Joad and 'while the difference can
be reduced by considering anchor loads at displa-
cements greater than the plate diameter a considerable 1 - ('iE5TS AT 26 g.) 1
discrepançy remains.
LIMITED DISPLACEMENT

0 1 1 1 1

0° 30° 60° 90°

PRESSURE CHANGE
(kN/m 2 )
/1~\ INCLINATION OF ANCHOR ROD TO HORIZONTA L

/ \ Fig. 9.
40
/ \ ANCHOR
/ \ DISPLACEMENT
...J
...J / \
<
~
1 ~IOmm Ig
U- 7·5mm
o
20 3mm
UJ ANCHOR LOAD (k N)
l?
o ACCELERATION FACTOR.
ILl

3
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS AT ANCHOR LEVEL

5g
PRESSURE CHANGE TESTS AT 26 9
(kN/m')

U-
o
20 a..
..-o
3 mm

u.J
V)
<

o ~-----+---:::;;::o~~::""--"-'---+---­
300 :.-- 100 o
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS ON CENTRAL AXIS.

Fig. 8. 1
1

, 1

1 1 1
10 20 30
The prediction, developed from the results of ANCHOR DEFLECTION 10/0)
Meyerhof and Adams (1968) assumes implicitly a limit
to the zone of soil involved in the failure, based on Fig. HL
observation of model tests at low stresses under unit
gravit y . However, this zone may be significantly
reduced in size at higher stress levels wit4 a subse-. anchor models, pulled vertically in a plane strain
quent lowering of the failure loads. No direct obser- configuration under different accelerations confirm that
vation of the size of the 3-D zone of sail movement this zone is considerably reduced in the same manner
around circular .plate anchors in the centrifuge has as observed by Mikasa and Takada (1973) for the
been possible, but observations on identical strip compressive loading situation.

22

20
Fig. 11.
la
JL--------'--I~I.
la 100
ACCELERATION FACTOR (N)
In order to assess directly the effect of changes in
stress level on the failure of an anchor a 25 mm bar
152 ,mm long was pulled vertically, in il plane strain
configuration in a box also 152 mm wide, from a
depth of 340 mm t'owards the surface of a bed of
River Mersey sand at the same initial density as used
previously. The test was repeated at a number of
different accelerations in the range 1 - 54 g. For
ease of comparison fig. 10 shows the measured anchor
CONCLUSIONS
The design of field anchors in sand, based on data
obtained from laboratory model experiments at low stress
levels will be in error on account of the difference in
stress level between the two situations. Adjustment of
the design for changes in the angle of friction assessed
in element tests at appropriate stress levels may partly
eliminate the error but this will not necessarily take
REFERENCES
ABOSHI (H.). - «On the deformation and failure of
sand underneath deep founda,tions», Proc. 2nd
Australia and New Zealand Conference on
Geomechanics, pp. 185-189 (1975).
DE BEER (E.E.). - «Experimental determination or"
the shape factors and the bearing capacity factors
of sand», Geotechnique, Vol. 20, pp. 387-411
(1970).
BaON (M.P.). - «Load tests on model ground
anchors», M.Sc. Thesis, ~niversity of Manchester
(1975).
CHERKASOV (1.1.) et al. - «Influence of gravity on
the mechanical properties of soils», Soil M ech.
and Foundation Eng., January, pp. 25-31 (1970).
GRAHAM (J .).' - «Plasticity solutions to stability
problems in sand», Canadian Geotechnical Jour-
nal, Vol. Il, pp. 238-247 (1974).
KREBS OVESEN (N.). - «CentrifugaI testing applied
to bearing capacity problems of footings on sand»,
Geotechnique, Vol. 25, pp. 394-400 (1975).
23
loads divided by the acceleration factor as a function
of the anchor deflection. Defining failure at a deflec-
tion of 10% of the width in these tests the dependence
of the parameter N qu and associated values of 0, given
by the analysis of Meyerhof (1973), on acceleration
factor N is clear, fig. Il and table 1.
TABLE 1
Acceleration Nqu 0
Mean av (Deduced 0 p . s.
Factor (kN/m2) (Observed) Meyerhof) (Tong)
1 3 19.4 50.0 51.5
5 15 8.7 39.0 48.0
Il 32 5.5 32.5 46.0
32 93. 3.8 26.5 43.5
54 157 3.3 23.0 42.5
Table 1 shows the mean vertical stress in the sand
in each test before loading the anchors and the values
of 0 indicated for this material at the appropriate
relative density from the plane strain element tests
of Tong (1970) with mi!lor ,principal stress of this
magnitude. Allowing for this variation in friction
angle the range of N qu values predicted would be only
one third of that observed. The difference appears
to arise from the fact that the factors given by
Meyerhof are based upon failure modes observed only
in small model tests at unity gravity, i.e. low stresses.
As Mikasa and Takada (1973) have shown, these will
exaggerate the volumes of soil in the failure zone
associated with geometrically', similar models at higher
accelerations and stress levels.
account of differences in failure mode if the design is
still based on model test results with correct friction
angles but incorrect stress levels. The centrifuge
modelling technique provides a means of obtaining
design data from models subjected to the failure
modes appropriate to the correct stress levels.
MEYERHOF (G.G.). - «Uplift resistance of inclined
anchors and piles», Proc. 8th Int. Conf. on Soil
Mech. and F.E., Vol. 2.1, pp. 167-172 (1973).
MEYERHOF (G.G.) and ADAMS (J.I.). - «The
ultimate uplift capacity of foundations», Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 5, pp. 425-444 (1968).
MIKASA (M.) and TAKADA (N.). - «Significance of
centrifugaI model tests in soil mechanics», Proc.
8th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and F.E., Vol. 1.2,
pp. 325-333.
TONG (P.Y.L.). - «Plane strain deformation of
sands», Ph.D. Thesis,University of Manchester
(1970).
YAMAGUCHI (H.) and al. - «On the influence of
progressive failure on' the bearing capacity of
shallow foundations in dense sand», Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 16, N° 4, pp. 11-22 (1976).
 COMPORTEMENT DES TIRANTS PRÉCONTRAINTS DANS UNE ARGILE PLASTIQUE
Behavrour of prestressed anchors in plastic clay
I?af
M. BUSTAMANTE
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées . Paris . France
f. DELMAS et J. LACOUR
Entreprise SIF·BACHY . Paris . France
SOMMAIRE
Les possibilités remarquables qu'offrent les
tirants dans les domaines les plus divers du génie
civil, conduisent à envisager leur mise en œuvre
dans les sols argileux. Toutefois, le manque
d'études systématiques relatives à leur tenue à
long terme dans ces matériaux, oblige encore les
constructeurs à ne pas les utiliser comme organes
définitifs.
. A partir d'essais en vraie grandeur effectués sur
dix tirants scellés dans une argile plastique, les
auteurs se sont proposés d'étudier les différents
aspects de leur comportement.
Le programme de recherche comportait égaIe-
ment le déterrernent des tirants.
Les résultats obtenus à ce jour apportent un
début de réponse aux problèmes suivants :
-. dispersion des tractions limites TL et admis-
sibles TA ;
- validité de la méthodologie d'épreuve basée sur
la 'recherche d'une traction critique Tc;
- comportement d'un tirant au sein d'un groupe;
- mécanisme de transmission de l'effort de trac-
tion au scellement;
- incidence des paramètres de l'injection sur la
formation de la zone- scellée.
1. INTRODUCTION
Les possibilités remarquables qu'offrent les tirants
;njectés précontraints dans les domaines les plus divers
du Génie Civil, incitent parfois les constructeurs
confrontés à certaines configurations de terrains, à
envisager leur mise en ,œuvre dans les argiles plas-
tiques. Toutefois, le manque ou la rareté d'études
systématiqu~s relatives à la tenue des scellements injec-
tés dans ce type de matériau, soupçonnés de présenter
des risques de fluage et des performances médiocres
obligent ces mêmes constructeurs à rechercher pour les
tirants définitifs, des sols non argileux.
Partant d'essais en vraie grandeur effectués sur des
tirants scellés dans une argile plastique, on s'est
proposé d'examiner les différents aspects de leur
résistance :
1) Validité de la méthode de détermination de la trac-
tion de service TA' basée sur la recherche de la
traction critique Tc.
24
SUMMARY
The outstanding performances offered by anchors
in the various fields of Civil Engineering leads to
an extension of application in clayey soils.
However, the lack of systematic study concern-
ing the long term behaviour in this type of soil is
a limitation for the designer ta use them as
permanent anchorages.
From full scale tests carried out on 10 anchors
set in a plastic clay, the authors of this paper
study the different aspects of the carrying beha-
viour of the anchors.
The research program included also the unear-
thing of the anchors.
Results obtained brll1g partial answers to the
following topics:
- scattering of the values of ultimate and working
loads;
- validity of the testing procedure based on the
determination of a critical load;
- behaviour of a single anchor as part of a group
of anchors;
- stress distribution along the grouted length;
- influence of the main grouting factors on the
construction of the grouted part.
2) Importance et dispersion des tractions limites TL.
3) Comportement du tirant au sein d'un groupe.
4) Incidence des paramètres de l'injection sur la tenue
du bulbe de scellement et la formation de ce
dernier.
5) Mécanisme de transmission de l'effort de traction
le long du scellement.'
6) Corrélation entre les caractéristiques géotechniques
de l'argile et la résistance du tirant.
Le programme d'étude comportait le déterrement des
tirants et notamment de leur partie scellée. Comme
il n'a pas été procédé à l'excavation de certains tirants
toujours soumis à des essais de longue durée, on ne
présentera qu'une partie des résultats obtenus à ce
jour.
 2. RECONNAISSANCE ET CARACTERISTIQUES GEOTECHNIQUES DE L'ARGILE

Préalablement à la mise en 'œuvre des tirants d'essais (Ypresien). Le tableau 1 en synthétise les caracté-
et dans le but de, définir les propriétés de l'argile, on ristiques géotechniques essentielles déterminées en
a exécuté: laboratoire.
- un sondage carotté avec prélèvement d'échantillons Les essais en place, qui confirment d'ailleurs l'homo-
intacts; généité de l'argile, ont respectivement donné pour le
- un essai de pénétration statique (0 45 mm) ; lnême niveau :
- trois sondages pressiométriques avec essais tous les a) Résistance de pointe mesurée au pénétromètre
mètres;
statique : R p == 1 à 1.5 MPa
- la gamme complète d'essais d'identification et de
cisaillement sur échantillons intacts. b) Pression limite: Pz == 0.5 à 0.7 MPa
Module pressiométrique : E == 4 à 6 MPa.
Au droit du plot d'essai, et sur toute la hauteur des
bulbes de scellement, on rencontre l'argile' des Flandres

'TABLEAU 1

Essais Essais
Prof. d'indentification de cisaillement Compressibilité
.
y W WL 1 Cuu C' 0' Etat de
(m) Ip
(kN/m 3
) (% ) (% ) (kPa) (kPa) (0) Consolidation
-- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- ---

5 185 30 80 50 60
Argile
à à à à à à 38 12 surconsolidée
7 195 40 90 60 80 cr'a < cr'c

3. IMPLANTATION, MISE EN ŒUVRE ET EQUIPEMENT DES TIRANTS

Les essais ont porté sur un total de dix tirants du

type TMD (brevet Sif-Bachy) [1], répartis sur trois
plots (fig. 1) : Certains tirants ont été équipés de tubes-logements
- plot A (tirants Al' A2, A3 , A4) ; (0 27/30 mm) permettant de recevoir un extensomètre
- plot B «tirants Bu B2 , B3 ) ; amovible [2] ainsi que de deux tubes (0 10/12 mm)
- plot C (tirants Cu C2, C3) ; logeant chacun un fil d'invar reliant les extrémités du
bulbe aux dispositifs de mesure en surface.
Le tableau 2 résume les caractéristiques de c~aque
tirant ainsi que ses paramètres d'injection.

1".1 1 l , T f r .-

81

~I
- 82
Al

1~
A2 - BJ
Plot A3 -
A Cl
A4 C2
=:t C3
1
1
6m .1
1
6m ~
'1
1
-
7m 1 6m J

Fig. 1. - Implantation et coupe

sur les plots d'essais.

25
 TABLEAU 2

GEOMETRIE PARAMETRES D'INJECTION

Longueur Longueur Volume Dosage Nombre Coloration

TIRANT scellée Libre (1) Section Pression de du
armature moyenne de du coulis
Ls LL coulis coulis' phases de
(m) (m) (MPa) (m3) CIE scellement (2)

Al 0.5 0.955
A2 6 6.20 0.5 0.958 2.27 3 Aucune
A3 0.5 0.890
A4 0.5 0.858

BI 0.5 0.325 1 R+J

B2 6 7.20 940 mm2 0.5 0.498 2.27 2 N+R
(10TI3)
B3 0.5 à 1.0 1.340 3 N + J + R

Cl 0.5 0.125
C2 6 7.20 0.5 0.848 2.27 3 Aucune
1
C3 0.5 1
0.773
1

(1) Celle-ci inclut un séparateur gonflable de 1 m.

(2) R == Rouge J == Jaune N == Noir.

4. PROGRAMMES ET DISPOSITIFS DES ESSAIS

L'un des buts essentiels de l'expérimentation a consis-
té à vérifier si la méthode de détermination de la
traction de service (TA)' basée sur l'interprétation des
mesures de fluage du scellement, s'appliquait au cas
des argiles plastiques.
On rappellera brièvement le principe de cette méthode
[3], [4].
On établit tout d'abord, pour différents niveaux de
traction, l'évolution -des déplacements absolus de l'extré-
mité du tirant (fil) en fonction du logarithme du temps
(log. t). Les relations obtenues, qui donnent en fait la
mesure du fluage du scellement; présentent certaines
propriétés :
- elles restent pratiquement linéaires (*) jusqu'à une
valeur critique de la traction (TC>, et cela indé-
pendamment de la vitesse de chargement;
- leur pente «(Xi) croît avec le taux de traction (Ti).
La traction critique (Tc) peut être déterminée gra-
phiquement. Le diagramme pente «(Xi) - traction (Ti)
est linéaire jusqu'à la' traction critique (T J et s'incurve
au-delà de cette valeur, ce qui correspond à une
accélération du fluage.
La valeur de la traction de service (TA)' appelée aussi
traction admissible, est prise égale à une fraction de
la traction critique (Tc). Les recommandations fran-
çaises actuellement en vigueur [5] préconisent 'un
coefficient minorateur égal à 1.1 (**). Les normes alle-
mandes, par contre, stipulent d'adopter comme valeur
de la traction de service (TA) un taux de traction 'pour
lequel le fluage reste inférieur à 6 mm pour un.
intervalle de temps de l'ordre de cinquante ans [6].
Les programmes de chargement retenus (tableau 3)
consistaient. en une succession de paliers de traction
croissants, d'égales durées et intensités. Au total, quinze
essais ont été réalisés, dont quatorze du type statique
et un du type cyclique. . '
La précision de la mesure des déplacements de la
tête de l'armature et des extrémités du bulbe, par rap-
port à des points fixes, est de l'ordre 'du 1/100 de milli-
mètre. Les efforts appliqués ont été mesurés au moyen
de dynamomètres à jauges, intercalés entre les massifs
de réaction et les vérins. L'ensemble des appareils de
mesure utilisés a fait l'objet d'un étalonnage préalable.
La figure 2 offre une vue générale des dispositifs de
mesure et de mise en traction utilisés en surface.

(* *) Ces mêmes recommandations préconisent un coef-

ficient de 1.5 sur la traction limite (TL). Il Y a lieu
d'adopter comme traction de service (TA)' la 'plus petite des
C~) A l'exception des toutes premières minutes d'appli- valeurs obtenues par application de ces deux coefficients
cation de la charge. minorateurs.

26
 Fig. 2. - Vue générale du plot C. Exécution d'un essai de groupe sur trois tirants.

TABLEAU 3

Incrément
Traction maximale -Durée - de traction Déterrement
Tirant Essai atteinte au cours
n° des paliers par palier . (2)
de l'essai (1)
(kN)

1 Tc 1 h 100

Al 2 TL 1 h 100 -
(chargement cyclique)

3 TL 1 h 100

1 TL 1 h 100
A2 -
2 TL 1 h 100

1 Tc 1 h 100
A3 -
2 Calage à long terme < Tc 1 an 100

1 Tc 1 h 100
A4 -
2 TL 6 h 100

BI 1 TL 1 h 100 +
B2 1 .T L 1 h 100 +
B3 1 TL 1 h 100 +
Cl 1 TL 30 mn 75 +
C2 1- TL 1 h 150 +
C3 1 T-L 30 mn. 75 +
(1) Tc: traction critique ; TL: traction limite.
(2) A ce jour, les tirants du plot A n'ont pas été excavés.

27
 5. L'INTERPRETATION DES MESURES DE FLUAGE ET LA VALIDITE DE LA METHODE

Les figures 3 a et b présentent un exemple caracté-
ristique de relation ~l - log t et de détermination
graphique des tractions critiques (Tc), pour le tirant A4•
On remarque :
la quasi linéarité (à l'exception des toutes premières
minutes des relations ~l - log t jusqu'à la traction
critique (Tc);
- la similitude des relations ~l -log t, correspondant
à la tête du bulbe et l'extrémité des torons, ce
qui prouve bien. que l'observation des déplacements
.des torons en surface est bien représentative de ce
qui se passe au niveau du scellement (fig. 3 a) ;
- l'existence d'un coude caractéristique sur les gra-
phiqu~s ai - Ti, au-delà duquel les fluages aug-
mentent non seulement très rapidement avec le
temps mais cessent d'être prévisibles en raison de
la non-linéarité de la relation fil - log t (fig. 3 b) ;
- enfin, que les différentes relations caractéristiques
ont exactement les mêmes allures que celles
obtenues pour des tirants scellés dans des matériaux
pulvérulents.
L'interprétation des essais effectués sur A 4 (fig. 4),
sollicité une première fois par paliers de une heure,
puis par pgliers de six heures conduit à des valeurs

A~

a-D 1
1

.,/
1
1
---O--o--D--o--- Scellement 1
1

1
Y
Cl
---Â--Â-- --Â--- Torons 1

b)
~-'
-t!r - -- -8- ---
t.- _ _ .- _-----
a "r,
- --~- - - -B- -- ~---
.

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

E1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 2530 45 6OIoq t(min)

Fig. 3 a et b. - Tirant A4~Relations ~l-log t E 1
et ai - Ti pour l'extrémité des torons et la
tête du scellement. Paliers de une heure.
~ --------4t----4~--~.-- .-------, .---1~--~.--.-4.--;.. ~--4~ 1 100kN

~":'------4t-'!'"--4.--~~-~-,--.-.--- a--- t--·O--"-«~---"1"'-.,t f 200

~ .------- ----"4~--,-~~------~t---- t--~"'-'~-.~----~.---4 ~ 300

en -------~.----~~---It-~~------- ~---~~-~~- ~-~._---.--4

C ~--__l_--+___+__If----__+--+____+-----1f__f__-+___+--1
400 }
E
~
-------""1t---~.. -- .--4~------ • ~ "- ,~ 500
.t~::::;-::;-;-;_4~·~-~-~-~"'4tt_=-=_4t=-:t:
"""l" -~-~- "=-=-~_~t~-~_-_-~t-....---+t--....
-4~~ --_;;;:;;;;_-_~~~;;;;;;-=~d.·T~6 00
-4..

Cl t-~-~-~-~~--~-4~~~-~·-~-~.;t-~~-~.~-~Ë. .~-~-~-~-~-~-4~:-=-=-=-.:.=_=_::~E~t~~~±;;~==lJ 700 - - - (' - - 1

a)

L . . -_ _- l_ _..I....----L-----l - - L_ _. . I . - - - L _ ' - - - ' - - - _ - ' -__ - - - - ' - - l - - -

28
 (kN) Essai A4
z: 900 TIRANT A3 îÎ Essai Al
~ 800
,---------.,,--4---- 00 1
1

1 1 1
: :
~-~ ~o-o Iv Un" Fig. 5. ~ Evolution dans le
700 ~- .----- -
:= 600
C-.:)<c
y --- Cale SIF'
r
temps de la tension du tirant
59 -0- Cale GlOTZl 1440 27.84 ~ A3 •
~----~114-------,3-6 -5-r"11r----14~4~1-68-----9-,-12----rj-r· ---.--Iog....t
4 ï'"i

1212 1608 (heures)

de la traction critique (Tc) du même ordre (S50 kN).
Ceci étant la preuve que Tc ne dépend pas de la
vitesse de chargement, on voit qu'il semble possible
de prédire le comportement futur du scellement à
partir de conclusions tirées d'un essai d'arrachement
ne durant tout au plus qu'une dizaine d'heures.
. Il faut toutefois faire remarquer, que le fait de ne
posséder qu'une seule expérimentation de ce type,
en limite la portée.
L'ensemble des essais auxquels a été soumis le
tirant A 3 montre qu'un tirant calé à une traction légè-
rement inférieure (S25 kN) à celle de sa traction
critique Tc (850 kN) n'indique pas de perte de tension
notable (fig. 5). En effet, en l'espace de quatre mois,
le tirant A 3 a perdu environ 100 kN sur lesquels 65 kN
sont dus à l'incidence de la mise en tension du tirant
A 4 situé à proximité immédiate (voir à ce sujet § 7).
TABLEAU 4
Le tableau 4 présente les valeurs des tractions carac-
téristiques Tc et T A pour les tirants des plots A et B,
ainsi que les valeurs des fluages correspondants,
calculés pour des intervalles de 10 à 100 mn..
Les essais ont montré par ailleurs :
que de faibles dépassements de la traction critique
Tc (de l'ordre de 10 % de cette dernière) n'en-
traînent aucune diminution de la capacité d'ancrage;
que des sollicitations de types cycliques d'ampli-
tudes modérées (de l'ordre du 1/10 de la traction
limite TL) ne détériorent pas la tenue d'un . '
scellement;
qu'une fois la traction limite TL atteinte, un tirant
perdait environ 30 % de sa capacité d'ancrage
initiale.

Traction Traction Traction

critique fTC (1) de service fTA (3) limite
Tirant Tc TA TL TL/TA
(kN) (mm) (kN) (2) (mm) (kN)

Al 1 050 0.4 930 0.3 1 200 1.30

A2 S50 0.4 760 0.3 1 100 1.45

1

A3 S50 0.5 750 0.3 1 200 1.60

A4 S50 0.5 760 0.4 1 000 1.35

BI 600 0.5 530 0.3 SOO 1.50

B1 700 0.6 620 0.5 900 1.45

B3 S50 0.6 760 0.5 1 100 1.45

(l) fTC: fluage correspondant à la traction critique Tc.

e) Calculée en frappant Tc d'un coefficient minorateur égal à LI.
e) f TA: fluage correspondant à la traction de service TA.

6. LES VALEURS DES TRACTIONS LIMITES ET LEUR DISPERSION

Le tableau 5 présente l'ensemble des valeurs des

tractions limites (TL) obtenues pour la totalité des
tirants.
TABLEAU 5

Tirant
1-------1--- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Traction
limite TL 1 200 1 100 1 200 1 000 SOO 900 1 100 950 750 900
(kN)

(l) Cette valeur est estimée car le tirant A 3 , toujours soumis à un essai de longue
durée, n'a pas pu être sollicité jusqu'à la rupture de son scellement.

29
 On constate que dans l'ensemble, les valeurs des
tractions limites (T L) sont particulièrement élevées
compte tenu de la modestie. des longueurs de scel-
lement Us == 6 m) et de la médiocrité relative du sol.
Les résultats du plot A sont particulièrement inté-
ressants. En raison de la quasi-similitude de leurs para-
mètres d'injection (voir tableau 2), il est possible de
se faire une idée sur la dispersion des tractions limites
(T L)' Il apparaît que pour des tirants dont l'exécution
du scellement a fait l'objet d'un maximum de soins,
l'écart entre tractions limites (TL) extrêmes peut attein-
dre 200 kN, ce qui situe ces mêmes tractions à environ
± 10 % de la valeur moyenne (soit 1 125 kN).
Seule l'observation visuelle des bulbes de scellement
qui pourrait expliquer la raison de ces écarts, n'a pas
pu être effectuée pour l'instant. L'étude de la résistance
à long terme du tirant A 3 interdisant toute excavation
du plot A. .

7. RESISTANCE DU TIRANT AU SEIN DU· GROUPE

. Le même tableau 5 indique, pour le plot C, des

tractions limites (TL) nettement inférieures (en moyenne 900 30'
25 Dio de moins que celles du plot A) pour des para- 825
mètres d'injection somme toute très voisins (voir
tableau 2).
750
675 ,
-., 1
Les trois tirants de ce plot, dont les entre-axes sont 600 1
de 1 m, ont fait l'objet d'un essai de groupe consistant 1
525 1
. à les mettre en tension simultanément tout en mesurant 1
le fluage du scellement de chaque tirant (fig. 2).
Le programme de chargement observé, présentait
450
375
t ,
1
300 1
quelques particularités (fig. 6) :
225 1
- le taux de traction appliqué aux tirants latéraux 1
150 1
Cl et C3 est resté constamment supérieur à celui
75 1
du tirant central C 2 ;
- lors de l'application d'un nouvel incrément de 0
tension aux tirants Cl et C 3 , la traction de palier _____ Tirant central C2 Temps
correspondante est rigoureusement maintenue sur le _ _ _ Tirants latéraux C1 - C3
tirant central C2 •
Fig. 6. - Programmes de chargement des tirants Ch Cz
L'analyse et la comparaison des relations Ill-log t et C3 •
a .montré :
- que toute application de nouveau palier de charge Parallèlement, l'interprétation des résultats obtenus
aux tirants latéraux Cl et C 3 provoque une aug- sur le tirant A 3 confirme l'incidence défavorable de la.
mentation nette du déplacement du scellement du mise en tension d'un tirant sur un tirant voisin déjà
tirant central C2, mais cela uniquement lors des .calé.
premières minutes. On observe par la suite une
stabilisation, tout au moins jusqu'à la traction Le tirant A 3 , soumis à un essai· de longue durée
critique (Tc) ; (six mois) a été calé à une traction voisine de 825 kN.
L'arrachement du tirant A 4, situé à 2 m du tirant calé
- que dans l'ensemble, à taux égal de traction, le A 3 , a provoqué une perte de tension irréversible de ce
fluage du tirant central (C 2) est ~égèrement plus dernier tirant de l'ordre de 65 kN, soit 8 % environ
important· que celui des tirants voisins et sa de la tension de blocage (fig. 5).
traction limite (TL) inférieure, d'environ 20 0/0, à
celle des tirants Cl et C2 • Le déterrement des bulbes Un autre essai, effectué sur le tirant Av situé cette
a permis de vérifier que cet écart de capacité fois à 4 m de A 3 , n'a entraîné aucune chute de tension
d'ancrage ne pouvait être nullement attribué à la' (fig. 5).
géométrie du bulbe : le diamètre moyen du tirant L'ensemble des observations effectuées sur les plots
central C2 étant même légèrement supérieur à celui C et A semblent indiquer que, dans notre cas précis,
du tirant latéral Cl. La raison semble bien être la un écartement de 2 m entre tirants constitue une valeur
proximité des tirants. L'excavation a montré que en-dessous de laquelle il n'est pas prudent de descendre
les surfaces latérales des bulbes du plot C se si l'on ne tient pas à diminuer considérablement la
trouvaient parfois à moins de 70 cm. capacité d'ancrage des tirants.

8. LES PARAMETRES DE L'INJECTION ET LA RESISTANCE ULTIME DU TIRANT

On envisageait d'étudier initialement sur le plot B,
pour des longueurs et des quantités de coulis injectées
identiques, l'incidence d'une variation de la pression
d'injection sur la traction limite (TL)'
La réalisation des. tirants du plot A, mis en œuvre
en premier, montra que la pression d'injection se
stabilisait toujours et pour l'ensemble des phases, aux
alentours de 0.5 MPa (pression voisine de la pression
limite Pz).
On décida alors de faire uniquement varier le nombre
de phases d'injection, les quantités de coulis injectées
devant rester identiques pour les trois tirants. Mais là
encore, l'apparition de résurgences conduisit à limiter
les quantités de. coulis prévues, manifestement trop
élevées.
On se trouva finalement obligé d'étudier l'effet
conjugué du nombre de. phases et des quantités injectées,
sur la résistance ultime.

30
 Traction ( k N)
1250
0 B.1 (' phase)
0 TL
1000
/ •
/B T·
c Fig. 7 a. - Incidence des quantités de
750 0 , .0 0 8.3 (3 phases)
,,
, Il
500 o·
250
a
o 0.5 1.0
Fig. 7 b. - Incidence des quantités de
coulis injectées (Vi) sur les tractions
TL et Tc.
Les essais de traction effectués sur les tirants des
plots A et B, ainsi que l'observation des, tirants déterrés
de ce dernier plot, montrent :
que si les tractions TL et Tc d'un tirant augmentent
en principe avec la quantité de coulis (Vs) entrant
effectivement dans la constitution du scellement
(fig.. 7 a), au-delà d'une certaine quantité injectée
(Vi), ces mêmes tractions cessent de croître
(fig. 7 b);
que les tractions TL et Tc augmentent avec le
nombre. de phases d'injections (fig. 7 a et 7b). Les
tirants du plot A injectés en trois phases et le
tirant B3 , également injecté en trois phases pré-
sentent, malgré des quantités injectées (Vi) quel-
que peu différentes, des tractions TL et Tc du
même ordre. Le partage de la quantité globale de
9. L'INJECTION ET LA fORMATION DU BULBE DE SCELLEMENT
L'observation du mécanisme de formation des bulbes
a .été également effectuée sur les tirants du plot B :
les coulis ayant été colorés pour mieux discerner les
différentes phases d'injection.
On a pu établir pour chaque tirant déterré, à partir
du relevé des diamètres, une comparaison entre la
quantité de ciment injectée à partir de la surface (Vi)
C:) Le tirant C 3 n'a pas pu être déterré pour des raisons
de stabilité de fouille.
B.2 ( 2 phases)
coulis entrant dans la constitution du
bulbe (Vs) sur les tractions TL et Tc'
1.5
Traction ( k N)
o A.1 (3 phases)
1250
• A.2 ( 3 phas es )
1000 6 A.3 ( 3 phases)
• A. 4 (3 ph ases )
750 o B.1 ( , phase)
500 • B. 2 ( 2 ph oses)
o B. 3 ( 3 pha5~5 )
250
a quantité injectée Vi ( m3 )
a 0.5 lO 1.5
coulis à injecter en plusieurs phases favoris~,
semble-t-il, la constitution d'un bulbe de scellement
plus important et par conséquent capable Je
mobiliser des efforts de traction plus élevés.
Pour ce qui est des deux tirants Cl et C2 également
déterrés (*), la proportionalité de la relation « capacité
d'ancrage-quantité injectée » est moins évidente. Si,
d'une part, les tractions limites (T L) des tirants Cl
et B2 sont bien du même ordre (900 kN) pour des
quantités de coulis effectives très voisines (0.28 contre
0.25 m3), la résistance ultime (TL) du tirant central C2,
dont le volume réel du bulbe est égal à 0.58 m3, n'a
pas excédé 750 kN.
On voit par là toute l'incidence du facteur « écar-
tement entre tirants » sur une relation du type
« capacité d'ancrage - quantité de coulis ».
et la quantité de ciment présente dans le bulbe autour
de l'armature (Vs). Le tableau 6 indique le relevé des
différents paramè.tres (fig. 8).
On remarque pour les tirants du plot B :
- que Bu injecté en une phase (0.077 m 3 de coulis
par manchette) présente un maximum de déper-
ditions; .
- que B2, injecté en deux phases (0.0385 m 3 de coulis
par manchette et par phase) présente une déper-
dition plus faible;
31
 TABLEAU 6

Quantité
Quantité de coulis Diamètre
de coulis autour moyen
Tirant injecté Déperdition
de l'armature du bulbe
Vi Vs
(m3) (m3) (% ) (cm)

BI 0.310 0.090 env. 70· 16

B2 0.450 0.220 env. 50 24

~3 1.200 0.420 env. 65 24

Cl 0.650 0.250 env. 60 23

1

C2 0.780 0.545 env. 30 36

1

(1) Les valeurs indiquées ne tiennent pas compte des quantités injectées
dans le séparateur.

- que B3 , injecté en trois phases (0.088 m 3 de coulis par quages et apophyses n'influent pas sur la résistance
manchette et par phase) présente à nouveau une globale du tirant par l'amélioration des propriétés de
déperdition de l'ordre de celle du premier tirant. l'argile, notamment au contact immédiat du bu~be.
Ces observations restent difficiles à interpréter. Leur Les observations effectuées sur le plot C, inciteraient
analyse incite toutefois à penser que le partage des aussi à croire que le facteur « écartement entre tirant »
quantités injectées en plusieurs phases, réduit quelque a une répercussion certaine sur l'importance des déper-
peu les déperditions. ditions : le tirant Cb injecté entre un tirant terminé (C 3)
On est cependant frappé par les taux élevés de et un tirant déjà partiellement injecté (Cl)' accuse le
déperditions du coulis. Celles-ci, provoquant le cla- plus faible taux de pertes.
quage de l'argile, se présentent sous forme de nappes La répartition du coulis des phases consécutives est
horizontales d'épaisseurs variables. Ces nappes, se pro- quelconque. Le coulis de la première phase ayant fait
'pageant à quelques .J;I1;ètres du scellement, finissent par prise est brisé, puis repoussé vers l'extérieur ou
se ramifier en réseaux extrêmement tenus, épousant le contourné par le coulis des phases suivantes (fig. 8
système de fissuration naturel de l'argile. On est et 9). On obtient bien, après chaque phase, une
aussi en droit de se demander si les différents cla- augmentation notable du diamètre.

TIRANT B2

Bulbe de scellement
SEPARATEUR

__ SCELLEMENT

~ 1~ PHASE

1·····,·,(·:··:;·3 2 ~ PH A S E

DIAMETRE 1

(cm) 18,5 18,5 17,5 20 20 27 28 - 28,5 25 24 17 . 14

TIRANT C1
Bulbe de scellement

-- SEPARATEUR

DIAMETRE
(cm) 27 29 32 26 23 19 20 19 25 20 21 20 19

Fig 8. - Géométrie des bulbes de scellement des tirants B 2 et Cl'

32
Fig. 9. - Tirant B 2 • Aspects du bulbe de scellement. Une partie des coulis a été enlevée pour montrer l'armature.

10. LA TRANSMISSION DE L'EFFORT DE TRACTION LE LONG DU SCELLEMENT

La répartition des déformations unitaires Ill/l, WINNEZEELE

mesurées à l'aide de l'extensomètre logé au sein du Extensomètre
bulbe (fig. la), â la même allure que celle observée Amovible
sur les pieux arrachés. Les difficultés liées à la déter- o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 ~I (10. 6 ,
mination du module équivalent du bulbe, n'ont pas
permis pour l'instant d'établir les courbes de mobili-
sation du frottement latéral.
Il faut signaler que lors du déterrement, on a pu
observer au contact du bulbe des surfaces brillantes
et striées, qui pourraient être des surfaces de cisail-
lement. Celles-ci prouveraient en quelque sorte la simi-
litude des mécanismes de ruptures des tirants et des
pieux arrachés.
Enfin, l'observation du bulbe a mis en évidence
l'extrême fissuration du coulis de la zone de scellement
et cela sur toute la longueur.
/

Fig. 10. - Répartition des déformation IlZ/Z

le long du scellement. TIRANT A3

ARGILE DES FLANDRES

11. LES CARACTERISTIQUES GEOTECHNIQUES DE L'ARGILE ET LA RESISTANCE DU TIRANT

déduire des valeurs de frottement latéral unitaire

Dans la mesure où la rupture s'effectue au contact T max correspondantes.
de la surface latérale du bulbe, on peut tenter de
Le tableau 7 présente ces valeurs pour le plot B.
TABLEAU 7
Frottement
-Traction Diamètre Surface latérale latéral
Tirant limite TL moyen du scellement (1) unitaire
T max
(kN) (cm) (m2 ) (kPa)
---
BI 800 16 env. 3.00 265

B2 900 24 env. 4.50 200

B3 1 100 24 env. 4.50 240

(1) Celle-ci inclut la surface du séparateur gonflable.

33
 On voit combien ces valeurs sont élevées, trois fois
plus élevées en moyenne que les valeurs de cisaille-
ment mesurées en laboratoire (60 à 80 kPa). De
·pareilles valeurs pourraient s'expliquer par une aug-
12. CONCLU·SIONS
En dépit du trop faible nombre d'essais réalisés,
notamment ceux portant sur de longues durées, on
retiendra comme conclusions principales :
- que les tirants injectés peuvent être utilisés comme
ancrages provisoires et ~éfinitifs dans les argiles
plastiques, à condit~on de ne pas être sollicités
au-delà d'une traction de service (T A) définie
comme précédemment (voir § 4) ;
qu'il est possible, pour une argile plastique, de
prédire à partir de conclusions tirées d'un essai à
court terme, des enseignements relatifs au compor-
13. REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES
[1] CLEMENT - NAVARRO. - Les tirants en ter-
rains meubles, type TM. Travaux (octobre 1972).
[2] BUSTAMANTE - JEZEQUEL. - Mesures des
élongations dans le pieux et tirants à l'aide d'ex-
tensomètres amovibles. Travaux (décembre 1975).
[3] CAMBEFORT - CHADEISSON. - Critère pour
l'évaluation de la force portante d'un pieu CR du
6c Congrès International de Mécanique des Sols
et Fondations, Montréal (1965).
[4] BUSTAMANTE - FORESTIER - SEVESTRE. -
Essais préalables de. tirants pour la voie Rive
34
mentation du taux de résistance de l'argile au voisinage
immédiat du bulbe, provoquée par l'injection (voir
§ 9).
tement à long terme d'un ancrage injecté (voir
§ 5);
- que la traction limite (TL) d'un tirant isolé scellé
dans une argile plastique, reste essentiellement pro-
portîonnelle à la quantité effective de ·coulis entrant
dans la constitution du bulbe (voir § 8) ;
- enfin, qu'il existe pour les tirants scellés dans ce
type de sol, un phénomène « d'effet de groupe »,
se traduisant par une diminution sensible de la
capacité d'ancrage en deçà d'une valeur critique
de l'écartement (2 m dans notre cas) entre tirants
(voir § 7).
Gauche de Seine, Bull. Liaison Laboratoires des
P. et C. (janvier 1975).
[5] BUSTAMANTE - LOGEAIS. - Les tirants d'an-
crage. Recommandations concernant la conception,
le calcul, l'exécution et le contrôle des tirants
d'ancrage. Conférence de l'ITBTP, Paris (décembre
1976).
[6] OSTERMAYER. - Construction, carrying beha-
viour and creep characteristics of ground anchors.
Conference on Diaphragm Walls and Anchorages,
London (1974).
 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ANCHORED CURTAINWALL
Vérific'ation expérimentale d'un rideau ancré
by
A.J. da COSTA NUNES
Prof. of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro - President of Tecnosolo S.A.
P.H. VIEIRA DIAS
Engineer . Division Chief . Tecnosolo S.A.
SOMMAIRE
Cette communication décrit une méthode d'éva-
luation expérimentale. des conditions de stabilité
d'une grande' enceinte de construction ancrée en
béton armé de plus de 20 m de profondeur. A la
fin des travaux, le « rideau» a montré des dépla-
cements horizontaux atteignant plus de 25 cm. Les
essais des ancrages avec cinq reprises de pré-
contrainte permettent de déduire les diagrammes
de poussées des terres sur les rideaux et la
sécurité de la construction. Les caractéristiques du
sol compatibles aves les charges imposées ont été
déterminées indirectement et comparées avec les
valeurs utilisées dans le calcul. Les facteurs de
fluage des ancrages ont été inférieurs à 0.5 mm,
se situant bien en dessous; de la valeur de 1 mm
considérée comme convenable pour un terrain
sableux par les, Normes Brésiliennes.
INTRODUCTION
The project referred to here is an experimental
verification of the stability of a large anchored exca-
vation wall, more than 20 m high and with a peri-
meter of about 430 m. The excavation was made in
residual soil, partially collapsible, for the new head-
quarters building of the Central Bank of Brazil, 10cat-
ed in the' Capital city of Brasilia.'
Fig. 1. - Photograph of the excavation
and the anchored wall.
35
SUMMARV
The paper decribes a method to evaluate experi-
mentally the stability conditions of anchored, rein-
forced-concrete, retaining walls. In the case pre-
sented the curtain walls were constructed to
contain an excavation of more than 20 meters ,in
depth. Prior to construction, the convenience of
installing instrumentation to monitor the behaviour
of the anchorages was not considered. In view of
wall movements occuring, it became necessary to
perform additional studies. Described here is a
technique to determine experimentally the earth
pressures exerted against a curtain wall that has
not been instrumented. At the same time the
limiting loads and the relaxations of the anchorages
are determined. With these elements, applying the
safety factors d~fined in Standards, it can be con-
cluded that reinforcement of the structure is, or is
not, required. The values of the parameters of
the soils can also be determined indirectly, compa-
tible with the pressures imposed, and compared
with the values used for design. .
The design of the wall was based on soil parame-
ters obtained from laboratory tests made on undis-
turbed samples. Toward the end of the construction
it was determined that the walls were moving and in
particular one wall gave evidence of horizontal move-
ment that reached 25 cm (more than 1 % of the
height), moving into the excavation (wall N° 2).
Fig. 2. - Photograph of the ex-
cavation and the anchored wall.

To investigate the movement, the owner contracted
with a consultant. As there was disagreement between
the owner's consultant and the design engineer regard-
ing the soil parameters used for design (cohesion c
and friction angle 0), the owner engaged the senior
author ta arbitrate the question. His suggestion ta
perform experimental verification of the anchorage
loads was accepted by aIl parties concerned. The
existing wall had not been instrumented.

METHODOLOGY

a) The residual loads in the anchorages were deter-

mined in two typical sections of each of the four
walls by testing with a hydraulic jack and calibrated
gage (Costa Nunes, 1966).
Incorporation loads in the anchorages were then
reduced ta slightly less than the residual loads
(about SOm less), and afterwards retested until • ,
,
(J f
\
, ~

the residual load increased between tests. The • t>'

lower load, thus obtained was considered ta cor-
respond ta the bearing pressures. The limiting
load for each anchorage was also determined. This 'p

is the largest load applied for which the movements

were still stabilized.
b)From the results obtained from testing42 ancho-
rages, and at least five re-post-tensioning tests each,
diagrams of the existing pressures were obtained.
As ta the distribution of the earth pressures over
the walls, these will closely approximate, uniform
distribution with the minimum pressures (always
the highest anchorages) varying about 20 0m from the
average pressures.
c) These diagrams were increased by the influence
of the surcharge to be placed in the future behind ::
1 :
the wall, and compared with the limiting loads of
the anchorages that were also determined experi-
mentally, considering also relaxation loads. The C0 CABLE TENOON
0 OIL PUMP

necessity of reinforcing the walls was determined. ® EX l'[NSOME TER

0 WALL

Using 'the safety factors of 1.7 S fixed by Brazilian 0) HYDRAULIC JACK

® ANCHORAGE

Standards (NB-S6S) for, permanent anchorages. 0 ANCHORAGE HEAD @ JACK SUPPORT

Consequently, three of the four walls were rein- 0 REFERENΠPLATE @ FIXEO REFERENCE

forced; the maximum increase was 13 °10 over the ® MANOMEftR @ 8EARING PLATE
capacity of the anchorages for wall N° 2, which
had suffered the undesirable movement (see
table 1). Fig. 3. - Diagram of the test set-up.

36
 RELAXATION FACTOR (mm)

lIMIT FOR SANDY SOIL S

~.~/o OF MEAS~~_~~_~NTS .
IN .THIS ZONE
SECTIONS 19(1).58(2).100(3).136(4)
SECTIONS 20(1), 60( 2). I02( 3).138(4) 0,

Cl

~ ~
CJ
X x
x + 0

0 ><
1: + 0 x +
c x c x -+

3
tJ x + D +
(150) (200)
45 60

o WALL 1 (JACK PRESSURE IN kg /cm1

C1WALL Z LOAD IN t'on
+ WALL :3
1 1 1 -.---,

~ ~ton/m2
1
o 2 o 2 4 ton/ml X WALL 4

Fig. 4. - Diagrams of acting pressures; the numbers in
the circle identify the walls.
d) The relaxation factors of the anchorages were
always less than 0.5 mm, well below the value of
1.0 mm, considered as adequate for sandy soils by
Fig. 5. - Graph of load vs relaxation factor.
the Brazilian Standards. The German Standard,
DIN 4125, allows values of 2 mm, for any soil.
1t is observed that the relaxation factors were
deterlnined for loads between 40 and 60 tons.

ANALYSIS OF REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED

The sequence of calculations used for each wall,
considering the average loads in the anchorages, is the 1'he calculated values are presented on table I.
following:
a) Determination of Ca (minimum residual load, TABLE 1
determined experime.ntally); Summary of calculated anchorage loads
b) Determination of the increase of loads Cs, caused and wall reinforcement necessary
by the surcharge ; (loads are in ton)
c) Determination of the load Ca + Cs ; WALL 1 2 3 4
d) Determination of the limiting test load, 1.75
(Ca + Cs), necessary;
a) Ca 48.9 37.0 42.1 41.1
e) Determination of the limiting test load Cb experi-
b) Cs - 3.0 3.0 2.4
mentally;
f) Verification of the necessity, or not, of reinforce- c) Ca + C.Ç 48.9 40.0 45.1 43.5
ment, comparing the loads from itelns d) and e): d) 1.75 (Ca + Cs) 85.6 70.0 79.0 76.1
- if 1.75 (Ca + Cs) ~ Cb reinforcem,ent is not e) Cl 82.7 62.2 72.5 70.8
necessary; f) compare d to e > > > >
- if 1.75 (Ca + Cs) > Cl' we. pass to the following
step; g) reinforcement
required
g) Calculation of reinforcement necessary, in percen- (additional
tage: capacity) 3% 13% gOAJ 7°AJ

INSTRUMENTATION
As the project schedule already had been substan- therefore, to instrument the wall and to continue 'with
tially delayed it, was undesirable to interrupt the construction, providing an alarm system for any
construction while performing the investigation or eventuality. The instrumentation included mechanical
necessary reinforcement of the wall. 1t was resolved, cells of the «Interfels plates» type and extensometers,

37
as weIl as the method of re-post-tensioning that already
had been used extensively, a11 of which accompanied
the changes in actual loads beaTing on the anchorages
before, during, and after execution of reinforcement.
The instrumentation confirmed as correct the rein-
forcement measures previously recognized, and indi-.
cated the necessity of the removal of the surcharge of
construction materials that had been stored next to
the waIls.

RECALCULATION OF THE EARTH PARAMETERS

Although beyond the study objectives, the results

2
permit the determination of values of the parameters C( ton/m )
c and 0, once the unit weight is known, as weIl as
8
the distribution 'of earth pressures over the wa11s. X
Fig. 6. - Graph
Table II summarizes the values of c and 0 and of c and 0.
the coefficient of active horizontal earth' pressure K ah • 7

TABLE II
6
Summary of -values of c, 0 and K ah
computed from load tests (cohesion in t/m2)
5

0 10° 15° 20° 25°

4
K ah 0.97 0.65 0.51 0.40
3
wall 1 6.44 4.24 2.99 1.78
2 7.40 5.40 4.30 3.26 2
3 7.17 5.12 3.99 2.91
4 7.21 5.18 4.'05 2.98 o
c values
O~---'----r-----r------r---.---.....-

1t was verified that the induced values of c and 0 o 5 1015202530 rpO·

were clearly less than sorne of those obtained from
laboratory tests on undisturbed samples.
X WALL 1
+ x. - D~SIGN VALUES ASSUMED
{
+
WALLS 2,3,4.

L::::..'"V 0 .8Ge -VALUES FROM LABORATORY

DIRECT SHEAR AND TRIAXIAL TESTS

• BACK COMPUTATION FROM ANCHORAGE TESTS

CONCLUSIONS

In the opinion of the authors, the method of re- determining the approximate distribution of earth
post-tensioning, in the absence of a representative num- pressures acting on anchorage curtain waIls and the
ber of instrumented anchorages, offers the possibility of factor of safety of the construction.

REFERENCES

COSTA NUNES (A.J.). - «Slope Stabilization. Im-
provements -in the techniques of prestressed an-
chorages in rocks and soils», Proceedings of the
First Congress of the International Society of
Rock Mechanics, Lisboa (LNEC), Portugal, Vol. 2,
pp. 141-146 (1966).
COSTA NUNES (A.J. da) and VIEIRA DIAS
(P.H.). - «Sorne Results from the Systematic
Verification of the Load Capacity of Ancho-
rages», 10th Brazilian Congress on Large Dams,
Curitiba, Brasil (1975). '
COSTA NUNES (A.J. da). - «Performance of Deep
Excavations», Panel Discussion, 5th Pan-Ameri-
can Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Buenos-Aires, Argentina (1975).
DIN 4125. - Verpressanker für verübergehende
Zwecke-Bemessung, Ausführung und Prüfung.
Deutsche Normen. Der Tiefbau Ingenieur Strass-
enbau (11) : 973-980 (1969).
DIN 4125. - Erd, und Felsanker Verprebanker für
dauernde Verankerungen (Daueranker) im Locker..
gestein. Bemessung, Ausfuhrung und Prüfung.
Deutsche Normen. Teil 2 (1976).
HABIB (P.). - «Anchorages, especiaIly in soft
ground», Proceedings of the Seventh International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Mexico, Vol. 3, pp. 513-516 (1969).
NB-565. - Brazilian Standard 565, «Anchored Struc-
tures», ABNT, Rio de Janeiro (1976).

38
 BEHAVIOUR OF GROUND ANCHORS IN' STIFF CLAYS
Comportement de tirants d'ancrage en argiles raides

by
Aldo EVANGELISTA
and
Giovanni SAPIO
Resp. Assistant Professor and Professor of Geotechnics, University of Naples, Italy

SOMMAIRE SUMMARY

La communication présente les résultats in
situ sur des ancrages dans une argile pliocène à
Taranto (Italie). Les résultats ont été analysés théo-
riquement par un calcul numérique basé sur un
demi-espace élastique isotrope en tenant compte
du déplacement relatif à la surface de contact
structure-sol.
Traditionnellement, la fissuration du mortier d'in-
jection est prise en considération. En se basant sur
cette analyse, on obtient des valeurs caractéris-
tiques du sol et de l'ancrage qui s'accordent le
mieux avec le résultat expérimental. Elles sont
comparées avec des valeuriS, ,,-parfois différentes,
obtenues par les essais normaux en laboratoire.
Finalement, rimportance de la fissuration du
mortier d'injection est soulignée.
The results of a full scale investigation on instru-
mented anchors, bored through a typical pliocenic
stiff clay formation, are reported and analyzed. The
variation with depth of the normal stress in the
reinforcement bars, found to be non-Iinear up to
failure load, is predicted by a non-linear numerical
analysis of the interaction among the reinfor-
cement, the grout mortar and the surrounding soil
taking into account the cracking of the mortar.
The best correlation with experimental results, ho-
wever, is obtained with values of soil and mortar
properties S'omewhat different from laboratory
values.
A similar correlation of load-upheaval curves has
been obtained, by the same analysis and with the
same values of parameters, only for the first stage
of the curves and not for the final stage, near to
failure load.
This inconsistency is discussed, pointing out the
need for further theoretical and experimental
investigations.

1. INTRODUCTION

In a recent paper (Sapio, 1975) the results of a full
scale investigation on 3 test anchors bored through a
typical pliocenic clay formation of Southern Italy were
reported.
Calling 't av the average adhesion at failure between
the grouted length of the anchor and the soil, and Cu
the undrained cohesion of the soil as measured in' labo-
ratory tests on undisturbed samples, values of the ratio
ct == 'tav/c u ranging between 0.28 and 0.36 were mea-
sured (see table 1).
. In the mean time, the values of normal stress in
the reinforcement bars were measured by means of
strairt gauges, glued to the bars at different depths.
The stress variation with depth was far from linear
not only at low stress level, as found for instance by
Berardi (1967) and Adams and Klym (1972), but also
at failure.
Such a finding is in contrast with the usual
hypothesis of uniform shear stress distribution on the
lateral surface of the anchor at failure. Accordingly,

TABLE 1

Nominal Grouted Depth below Ultimate Adhesion

diameter length ground level uplift load coefficient
Anchor 0 L Cl, ct
mm m m tons

A 220 3.80 7.20 -;- 11.00 20 0.28

B 220 7.20 7.80 -;- 15.00 50 0.36
C 220 12.80 6.20 -;- 19.00 80 0.33

39
--,-

the need for a further analysis of th~ behaviour of the A step towards this goal is attempted in this paper;
anchors was underlined, considering the mutual inter- only two of the three anchors are considered, since in
action of the steel bars, the grout and the surrounding the third one the strain gauges failed at the beginning
soil. of the uplift test.

2. FIELD INVESTIGATION
TABLE II
2.1. Subsoil properties Physical properties of clays from lab. tests
Field experiences were carried out at Taranto
(Italy) in a formation of overconsolidated stiff clays of Porosity Water Unit
pliocenic age, typical of the region (Apulia), where it Depth content weigth
is found in wide areas with ratheruniform characte- Sample n w y
ristics. (m) % 0/0 t/m3
At the test site the formation is overlain by over-
burden soils, for a thickness of 3.5 m, and by a layer 1 7.50 -;- 7.90 45.7 30.8 1.94
of partially cemented sand 2 m thick.
2 9.80 -;- 10.20 38.5 22.9 2.06
The clay is of medium to high plasticity; its grain
3 12.00 -;- 12.40 36.5 21.0 2.10
size distribution is reported in fig. 1.
A 13.45 -;- 13.75 37.5 22.0 2.08
Physical properties, as determined on undisturbed
samples, are listed in table II. Typical oedometer 4 14.20 -;- 14.60 40.6 24.1 2.01
curves are reported in fig. 2; as it may be seen, the B 14.70 -;- 15.10 39.9 24.3 2.04
clay appears to be heavily overconsolidated. 6 20.60 -;- 21.00 37.1 20.6 2.07
Undrained stress-strain and strength properties were 7 25 . 00 -;- 25.40 38.6 22.9 2.06
obtained by means of unconsolidated undrained
triaxial compression test; relevant results are listed in averages 39.3 23.6 2.05
table III.

0~90

1 j Il
l "" Il
SAHPLE 1
~
K\
(DEPTH 7,50-:-7,90m) \l

c....
<lJ
0~80

141\
c:
........ \ ..
.L-

~
40+-~~1-++0'.:~'.::~'~~"

~
\ SAMPLE 4

t \ v (14,20+11,,60)

~
~
<ù
0... } 0 T-t-t-tffttt--t--i~H+t++-~~-H+H++--+-+-++~~~
>---( ~-~\- V
/
/~
,
'i\ V ~
-.0....,
~, ~ '-
0~70 " r\. ~
",
0.001 0,,01 0.1 ,~
Diameter (mm) ~ " "-
"
~~
~

Fig. 1. - Grain size distribution of clay. ~~ ,

~
\
o---c) - - -<)-~ -~, \

\
~c ).
\

\,
.....

. '-o
'tJ
,~
~ 0,60
l,
Fig. 2! - Œdometer curves of clay.
).",.

~
......
r-

, ", ,~ '\
k'\'", , ~
~
\

~~
--.~
~
~
' ...
~" ,~ ......

Stress-strain curves were fitted by a hyperbola

1\'~
r\ ~\
>- ,~,
\ " ~~
~

(Kondner and Zelasko, 1963), fig. 3 a, whose parameters

a == l/E i and b== 1/(0'1 - 0'3)u were obtained by
the linear plot of 8/(0'1 - 0'3) versus 8 (fig. 3 b). Initial
0~50
't ~ i'
'~').
~
,,
\\
"
~ ~~
undrained tangent modulus Ei ranges between 166. and SAMPL E 2
500 kgfcm2 ; the ultimate deviator stress (0'1 - 0'3)u
derived by the hyperbolic interpolation is, on the ave-
(9,80+ 10,20)
V ~, ~
,~
1 III l'"
rage, 14 % higher than the deviator stress at failure 1 ,~

~
SAHPL E 6

l
(0'1 - cr 3)f' The fitting obtained with the hyperbola is
rather good, as it may be seen in fig. 3 b. (20,60-:-21,00 ) \

0,40 1 1 1 Il
~

""""""
~)
0,1 1 10 100
Effective pressure p (kg/cm 2 )
 0.,6 .--------.-------~------r"----~-----
6
r
•
T

5
o
o
~
Ei fii
)(
ê

l
lo~
t" 1 .0) a)
10
4 -r----'-------+-------+----~.--+------~
0/4 -t------+-----+------~---~--------J

•
•
./

3~------t------~+-------~-----~ 0/3

2-r---------f--]~-----+-------+-------l 0;2

SAMPL[ N~1 SAMPLE 8

Specimen a Specimen a

b) b)

O.,.....-~---+.-...;.----+_-----4-----J OT--""'-----+-----+-----~---~~---~
o 5 10 15 20 o 2 6 8 10
ê x 100 L1 (mm)
Fig. 4. - Shear bo~ tests. Stress-strain curves fitting by a hyperbola.
Fig. 3. ~ Triaxal compression tests. Stress-strain curves fitting by a
hyperbola.
 ANCHOR A ANCHOR 8

- -
Overburden soifs

7,20m 7,80m

Sand partially cemented

--------- Fig. 5 - Test anchors.

t-
1,00

+-
1,00 1,00
r
+-
1,00
t-
1,00 Plioce.nic etayey
t-
1,00
t-
1,00
formation

+-
0,50 t-
..J.- 1,00 TABLE IV

+-0,22-+
t-
1,00
Elaboration of the shear box test results

t-
lOO Sample
~i 'Cu 'Cf
'Cu/'C f
kg/cm3 kg/cm2 kg/cm2
1 Electro-resistive
strain- gauges
t-
1,00
Aa 10.17 2.88 2.34 1.23
~
O~ b 10.75 3.52 2.37 1.48
• Oividag ~ 32,7 mm rod c 11.49 3.97 2.44 1.63
Ba Il.90 2.99 2.23 1.34
b 12.50 4.67 2.98 1.57
c 13.51 3.79 2.64 1.44
1 i

2.2. Test anchors

Note: widths not in seate The two anchors considered in this paper are repre-
sented in fig. 5. The first one (anchor A) has a grouted
Sorne unconsolidated undrained shear bOf( tests were length of 3.8 m and a total length of Il m; the second
also performed; typical results are listed in table one (anchor. B), respectively of 7.2 m and 15 m.
IV. A hyperbolic interpolation was attempted for
these tests (fig. 4); the values of initial tangent modulus Both anchors were drilled with rotary bit and
~i and ultimate strength 'Cu thus obtained are also a provisional steel casing 220 mm in diameter. At the
reported in table IV. bottom of the hole, a layer of fine sand, 50 cm thick,
was poured before introducing the reinforcement, that
A comparison between tables III and IV shows that consists of two Dividag rods 32.7 mm in diameter
the hyperbolic interpolation is more suited for triaxial fastened to spacing rings.
than for direct shear test results.
1'he bars are instrumented with strain gauges as
TABLE III shown in fig. 5.
Elaboration of. the triaxial compression test results The grout niortar was obtained by mixing 1 m3 of
fine sand, 1 200 kg of R. 325 cement and 800 1 of
Ei (0"1 - 0"3)u (0"1-0"3)f (0"1 - 0"3)u water; it was poured through a tremie pipe lowered to
Sample
kg/cm2 kg/cm 2 kg/cm2 (0"1 - 0"3)f the ·hole bottom.
During the mortar casting, the steel casing was pro-
1a 166 4.00 3.55 1.13 gressively raised and finally left in place above the
b 200 3.13 2.88 1.09 grouted length of the anchor.
c 227 3.45 3.06 1.13 Sorne specimens, prepared in laboratory with the
same mix used in· the field, gave the following average
3a 208 7.14 5.98 1.19 28 days strength:
b 263 7.69 6.65 1.16 compression strength: 310 kgfcm2
6a 500 7.14 6.35 1.12 bending strength 36 kgfcm2
b 500 7.14 6.30 1.13 The reinforcelnent steel has the following characte-
c 385 7.14 ristics:
6.03 1.18
yield-stress 86 X 102 kgfcm2

42
 Uplift /oad Q (t)
10 20 30 40 ~ -~--------------
~

~ . . - + - - - - - - - - - - _ . _ . _ - ---- - -
-.....
E
E
-- --- ~ 1~ -~---------_ ..
'-

~ 4
'1. ANCHOR 'A
L = 3,80m -
...--+-\+--~----------_._

""c:::
.._ - - -

\
~-i------\-\~-----.------- --
...... ex = 0,28 ~
<..1
._--------
c: ...
1:1
Cl> G, P)

E 0( =----
Q)
<..J
17 DL Cu
0 8
Ci
V)
~~-----~~-
15
"'"
~

§ 12
\ C4--- ----.-;~_

c _ _.__ ,_, . __ .__ '." ..._.. --_ .

.....

Uplift load G (t)

10 20 30 40 50 60 ..... '--'- ._-_...- ....,v~ .. - "-.'.- --
..._--==" t - -
~ ~
~
---"-1----- <..1

------- ------r----- r----

._---_.- --------- -
1:1
C

-- --- -- ----- ~.

----- r----- ~
~
~

~
1
8
ANCHOR 8 1·
.------ ""E
i
_ _ _ _ <..1

L = 7,20m
0( = 0,36
1

1 1
cL--=====§~!!!!!!!_---_--
i 1
1

i .\ i
1
j
~ 1
1

!
1
\1 \ -~
!
9 ·"9
(UI)
~

i
c _
20 ~e...,
Fig. 6. - Uplift test results.

tensile strength : 105 X 102 kgfcm2

Young's modulus: 2.2 X 106 kg/cm2
The anchors were constructed by Fondedile S.p.A.,
Naples.

2.3. Uplift tests

=
o

Uplift tests were carried out nearly two months

after the construction of the anchors. The load was
applied by means of a couple of hydra.ulic jacks, via
a test frame with a 100 ton capacity. The displacements
were measured by means of 4 dial gauges, and indepen-
dently by optical levelling.
Three loading and unloading cycles were perfor-
med for each test, the last one kept to failure load.
The results obtained are shown in fig. 6 as curves of
the vertical displacement ~ versus applied uplift load Q.
The load distribution on the stell bars, derived from the +~ ~l§~9~9-+~~
strain gauges readings, is reported in fig; 7. As already
fw)
said, such a distribution is non-linear up to the ultimate
uplift load.

43
 3. THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION

3.1. Hypothesis anchor has an equivalent modulus El in the fissured

zone, and a different modulus E2 in the unfissured one.
To interpret the observed behaviour of the test They are expressed respectively:
anchors, the subsoil was treated as a homogeneous,
isotropie, elastic half space, except for a thin layer El == 4 ESR Q SR E _ 4 (ESR QSR + EM QM)
surrounding the anchor where yield may eventually 1t D2 2- 1t D2
occur. where:
Yield occurrence, in terms of total stress, has been E SR ' QSR' the Young's modulus and the total area of
postulated when the shear stress at the interface reinforcement bars;
between the anchor and the soil reaches a limit value; E M, QM, the Young's modulus and the area of the
this. yield stress has been assumed to be constant over mortar;
the anchor length and function of the undrained D, the nominal diameter of the anchor.
cohesion of the soil. Of course, the length of the cracked zone is
In the calculation the above mentioned thin layer was unknown, and must be determined.
assumed to coincide with the interface betweeri' the The compatibility equations are expressed:
grout and the soil; shear displacement at this interface
was related to corresponding shear stress by a hyperbolic { ~a} == {~s} + {o} (1)
law. where. { o} represents the shear displacement between
the mortar and the sail. By substituting:
The overall conditions 'being undrained, a Poisson's
ratio equal to 0.5 was assumed for the soil. ([S'] + [A]) {'t} == !lb + {~Q} - {a} (2)

The anchor body was treated as a homogeneous The displacement 0 was related to the shear stress
body Wlhose deformability equals that of the grout- at the interface by a hyperbolic equation of the type:
reinforcement system. Moreover, the occurrence of O. == _1_ 'ti
tension cracks in the upper part of the anchor was l ~ 1 _ 'ti/'t a (3)
considered by assuming that, if the tensile stress in the ~ w:here ~ is the initial gradient of the 't, 0 cu~ve, and
grout exceeds the tensile strength, the normal load is ''ta is the asymptotic limit value of 't i . A similar interface
resisted only by the steel reinforcement while the behaviour has been used by Clough and Duncan (1971)
surrounding grout keeps the only function of transmitt- and by Desai (1974).
ing the shear stress from the soil to the reinforcement. The équilibrium equation is expressed:
3.2. Calculation procedures Q == [B] {'t}
that is
The calculation procedure adopted is based on the K
1tDL ~
discretization procedure developed for the study of
pile foundations (Poulos and Davis, 1968; Mattes and
- r ~'ti==Q (4)
Poulos, 1969; Evangelista, 1976); the anchor, actually, i =1
Eqs. (2) and (4) offer the solution to the problem.
may be treated as a pile with a non-reacting base.
Eq. (3) being non linear, the whole system is non
According to such procedures, the anchor was
linear; it has been solved in increments, by consider-
subdivided into K elements; for the i-th element an
ing loading steps ~Q and writing eq. (3) in incremental
equation containing the unknown shear stresses on all form:
the K elements and the displacement of the i-th element
mav be written. A further equation is obtained by the ~ o.' == _1_ Ll 't i
condition of overall vertical equilibrium. In matrix l ~ (1-'t i /'t a)2
form, the displacement ~s of the soil corresponding to 'ti being the value of the interface shear stress just
the 1< elements are connected to the interface shear before the l.oad increment LlQ. Since matrix [A] and
stresses 't by the equation: vector {~Q} vary with the length of. cracked zone,
{~s} == ES] {'t} after each loading step the occurrence and the extent
where ES] represents the matrix of the influence coef- of this zone is checked, and [A] and {~Q } are
ficients of the soil, obtained by num~rical integration eventually recalculated.
of Mindlin's formula. Calling ~o the displacement of The solution of the system (2) and (4) gives the
the soil at the anchor base, and putting K values of 't i ; simple equilibrium considerations allow
{~'s} == { ~s} - ~o then the determination of the axial load N in any
section of the anchor.
this can be expressed:
The fraction NSR of N taken up' by the steel bars
{~'s} == [S'] {'t}
in the uneracked length is:
l'he displacements ~a of the elements of the anchor, E SR nSR
under the action of the axial load Q and of the N SR == N Q Q
tangential stress - 't may be written: . ESR SR + E M M
On the contrary, in the cracked length the value of
{~a} == ~o + ~b- [A] {'t} + {~Q} NSR is unknown, the location of the cracks being un-
where ~b is the unknown mutual displacement betw~een known. Nevertheless, the range of possible values of
the grout and the soil at the anchor base (fig. 8); the N SR may be defined; they vary between a minimum
term - [A] {'t} represents the deformation of the NSRmin (fig. 9) occurring if the mortar fully develops its
anchor due to the stress - 't; {~Q} represents the tensile strength, and a maximum NSRmax corresponding
deformation due to the load Q. to a fully cracked mortar. Of course, one may
To construct matrix [A] and to calculate deforma- write:
tions {~Q} , the anchor was considered as a ho- NSRmin == N - O'pM QM; NSRmax == N
mogeneous cylinder. If te~sion cracks occur, the where O'pM is the tensile strength of the mortar.

44
 Fig. 8. - Displacement symbolism.
" ,/ "

HYPOTHESIS:
- homogeneous elastic ha!t space
. Ea
va = 0,5
- relative displacement à at t'nterface
à =_1_ -7;
f3 1- LITa
J,Q - O'FM == tensile strength of the mortar;
1
- ~ == initial tangent to the curve connecting shear
1
1 1 stress 't and displacement Q at the interface between
1 1 mortar and soil;
1 1
1 1 - 'ta == limit value of 't, corresponding to the asymp-
1
1
1 tote of the 't - Q curve.
I-
Besicles geometrical parameters, the only defined
! l property is the Young's modulus of the steel bars, that
was determined in the usual way and equals
L+!JL ! ! 2.2 X 106 kg/cmZ.
Laboratory values of EM and- O'FM are respectively of
l !_------!!!2~!Jnear interface the order of 2 X 105 kg/cm2 and 30 kg/cm 2; they have
been assumed as valid in the calculations,- notwithstand-
ing the obvious differences in curing conditions between
L
! ! the laboratory and the site.
! ç-----7' Eo, ~ and 'ta have been determined, by trial and error,
on the basis of best correlation to experimental results.
As a first trial, Eo was assumed equal to the
! ! mean value of E i (table III) and ~ to the mean value
//'"
-- --
1 1 .................
--+
L1 a
of ~i (table IV).
--~ t ~ ~~-f--- 'ta was assumed: 'ta == a CU' with Cu taken from
laboratory measurements (table . III :and IV) and a
-4D~ (adhesion coefficient) from table 1 (a == 0.28 for anchor
A; 0.36 for anchor B).
The results thus obtained being unsatisfactory, suc-
Finally, the displacement Ll of the anchor's head cessive trials have shown that a reasonably good
was obtained (fig. 8) as the sum of: the upheaval do of correlation is obtained by assuming:
the soil below the anchor; the displacementd b between Eo == 700 kg/cm2;.~ == ?O kg/cm 3 ;
the soil and the base of the anchor; the increase dL of
'ta == 2.75 kg/cml.
the anchor's -Iength.
Llo has been calculated by integration .of MindIin
expressions, once the tangential stresses {'t} known. Fig. 9. - Possible load distribution on the steel bars.
axial load

3.3. Results and discussion NSRmax = load totally transferred

to the steel reinforcement,
ln order to compare the experi- with grout mortar not
Inental results with those obtained in reacting
the calculations, the following phy- NSRmin = lood on tt>e steel rein for..
sical parameters must be known; cement witt> grout mortOÎ
- Length L, diameter D and depth reacting at its tensile
Ls of the anchor; --~
strengtt>
- Percentage of reinforcement, ex- '\ load transferred both to
NSR '\
pressed by the ratio QSR/QM; '\ the steel rein forcement
- Undrained modulus of the soil and to· the grout mortar
'\
'------
Eo ;
- y oung's modulus of the steel.
E SR -' and of the mortar, E M , in
tension; N = total load = NSR + N1'1
~
o NSR = lood on the steel
c: reinforcement

NI'1 = (oad on the gr out mortar

45
 NSR (t) 50

r-
0,70
o 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4.5 55

t-
1,00
. FOR 80TH THE ANCHORS

= 700

t-
. Ea kg/cm 2
ft = 50 kg/cm]
Ta = 2]5 kg/cm 2
1,00 GFM = JO kg/cm 2

t-
1,00 -t-
0,30
0
,
10 15
NSR (t) 20 -

0: •

t- T
J
,
J ,
tao
1,00
i
ANCHDR B ANCHDR A

t- UPL IF T
LOAD
Q
LOAD ON THE STEEL
REINFORCEMENT NSR
THEORE TlCAL EXPERIMENTAL
tOO
UPL/FT
LOAD
Q
LOAD ON THE S TEH
REINFORCEMENT NSR
THEORETICAL EXPERIMENTAL

~
1,00 (t) (t) (t) (t) (t) (t)
---1-----. - - - - -

10
20
30
-----
----------
------
0
()

0
5
10
15
-----
----------
---
.
0

/::;.
40 --- /::;.
20 •
50 là
1,00

~
0,50

t-
Fig 10. - Load on steel bars. Comparison between theoreticaI and experimentaI values.

o .

T (kg/cm 2)
5
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0

Q
.Q
-
~

.c::
-l...J
Q.
Cl> Ta=C u
A 1:J
10

15
Fig. 11. - CalcuIated values of 't at failure.

46
 The results obtained with such a set of parameters
are reported in fig. 10 together with field data; 'the
agreement may be seen to be rather good, except for
the points near the anchor top for loads below the
values producing tension cracks. Such differences
could be explained with a decrease of the modulus EM
in this highy stressed zone.
. The value 'ta == 2.75 kg/cm2 corresponds to the mean
value of undrained cohesion Cu of the soil determined
in laboratory, on samples 3, A, Band 6 falling below
top levels of the anchors, while the value of
E == 700 kgfcm2 is derived from the same value of
Cu following the suggestions of Poulos (1972) for
bored piles in clay. The value of ~ == 50 kgfcm3 is
rather different from the average laboratory value
determined by means of shear box tests; in this
connexion the differences between laboratory direct
shear .test on undisturbed samples and the field beha-
viour of the interface between the mortar and the
sail must be recalled.
As already said, the calculations offer the possibility
of predicting the load-displacement response of the top
of the anchor. With the values of parameters discussed
above the initial part of the load-displacement curve is
predicted very well; on the contrary, for both anchors,
the upheaval at high laads are grossly underestimated
and the values of failure load overestimated.
1t seems that the usual hypothesis of uniform shear
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analysis shows that, taking into account tension
cracks in the mortar, it is possible to explain the non
linear load variation with depth in the anchor, even at
failute.
The same analysis, with the same values of para-
meters involved, fails in predicting the final part of the
load-upheaval curve, and the value of failure load.
REFERENCES
ADAMS (T.I.) and I(LYJVI (T.W.). - «A study of
anchorages for transmission tower foundations»,
Canadian .Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 9, N° 89
(1972).
BERARDI (G.). - «Sul comportamento di ancoraggi
immersi in terreni diversi», Pubblicazioni Istituto
di Scienza delle Costruzioni, Università di Genova,
Serie III, N° 60 (1967). -
CLOUGH (G.W.) and DUNCAN (T.M.). - «Finite
element analysis of retaining -wall behavior»,
Journal Soil Mech. Founds. Divn., Proc. ASC.E,
Vol. 97, SM 12 (1971).
DESAI (C.). - «Numerical design-analysis for piles in
sands», Journal Geot. Eng. Divn., Proc. ASCE,
Vol. 100, GT 6 (1974.).
EVANGELISTA (A.). - «Pali inclinati isolati ed in
gruppo immersi in un mezzo elastico», Rivista
Italiana di Geotecnica, anno X, N. 3 (1976).
47
stress 't == ex Cu at failure does not depict the actual
phenomenon. This is confirmed by the fact that
different values of ex (0.28 -;- 0.36) are derived by the
three test anchors of different length, but identical in
any other respect.
A further confirmation may be obtained from the
results of the calculations carried out to determine the
stress distribution in the reinforcement bar. In fig. 11,
the diagrams of the calculated values of 't at failure
are reported for both anchors A and B; it is to be re-
men1bered that these shear stresses are compatible with
the n1easured values of the stress in the steel rods. It
Inay be seen that the distribution of 't is far from uniform,
and the maximum value is lower than 'ta == Cu- Finally,
it is interesting to point out that the pattern of _'t,
decreasing downwards, is in contrast with the usual
interpretation of failure in terms of total stress. It
may be argued that an effective stress analysis could
be more suited, and could account for sorne drainage at
the interface between the soil and the mortar, due to
the relatively high mortar permeability.
ln terms of effective stress the shear stress 't becomes
a function of the radial normal stress at the interface;
it is interesting to point out that, according to MindIin
formulas, the radial stress decreases' downwards being
compressive at the top and tensile at the bottom of the
anchor.
Such a discrepancy' is probably related to the hypo-
thesis of a uniform distribution of 't == ex CU' assumed
in the analysis of failure in terms of total stress.
Further theoretical and experimental investigations
are needed to elucidate this point; it appears that an
interpretation in terms of effective stress could offer
considerable advantages.
I(ONDNER (R.L.) and ZELASKO (T.S.). - «A hy-
perbolic stress-strain formulation for sands», Proc.
second~ Pan-Am. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found.
Eng., Vol. l, Brazil (1963).
MATTES (N.S.) and POULOS (H.G.). - «Settlement
of a single compressible pile» , Journal Soil Mech.
Founds. Divn., Proc. ASCE, Vol. 95, SM 1 (1969).
POULOS (H.G.). - ' «Load settlement prediction for
piles and piers», Journal Soil Mech. Founds. Divn.,
Proc. ASCE, Vol. 98, SM 9 (1972).
POULOS (H.G.) and DAVIS (E.H..). - «The set-
tlement of behaviour of single axially loaded in-
compressible piles and piers», Geotechnique,
Vol. 18, N° 3 (1968).
SAPIO (G.). - «Comportamento di tiranti di anco-
raggio in formazioni di argille preconsolidate»,
Atti XII Convegno Nazionale di Geotecnica,
Cosenza, 1taly (1975).
 ENCEINTE ÉTANCHE DE LA CENTRALE ÉLECTRIQUE DE BLAYE:
ESSAIS ET MESURES SUR LES TIRANTS D'ANCRAGE
Ground ' anchors: tests and measurements
par
G.-Y. FENOUX
Directeur des Etudes de SoIétanche . Paris . France
SOMMAIRE
Le projet de fondation de l'usine E.D.F .. sur radier
semi-enterré, comporte la substitution par du sable
compacté à sec des couches de vase en place
(1 million de mètres cubes à évacuer).
Pour ce faire, une enceinte étanche en paroi mou-
lée a été retenue. DégHgée sur 17.5 m de hauteur,
supportant outre la poussée des terres sur cette
hauteur celle de l'eau sur 15 m, la paroi a 30 m de
hauteur. Elle est ancrée en pied dans le substratum
(graviers et marnocalcaire) et tenue en tête par des
tirants.
De 200 t de force de service, de 55 m de longueur
totale (dont 25 m d'ancrage), au nombre de 832, les
tirants ont fait l'objet d'essais et de mesures, tant
préalables qu'au cours du chantier.
Testés à 1.2 la charge de service, les tirants ont
été bloqués à 0.5 fois celle-ci (100 t), afin de limiter
le mouvement en arrière de la p'aroL Par la suite, on
attendait un mouvement en avant (vers la fouille) de
la paroi en cours de terrassement avec mise en
charge complémentaire progressive des tirants.
Les mouvements de la paroi et les efforts dans
les tirants ont été suivis avec attention et comparés
avec les estimations préalables.
EXPOSE DU PROBLEME
. Le site du Blayais, situé en bordure rive droite de
la Gironde, à environ 50 km au nord-ouest de Bor-
deaux, a été retenu par l'EDF pour la construction
d'une centrale électrique nucléaire.
Il s'agit d'une zone marécageuse, avec la coupe
schématique suivante :
de + 2.5 NGF à - 13.0 vase (cp == 0-, C == 0.4 à
4 t/m 2) ;
de -13.0 à - 19.0 alluvions sablo-graveleu-
ses (graves) (cp == 35°) ;
de-19.0 à - 26.0 marno-calcaire de l'éo-
cène
(cp == 0, C == 15 t/m 2) ;
en-dessous de - 26.0 : s'able de l'éocène.
On rencontre deux nappes: une nappe de surface, qui
varie de 1 m environ avec la marée au voisinage immé-
diat du terrain naturel; une nappe profonde baignant
l'éocène avec un niveau statique voisin de + 1.50
N.G.F. Bien qu'hétérogène, le marnocalcaire est, en
grand, peu perméable.
48
SUMMARY
The foundation project for the E.D.F. power sta-
tion is a semi-buried raft, involving the replacement
of the in situ soft clays and ,muds by a sand com-
pacted in the dry. (1 million m 3 of soil to be
removed).
To achieve this, an impervious perimetral dia-
phragm wall was adopted. The wall was 30 m deep,
and was uncovered over 17.5 m, retaining both the
soil and 15 m of w'ater behind. The wall is toed
into gravels and marly limestone and is held at the
top by ground anchors.
The 832 ground anchors have a working load of
200 t, total length 55 rn, and were the object of tests
and measurements as much before as after the
earthmovi ng.
Tested to 1.2 times their working load, the ground
anchors were blocked at 0.5 this value (Le. at 100t)
in order to limit the backward movement of the wall.
As the earthmovi ng proceeded it was expected that
the wall would move towards the excavation, gra-
dually increasi~g the load on the anchors.
The wall movements and the loads in the ground
anchors were carefully monitored and were com-
pared with the estimations made beforehand.
Afin de mettre le site hors d'eau et rendre possible
la circulation, le ,terrain naturel a été partiellement
remblayé à la cote + 4.50, laquelle correspond sensi-
blement à celle de la digue de protection des crues de
la Gironde.
Les ouvrages à fonder, sur radier enterré, sont calés
à des niveaux variant entre - 13 N.G.F. (station de
pompage), - 7.50 (bâtiment combustible) et - 2.50
(groupe et salle des machines).
Le parti de fondation adopté : radier, implique une
substitution complète des couches de vase, toute idée
de consolidation ne résistant pas à un examen même
superficiel. Il s'agit donc de réaliser une enceinte des-
cendue au toit des graves (17.50 m de hauteur totale
de + 4.50 à - 13), dégageant un rectangle de
210 X 265 m pour 2 groupes de 900 MW, étanche,
stable latéralement et vis-à-vis des sous-pressions, qui
permette d'ériger à sec la station de pompage et, sur
remblai compacté de 6 à 10 m d'épaisseur, les
bâtiments réacteur, combustible, massif de groupe, salle
des machines.
 · CHOIX D'UNE SO~UTION

La solution de base consiste' à faire « comme d'habi- dans la solution de base, 6, seulement, dans la variante),
tude », lorsqu'il y a de la place, une fouille talutée et rapproche de 80 m la station de pompage de la
avec un écran étanche périphérique (solution talutée) Gironde.
(fig. 1). La paroi verticale « classique» se dessine plane avec
L'écran étanche, en paroi, a 28 m de hauteur totale. des tirants forés précontraints (fig. 2.). Les efforts
Le terrassement des vases est réalisé sous l'eau pour étant considérables (17.5 m de poussée des terres et
éviter tout glissement des talus à 2/1. Une recharge en 15.5 de poussée d'eau : un véritable barrage de basse
sable, également réalisée sous l'eau, fait passer la pente chute)., quatre lignes de tirants sont nécessaires. Dès lors,
des talus de 2.1 à 3.1. Une couche de tout-venant, dé- le terrassement est à faire à sec, en ménageant au fur et à
posée à sec, assure urie protection contre l'érosion des mesure les plateformes utiles pour forer les tirants.,
intempéries. Une telle solution représente 40 à Cette solution se caractérise de ce fait par des délais
45 000 m 2 d'écran, 1 600 000, m 3 de terrassement, voisins du· double des délais normaux de la solution de
300 000 m 3 de remblai sous l'eau. base.
La solution type paroi verticale, dont plusieurs formes D'où le choix de la solution retenue, avec terrasse-
sont envisageables, supprime 600 000 m 3 d'enlèvement ment par dragage sous l'eau (le terrassement sous l'eau
de vase et de remblaiement. Elle écarte toute impasse a priori économique équilibrant une paroi à contreforts
sur la stabilité des talus, limite le risque d'anomalie plus lourde qu'une paroi plane) qui permet de respecter
d'étanchéité naturelle du fond marnocalcaire (16.5 ha les délais impartis.

Ecran d'étanchéité

~
Protection en tout venant ~è sec) (0,50)

j .4,50 1 1 +4,50
+ 2 ,50 ~:...,.....-:"7~
. . . .:, .~--:~; ~,ô~
. .~:~lI"""":o~,~,..",",~~
1I"""'l? ~""'"lI'...."",1''':W~.~~:;:0"':"':.11::":..-.-~ -l~
~ 1
\1 Il li " "
l' !' l' .11
1 Fig. 1. - Coupe type de la
1
VASE l' l' ,~ Il "
1 solution de base. '
1
l,

-23,5
~

4 lits de tirants
...--- forés en descendant
(terrassement à sec)
"., '1 ';"

VA~;E I~ 1. :

Fig. 2. - Coupe type d'une pa- -13 -13

T
roi verticale classique. L'
" ..... s
t,...
0

() p\.
0

'e
"-":.' .
GRAVES
-19 - ' .. ' . (' '~
y
Paroi plane
épaisseur 1 m,

DESCRIPTION DE LA SOLUTION

En plan, la paroi s'inscrit dans un rectangle de à 40° sur l'horizontale et de 1 930 KN de tension
275 X 219 ln (fig. 3) en bordure immédiate de la digue unitaire en service (fig. 6).
de protection de la Gironde.
L'équilibre général et la disposition des couches
Le schéma d'exécution (fig. 4) que les délais imposent conduisent à prévoir des tirants d'une longueur totale
implique que le soutènement soit stable dès le début de de 55 m dont 30 m de longueur libre et 25 m de
la phase 2, c'est-à-dire le dragage. La paroi équilibre scellement.
les efforts de poussée en s'appuyant en tête sur des La paroi a une hauteur totale moyenne de 31 m, la
tirants et en pied sur le terrain en place. Le moment
longueur de fiche (13.5 m) étant intermédiaire entre
maximum atteint de ce fait plus de 1 000 tm par mètre les résultats des calculs en « butée simple» et en « semi-
linéaire, la parcH est du type à «contrefort» (fig. 5). encastrement ». L'épaisseur normale de 0.80 m est
Chaque panneau (plot, ou contrefort) a 4.70 m de portée à 1 m dans les contreforts pour des raisons
développement et doit, pour être équilibré, recevoir en essentiellement pratiques : passage des tirants en tête,
tête une réaction horizontale de 5 900 KN. Cette réac- disposition des armatures dans les zones de recou-
tion est assurée par quatre tirants inclinés en moyenne vrement.

49
 VUE EN PLAN

Salle des E
0)
- - , - - --+-- '~- N
machines

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 275 m - - - - - - - - - -

~ Paroi moulée a contreforts

Puits filtrant

Fig. 3. - Vue en plan de l'enceinte.

CD Exécution de la paroi et des tirants

+2,50 +4,50
(~ '?'!,~',J'.: ~",_ -':\. ~ '1,,:~. <~~_ ~-\_~':. _, ~_~~. } ' (_=>' '~
- -: ,/.~i,·l,(·i·ii:;·)Î;i(·'il:"
, / "'1) .',
- 1/ 1 li '1 " " '" fi Il If " Il " ri " 11 IT l' '/
f t)l '.' ' .. " II rr l' " If (1 1 1 fi " II " Ir" 1/ /1 11 /1 1/ " (' /1 fi /1 fi Fig. 4. - Schéma d'exécution.
•

'li
1

,i Il 1/ Vase
{I
tr r!lf"""II(1I1,,fI,,1I :...! " 1/"", 1/ 11 Ir " Il Il rr If ri " "1/" " " Il "

......... :.:: ', .. : : : ,::0::.:.:,0 .. ,.:.': :.:.. . :..

® Terrassement de la fouille par dragage

® ·Pompage de l'eau

@) Construction genie civil

 Il
Fig. 5 - Vue perspective
VASES ,1
Il
de la solution retenue.
II FOND DE FOUILLE
Il
,1 '1 r"'J -13
Il Il l'
:-:l-::~::--'----------------------_-.l
:
1
::::
Il r JJ
1 Il ,1
SABLES ET GRAVIERS
: :: 1:
: q-_-_I1 -J
II: :
,Ill l,
MARN~· CALCAIRE
-26,5 :: ,L. __ IJ
~U'

~~
1 L __
"J+4.50NGF
1
,1
1
'1
,--
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
4 TIRANTS

~---------~ll
VASES

1 1
4,70
.:-----------4 • 1,0

FOND
3,50 m y-13,O DE FOUILLE

1 1

1 1 GRAVIERS
~--:"O,80
1 1
1 L __
,.-19,0
1
1
l ,--

~
1 J-- MARNO - CALCAIRE
rv -26,5 NGF
~ _ _~ --:l:..-

0,80 > 1 1 ~ -/
3,50

Fig. 6. - Coupe type et détail d'un contrefort.

L'ensemble du dispositif (fig. 3) est complété par
vingt-quatre puits filtrants, situés à l'intérieur de la
paroi et profonds de 31.5 m. Utiles pour évacuer le
débit de fuite de l'enceinte, ces puits sont essentiels
pour la stabilité du fond. En effet, si le marnocalcaire
est peu perméable en grand, son hétéorogénéité struc:..
turelle rend imaginable une succession de couches
minces très étanches séparées par des lentilles sableuses
très perméables. En supposant qu'une couche étanche
se trouve située au voisinage du toit du marnocalcaire
(vers la cote - 20 N.G.F. par exemple), elle aurait à
supporter toute la sous-pression (15 à 16 t/m2 ). N'ayant,
au-dessus d'elle, que 6 à 7 m de terres (4 à 5 t/m2 ),
elle ne serait pas stable et risquerait de claquer. Sans
grande conséquence sur le plan des débits d'exhaure,
un tel incident serait par contre catastrophique car il
décomprimerait les couches de fondation.
Ainsi, le rôle' des puits profonds est d'assurer une
répartition régulière des écoulements et des pressions
sur l'épaisseur des marnocalcaires.

51
 ESSAIS PREALABLES SUR LES TIRANTS

VUE EN PLAN
, 2,20
-l..
~---------m=::=::=J--- -- --~
Fig. 7. - Vue d'ensemble du
, ~,
dispositif d'essai.
6,00
~ SUD
NORD ~

,....., + 5 NGF "'+4,5 NGF

Y

TIRANT ( l totale ~
-- 55 m)
VASE

ALLUVIONS
1 BARRETTES
2,20 x 0,80 m

-------------- ,..
'- - 25
MARNO . CALCAIRE

TIRANTS D'ESSAI Fig. 8. - Détail du chevêtre et

du bâti de référence.

• PRINCIPE
Coupe A-A'
Les tirants, inclinés à 40° en moyenne sur l'hori-
zontale, doivent traverser de fortes épaisseurs de
TIRANT SUD TIRANT NORD
vases pour atteindre les horizons d'ancrage potentiels.
Ceux-ci sont constitués par les graves alluvionnaires
et par le marndcalcaire sous-jacent très diversifié.
Un premier objet des essais est la définition' de la
résistance d'ancrage mobilisable dans ces terrains et,
corrélativement, la détermination de la longueur de
scellement nécessaire.
Un second objet est l'appréciation de la tenue des
formations superficieHes (remblais) et des vases pour'
définir le programme des mises en tension- des
tirants de l'enceinte. L'essai correspondant consiste
à solliciter horizontalement une barrette moulée.

• DISPOSITIF D'ESSAI
Le dispositif 'd'essai est délibérément implanté Vue en plan
dans une des zones les plus défavQrables mises en
évidence par les reconnaissances préalables à l'est
de la future enceinte.
Il comprend (fig. 7) :
- deux barrettes 2.20 X 0.80 tn, hautes de 30 m,
parallèles, à 6 m l'une de l'autre;
. un chevêtre en béton armé (7.80 X 2.20 X 1 m)
couronnant les barrettes; pour la' deuxième partie ,,
des essais, ce chevêtre est conçu pour être A
' , TIRANT
1
1
1
TIRANT 1
/

l-
'"
A'
1 SUD 1 NORD 1
ultérieurement coupé en deux, transversalement;
deux tirants symétriques, inclinés à 40°, ne dif- 0
N
N-
t.- 1
1
1
1
I ~
1
1
ŒfI
EiD
1 El
1
1
1
1
,
1
~
férant l'un de l'autre que par la longueur du 1
1
1
1
scellement : 20 ou 25 m ; , 1 ,
1

- un dispositif de mesure, permettant de mesurer

les allongements des tirants et les mouvements
~

" \
,

tant horizontaux que verticaux du chevêtre

(fig. 8), ainsi que les efforts dans les tirants.
Les tirants, du type I.R.P. 12 T 15, ont les caracté-
ristiques suivantes
Section d'acier 1 680 mm2
Type d'acier 153/175 kg/mm2 ESSAIS DE TIRANTS

52
 2500
kN

o 10 Fig. 9. - Tirant nord.

)( ·2000
Tension

)(

x
1500
)(

)(

1000 Allongement : 0.03 mm/ml/t

x
Résistance minimale garantie à la rupture
(R.M.G.) 2 940 kN (294 t)
Tension minimale garantie à 0.1 010
)(
(T.M.G.) 2 580 kN (258 t)
500 Tension extrême de linéarité
)( (P.R.) 2 150 kN (215 t)

Vitesse de fluage

5 50 100
Déformation

150 200
...
(en mm)

250
FLUAGE EN FONCTION DIAGRAMME DE MISE 'EN TENSION
DES CHARGES

2500
kN

+"" 0
10

+~---~~~~
. "" Tension

.
Fig. 10. - Tirant sud.
+
+ \

1500
+1

+ Les diagrammes de mise en tension mon-

1000
trent que les deux. tirants tiennent instan-
tanélnent sous une charge de 2 150 kN
+ (1.2 fois la charge de service), que la posi-
tion du point d'ancrage fictif du tirant nord
est correcte, que' celle du tirant sud est
+ au-delà au milieu de la longueur scellée, et
que ·la tension critique (critère Cambefort-
500 Chadeisson) s'établit vers 1 900 kN pour ce
+
tirant (fig. 9 et 10).

FLUAGE EN FONCTION DI'AGRAMME DE MISE EN TENSION

DES CHARGES

53
 L'essai de sollicitation horizontale (fig. Il) montre
que l'on doit attendre des mouvement.s importants
dès que la vase est sollicitée en butée au-delà de
15
500 kN environ par mètre linéaire de paroi.

• EXPLOITATION E
E
En premier lieu, on décide d'adopter, pour tous les
tirants, une longueur de scellement de 25 m. )(
:::s
En second lieu, on constate que si on précontraint
les tirants à leur valeur de service (1 930 kN), et -
ra
c
~ 10
sollicite ainsi en butée les vases à hauteur de
1 250 kN par mètre linéaire de paroi pendant toute
la durée de l'exécution, on va engendrer un mou-
vement notable de la paroi vers la terre, suivi, lors
du dragage et de la vidange, d'un mouvement en
-
en
c
(1)

E
sens inverse. Cet « aller-retour » n'est pas très satis- (1)

faisant pour' l'esprit : pertes de tension des tirants u

ra
puis resollicitations, mouvements .différentiels des 0-
'(1)
plots avec cisaillement des joints, n'ont rien d'usuels. o
Aussi, on choisit de limiter la tension de blocage
à SO % de la tension de service (c'est-à-dire 1 000 kN
par tirant). Traction dans
le tirant N'ord

870 1300 kN
-.- - 0 .....~----.......-----+------t-----:J~

~~~:~
en
~'~+~~
j!:", o~
Fig. 11. - Essai de sollicitatio~ horizontale
barrette nord. ë
(1) -5
~+
*__
~ +~ ~+
u + :4: 0
~ -7
JI 1

-(1)
o

~ 1

MISE EN TENSION DES TIRANTS

Les tirants sont essayés à 1.2 fois la tension de
service en appliquant la méthode du cycle (Rceomman-
dations TA 77).
Des processus particuliers sont mis au point afin
d'éviter au maxÏ1num des différences de sollicitation
importantes entre plots voisins. A cette fin, on teste les
tirants par paire, à cheval sur deux plots, en n'en
sollicitant qu ~un à la fois sur chaque plot.
Il importe que les quatre tirants d'un même plot
aient sensiblement la même tension, 50 % de la charge
de service, mesurée après le blocage de tous. Des essais
sont conduits pour mesurer la perte de tension 'engen-
drée dans un tirant donné par la mise en service d'un
autre du même plot. Cette perte est de l'ordre de 5 à
6 % de la charge de service. Ceci conduit aux valeurs
successives de blocage suivantes : 60 % sur le tirant A,
55 % sur le tirant C, 52 % sur le tirant B, enfin 50 0/0
sur le tirant D.
On doit ajouter enfin les essais usuels faits systéma-
tiquement tous les n tirants : étude fine du fluage et
de la charge critique, essai spécial à 8 000 kN sur
quelques plots (pendant quelques minutes).

DIS,POSITIF DE CONTROLE

En dehors de tous les contrôles qu'il est d'usage de

faire en cours de chantier, et qui constituent les règles
de l'Art, un dispositif est mis en œuvre pour suivre
paroi, tirants et rabattements pendant les phases' cru-
ciales du dragage, de la vidange et du terrassement à
sec (fig. 12) :
- des potences métalliques (23) pour les déplace-
ments horizontaux et les rotations en tête de la
paroi;
- des tubes verticaux (14) aux nœuds des contreforts
poùr mesures clinométriques ;
- des cales dynamométriques (Dynasolf et Glotzl) (33)
pour les tensions dans les tirants;
- un ensemble de points de mesure des niveaux pié-
zométriques et des débits d'exhaure.
Ce dispositif trouve ses justifications en considérant .
d'une part, les dimensions exceptionnelles du soutè..
nement, d'autre part, le processus particulier de mise en
tension des tirants. On s'attend lors du terrassement à
noter des déplacements de la paroi vers la fouille, d'une
amplitude voisine en tête et en pied, de l'ordre de 6 à
8 cm selon la valeur des sollicitations réelles. Un tel
mouvement, compatible avec l'environnement, doit
permettre réellement l'obtention de la poussée minimale.

54
 NORD

@@@@ 0 67

®® @)@195 0
POTENCE Lége~de

Pl~_,LI
0 Potence
CV
w
C
'~TUBE POUR
0 Tubes pour clinomètres

il
CLiNOMETRE
•• ®
• Cales dynamométri~ues E
~ EST
®@ @@ TIRANT
N

<t
..J
OUEST @)@ ~84
1

1
1

T
®@ @)@ @)@ P

~ .

127
SUD
Fig. 12. - Dispositifs de mesure sur tirants et parois

RESULTATS
Les figures 13 et 14 représentent, en fonction de
l'avancement des travaux, les mouvements de la. paroi
et les tensions dans les tirants dans les plots 127 (paroi
sud) et 195 (paroi ouest), choisis comme caractéris-
tiques des observations faites sur vingt-trois profils.
On remarque :
- la difficulté que l'on ·éprouve, sur un chantier, à
conduire des mesures dès l'origine des travaux...,
on installe le dispositif, telle ou telle manœuvre le
met hors de service, on recommence... et on perd
les petits mouvements d'origine (1 cm peut-être) ;
le délai de réflexion de la paroi, qui amorce ses
mouvements plusieurs jours après être sollicitée;
l'influence du dernier mètre terrassé (à sec), qui
représente à lui seul une augmentation considérable
des efforts et des mouvements (plus de 10 0/0) ; . pompage installé. Les niveaux piézométriques - en
la concordance entre les phénomènes attendus et
la réalité observée.
Le figure 15 représente les mouvements maximum d~
la paroi. Sa forme en « as de carreau» est conforme a
la structure : les quatre angles sont des points fixes.
La paroi ouest (côté Gironde) a été plus sollicitée
que les autres : terrassement à une cote plus basse
(- 13.50 NGF), niveau d'eau de la nappe de surfac~
plus élevé (+ 2.50 NGF). ,,~e, plot 50. es~ un. c.as pa~t1:
culier.: un défaut d'étancheIte au droIt d un JOInt a ete
traité par injection derrière la paroi et le coulis injecté
il poussé un peu trop sur celle-ci.
Les mesures d'inclinaison sont restées dans le
domaine de l'imprécision-(1/1 000 environ) et n'ont pas
révélé des mouvements spectaculaires.
Le système de rabattement-décompressi~n.du fond ~e
fouille fonctionne correctement. Les debIts mesures
restent nettement inférieurs à 200 m 3 /h, débit attendu
comme normal correspondant à 50 % de la capacité de
particulier un point de mesure au centre de la
fouille - sont également très satisfaisants.

COMMENTAIRES

1) Il est, à premi~re vue, assez ét?r:nant q;te" la ,vi- si faible accroissement de tension des tirants (moins
dange de la fOUIlle sur 12.50 m n aIt entralne qu un de 10 tonnes) accompagné d'un faible avancement
de la paroi (de l'ordre de 8 à 10 mm).

55
 IAVRI L[ MAI 1 JUIN 1 JUIL. 1 AOÛT 1 SEPT. 1 OCT. 1 NOV. 1 DEC·'TJANV:"] IAVRILI MAil JUIN IJUIl.!AOÛTI SEPT. 1 OCT. 1 NOV. 1 DEC·IJANV.I
o o

fI) 5 5
~
:4)
E
c: c::
Q,) 10 Q) 10

15 15

20 20
o o
Fouille ~
Fouille
'2 ~

1\
"
C1J
~

2 20 ~ 20 -.....

~~
lU
~ Q,) E

~'--
~ "0 E
Q)
"0
E
E
ëQ,) c::
Q,)

E 40

,
40
~r---.
ë c: Q)

r\..
Q,) Q,) >
::J
E 0
Q,)
> ~

0
::J
60
~ 60
~
50
~ ë
~
50
- -- '--
------
~
(!) (J) 100 ~ .,.,.-_.....
/
- ~ .... , ,.
- Q)
ë (J) c:: ~,--
~ c:: c::
C1J 0
Q,) (J) 100
"O-
c: ~
- Q,)
c:
c:: Q,)
150
(J)
t: c:
.2
(J)
lU 0 c:
-o- Q)

g c: Q,)
150
~

ëi) 200
c:
Q,)
~
IAVRIL 1 MAI 1 JUIN 1JUIL.l AOÛT 1 SEPT. 1 OCT. 1 NOV. 1 DEc·1 JANV. ( ,.

200
IAVRILI MAil JUIN 1 JUIL.l AOÛT 1 SEPT. 1 OCT. 1 NOV. 1 DEC.I JANV. 1 Fig. 14. - Mouvements paroi et tension tirants. Plot .127.

Fig. 13. - Mouvements paroi et tension tirants. Plot 195.

NORD

2 17 33 41 50 57
206 59

67

t
UJ
195

75
C
~
OUEST EST
0
ex: 184
84
<.:J
1

~ 1 Fig 15. - Mouvements de la

-J 1 paroi.
1
93
173 1

1
_ _ _ _ _ - l1

164 102

160 152 139 127 113 106

SUD

56

L.... ---
 L'explication qui paraît la plus simple est de
considérer que la paroi est quasiment un solide indé-
formable (la flexion propre de la paroi correspond à
des flèches maximum de l'ordre de 1 cm, qu'on peut
négliger ici). Ce solide indéformable est appliqué
sur le sol par la mise en traction des tirants, côté
extérieur de la fouille (phase 2) (fig. 4).:
En fin de phase 1, le coefficient de poussée vaut
environ 0,5 sur chaque face de la paroi. En fin de
phase 2, ce coefficient a évolué d'une part à l'exté-
rieur (butée sans déformation) vers K e == 1, et d'autre
part à l'intérieur (poussée minimale) vers Ki == 0.25
Quand on vidange la fouille (phase 3), on met en
mouvement la paroi vers l'intérieur, K e glisse vers
0.25 valeur de la poussée : le Ll K e balance à peu près
la pression de l'eau qui vient d'être vidangée, d'où
une faible augmentation de la force du tirant.
Cette analyse conduit à penser que l'on passe d'un
équilibre de butée à l'équilibre de poussée au prix
d'un très faible mouvement.
57
2) Le mouvement de la tête de la paroi et l'accroissement
de la force dans le tirant sont en relation théorique-
ment linéaire.
Dans 50 % des profils étudiés, on vérifie aisément
que la relation est conforme aux paramètres (longueur
libre du tirant, caractéristiques de déformation de
l'acier en fonction de sa tension).
Dans 50 %, on ne retrouve pas clairement cette
relation, la traction dans le tirant restant en decà.
L'explication de ce phénomène peut venir soit d'iIn
fluage au niveau des têtes, soit d'un mouvement
vertical descendant de la paroi. Nous rte possédons
pas de mesures de cet éventuel mouvement, qui n'est
pas impossible compte tenu des efforts engendrés.
3) En conclusion, nous souhaitons mettre en lumière
l'augmentation de sécurité, sur la sollicitation réelle
des tirants, que le processus adopté a offert. A notre
connaissance, il s'agit du premier exemple, à cette
échelle, d'un tel parti de construction et nous pensons.
qu'il doit pouvoir s'appliquer chaque fois qu'on est
en présence d'une struéture de soutènement simple
dont les mouvements éventuels sont compatibles avec
l'environnement.
 A METHOD TO PREDICT THE LOAD-DISPl.ACEMENT RELATIONSHIP
Of GROUND ANCHORS
Modèle' pour calculer la relation charge-déplacement des ancrages
dans les sols
by
K. FUJITA
Dr., Managing Director of Hazama-Gumi~ Ltd.
K.' UEDA
Deputy Director, Institute of Technology, Hazama-Gumi, Ltd.
M. KUSABUKA
Research Staff, Institute of Techn~logy, Hazama-Gumi, Ltd.
SOMMAIRE
Des mesures de contrainte effectuées pendant
des essais d'ancrage ont montré que la relation
entre la contrainte de frottement superficiel du
, bulbe d'ancrage et le déplacement de celui-ci est
non linéaire et que la distribution de la force axiale
du bulbe d'ancrage s'étend gradue-Ilement vers
l'extrémité lorsque la charge augmente.
Afin de donner une explication à ce comporte-
ment de l'ancrage dans le sol, nous avons proposé
une relation charge-déplacement de l'ancrage en
suppoS'ant un modèle élastoplastique de relation
entre la contrainte de frottement superficiel et le
déplacement à un endroit quelconque sur le bulbe
d'ancrage. En outre, afin d'appliquer cette formule
aux cas réels, nous avons analysé de nombreuses
données d'essais d'ancrage et nous avons examiné
la relation charge-déplacement, la distribution de la
force axiale, et les différentes constantes du sol
comprises dans la formule. Nous avons pu ainsi
trouver une relation entre les constantes du sol
et la valeur N obtenue lors d'un essai de pénétra-
tion standard (S.P.T.).
Par conséquent, si la valeur N est donnée co'mme
un résultat de reconnaissance du sol, il sera pos-
sible de prévoir la relation charge-déplacement de
l'ancrage.
INTRODUCTION
Accurate prediction of the load-displacement relation-
ship is important for the design and construction of
ground anchors in order to ensure the safety and econo-
mical efficiency of the structures utilizing the anchors.
Accordingly, in order to put forward a method for
predicting this load-displacement relationship, studies
were carried out; first1y, to find and formulate an
analytical method that could adequately account for the
behavior of the anchor; secondly, to find a method of
estimating the ground characteristic values used in the
formula from ground investigation data; and, thirdly,
to confirm that the computed values obtained by
means of the above prediction method are accurate
enough for practical usage when compared with the
measured values.
58
SUMMARY
According ta results from measurements of
stress obtained by tests of the ground anchor, the
relation between skin frictional stress of the ancho-
rage bulb and its displacement is non-linear, and the
axial force distribution range of the anchorage bulb
expands gradually towards the tip due ta increase
of the load.
ln arder ta explain' such behavior of the ground
anchor, we have proposed a formula, which gives
the load-displacement relationship of the ground
anchor, by assuming an elasto-plastic model of skin
frictional stress-displacement relation at a point
on the anchorage bulb. Moreover, in arder ta
apply this formula to actual cases, we .have ana-
lysed numerous data from anchor tests conducted
on the site and we' have examined the load-displa-
cement rel'ationship, the distribution of axial force,
and various ground constants included in the
formula. As a result, we have found out a mutual
relationship between the ground contants and the
N value of the standard penetration test.
Therefore, if N value is given as result of the
sail investigation, it will be possible ta predict the
load-displacement relationship of the ground anchor.
1t is recognized, from considerable measurement
data, that, unlike conditions in the conventional design
methods hitherto employed, the distribution of anchor
resistance against the external force is not uniform
throughout the entire anchorage bulb, but that when
the load applied to the anchor is light most of the load
is conveyed to the top part of the anchorage bulb and is
not transmitted efficiently as far as the tip part. In
other words, as the load increases, the range of distri-
bution of the axial force in the anchorage bulb spreads
gradually from the top part of the anchorage bulb
towards the tip part. Therefore, concerning the length
of anchorage bulb that effectively functions as a resis-
tance to the pulling force, it is necessary to conclude
that there exists a critical length that corresponds to
the stiffness of the anchorage bulb itself and the
ground characteristics.
 ANALYTIC MODEL AND MATRIX FORMULATION

As shown in fig. 1, the anchor is divided into a where,

finite number of elements, and the nodal point of Ri : ground reaction along anchor axis at nodal
each element is supported by elasto-plastic spring of point i (kg) ;
the ground.
Ksi:coefficient of elasto-plastic spring ==
The linear stiffness equation of the displacement 1/2 Cs U (L i- 1 + Li) (kg/cmm);
method usually employed shown by the following Li : length of anchor element i (cm) ;
equation.
U : circumference of anchorage bulb (cm).
[0] [K] [O]T {oJ == {P} (1)
where, Addition of equation (3) to the load vector {P} of
equation (.1) gives
[0] [K] [0] T: stiffness Inatrix;
{o}: displacement vector;
[0] [K] [D]T {o} + [Ks ] {om} == {P} .... (4)

{ p }: load vector. Equation (4) is the stiffness equation of the analytic

model shown in fig. 1, but constant m has to be deter-
The skin frictional stress 't of the anchorage bulb, mined for actual anchor analysis. Here it is assumed
taken as proportional to axial displacement 0 raised to that the followlng equation of Yamakado & Muta
the mth power, can be expressed as proposed for the skin frictional stress-displacement
't == Cs omo (2) relationship for a pile will also hold true for an anchor .
where, (fig. 2).
't : skin frictional stress (kg/cm2) ;
o< d 't == Gs 0°·5
J

Cs: coefficient of skin frictional .stress '0 2:: d 't == 'tmax == const.
J (5)
(kg/cmrn.+2) ; where,
o : axial displacement of anchor (cm) ; d : displaceUlent at yield point (cm);
m: constant. 't max : Inaximum skin frictional stress (kg/cm2).

The ground reaction Ri along the anchor axis at From this assumption, we WJfite equation (4) as
nodal point i can be written follows:
Ri == - I(si om (3) [0] [K] [O]T {o} + [KsJ {oo.S} == {P} (6)
Numerical analysis of equation (6), in which a non-
linear term is included in the left hand second term,
has already been used generally, and so will not he
discussed afresh here.

t~
La: Anchor Length
"+-
....J
~~~ L f: Free Length of
Anchor
/
--J
DJ
L b: Length of Anchorage

~
2 Bulb
KS2
Fig. 2. - Assumed skin frictional stress 't: displacement,
Li: .Length of Element 0: relationship.
0 T;
--J. Ksi: Coefficient of Node
Spring
.c ......J Ksi 1
--J Po: Load
1
i : Node Number
[TI: Element Number
c
......J
SO.5
KSn +1 IC--..L..-_ _--L- -----I.....

d
Fig. 1. - Analytical model of anchor.

59
DETERMINATION OF GROUND CHARACTERISTIC VALUES AND LENGTH Of ANCHORAGE BULB
n
lQO ton/cm .
Material characteristics of the anchor can be found Ko=45
...........
Solution of Eq.(8)
by tests conducted on the steel and cement materials
used. Usually, however, the actual dimensions of an
anchorage bulb constructed in the ground differ from
the expected ones, and measurements are impossible
without completely extracting or excavating the
anchor.
Moreover, measurement of the soil characteristics
of the actual ground in which the anchor is being
constructed is difficult with the existing measurement
-- --- - - - -
techniques .
.Accordingly, we propose an indirectly estimating
method for coefficient of skin frictional stress of the
ground and the effective length of anchorage bulb
from the measured load-displacement curve, because'
ground characteristic values and actual effective an-
chorage bulb dimensions are great factors for
analyzing anchor behavior. Effective Zone --.:
Measured load-displacement curves are approximateq
by 10 L - - - - - J . _ - - - - ' - _ - - - ' - _ - - ' - - _ - ' - - _ . J - - " ' _ - - I . _ - - - - ' - _........
Po == 1(0 Gan (7) 1 2 3 4 5 6
where, Cs (kg /c~·5)
Po: load; Fig. 3. Effect of coefficient of skin frictional stress
Go : displacement at anchor head; Cs and ratio of effective length r on approximate equation
of load-displacement curve Pu = K o Go n (test data N° 2).
1(0: constant;
n : constant.
Equation (8) provides two unknown quantities, Cs
Constants 1(0 and n of equation (7) are considered and r, for a given anchor length La and constants Ka
as functions of coefficient of skin frictional stress Cs, and n; but as functional forms fI and f2 are unclear,
ratio r of anchor length La to effective length of it is unclear whether there really exists only one
anchorage Qulb Lb, and elastic modulus E and cross- solution that satisfies engineering requirements ..
sectional area A of the anchor material.
So numerical calculations using equation (6) were
If, as stated, E and A are considered known quan- carried out to find the effect of variations in unknown
tities, we can consider constants I(a and n as functions quantities, Cs and r on constants 1(10 and n for an
only of Cs and r, and the following equation becomes arbitrary anchor model. The results clarified that
applicable. there exists only one solution for unknown quantities
Ka == fI (Cs, r) Cs and r that satisfies a given load-displacement curve,
n == f2 (Cs, r) (8) that is, the approximation curve equation (7) (for
where, explanation, see fig. 3).
r : Lb/La (0 < r ~ 1): which will be termed ratio Therefore, if constants Ka and n can be determined
of effective length; . by approximation of the measured load-displacement
curve using equation (7), it becomes possible, using
La : anchor length == L f + 'Lb; these values, to estimate coefficient of skin frictional
L f : effective free length of anchor; stress Cs and ratio of effective length r as shown in
Lb: effective length of anchorage bulb. fig. 3.

GROUND CHARACTERISTIC VALUES

ln fig. 6, Cs of fig. 4 and d of fig. 5 are used to

Ground characteristic values were obtained by calculate by means of equation (5) the maximum
analysing the test data of thirty ground anchors frictional stress :r max' which is made to correspond with
according to the above method the tests being cartied
out at the actual construction site. The ground anchors mean N value N.
used for the analyses were aIl of the cement mortar Further, the following equation Was used to calculate
(or paste) grouted type without reaming. the mean N value N of multi-stratum ground, and to
Fig. 4 and fig. 5 are the results of analyses of deal with the ground if it was a single-stratum.
coefficient of skin frictional stress Cs and displacement ~aiNi
1'~ == Lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (9)
at yield point d when the. subject ground w:as dealt
with as if it was a single-stratum, made to correspond where,
with mean value N of the N values of the ground N: mean N value for single-stratum ground;
around the anchorage bulb obtained by means of ai: thickness of stratum i;
standard penetration tests. Ni: N value of stratum i.
 6 NO.2
~:/ 4
LO
NE
5 •
•
y 3
•
d = (0.115~ +1.07 )2
u • / E 0.224N - 1
4

.:~:'''4N-0508 I~
..........
01
~
• 2 • •
lu
Cf)
3

2
•
•/
•••
•• • ••
•
.•
.---. • •• --&.- •• - . - . - : : -
•• • . 0 L-_'l-0-.l-.-.-2..J..,;.0-..J...--3..J-O-.....L...--4.......0-.-..--5-o1-0-

N
•
0 Fig. 5. - Relationship between displacement at yield point
10 20 30 40 ·50 d and mean N value N: for single-stratum.
N
Fig. 4. - Relationship between coefficient of skin fric-
tional stress ~ and mean N value N for single-stratum.

5
NO. 2
NE 4 ~.
u
"-
0)
3
. .. .
..........
.,....,.... ...... ..........--.

..
.:L
..~.
Fig. 6. - Relationship between
~ 2 ~
E ~:. • T max·=o.0584N+O.546
maximum skin frictional stress

I~
1 .
~
't max and mean N value N for
single-stratum.

01
10 20 30 40 50
N

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions were obtained from the

results of the above analyses. 16
(1) By following the method described herein, it
is possible to estimate the coefficient of frictional 14 x
stress Cs and effective anchorage bulb length Lb from
the measured load-displacement curve. 12
(2) In the expedient method for estimating the
effective free length of the anchor from the load
po-elastic displacement Ooe curve obtairied by deducting 10

..
from the measured displacemento o the residual plastic x x
o
displacement 00p at zero-Ioad time when the load is ~8 x x
X
x. x x x
removed, the estimate should be according to the slope x
x x
of the initial linear zone of the load-elastic displa- 6 x
cement curve (see fig. 7). x x
x x
x
•
00
(3) There exists a critical length, for the effective 4 XX : 0: Method
anchorage bulb length of the ground anchor and even
if the length is made greater than this, no evident
o
o'~°;ii·
x
o
•
o. 0 CD
1 ---.

..::..
increase in pulling resistance can be expected (see 2 o0 o~ " • • @___ 0
~
fig. 8). @--- x
01lll'.-----........-..1.--.-..--~- .......- .......~--1...-....1
(4) The coefficient of skin frictional stress Cs,
displacement at yield point id, and maximum skin
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Lf max (m)
frictional stress ~ax for a single stratum can be estimat-
ed, using the mean N value N obtained from equation
(9), by means of the following equation. Fig. 7. - Comparison of free length of anchor If estimated
by three methods.
Cs == 0.114 N- 0.508 Lf max: EA [Oo/P 0] initial.
't"max == 0.0584 N + 0.546 (10) Lf : Method 1, estimation method shown in this paper.
d == (~max/CJ2 Method 2, EA [Ooe/Po] initial.
Method 3, EA [Ooe/Po] latter.
61
 20 40 60 80
~ (ton)
Fig. 9. - Comparison of measured load Po with predicated
Fig. 8. - Effect of anchorage bulb length Lb on the load load P' at yield point of load·displacement curve plotted
0

Pcdisplacement 01 relationship at anchorage bulb top (test on log·log scale. .

data N° 2).

Fig. 10. - Comparison of analytical result of the load po· displacement 0 curve with measured values.
0

a) Good example, test data N° 2.

b) Poor example, test data N° 8.

a) b)

20 40

20
-20
E
E E
o
~40
Va o
40 (.()

60
o : Observations
----: Approximation
- - : Prediction
80
---: 80) 120 % Observations
(5) By use of the ground constants calculated by
means of equation (10), the load-displacement relation-
ship calculated with equation (6) is sufficiently accurate
for practical application (see fig. 9 and fig. 10).

AFTERWORD
1
. 1t has been definitely shown by the above that'
i· this method of analysis is capable of fully describing
the behavior of a ground anchor, and is an effective
method in practice, too.
N values of standard penetration tests in ground
investigation data accompanying existing anchor test
teristic values required for actual application of this
method. However, it is considered insuffièient to use
N values for this, so suitable ground investigation
methods need' to be developed.
Considerable information was gained in the course
of this research but this will be presented in other ~ 1

data were used for estimations of the ground charac- papers.

REFERENCE
YAMAKADO (A.), OHCHI (Y.) and MUTA (C.). - Proc. Annual Meeting of JSCE (29th), Part III,
Nonlinear Analysis of Pile by Matrix Method, pp. 218-219 (in Japanese) (1973).

62
 DÉTERMINATION DE LA LONGUEUR LIBRÉ OPTIMALE D'UN TIRANT D'ANCRAGE
SOUTENANT UNE PAROI
Determination of the optimal free length of the line
of an anchor supporting' a wall

par

P. HABIB et M.P. LUONG

Laboratoire de Mécanique des solides . Ecole Polytechnique . Palaiseau . France

o. AUGER et Y. TCHEN'G
CEBTP, Paris . France

SOMMAIRE
La longueur libre optimale des tirants d'ancrage
d'une paroi verticale soutenant un massif de sable
sec à surface libre horizontale a été déterminée
par des essais en modèles réduits avec des maté-
riaux pulvérulents d'angle de frottement interne
cp! == 31° ± 1° et CPl == 24° ± 1°. La similitude ne
cherchait pas à représenter les déformations élas-
tiques, mais simplement la rupture plastique. Une
règle simple a pu être dégagée pour la longueur
libre d'un tirant isolé ou pour celle des tirants d'une
ligne horizontale unique d'ancrages.
SUMMARV
Scale models were used in order to find the opti-
mal length of the lines of anchors for vertical walls
retaining a mass of dry sand with a horizontal sur-
face using granular materials having an internai
angle of friction CPl == 31° ± 1° and C(Jl == 24° ± 1°.
The similitude did not aim at a representation of
elastic deformation but only of plastic failure. A
simple rule was found for the free length in the
case of either a single anchor or a single' horizontal
line of anchors.

1. INTRODUCTION

La longueur libre des tirants d'ancrage des murs de
soutènement n'est pas déterminée actuellement d'une
façon très rigoureuse. Les différents règlements, codes
'de construction ou recolnmandations (1) proposent des
méthodes de calcul· peu satisfaisantes ou des règles
elnplrlques que les maîtres d'ouvrage ont tendance à
considérer comIne des Ininimums. Pourtant, il n'y a
pas intérêt à avoir des tirants trop longs : d'une part
ils sont plus coûteux et d'autre part ils introduisent
inutilement une plu~ grande souplesse en tête des

., /'"
tI:f-I~t-------I------"I~'~'~ . .
/'! /.,~ Y 1
. 1 // /1
~-f/ .//
j"'/'
1
1
1

/'Y 1

_~~<0:~..... 1
Fig. 1.
i 1 1

Efficacité
•
f
•
1
-1
1
-I-----.. . ~
de
1 1
l'ancrage
1
i Longueur de 1'ancrage
o
tirants. Il est donc souhaitable de définir avec ,plus
de précision la longueur libre optimale des tirants.
(1) Recommandations concernant la conception, le calcul, Prenons l'exemple d'un mur ,vertical soutenant un
l'exécution et le contrôle des tirants d'ancrage. Bureau massif à surface libre horizontale et d'une rangée de
Securitas, 2e édition, Eyrolles, Paris (1977). tirants horizontaux destinée -à s'opposer au renverse-

63
luent du mur. Si "les tirants sont ancrés à l'intérieur
du _coin de Coulomb, c'est-à-dire à l'intérieur du dièdre
"-,
f orme par 1e mur e.t par un p 1an . 1·lne-'"a
lnc 4TC - 2cp
sur la verticale et issu du pied du mur, leur efficacité
est nulle. S'ils sont ancrés au-delà du plan faisant un
angle cp avec l'horizontale, c'est-à-dire au-delà du talus
naturellement stable, leur efficacité ne doit pas croître
beaucoup pour des tirants plus longs. L'efficacité des
tirants en fonction de leur longueur (fig. 1) apparaît
donc comme une courbe tangente à l'origine à l'axe des
abscisses et ayant une asymptote horizontale : elle
possède donc un point d'inflexion qui peut être consi-
2. PRINCIPE DES ESSAIS
On a utilisé de simples modèles réduits en sable.
L'échelle des longueurs étant égale à l'échelle des
contraintes et les modules d'élasticité variant d'une
façon non linéaire avec les contraintes, il n'y a pas
de correspondance simple entre les déformations de
la maquette et celles du prototype, c'est-à-dire un mur
soutenant un massif du même sable. En conséquence,
les petits déplacements qui précèdent la rupture des
luodèles . réduits sont des phénomènes utiles à l'inter-
Mur autostable Mur ancré
Fig. 3. - Modèle analogique à
deux dimensions.
64
déré comme donnant une longueur caractéristique. Il
reste à définir la notion d'efficacité des tirants et à
vérifier si la longueur caractéristique ainsi obtenue
correspond à un changement qualitatif net de l'effi-
cacité des tirants.
Nous nous proposons dans cette étude d'apporter
une réponse expérimentale à cette question au moyen
d'essais sur des modèles réduits. Les expériences ont
été menées en parallèle au Laboratoire de Mécanique
des Solides (LMS) et au Centre Expérimental du
Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics (CEBTP) avec des
matériaux pulvérulents différents pour obtenir des
résultats qui puissent se compl~ter.
prétation des essais, mais qui ne permettent en aucun
cas de prévoir l'amplitude des mouvements du proto-
type. Ces maquettes doivent être considérées comme
utilisant une similitude volontairement très pauvre,
limitée au domaine plastique et à la rupture, à l'exclu-
sion des petites déformations du domaine élastique ou
du domaine linéaire.
Il faut définir une mesure de "l'efficacité d'un tirant.
Soit ho la hauteur libre limite à partir de laquelle un
Fig. 2.
mur autostable s'effondre par renversement (fig. 2) et
h la hauteur libre maximale du même mur, mais
h le mur, en fonction de la hauteur d'accrochage. Le
soutenu par un tirant. Le rapport h permet de définir
." E n partIcu
une mesure d e 1,eff'IcacIte. . a l'1er hh == 1 c~r-
respbnd à l'efficacité nulle. Le choix des ti;ants hori-
zontaux se justifie pour obtenir une résistance du dis-
positif d'ancrage constante quelle que soit la longueur
du tirant. Ce dispositif est constitué par un disque fixé
à l'extrémité d'une corde à piano recouverte d'un
souplisso. Le souplisso protège la tige du tirant du
frottement du sable..Le disque symbolise le scellement
d'une barre. On a vérifié au LMS, par des essais sur
des maquettes à deux dimensions constituées par des
empilements de rouleaux selon la méthode de
Schneebeli-Dantu, qu'un ancrage par plaque donne
des résultats qualitativement comparables à un ancrage
_p.ar frottement (fig. 3). Il est évident que la résistance
d'un tel ancrage pour un tirant incliné aurait varié
avec la longueur du tirant, c'est-à-dire avec la pro-
fondeur de l'ancrage, obligeant à modifier le disque
et compliquant inutilement les essais.
3. MODE OPERATOIRE
Les essais ont été menés de la façon suivante.
Le mur de soutènement est une plaque carrée rigide
qui est mise en place et calée à droite et à gauche.
Le sable est déposé en couches, par chute libre à
hauteur constante à partir d'un tamis, symétriquement
de chaque côté du mur et jusqu'aux deux tiers de la
hauteur. Le ou les tirants munis de leurs plaques
d'ancrage sont mis en place horizontalement. Le rem-
plissage continue alors côté amont jusqu'à la hauteur
du bord du mur. Les cales sont alors ôtées et on
simule le creusement d'une fouille en enlevant le
sable côté aval centimètre par centimètre, en notant les
déplacements correspondants. Au début, les déplace-
ments sont insensibles; on peut considérer que la
rupture est généralisée et que des changements de
géométrie se sont produit lorsque la rotation du mur_
a atteint 10°. La courbe hauteur libre devant le mur
en fonction du déplacement présente une asymptote
qui permet de définir un critère de rupture; on s'est
efforcé de réaliser des massifs de sable tels que la
courbe efforts-déformations ne présente pas de maxi-
mum, de fait on n'observe pas de lignes de glissement
isolées, mais bien des domaines plastifiés limités par
des surfaces en général assez nettement visibles, au
moins en surface.
Les essais ont été menés avec des matériels et des
matériaux différents :
a) Au CEBTP, on a utilisé un sable de Fontainebleau
sec, mis en place à une densité relative de 29 0/0,
proche de la densité critique et à laquelle corres-
pond un angle de frottement interne voisin de
cp == 31° (y de mise en place == 1.40.104 N/m3 ;
y min == 1.31 . 104 N/m3 ; y max == 1.69 . 104 N/m3). Le
sable de Fontainebleau est un sable siliceux fin
(Ys == 2.66 . 104 N/m3 ; dlQ == 0.1 mm; d60 /dlQ == 1.45)
- diamètre des tirants == 2 mm (gainé d'un souplisso
de 3 mm de diamètre) ;
- ancrages : disques en laiton de 1 mm d'épais-
seur et de 1 cm ou 1.2 cm ou 3 cm de diamètre
selon les cas.
65
Par un calcul de poussée classique, on a évalué
sommairement la force du tirant permettant de retenir
tirant n'a pas été placé trop près de la surface du sable
afin que l'ancrage soit obtenu avec un disque de rayon
suffisamment petit pour que la perturbation du massif
autour de l'ancrage ne soit pas trop affectée par le
gradient de pesanteur. Il fallait cependant que la résis-
tance de l'ancrage soit suffisamment grande pour que
h soit nettement différente de ho et que l'expérience
soit sensible, mais aussi il fallait qu'elle ne soit pas
trop grande et que la rupture se produise toujours par
basculement du mur et non par chassement du pied:
un changement de n10de de rupture aurait en effet
rendu l'interprétation des essais complètement illusoire.
La profondeur et la force de l'ancrage ont été ainsi
choisies par le calcul. La résistance du dispositif
d'ancrage a été vérifiée par des essais d'arrachage en
milie~ indéfin~ et en adaptant le diamètre du disque
par Interpolation pour obtenir la résistance désirée.
Enfin, au cours de chaque essai, les déplacements du
mur ont été suivis de façon à s'assurer que le mou-
vement général restait un renversement du mur, même
si le centre instantané de rotation était plus profond
pour les murs ancrés que pour le mur autostable.
. Dans les essais du CEBTP, on a mesuré les trac-
tions dans les tirants au moyen d'un anneau dyna-
mométrique de 2 cm de diamètre intérieur formant
rotule et placé à l'extérieur du mur, traversé diamé-
tralement par le tirant et muni d'extensomètres à
résistance électrique. Ce dispositif a permis de tracer
la courbe des efforts dans le tirant en fonction du
déplacement de l'écran, en plus de la courbe des
déplacements _de l'écran en fonction de la hauteur
de la fouille. De même, ce dispositif a permis de
mettre en évidence l'évolution de la tension dans un
tirant initialement précontraint.
- Dimension- de l'écran : 50 cm X 50 cm.
Des fentes verticales dans l'écran permettaient de
placer le ou les tirants à la hauteur voulue sans
risqùe d'encastrement de la tige, ou des tiges, dans
le mur. Les fentes inutilisées étaient obstruées.
- Dimensions de la cuve d'essais : canal de 51 cm
de large, de 2 m de Jong, de 0.70 m de profondeur
(soit 20 cm de sable sous le mur). L'intérieur des
parois latérales du canal étaient rendues lisses par
des plaques de verre pour diminuer l'influence du
frottement et la jonction entre les parois et l'écran
était réalisée par des soufflets en téflon.
b) Au LMS, on a utilisé un sable de billes de verre
sèch~s (Ys == 2.58 . 104 N/m 3 ; d so == 0.3 mm) mis en
place à un poids volumique de y == 1.6.104 N/m3 •
Du fait du caractère sphérique des grains et de leur
état de surface très lisse, la variation de volume en
cours de cisaillement est pratiquement nulle. L'angle
de frottement interne correspondant est cp =; 24°.
- Diamètre des tirants : 1 mm.
- Ancrages : disques en plexiglas de 1 mm d'épais-
seur et de 2 cm de diamètre.
- Dimensions de l'écran : 25 cm X 25 cm avec
fen.tes pour placer le ou les tirants aux positions
voulues.
- Dimensions de la cuve d'essais: le massif de sable
de billes de verre avait 50 cm de longueur, 25 cm
de largeur, 30 cm de profondeur (soit 5 cm de
sable sous le mur).
 4. INTERPRETATION DES ESSAIS

A partir de la courbe du dépl.acement du mur e.n TABLEAU 1

fonction de la· hauteur de la fouIlle, on peut obtenIr Tirant isolé dans le sable de Fontainebleau.
différents critères de rupture' comme on le fait habi- .Les chiffres indiqués dans le tableau correspondent
tuellement avec les' courbes efforts-déformations. On
à une rotation de l'ordre de 5° représentant un état de
peut définir la rupture par l'asymptote du dépla~en:e~t; rupture. visiblement généralisée.
par un déplacement arbitraire, par ~n rarport d a~flnIte
des différentes courbes, etc., qUOI qu Il en soIt les
Longueur Dénivellation Traction
courbes de la figure. 4 montrent nettement l'i~fluenc~ (cm) (cm) (N)
de la longueur du tIrant. Les courbes .A et· A. ~epre­
sentent deux essais identiques et donnent une Idee de
la dispersion des résultats qui est faible. La courbe B 0 h0 == 35.6 (mur
correspond à un tirant précontrai~t ; elle est à compar~r autostable)
à. la courbe C d'un tirant de meme longueur non pre- 30 38.6 17.5
contraint. On voit que les petites déformations sont 35 39.3 20.3
influencées et réduites par la précontrainte, mais que ..la
résistance à la rupture n'est pratiq~e'ment pas affectee. 40 45.0 39.1
Ce résultât, qui est classique pour un corps de Tresca 50 42.5 non
(cp == 0) élastoplastique semble pouvoir s'étendre aux mesurée
structures (mur + tirant) dans un sol pulvérulent. Le 50 45.0 28.9
tableau ci-dessous, interprété à partir des courbes de
la figure 4, donne les résultats des essais d'un tirant
unique, muni d'un disque d'ancrage de 3 cm de La figure 5 représente la courbe de l'ef!i~~cité du
diamètre en fonction de sa longueur, pour le sable de tirant en fonction de sa longueur. La precIsIon des
Fontainebleau, ainsi que la traction maximale dans résultats ne permet pas de placer. e::,acte}llent !e point
le tirant. d'inflexion de la courbe; on VOlt neanmolns que

DENIVELLATION
-AVAL (Cry!)
A~,10NT
50

40

Fig. 4. - Tirants isolés dans du sable

de Fontainebleau.
20 L---.1...---:l------J.--.....L.-_---J~ _ ___l__ _. L - _ - - - L . __tIIII'"

o 2 4 6 8
A et AI LONGUEUR 50 C~,1 ANCRAGE 0 3 Ct'1
B 50 CM o 1 Ct·1 PRECONTRAINf
C 50 Cf.1 o1 Ct~ NON PRECONTRAINT
D 35 0,1 o 3 Cr··1
DENIVELLATION
45 AMONT-AVAL (CM)

40

Fig. S. - Tirants isolés dans du sable

de Fontainebleau.
35
LONGUEUR DU TIRANT (CM)

",
o 10 20 30 40 50

66
 DENIVlLLATION
AVAL (Cf\1)
A~110NT·
20

Fig. 6. - Tirants isolés dans des

billes de verre.

15
1 LONGUEUR DU TIRANT (C~l)
1
1
0 5 10 15 20 25
.
DENIVELLATION
AMONT -AVAL (C~1)
45

40
Fig. 7. - Groupe de cinq tirants dans
du sable de Fontainebleau.

..35

LONGUEUR DES TIRANTS (CM)

o 10 20 30 40 50

DENIVELLATION
At~ONT -AVAL(CM)
20

Fig. 8. - Groupe de cinq tirants dans

des billes de verre.

15
LONGUEUR DES TIRANTS (CM)

o 5 10 15 20 25

l'efficacité maximale est déjà atteinte lorsque la longueur
du tirant dépasse 40 cm.
La figure 6 représente la courbe analogue de l'effi-
cacité du tirant unique dans un massif de billes de verre,
en fonction de la longueur du tirant. L'efficacité maxi-
male est atteinte lorsque la longueur dépasse 20 cm.
Les essais précédents étudiaient le comportement
d'un élément de mur soutenu par un seul tirant. Des
essais ont été effectués avec une ligne horizontale de
plusieurs tirants de façon à examiner l'influence du
voisinage des tirants sur la longueur optimale, ce qui
est plus réaliste si l'on veut prévoir ce qui peut se
produire pour les' structures· les plus courantes. Le
tableau ci-dessous donne les résultats des essais dans
du sable de Fontainebleau avec une rangée de cinq
tirants munis de disque d'ancrage de 1.2 cm de dia-
mètre (donnant à peu près la même résistance totale
que le tirant unique précédent), espacés de 10 cm; les
tirants marginaux étaient placés à 5 cm des. bords.

67
 TABLEAU II
Nappe de cinq tirants dans du .sable de Fontainebleau.
Les chiffres indiqués dans ce tableau correspondent
à un état de rupture généralisée obtenu après une.
rotation de l'ordre de 2.5°. Le phénomène de rupture
est donc beaucoup plus net que dans le cas du tirant
isolé. .

Traction
1 Traction
dans dans
Longueur Dénivellation le tirant un tirant
central latéral
(cm) (cm) (N) (N

35 40.0 4.9 4.4

39 38.6 8.4 8.1
45 46.0 10.8 non mesurée

La figure 7 représente la courbe de l'efficacité des

tirants en fonction de leur longueur; on voit que
l'efficacité est maximale lorsque la longueur' dépasse Fig. 9. - Cuve d'essais des tirants d'ancrage dans des billes
de verre.
45 cm.
La figure 8· représente une courbe analogue de
l'efficacité d'une nappe de cinq tirants dans un massif,
• pour le sable de Fontainebleau :
de billes de verre, en fonction de leur longueur. L'effi-
cacité maxin1ale est atteinte lorsque la longueur dépasse tirant isolé . a == 40°
22.5 cm. . nappe de tirants . a == 37°
Si l'on joint la base du mur et les points où l'on • pour le sable de billes de verre :
a obtenu un ancrage d'efficacité maximale on peut tirant isolé . a == 40°
calculer les angles minimaux suivants avec l'horizontale: nappe de tirants . a == 37°

CONCLUSION

Les résultats obtenus dans deux séries d'essais

complémentaires avec des matériaux distincts ayant
notamment des angles de frottement interne très dif-
férents donnent des longueurs libres optimales des
tirants d'ancrage très voisines. Ce résultat n'est pas éton-
nant dans la mesure où les formes des surfaces de
glissement des structures (mur-sol pesant-tirants) sont
voisines lorsque les ruptures se produisent par déver-
sement du mur. On remarque en particulier que la
longueur optimale des tirants est plus grande pour les
groupes de tirants que pour les tirants isolés, ce qui
était prévisible et qui est une manifestation de l'inter-
férence des ancrages. La règle d'avant-projet qui
consiste à placer le scellement des ancrages au-delà
d'une ligne à 45° issue du pied du mur se trouve ainsi
vérifiée, mais cette conclusion n'est confirmée par la
présente étude que pour des massifs de terre à surface
libre horizontale, avec parement vertical, sans force
intérieure ou extérieure inclinée comme pourraient
l'être, par exemple, les pressions de courant ou des
sollicitations dynamiques.

68
 BASE CAlCULATION Of ANCHOR FOUNDATIONS USING APPROXIMATE
MODEl TESTING
Calcul des fondations d'ancrage à l'aide des modèles approximatifs
by
A.S. KANANYAN,
Research Institute of Foundations and Underground Structures, Gosstroy URSS
M.I. NIKITENKO, Yu.A. SOBOLEVSKY, V.N. SUKHODOEV
Byelorussian Polytecnic Institute
SOMMAIRE
Cette communication présente les résultats
d'une similitude particulière dite des modèles
approximatifs. Des modèles géométriquement sem-
blables pour des ancrages, pour des ancrages
champignons, pour des plaques enterrées placées
dans le sol réel ont été réalisés pour étudier la
capacité portante des ancrages. La loi de la force
limite et celle du déplacement limite en fonction
de l'échelle a été dégagée et extrapolée jusqu'au
réel.
Cette rnéthode permet l'élaboration des abaques
en coordonnées adimensionnelles répétées par les
résultats de nombreux essais sur modèles à
diverses échelles. Une telle approche minimise le
nombre des essais en vraie -grandeur.
l t is rather difficult ta make analytical calculations
of bearing capacities and deformations of anchor foun-
dation bases, owing to the absence of axial symmetry
and non-linear deformations.
That is why it is advisable to use an approximate
modeling in order to determine the bearing capacity
and anchor foundation deformity. In the 50 s the
by D.E. Poishin. According to the concept, geome-
trical dimensions of the foundation were modelled with
the dynamic similarity kept, , and the soils the same
both for the. model and the prototype [1].
The systemizing of test results is done in non-
dimensional coordinates which gives 'the opportunity
to minimize and sometimes to eliminate the effect of
the model on the final results determining the bearing
capacity and natural foundation base deformation [2],
[3], [4].
The models of the anchor foundation parts such
as slabs, inclined piles, cross-bar cylinders, mushroom-
like and bored anchors were tested and the resultant
data were represented in non-dimensional coordinates
[5], '[6], [7], [8]. The methods of each modelloading
were taken to be equal according to the requirements of
the kinematic and dynamic similarity. The anchors
were subjected to pulling' force step by step and \vere
kept till stabilization of displacement in the point of
load application was achieved. .
69
SUMMARV
The conditions of approximate ,model testing
are used to determine the bearing capacity and
def6rmity of anchor foundations bases. The idea
of approximate model testing is to mQdel geome-
trical dimensions of foundations keeping dynamic
similarity, the soil being the same both for model
and the prototype. The models of anchor foun-o
dation structures such as slabs, inclined piles,
cross-bar cylinders, mushroom-like and bored an-
chors were tested and the resultant data were
represented in non-dimensional coordinates. The
empirical method of the calculation of the anchor
bearing capacity and deformity should be used.
This method offers the possibility of plottinq
coincidence diagrams in terms of non-dimensional
coordinates after conducting several model tests
in various scales. Such an approach mini,mizes the
volume of full scale tests.
During every model test no less than 10 experimental
values for the diagram «load-displacement» were obtain-
ed as the steps of loading were nearly 1/10 of their
maximum value. The tests were considered finished
when either a sudden loss in bearing capacity with
soil deformation or increasing displacement took place
. without additional loading.
The last loading step when the anchor displa-
cement stabilization set in was taken as a maximum
N lim , while the displacement D lim corresponded to this
loading. The loading N lim was prior to the maximum
value of pulling force.
The test results of different anchor foundation struc-
tures in sand and clay soils indicated that the depen-
dence «load-displacement» is non-linear as the
compaction and displacement deformation of base soil
takes place simultaneously, one of the types predomi-
nating at the beginning and at the end of loading.
The «load-displacement» curves for different models
and prototypes have in absolute values quite a different
character, without giving the opportunity to generalize
the dependence function for the «base-foundation»
system. The diagram of the above dependencies in
absolute values by test data does not provide their true
significance even qualitatively. Thus, for instance,
diagram curvature depends on the choice of scales of
displacement and loading values. The natural dispers-
ing of deformation experimental' values for this or that
 load in repeated tests influences the diagram cur- base deformation and the growth of displacements
vature as well. The estimation of such diagrams, during the next steps of load application.
taking into account the variety of soil conditions, 2. The vague diagram curvatureshows the foundation
becomes more difficult for foundation models and pro- properties: the abrupt curve corresponds to shallow
totypes of various constructions and dimensions. anchor foundations, soft soils having low mechanical
When the diagram of «load-displacement» depen- characteristics; the fIat curving corresponds to deeper
dence is compiled in relative values, we have quite foundation bedding and compact soils with much 1

another picture. The ratio of acting loads Ni t6 their better mechanical characteristics. - 1

maximum value NuIt marked on the abscissa· axis in the 3. The diagrams remain just the same for anchor
unique system of non-dimensional coordinates and the foundation models both over the whole scale range
corresponding relations between Di and Dlim displa- and in a part of the range and this operis wide
cements are marked on the ordinate axis. Such a opportunities for extrapolation of test results.
systemizing of test results makes it possible to compare 4. The diagram curvature is not affected by the dimen-
the dependences for anchor foundations of different sions and the shape of foundations as well as the
scale and to get equations of relative parameter angle of pull-out, though these parameters influence
connections. the absolute values of maximum displacements and
Vi Ni u N efforts.
-U == f - N or Ci == f (Ci) (1)
Hm Hm 5. The comparison of test results of pulling out ram-
The tests diagrams in non-dimensional coordinate med piles and cylindrical anchors put into leading
were plotted in accordance with the anchor foundation wells shows that the curvature of «load-displace..
structures in the scale range from 1: lOto 1: 1 accord- ment» non-dimensional diagram is more abrupt in
ing to the tests in sand and clay soils (fig. 1, 2). the first case than in the second one.
The analysis of the diagrams showed their characte- The accuracyof base calculations under approximate
ristics as follows: model testing conditions depends greatly on the defi-
1. The diagrams are characterized by convexity Which nition of the foundation displacement maximum values.
shows the non-linear nature of, anchor foundation 1t is reasonable therefore to lessen the .loading steps
before foundation bearing. capacity limit is achieved.

.. 0.2 0/,. 08 1.0

ct
0.2
~
0.2
~
04
e~
""
0.6
cr
10

~I"o
a2 02 "

:4~
fJ:::Oo.
, l
100 x ~

.,..e
0.41---+---1 0.4 15°0 (J4 ~ 1"A
'30 0 <D ;
40 0 A d==04m + /1.
1161----+----+
.Pij 0.0 50o~ 0.6
a6m x
...
e:::)
60°l- O.9m
o.~l-----1~ sund h:: lB"" 2,4m.J.OIJt 40m-<J
Â

0.8
7Do D "
~
1.0 m
0
I::t.
f
v,,",
........
1---+----+ r:::
1550k.9;",J 0 + A .
80°Ç/$ sand 1.2 m e
'

1.0 ct 1= 1700 k9j",3 11 )( Â ~

1.0 ~
~'! C,v
al 1.0 a]
02 Olt 0.6 a.a 1.0
~ . 0.2
~xA~
~êI • .A
0.4 0.6 D.~ 1.0
CiN Â
0.2
x
0.4 0.6 OB 1.0

•~ A ~
v -4

02 t--t---+--+---+-+--~-lIIIL---+---+--.......j 0.2 0

cf .~

M 1:10 e "'i
o A
04 1=5 A 0
0.4
1:2 x -A
1:1 0
~

x jand cLay
Oô 0.6
f3~~D}/N
0.6 a h h=2om=C(}ns'~~
~
sand si/tg sandy ~ ,/"WJ '''''W"l )
.R
o.22m QJm. • a=11m A t-----i~
O.SSm o.75m fJ 1.7m. x f--~
OB /11:2 x soiLs 08 Cl"':)
Il
~ O.U O.69m OS4m. 0 2.2m v
u M1:5 + C) ~ i U 0.98m 1J1m G) 2.6rn +
~d=o.55~
1.0 Ci
10 Cl 1'11:10. A sand 1.0 Ci 1.10m 1.50m A
ri; el f)
Fig. 1. - Average «load-displacement» dependence in approximate values foranchor foundations a) right-angled inclined
slabs with 80 X 500 mm in average-sized sand; b) cross-bar cylinders when' being piled into the average-sized sand; c) round
slabs in sand of average size and density; d) inclined piles in fine sand of average 'density and in hard dusty sandy loam;
e) cross-bar cylinders when using the principle method of boring into the sand of average size and density; f) mushroom-
like foundations in sand of average size and density and in a hard clay.

70
 As the summarizing of available data shows, one
04- 0.6 0.8 1.0 must be sure that the test is conducted properly in
N arder ta minimize the dispersing of results, i.e ta see
C·l- if all the adopted methods of model testing and the
accuracy of effort and displacement measurements are
observed carefully till the limit of foundation bearing
X capacity is achieved. The soil for model testing must
0.2 r-----r-----r---t----+---+--++-~~--+----+-~ have similar physical and mechanical characteristics.
X
• Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, show diagrams of maximum values of
stabilized pulling forces N lim and the corresponding
x displacelnents Ulim depending on anchor model scale.
0

0.4 Dependence N lim == f (S) is curved and has power

0
" x function character, but the dependence Ulim == f (S)
is almost linear, which simplifies the extrapolation of
the foundation model test results.
06 This almost linear character of the dependence of
maximum stabilized displacement followed by pulling
out the anchors will remain the same even for larger
prototypes. Such a conclusion is based on the thought
x S 1:10 L=:08m, Lk=OJm,dIC=1.6cm that anchor soil base lies above the footing. «Load-
o.B v 1.5:10 1.2 0.45 2..4
scale» dependences are also convenient to represent in a
unique system of non-dimensional coordinates for aU
+ 2:10 16 0.6 J.2 the anchor foundation structures. The scale ratios or
u • 3:10 2.4 0.9 't.B ratios of, linear dimensions of prototypes and models
, Ci 0
4:10 J.2 1.2 6.'1- . are marked on the abscissa axis and corresponding
10 ratios of their maximum loads are marked on the
ordinate axis. Any fou~dation s,cale, natural dimen-
Fig. 2 - Average «Ioad-displacement» dependences in ap- sions included, can be taken as a single one in tis
proximate values 'for inclined anchors in soft sandy coordinate system, other S'cales being prototypes.
morainic Ioam.

~ïn,t NlJhL' t Nlilfl"-' t

J
1.41----r---+----l-----I---À 12 12
o

• sand
silty sandy soiLs
1 1
1 t N'
20
~[?m
10 '1) moreniK "soils 1 1.2 10 1----

f-----

sand J !-1~1
16 t------+-----... 101---+----t----.-----H~~
B
r
----4--I-#+-I

1
6r------+---+--+-----!!..-f---I-.......l.. 6
/
4- 4 /
/
21---+---~--I-J...--+-----I
2
/
O.21--+----=*--+--+-~-4----1
li
'S s 08 ,S ~ V s
02 86 o.n 10 0,1 0.2 o.J 0/,. a5 OZ ,In 01 04 0.6 aB 10
a) Il) C} d)
Fig. 3. - Average «model-scale-Ioad» dependences for anchor foundations: a) cross-bar cylinders in sand and in the
morainic sandy loam; b) inclined paired piles in sand and in dusty sandy loam, single piles in morainic sandy loam; c) round
slabs in sand; d) mushroom-Iike foundations in sand.

71
 16
C{m.,mm
14 /
! V

12 V
1 /
6 1------+---+----+---l-------i--r------tV-----t---t-----r-----t 10
/V~
V
8 v
/
/
4 I----+------+-----+------+----+---"v~+---r----r------; 6 I/
/ /V
/v
2l---1---+---I----+-~+-----+---+---+--~-----i ~
V
",/
2
v V

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

5
as
s
0.1 0.2. 0.3 0.4 0.5 Fig. 6. - «ModeI scale-maximum displacement» for in-
clined bored anchors in soft sandy morainic loam.
Fig. 4. - «Model scale-maximum displacement» for slop-
ed boring' anchors in soft sandy morainic loam.

moreni/\
soils 80 prot
)( N/lm. sand moreniK

70
mod
IYIim.
f---

~
f 13==20°
ft= 0°
fi =400
A
rj

0
soUs
Â

-• /
/
J

E~
~oo , 0 sandy
siltysolls
Il
00
lf7
t----

+ sand
n=2~
1-- X morenix suUs

50 t--- t sand 1V
v~· V
V
f---

t À=2
.À=3
À=4
v
'V
L.
n=26 .......

tr
/1
8 t-----+---+---+--F/+---+------7"'f, ----+--+-----+------'-f
/'
/ ~V
.-/1 V -
T
+
sand
El)
// ~
30 Il Vi J 1

! V / V>
20 t---
Nmod-
~ot
Nlini _
f\
n ill n=~ / V
0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0
"/Tl. /;:è/ ~V n=2.O

h~/ ~V
fl~2.15
Fig. 5. - Average «model scale-maximum displacement»
dependences for anchor foundations. 1) cross-bar cylinders 10
. in sand; 2) cross-bar' cylinders in morainic sandy loam;
3) inclined single piles in morainic sandy loam; 4) mush- ~ ~
~
~v
room-Iike foundations in sand. ~~
~ ~ ~
1 2
Fig. 7. - Average «model scale-Ioad» dependences calcu-
lated in approximate values for anchor foundations of
different constructions (curved diagrams are compiled
NNii~t . . according to the equation 2 with n having different
Dependences N prat == f (CL) are represented ln fIg. 7, values).
lim
8.

72
 70 ;vPI'ot
u prot
~-C
mod - L (3)
Lim U lim
;V/11od
/"im where CL is the ratio of linear dimensions or prototype
60 and model scales; n is the coefficient depending on
/ anchor foundation. construction and the kind of
soil. 1ts values for anchor foundation models in sand

sa 7 and clay soils are found to be in the interval from

2 to 2.7. It is possible to take n == 2.15 for cylindrical
and inclined piled anchors, n == 2.3 for anchor slabs
/ and n == 2.6 for mushroom-like foundations w.ith sorne
/ stability of foundation in the first approximation.
40
v Thus, us~ng the principle of approximate similarity,
with summarizing the model tests of anchor foun-
dation structures in relative values, makes it possible

JO / to introduce the empirical method of calculations of

v natural foundation bearing capacity and deformity. The

essence of this method can be represented in the
following way.

20 / Repeated (3 or 5 times) model tests of anchor

foundation of definite construction in corresponding
J
/ n=16 soil conditions are carried out and approximate model
testing requirements are observed, the limit of foun-

10
/ dation bearing capacity being exhausted by pull-out.

v
~
v The values
N~~d and U~~d
are determined. Multiplying model test results by
~v ç 1 transitional coefficientsaccording to dependencies (2)
2 4 and (3), the ultimate points of prototype displacement
and loading are found in. absolute values. Afterwards
Fig. 8. - «Model scale-Ioading» dependences in approxi-
mate values for inclined bored anchors (curved diagram is
they are multiplied by non-dimensional coordinates of
compiled according to the equation 2 where n = 2.6). intermediate points of the «load-displacement» depen-
dence and a diagram is plotted for natural foundation.
The diagram gives the opportunity to find correspond-
ing efforts or displacements caused by them with the
necessary reliability. The calculated load is determined.
Systemizing the .obtained results it is possible to by means of permissible displacements.
approximate them in the following expressions: The principle of the calculation of anchor foundation
prot
N bases with the use of small-scale models test results
~-Cn (2)
- L
mod will be shown in the following example.
N lim

CALCULATION EXAMPLE

1t is necessary to calculate the displacement and 3.2 m, the root 6.4 ln in diameter and 1.2 m in length,
stability of the model of the inclined bored anchor the inclination of the axis - 20 0 , the slope angle of
foundation having the following dimensions: full length the boring depth -- 40°) in morainic sandy loam.

SOLUTION

1. Average «load-displacement» dependences were ob-
tained for the model which is 4 times less than the
anchor being calculated and having equal deflection
from horizon and the slope angle depth; tests were
repeated three times in identical soil. The non-
dilnensional parameters are given in table 1.
The arithlnetical mean values N~~d and U~~d
according to the testresults were 0.20 t and 0.30 mm
respectively.
2. The maximun1 value of the base bearing capacity
of calculated bored anchor and its displacement are
determined in the following w'ay.

TABLE 1

c~ == Ni 1 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
N 1im

1-0- ~ 0.02 ~ 0.06 0.08 ~ -~ 0.29 0.48 ~

73
 Figure 9 b shows comparative diagrams for mush-
Nf(~t = N;'I~d . (~::;) 2.6 = 0.20 ( 3~00 ) 2.6 = 7.3 t room-like anchor (a == b == ·110 cm; h == 1.5 m curves
prot 1.2; a == b == 96 cm, h == 131 cm - curves 3.4;
U
, 1

prot
U lim = u~~
d
. Umod == 0.30 X 4 == 1.20 ·cm a == b == 69 cm; a == b == 94 cm - curves 5.6;
a == b == 55 cm, h == 75 cm - curves 7.8) in average-
3. Compile the supposed diagram of «load-displace- sized sand. Calculated (curve 1) and experimental
ment» dependence for the prototype. For this pur- curve 2) «load-displacement» dependence for cylin-
pose multiply maximum' load and displacement drical cross-bar anchor with the diameter of 56 cm and
values by the non-dimensional diagram coefficients 300 cm long in morainic sandy loam with the pull-
from table I. The results are summarized in table 2 out == 40 0 are represented in fig. 9 c.
and the diagram
rot
Ur
= f (Nfrot) is compiled Calculated diagrams are obtained by the testing of
(fig. 9 a, curve 1). models with al: 5 scale. T4us, the- use of approximate
There are diagrams obtained experimentally and values, while summarizing the results of approximate
giving the opportunity to compare calculation results anchor foundation model testïng, put in the first place
(fig. 9 a, curve 2). This very figure shows the compa- the consideration of base soil properties and made it·
rative diagrams for other models of bored anchors possible to solve a problem almost unsolvable for the
(8 1.5: la curves 3.4; 8 2: la - curves 5.6; 8 3: practice of full identity and for analytical calculation
la - curves 7.8) in an identical soil. methods.

TABLE 2

0.73, 1.46 2.19 2~92 3.65 4.38 5.10 5.83 6.56 7.30
1------1-- --- - - -~ - - - - - - - - - - ---

prot
U i cm 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.23 0.34 0.58 1.20

2 4 6 10
2 4 6 8

~ 1

0.8 I------D-~----'X---I----~k_____-~~--+-~-----r-____t

12 I-------X-I+------+ll--+----~__+\--+_------'H----~___t

5
6 1----+1.--+--t----Jl-Hl------\-J.-,..:~---l 1.6 I------+--~~+----+_----'-\+_---r--~---r-;____t

2.0 ~--.j__--+---_t_-----\rlt_---t--t-------r_;_1

2.4 l----+-----+----+_---f---4i~--+-----+-t-__t1
101---1----
lJ,mm
2.ô '--_----1_ _---'-_ _ - - - l -_ _--..L-_ _- - ' - -_ _~ ~

12
U,mm
' - - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - L -_ _- - - - l_ _-b.l---l IJj
a] ~ 12 16 PO

Fig. 9. - Analytical and experimental «load-displacement»

dependences:
a) for inclined bored anchor in soft sandy morainic loam;
b) for mushroom anchor foundations in sand;
c) for. cross-bar cylindrical anchors in morainic sandy 1
loam.
8t------+----+-----4---:..~-+----

12 t---~____4_----+---_+__-_I___\_\__-----I

74
16 'U,cm
~_ _ _ L . . __ _ _ l _ __ _____l__ _.....L..

C)
 REFERENCES
[1] POLSHIN (D.E.), JHA (J.). - On modelling of
soil mechanics problem by V.1. Kurdjumov's me-
thod. NIIOSP Proceedings N 55, «Osnovanya e
fundamenti», Stroyizdat, .Moscow, (1964).
[2] CHIZHIKOV (P.G.). - Load-settlement depen-
dencies between model and full size footings.
Transportnoje stroitelstvo, No 6 (1967).
[3] JAROSHENKO (V.A.). - Modelling settlements
of footings on sand foundations MIIT Proceedings,
No 100, «Mekhanika gruntov, osnovanya i fun-
damenti». Transzheldorizdat, Moscow (1959).
[4] KANANYAN (A.S.). - Experimental study of an-
chor foundations behavior, NIIOSP Proceedings,
No 53, «Osnovanya e fundamenti», Moscow
(1963).
75
[5] EKIMYAN' (N.B.). - Generalized affinity techni-
que and its application to piles, modelling.NIIOSP
proceedings, No 65, «Svainye fundamenti», (1975).
[6] SOBOLEVSI(Y (Ju.A.). - Sukhodoev V.N. The
study of cylindrical thrust anchors «Energitiches-
koye stroitelstvo», No 12 (150), (1973).
[7] GABLIA (Ju.A.), NIKITENI(O (M.!.), SHASHKO
(S.D.). - The tests of new anchor modifications
for securing bearing stays of overhead power trans-
mission lines. «Energeticheskoye stroytelstvo»,
No 1 (187), pp. 73-76 (1977).
[8] KANANYAN (A.S.). - Experimental study 'Of
deformability and stability of anchor foundation
bases. Proceedings of the Baltic conference on
soil mechanics and foundation engineering, vol. 3,
Gdansk, 22-25 (September 1975).
 DETERMINATION Of THE CARRYING CAPACITY Of GROUND ANCHORS
WITH THE CORRELATION AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Calcul de la force portante des tirants d'ancrage
à l'aide de l'analyse de la corrélation et de la régression
by
H. KRAMER
Dr.-Ing., Technical University of Hannover, Germany
SOMMAIRE
Au cours de la dernière décennie, on a effectué
un grand nombre d'essais de tirants d'ancrage à
Hannovre (Allemagne Fédérale). La communication
décrit l'interprétation des observations recueillies
par application des méthodes statistiques et pro-
pose deux équations pour la capacité portante des
tirants d'ancrage: l'une pour les sols pulvérulents
et l'autre pour les sols cohérents.
INTRODUCTION
AlI equations estimating the carrying capacity of
ground anchors published till now have been developed
on the basis of theoretical considerations or model tests.
I<nowing these' equations and taking. into consideration
the experience gained at site, it must be stated that the
carrying capacity depends on a multitude of influence-
factors, which can be classified into the following
groups:
- dimensions and construction specification
of ground anchors;
- soil characteristics;
- state of stress acting on the grouted body
of ground anchors.
1t can be supposed that there is no functional relation
between the carrying capacity and each of the influence-
factors, but only a stochastic relation. In natural
science and in many branches of technology correlation
and regression analysis are used to examine stochastic
relations. Regression is a method for getting the
best formula relating a dependent variable to inde-
LIST Of SYMBOLS
The following notations are used in this paper:
aj regression constants.
A carrying capacity of ground anchors in kN.
B relative importance factor.
76
SUMMARY
ln the last decade a great number of fundamen-
tal and suitability tests of ground anchors have
been performed in Hannover, GRF. These tests
have been supervised by the {( Institut für Grund-
bau und Bodenmechanik, Technische Universitat
Hannover», which also performed the laboratory
soil investigations . This contribution describes the
evaluation of the gathered observations by appli-
cation of statistical methods. The result of these
investigations is the proposai of two equations
to estimate the carrying capacity of ground an-
chors, one for anchors in non-cohesive soil and
the other for anchors in cohesive soil.
pendent variables and to determine the constants in
this formula by minimizing the sum of squared devia-
tions of observations from the regression equation. The
regression equation can be a straight line (1inear regres-
sion) or a curved line (nonlinear regression) and if there
are more than one independent variable (simple
regression) it is called multiple regression.
The interdependence between the variables is measur-
.ed by the correlation coefficient. The simple correlation
coefficient shows how much two variables are associat-
ed. 1t varies between + 1.0 (perfect correlation)
through 0 (no association). to - 1.0 (perfect inverse
correlation). The multiple' correlation coefficient is a
measurement for the association between a dependent
variable and two or more independent variables. It
varies between 0 (no correlation) to 1.0 (perfect
correlation). The partial correlation coefficient measu-
res the association between a dependent variable and
only one independent variable, when the other indepen-
dent variables are held constant. 1t is also measured
in the range + 1.0 to -1.0.
c : cohesion of cohesive soil in kN/m2 •
Cc = d~ol dl 0 • d60 : coefficient of curvature.
dA diameter of the grouted body.
dw effective diameter in mm.
dlQ soil diameter at which 10% of the soil weight FM superficies of the bond-to-ground length in m 2 •
is finer. hm height of the overburden at the half of the bond-
d 3ü soil diameter at which 30 % of the soil weight to-ground length in m.
is finer. le consistency index.
d 6ü soil diameter at which 60 % of the soil weight 1p plasticity index
is finer.
k coefficient of permeability.
Dl percentage of soil with grain diameters
d < 0.006 lum. 1 0 bond-to-ground length in m.
D2 percentage of soil with grain diameters p maxÏ1uum injection pressure.
0.006 lUlU < d < 0.02 mm. U == d6ü / dlQ: uniformity coefficient
D3 percentage of soil with grain diameters V-ea : lime content in percent.
0.02 mm < d < 0.06 mm.
w : natural water content in percent.
04 percentage of soil with grain diameters
WL liquid limit in percent.
d > 0.06 mm.
Ds percentage of soil with grain diameters Wp plastic limit in percent
d < 0.2lum. a angle of inclination of ground anchors in grade.
D6 percentage of soil with grain diameters r unit weigth in kN/m3 •
0.2 mm < d < 0.6 mm. cp' angle of friction in grade.
D7 percentage of soil with grain diameters 't. shear stress in non-cohesive soil in kN/ m 2 •
0.6 mm < d < 2.0 mm.
't c shear stress in cohesive soil in kN/m2 •
Ds percentage of soil with grain diameters
d::;> 2.0 m.

IN·FLUENCES ON THE CARRYING CAPACITY

The results of about 130 fundamental and suitability The influence of the following factors on the carrying
tests w:ere the basis of the following investigations. capacity was taken into consideration:
Gnly in sorne cases could the breaking load of the a) from the dimensions and construction specification
tested grounâ anchors be measured and therefore it was of the anchors:
necessary to estimate the maximum load. By evaluating
the stress-strain curves from the tests as proposed - bond-to-ground length;
by T.F. Herbst (1971) and H. Grade (1974) the real - superficies of the bond-to-ground length;
placing bond-to-ground length could be found out. - inclination of the anchors;
U sing these determined bond-to-ground lengths the - maximum injection pressure;
following maximum loads could be estimated: for b) from soil characteristics of non-cohesive soil:
anchors in non-cohesive soil according to H. Grade
- grain size distribution;
(1974) in the range of 614 kN to 1167 kN and for the
anchors in cohesive soil as proposed by F.R. Hahn - uniformity coefficient;
(1974) in the range of 181 kN to 954. kN. - effective diameter;
- coefficient of permeability;
c) from soil characteristics of cohesive soil:
3 - grain size distribution;
- natural water content;
- consistency limits;
- lime content;

10

1 Anchor head 1fSt Free tendon length

2 Beari ng pla te 1v Bond length of tendon
3 Wall If A Free anchor length
4 Borehole 10 Bond-to-ground leflgth
5 Protective sheath 1A Total anchor length
6 Steel tendon Fig. 1. - Temporary anchor construction of
7 Grouted body the investigated typo

77
d) from the state of stress acting on the grouted body:
N. normal stress;
- shear stress;
both estimated by different formulas.
The aim of these investigations was to find answers
to the following questions:
1) Which factors can have an influence on the carrying
capacity?
2) How intense is the dependence of the carrying
capacity on individual factors?
3) What are the direct associations between the carrying
capacity and the influencing factors?
This paper deals only with temporary anchors as
sho:vn in fig. 1.

CORRELATION- AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS Of GROUND

AN CHORS IN NON",COHESIVE SOIL

not adequately reveal the relative effect of the inde-

The test results of 51 ground anchors were taken pendent variables on the dependent variable because of
into consideration. Using the linear multiple regression differences in the units. The importance of the inde-
and taking 8 influence-factors in each case multiple pendent variables can be measured by the relative
correlation coefficients between 0.83 and 0.97 were importance-factor of variables B. 1t can be stated that
measured. The formula yielding the highest value the dependent variable is influenced more by the
included the following 8 independent variables: independent variable with a larger' relative important
A == f (FM' p, D s, D 6 , D 7 , Dg, k, -c) (1) factor.
To determine the degree of association between the The follow,ing table shows the reiative importance-
carrying capacity and only one of the 8 influence- factors of the variables in formula (1):
factors of formula (1), partial correlation coefficients B (FM:) 0.0000138010
have been computed.
B (p) 0.0000000031
Comparatively the superficies of the bond-to-ground B (D s) 1046367.8310152777
length FM has been exchanged f?r the bond-~o-ground
length la. The results are shown ln the followlng table: B (D 6) 1107823.6971716285
B (D 7) 667740.4196914956
1 2 3 1-
4 5 B (Dg) 1163158.8443476185
1
B (k) - 0.5683856830
multiple simple partial B ('t) 0.0000141248
No correlation investigated correlation correlation
coefficient variables coefficient coefficient This -investigation shows that the whole grain size
curve is v,~ry important for the carrying capacity,
0.471 0.543 while ~he separate grain size groups have only a
1 0.972 A,F M negligible influence.
2 0.928 A, la 0.350 0.459
A,p -0.263 0.261 As a result of a great number of calculations, the
3 0.972
following equation to estimate the carrying capacity
4 0.972 A,D s 0.239 0.000 of ground anchors in non-cohesive soil is proposed:
5 0.972 A,D 6 0.039 0.000 A == ao + al . FM + a2 . D s + a3 . D 6 + a4 . D 7 +
6 0.972 A,D 7 -0.269 0.000 as . Dg + a6 • k + a7 • 't (2)
7 0.972 A,D g -0.175 0.000 with
8 0.972 A,k 0.015 -0.789 FM == 1t • dA . la
9 0.972' A,'t 0.758 0.932 and
1
2- sin cp'
't== 2 ' . y . hm . tan cp'
To know,n the influence of other soil characteristics
the coefficient of permeability in the formula (1) has The correlation analysis yielded a multiple corre N

been exchanged for other factors. The following lation coefficient equals 0.96 and the following values
correlation coefficients have been computed: for the constants of formula (2):
ao == - 2 679.36
1 2 3 4 5
al. == + 34.12
multiple simple partial a2 == + 29.20
No correlation investigated correlation correlation a3 == + 30.94
coefficient variables coefficient coefficient a4 == + 20.63
as == + 31.92
1 0.884 A,U - 0.516 0.501 a6 == - 2 051.48
2 0.914 A,C c -0.049 -0.422 a7 == '+ 9.73
3 0.939 A,dw 0.055 -0.748
Using formula (2) to estimate the carrying capacity
it must be observed 'that the grain size curve lies
By using the regression analysis, the constants of the within the boundaries of fig. 2 and the values of the
formula (1) were determined. But these constants do ,influence-factors do not exceed the following limits:

78
 0.98 m 2 .:::; FM':::; 3.611n2 o 0;0 S D 7 S 17 %
7.40 cm .:::; dA .:::; 11.50 cm o% S D 8 ~ 77 %
4.10m. ~ 1 S 15.00m
0 0.122 . 10-2 cm/s s k s 25.2 . 10--2 cm/s
0 010 s'Ds ~ 86 Dm 31.7 kN/m2 s 't s 95.6 kN/m2
10 % s' D 6 :s; 78 %

Hydrometer Analys is Sieve Anolysis

Clay 5ilt Sand Gravel
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse

90

~O
:1
70

60
g
'ül 50
g
o {.O
~

30

t:
d= 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0,2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 mm
Fig. 2. Boundaries of the grain size distribution of the investigated non-cohesive soiI.

CORRELATION- AND REGRESSION ANAlYSIS Of GROUND

ANCHORS IN COHESIVE SOll

The test results of 57 ground anchors have been Exchanging the consistency index le. in the formuia
<

investigated. U sing the linear multiple regression and (3), the influence of other soil characteristics on the
taking 9 influence-factors into consideration in each carrying capacity has been computed as follows:
case multiple correlation coefficients between 0.97 and
0.98 have been computed. The formula (3) yielded the 1 2 3 4 5
highest value.
A == f (FM' p,D 1, D 2, D 3, D 4, le' V ea , 'tJ (3) multiple simple partial
No correlation investigated correlation correlation
The following table contains the multiple, simple and coefficient variables coefficient coefficient
partial correlation coefficients of the above formula,
in which the superficies of the bond-to-ground length l 0.983 -0.099
A,w -0.063
FM has been exchanged again for the bond-to-ground
length 10 : 2 0.983 A,WL 0.155 -0.052
3 0.983 A,wp 0.466 0.066
1 2 3 4 5 4 0.983 A,l p -0.293 -0.056
1

multiple simple partial Subsequently the constants of formula (3) and the
No correlation investigated correlation correlation relative importance factors of the independent variables
coefficient variables coefficient coefficient have been computed as already described above. The
results indicate that the carrying capacity is most
1 0.983 A,FM 0.508 0.752 influenced by the superficies of the bond-to-ground
2 0.983 A,1.o 0.057 length and by the consistency index.
0.569
Taking the results of these investigations as a basis,
3 0.983 A,p 0.340 0.034 it can be proposed to estimate the carrying capacity
4 0.983 A,D 1 -0.698 - 0.157 of ground anchors in cohesive soil by the fàllowing
5 0.983 A,D 2 - 0.021 - 0.170 equation:
6 0.983 A,D 3 0.669 ,
- 0.210 A == a o · + al . FM + a2 . Dl + a3 . D 2 + a4 . D 3 +
as . D 4 + a6 • le + a7 • 'te (4)
7 0.983 A,D 4 0.800 0.385 with
8 0.983 A, le 0.638 0.093 FM
9 0.983 A., V ea - 0.141 -0.119 and
10 0.983 A,'te 0.676 0.666 y . hm . tan cp'
'te == cos2 ex + sin2 ex (1 + 2 . tan2 cp') + 2 . sin ex • cos ex +
c' . cos2 cp'

79 .
 The multiple correlation coefficï'ent for this equation curve must be within the boundaries of fig. 3 and the
was 0.98 and the following values for the constants values of the influence-factors are not allowed to
have been calculated: exceed the following limits:
ao == + 721.51 0.98 m 2 ~ FM::; 6.48 m 2
al == + 71.84 6.50 cm :::; dA::; 16.80 cm
az == - 9.81 4.10 m ~ 10 : : ; 15.00 m
a3 == - 1.99 20 % ::; Dl::; 76 0/0
a4 == - 21.22 12 % :::; D 2 :::; 27 0/0
as == + 10.34 4% :::; D
3
s 27 0/0
a6 == + 95.15 2 % ::; D
4 ::; 34 0/0
a7 == + 2.56 0.84 :::; le::; 1.35
Estimating the carrying capacity of ground anchors 50.7 kN/m 2 :::; 'te ::; 165.3 kN/m2
in cohesive soil by using formula (4), the grain size

Hydrometer Analysis Sieve Analysis

Clay Silt Sand 1 Gravel
fine medium cqarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse

d= 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0,2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 mm

Fig. 3. - Boundaries of the grain size distribution of the,~investigated cohesive soil.

CONCLU51·0N5

The evaluation of the test results of 51 ground
anchors in non-cohesive as well as 57 ground anchors
in cohesive soil by using the correlation and regression
analysis shows the influence of ground anchor
dimensions, soil characteristics and the shear stresses
acting on the grouted b9dy on the carrying capacity
of ground anchors. On the basis of these investigations
two equations to estimate the carrying capacity are
proposed, one for ground anchors in non-cohesive soil
and the other one for ground anchors in cohesive sail.
The constants of these equations, including 7 pata-
meters in each case, have been determined by means
of the linear multiple regression analysis.
Both· equations include the grain size distribution of
the soil classified in 4 fractions, the superficies of the
bond-to-ground length and the shear stress acting on
the superficies. of the bond-to-ground length. Another
parameter in the formula for ground anchors in non-

+200

+100
. .
....
r=l

. .•..••
z
o 1-•
Dl
<11
'-J••
<t 0
600 •
"
. . . , . ,. . .
700 .- 800 ... 900 . 10~0 •• ,100 12.00 Areg [kNJ
en
<!

-100
.
~

Fig. 4. - Differences between the car-

rying capacity of ground anchors in
-200
non-cohesive soil gained by evaluating
the .stress-strain curves (Ag) and esti-
mated by the proposed formula (A reg ).

80
 .200
.100
Fig. 5. - Differences beween the car-
~ 0
rying capacity of ground anchors in
cohesive soiI gained by evaluating the
'4
stress-strain curves (Ag) and estimat-
ed by the proposed formula (Areg). 4 -100
-200
cohesive soil is the coefficient of permeability, whereas
in the formula for ground anchors in cohesive soil
the consistency index appears. Furthermore the unit
weight, the angle of friction and the cohesion of
cohesive soil appear in both equations. Estimating
with the proposed equations the carrying capacity of
the ground anchors used in the regression analysis, it
is found that about 90 percent of the ground anchors
have only differences of less than 60 kN from the
loads estimated by evaluating the stress-strain curves
from the tests as shown in fig. 4 and 5.
GRADE (H.). - « Ein Beitrag zur Abschatzung der
Tragfahigkeit von Verpressankern in nichtinji-
zierbaren nichtbindigen Boden ».
Mitteilungen des Instituts für Grundbau und Boden-
mechanik der TU Hannover, Heft 8 (1974).
"HAHN (F.R.). - « Ein Beitrag zur Herstellung und
zur Ermittlung der Tragfahigkeit von temporaren
Erdankern in den Bodenarten der Hannoverschen
Kreideformation ».
Mitteilungen des Instituts für Grundbau und Boden-
mechanik der TU Hannover, Heft 6 (1974).
HERBST (T.F.). - « Tragverhalten von Verpressan-
kern », Proc. 4th' Conf. on Soil Mechanics,
Budapest (1971).
IBM. - «Concept and applications of regression ana-
lysis», Data processing application (1959).
JELINEK (R.) and OSTERMAYER (H.). - « Ver-
pressanker in Boden », Bauingenieur 51, pp. 109-
"118, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1976).
KRAMER (H.). - « Abschatzung der Tragfahigkeit
von Verpressankern durch Anwendung der Korre-
lationstheorie ».
.. ... ...:. . ..
. - 300
.
, .,: .
. :..
100 200 400.
.
-SOO:---- ••• 600
...
700 800
. '
• Areg [kNJ
.
ln spite' of the good correlation demonstrated in
fig. 4 and 5 it must be stated that it is not possible to
abandon the acceptance test of each ground anchor
at site due to stratifaction and nonhomogeneity of soil.
Furthermore there is no possibility to take the different
placing methods into consideration. The advan-
tage of the proposed equations based on performed
tests at site is that reliable loads can be estimated
already during the stage of design without special
expenditures. or time delay.
REFEREN'CES
NIitteilungen des Instituts für Grundbau und·
Bbdenmechanik der TU Hannover, Heft 12 (1977).
LENDl (P.). - « Ein Beitrag zur erdstatischen Be-
rechnung von Verankerungen im Lockergestein ».
Institut für bauwissenschaftliche Forschung, Heft
6, Verlag Leemann, Zürich (1969).
OSTERMAYER (H.). - «Construction, carrying beha-
viour and creep characteristics of ground anchors»,
Conf. on Diaphragm .Walls and Anchorages,
Pape 18, London (1975).
RIZKALLAH (V.) and EL NIMR (A.). - «Applica-
bility of regression analysis in soil mechanics With
the help of data banks».
Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Applications of Statistics
and Probability in Soil and Structural Engineering,
Aachen (1975).
WERNER (H.U.). - « Das Tragverhalten von gruppen-
weise ange-ordneten Erdankern ».
Die Bautechnik 1975, Heft Il, pp. 387-390, Verlag
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin (1975).
81
 ANCHOR FIELD TESTS IN CARBONIFEROUS STRATA
Essais en 7place d'ancrage dans un sédiment carbonifère

by
G.S. LITTLEJOHN
Geotechnics Research Group, University of Aberdeen, Scotland

D.A. BRUCE
Geotechnics Research Group, University of Aberdeen, Scotland·

w.
DEPPNER
Universal Anchorage Co, Bolton, England

SOMMAIRE
La communication présente les résultats préli-
minaires des essais en vraie grandeur des cin-
- quante-sept ancrages dans des sédiments carbo-
nifères. Le site géologique est brièvement décrit,
ainsi que la construction de l'ancrage et les
méthodes d'ess.ais adoptées. Avec des scellements
de différentes longueurs (0.75 à 6 m) à des
profondeurs différentes (0.75 à 12 m), divers
modes de rupture ont été obtenus. Des valeurs
d'adhérence de l'interface roche-coulis sont don-
nées ainsi que l'influence de la pression d'injection
et des écarts entre les brins sur le transfert des
charges et le comportement à la rupture.
SUMMARY
The paper discusses the preliminary findings of
full scale tests on 57 anchors installed in carboni-
ferous sediments. The site geology is briefly
described tpgether with the anchor construction
and testing methods adopted. Ta investigate the
influence of anchor geometry on failure mode,
anchors ranging in overall depth from 0.75 ta 12
metres were tested with grouted fixed anchor
lengths of 0.75 ta 6 metres. The observed effects
of depth of embedment, grout surcharge, tendon
configuration, interstrand spacing and. tendon den-
'sity on anchor performance are discussed in rela-
tion ta current practicff.. Measurements of inter-
facial bond and load transmission are presented.

INTRODUCTION

A world-wide survey of prestressed rock anchor
'practice by Littlejohn and Bruce (1975-1976) has
highlighted a dearth of information concerning the
fundamental behaviour of rock anchors with particular
reference to the mechanism of load transfer and modes
of failure.
In order to study phenomena such as rock mass
failure, localised bond failure, critical embedment and
debonding, full scale pull-out tests have been carried
out on 57 instrumented rock anchors. The purpose
of this paper is to highlight the preliminary findings. .

SITE GEOLOGY
TABLE 1
Summary of geotechnical properties
The anchors were installed in Upper Carboniferous
sediments of the Middle Grit Group of the upper part Range Mean
of the Millstone Grit Series. The sequence fined
downwards from gently dipping massive, coarse, gritty Fracture Index 10-1 6
siliceous sandstones to finer grained flaggy and shaley RQD 60 -100 90
sandstones. In addition, a total of eight soft, friable
mudstone beds were exposed or inferred in the sequence. Unit weight (Mg/m3) 2.45 -2.60 2.50
Different groups of anchors were installed from diffe- Ultimate Pulse
rent stratigraphie levels due IO the presence of various Velocity (km/sec) 2.00 - 4.50 3.50
benches, but each intersected at least one argillaceous
'bed at the grouted fixed anchor level. The whole Diametral Point Load
sequence was conspicuously vertically jointed, the Strength (N/mm2 ) 0.50 - 6.00 3.80
major orientations being north, east-north-east, (most Elastic Modulus-
prominent), and south-east. Joint spacing varied g-reatly, material (N/mm2 ) (1.3 - 2.8) X 10+ 4 2.0 X 10+ 4
being up to 1 metre in the coarser sandstones. .The
major geotechnical properties are provided in Table 1. Elastic Modulus-
mass (N/mm2 ) (0.5 - 1.6) X 10+ 4 1.0 X 10+4

82
 ANCHOR CONSTRUCTION
AIl holes were drilled verticaIly, by rotary percussion,
to provide a nominal diameter of 114 m. The tendons,
which consisted of 10 No. 7-wire Dyform 15.2 mm
dian1eter strands of 300 kN individual capacity were
asselnbled in a straight, paral1el formation with a
10 mm clear spacing (fig. 1) unless otherwise specified.
In order to dissociate the free (elastic) length from the
surrounding grout or ground, grease impregnated tape
was wrapped around each strand over (he required
length.
Prior to tendon homing each hole'was water tested,
and sealed with neat cement grout, if the water loss
exceeded 3 litres/minute/atmosphere. On completion
of sealing, neat Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
grout (w/c == 0.45) was tremied into the hole and the
tendon slowly homed.
The grout, prepared in a conventional paddle mixer,
gave bleed readings of 1.3 to 2.1 % and stressing only
took place once the grout had achieved a crushing
strength of 28 N/mm2 • At least two anchors of each
type were iristalled.

Fig. 1. - Arrangement· for standard ten

strand tendon.

ANCHOR TESTING

A hydraulic stressing system was evolved to enable
the anchors to be incrementaIly, and cyclically loaded
to failure, or to a maximum of 260 kN per strand.
The system comprised remote loading through a simply
supported beam and accommodated both multistrand
and monostrand stressing modes. Dial gauges yielded
anchor extensions and rock surface displacements to
0".01 min accuracy, and annular load ~eIls gave a direct
reading of the applied load to 1 % accuracy. A second,
independent, direct measure of stress distribution was
provided by strain gauges attached at strategic positions
on a large proportion of the strands installed. At
least one anchor of each type was instrumented in
this way.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Rock mass performance
TABLE 2
Table 2 illustrates the overall performance of the
shallow fully bonded anchors, where aIl the major Average interfacial bond values at maximum' test loads
modes of failure are reproduced. for shallow fully bonded anchors

Embedment Maximum Test Rock-grout Grout-tendon Grout Crushing Mode

Anchor No (m) Load (kN) bond (N/mm2) bond (N/mm2) strength /(N/mm2) of failure

1 0.75 440 1.64 1.23 45 Rock mass

2 0.75 500 1.86 1.40 45 Rock mass
3 0.75 450 1.68 1.26 46 Rock n1ass
4 1.50 1 495 2.72 2.09 60 Rock mass
5 1.50 1 355 2.52 1.89 F 62 'Grout-tendon
6 1.50 1 206 2.24 1.68 50 Rock mass
23 1.50 (u) 1 834 3.41 * 2.56 50 Rock mass
24 1.50 (u) 1 594 2.91' ~~ 2.23 51 Rock mass
51 2.25 2411 2.99 2.24 35 None-rock
mass imminent
52 2.25 1 978 2.45 F 1.84 36 Rock-grout
53 2.25 1 891 2.35 F 1.76 37 Rock-grout
7 3.00 2353 2.19 1.64 49 Strand fracture
8 3.00 2469 2.30 1.72 F 43 Grout-tendon
9 3.00 2 122 1.97 1.48 F 44 Grout-tendon

(*)Calculated as a straight shaft. F - failure value at interface.

83
 Up to embedment depths of 1.5 m, failure occurred
mainly in the rock maSSe For greater depths failure
tendeq to be localised at one of' the grout. interfaces.
For rock mass f.ailure, the shape of the rock volume
mobilised in each case was strongly controlled by the
incipient rock mass structure (fig. 2).
For example, the major radial fractures developed
along the trends of the major joint directions, whilst
the projected shape of the rock volume mobilised
below the surface was strongly influenced by the
laminar nature of the masse Under similar conditions,
underreamed anchors sustained higher loads than their
straight shaft counterparts. Underreaming was carried
out with a UAC patented tool to form pairs of «bells»
of 230 mm diameter and whilst a greater extent of rock
was mobilised, the pattern of surface fracturing wasnot
radically different.
For the shallow anchors installed in unweathered
rock in this project, the ultimate resistance to rock mass
failure is reasonably estimated from the empirical rule
P (kN) == 600 d2, where d is the depth of embedment
(m). For the traditional and conservative design
concept pertaining to the weight of an inverted 90°
cone, and using a unit weight of 2.5 Mg/m3 for the
rock, factors of safety ranging from 14 to 45 are indicat-
ed, assuming the apex at the base of the anchor.
Employing the observed extent of the fissuring to
speculate on the size of cones mobilised, included
angles of (117° - 144°) and (90° - 114°) can be calculated
for the apex ·positioned at the mid point and base of
the anchor, respectively. Assessing the weights of these
cones the factors of safety against pull-out are (14 - 56)
and (8 - 29) for the apex at mid point and base,
respectively. These figures highlight that other «rock
strength» parameters constitute the major component of
resistance to pull-out, and assuming that the actual
failure volulnes were· more akin to cones with apices
at the mid point of the anchor, then average «rock
strength» values mobilised over the surface area varied Fig. 4. - Failure volume induced at anchor 4, showing the
from 0.076 - 0,185 N/mm2• These values may be com- control of the dominant NW-SE joints.
pared with the design recommendations of 0.034 N/mm2
by Saliman & Schaefer (1968), and 0.024 N/mni2 by
Hilf (197.3). Based on the rock surface displacements
the tests show considerable surface disturbance for
maximum loads of 900 kN for slenderness ratios (dis- TABLE 3
tance from rock surface to the proximal end of the
grouted fixed anchor divided by the borehole diameter) Average bond values at maximum loads for a range
up to 8, but at a value of 13 for loads of 1360 kN no of grout surchargès
surface movement was observed. Above a value of
13, failure was localised, invariably at the grout-tendon Max. Max. Grüut
interface, and it is considered that this type of observa- Anchor Surcharge rock-grout grout-steel strength
(m) (N/mm2)
tion is invaluable when assessing the relevance of (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2)
stressing through a bearing plate of a simply supported
beam. 16 0.00 2.39 1.31 F - 1.78 58
17 0.00 1.86 1.01 F - 1.40 F 58
18 1.44 1.98 1.39 F - 1~48 44
Grout-tendon interface 19 1.88 1.95 1.46 F 46
22 1.70 2.00 1.29 F - 1.50 F 48
Bearing in mind the high grout strengths measured 20 3.00 1.79 1.34 F 48
prior to the stressing of each anchor (> 35 N/ mm2) no 21 3.00 1.95 1.46 F 50
correspondence between ultimate average grout-tendon
bond values and, grout strength was detected. The 56 3.00 2.24 1.68 47
presence of surcharge grout (up to 9 m) did not marked- 57 3.00 2.22 1.66 48
ly affect grout-tendon bond: -values (table 3) or the 43 6.00 2.16 1.64 F 44
. phenomenon of debonding. A grout surcharge in excess
of 3 m did however lead to a steady and quieter 44 -6.00 2.11 1.58 F 45
pull-out of strands compared with the sudden explosive 45 9.00 2.08 1.56 F 46
type of failure which may be obseryed without 46 9.00 2.24 1.68 47
surcharge.

84
 1t is also noteworthy that of the five anchors with Strand spacing was also varied but no reduction in
less than 2 m surcharge, four had an initial failure bond was observed down to a clear spacing of 5 mm.
followed by a higher maximum, or a maximum. followed Thereafter, only when strands were actually in contact
by failure at a lower load on the subsequent cycle. was any significant reduction in bond observed
Average ultimate bond values of 1.01 - 1.68 N/mm2 (table 5). Nevertheless, the use of centraliser/spacer
were recorded compared with a design range of units in the grouted fixed anchor zone is strongly
0.25 - 1.35 N/mm2 which are commonly observed in advised, and spacings lower than 5 mm are only
practice according to Littlejohn & Bruce (1975). In recommended where noding is employed to increase
this respect it should be noted that for a single strand mechanical interlock.
anchor PC 1 (1974) indicates a bond of about
3.1 N/mmi , and the Australian Standard CA 35 (1973) TABLE 5 .
suggests a working bond of up to 2.1 N/mm2 in design Average bond values at grout-tendon interface for
for single or multi-strand tendons. different interstrand spacings (6 strand tendon)
With regard to load resisting characteristics in
relation to tendon configuration, individually noded Spacing Max. Grout
Anchor between Test Crushing Max.
strand tendons were more effective than generally noded Bond
tendons (table 4) but both showed distinct advantages No strands Load Strength
(mm) (kN) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
over parallel, straight tendons. To effect general
tendon noding the strands were bound intermediate
to the spacers in the fixed length. Individual strand 35 10 1 535 60 1.79 F
nodes were produced by unravelling each strand and 36 10 1. 555 62 1.81
introducing a small metal collar onto the straight central
wire at the appropriate point: the peripheral wires 41 5 1 555 42 1.81
were then returned to their original lay around it, 42 5 1 555 44 1.81
with a proturbance thereby created at that point. 37 0 1 351 38 1.57 F
38 0 1 455 40 1.69 F
TABLE 4
Average bond values at maximum test loads for
different tendon configurations (10 strand tendon)

Anchor Tendon Max. Test Load Grout Crushing (Max. Bond) (N/mm2)
No Configuration (kN) (% fpu) Strength (N/mm2) Rock-grout Grout-tendon Remarks

~
20 straight, 1 920 64 48 1.79 1.34 F Grout-tendon failure
parallel
21 strands 2093 70 50 1.95 1.46 F Grout-tendon failure

31 genera~ 2481 83 48 2.31 1.73 load held - large extensions

( noding of
tendon 2248 75 49 2.09 1.38 F Initial yield at 1 978 kN
32

33 t local noding 2 411 80 50 2.24 1.68 Load held

34 \ of strands 2 411 80 48 2.24 1.68 Load held

ln relation to the extent of debonding table 6

illustrates the basic characteristics for a strand tendon,
where the steel represents 10.7 % of the hole area, and

TABLE 6
Extent of effective debonding for 6 and 10 strand tendons, at various tendon stress Ievels

, Effective debonded length (m) at tendon stress of (0/0 fpu)

Anchor No No of Strands
400/0 50% 62.5 % 75% 80 % Failure

20 10 1.12 1.52 2.04 - - 2.48 (1 920 kN)

21 10 1.12 1.52 ·1.94 - - 2.63 (2 093 kN)
35 6 0.81 0.95 1.10 1.29 1.52 1.75 (1 535 kN)
36 6 0.91 1.03 1.05 1.15 1.20 None

f.p.u.: characteristic strength of the tendon (0.1 % proof stress 83.5% fpu)

85
a 10 strand tendon (17.8 % hole area) . The inference
is clear for the less congested tendons, namely that the
rate of effective debonding is ,slower and the failure
load per strand is greater. Whilst it is appreciated that
10 strand anchors would normally have a fixed anchor
greater than 3 m, the homing of a high density tendon
(17-18°IÔ hole area) can give problems due to damage
or contamination of the strands, and fixing of the
centraliser/ spacer units can be difficult and time
consuming. Therefore whilst the former installation
is feasible, it is recommended that the tendon density
be limited to 15% of the hole area wherever possible.
Debonding is a little understood phenomenon and
although the analysis of strain gauge and load/extension
data are by no. means complete the major conclusions
to date are:
1) effective debonding occurs at low loads (15 kN/
strand) and progresses distally with increasing load.
The effective debonded length coinprises wholly
debonded, and partially debonded .sections. The
latter, .pertaining to adhesive bond failure, may be
determined from strain gauge records, and the
extent of this adhesion zone appears to be propor-
tional to the applied load.
2) For grout/tendon failure the limit of effective de-
bonding was 0.5 to 1.0 m from the distal end. Under
working conditions (50-60 % fpu), where fpu is the
characteristic strength of the tendon, an effective
debonded length of 1 to 2 m should be anticipated.
The partially debonded zone extends sorne distance
distally of the point of effective debonding, possibly
about 0.8 m at 62.5% fpu, Based on this preliminary
information it is clear that there should be no
reduction in the current minimum fixed anchor
length of 3 m, often recommended in practice.
In general, where localised failure of the complete
tendon at the grout/tendon interface was observed
subsequent restressing mobilised on average a total
tendon load of' about 85 % of that recorded at first
failure. When tested with a monojack individual
strands commonly yielded pull-out resistances in excess
of the initial average multijack value. «Failed» anchors
may therefore have a useful role to play at a lower
capacity for temporary works. In these circumstances
it is strongly recommended that post failure cyclic
loading tests be carried out in order to assess maximum
safe working loads for anchors which might otherwise
be discarded.

REFERENCES

HILF(J.W.). -.:... Reply to Aberdeen. Questionnaire (un-

published) 'Geotechnics R.esearch Group, University
of Aberdeen (1973).
LITTLEJOHN (G.S.) and BRUCE (D.A.). - «Rock
Anchors - State of the Art», Ground Engineering,
Vol. 8, Nos 3, 4, 5 & 6, Vol. 9, Nos 2,' 3 & 4
(1975-1976).
PC 1. - «Tentative Recommandations for Prestressed
Rock and Soil Anchors», PC 1 Post-Tensioning
Committee, Chicago, USA (1974).
SALIMAN (R.) and' SCHAEFER (R.). - «Anchored
Footings for Transmission Towers», Preprint No
753, ASCE Annual Meeting, Pittsburg, USA (1968).
Standards Association of Australia. - Prestressed
Concrete Code. CA 35, Section 5: Ground Ancho-
rages (1973).

~.

, 1

86
 CONTRIBUTION TO LOADING TEST PROCEDURE Of GROUND ANCHORS
Contribution à la méthode d'essais des tirants d'ancrage
by
B.K. MAZURKIEWICZ
and
T. NAJDER
Gdansk Technical University, Gdansk - Poland
SOMMAIRE
La communication contient les principaux ren-
seignements sur la technologie de construction et
sur les méthodes d'essais de la résistance d'an-
crages temporaires ou permanents installés dans
la structure d'une cale sèche. Des analyses parti-
culières furent faites pour le choix de la meilleure
méthode de perforation et son influence sur la
résistance obtenue pour des ancrages dans des
sols sableux intercalés de lits d'argile. Les essais
de tirants ont été faits à partir d'un· programme
modifié de la norme DIN 4125, cependant qu'une
comparaison des résultats obtenus en utilisant
différentes méthodes connues dans le monde, a
permis de définir la meilleure. Au cours des
essais, on a cherché à obtenir des informations
sur l'influence du temps qui s'écoule entre la
construction des ancrages et l'essai de charge-
ment sur l'amplitude des déformations et la résis-
tance des ancrages. Le frottement sur la longueur
libre de l'ancrage et la préservation de cette
longueur ont aussi été étudiés en fonction de la
méthode de construction. Enfin, des chargements
répétés des mêmes ancrages ont été faits qui
permettent de donner des conclusions sur l'in-
fluence de ce facteur.
D'après les observations et les résultats des
essais in situ, une analyse théorique est présentée
de la stabilité des murs de soutènement ancrés
et des fondations soumises à des tractions.
1. INTRODUCTION
During construction of a dry dock, ground anchors
were used as permanent anchors of sheet walls
of the dry dock ,wall and as temporary anchors of
special foundations used for erection of a heavy gantry
crane. Analyses were particularly made concerning the
choice of a proper drilling method and its influence
on the bearing capacity of the above anchors in sandy
soils with clay interbeddings. AlI anchors were tested
by means of loading tests made according to a modified
program based on the result of an analysis of the
(German standard DIN, 4125) method. _A comparison
of results obtained using diff~rent methods known
87
SUMMARY
The paper contains basic data on the technology
of construction and on the testing methods of
bearing capacity of ground anchors, temporary
and permanent, installed in the structure of a dry
dock. Particula.rly analyses were made concern-
ing the choice of a proper drilling method and its
influence on the bearing capacities obtained of
anchors in sandy soils with clay interbeddings. The
tests of the bearing capacity of the ground anchors
were made according to a modified program based
on the results of an analysis of the method given by
DIN-4125, whilst a comparison of results obtained
using different methods known in the world, has
offered the possibility of definirs the most adequate
one. During the tests, efforts were made to obtain
data on the influence on the magnitude of deforma-
tions and bearing capacities of the anchors of the
time period, between the construction of the
ground anchor and the loading test. Also the
magnitude of friction of the free part of the
anchor and the preservation of this length as
dependent on the construction method were consi-
dered. Additionally repeated loadings of the same
anchors were made, and conclusions made concern-
ing the influence of this factor.
The theoretical analysis concerns the problem
of the stability of anchored retaining walls and of
foundation subjected to tension forces, based on
observations and test results made on the site.
throughout the world has shown that .the chosen
method can be the most adequate one.
The performed tests, described in the paper, were
made with an assulnption that the results obtained
would deliver information about the influence of
the time period which elapsed between the cons-
truction of the ground anchor and the loading test,
on the magnitude of deformations and bearing capa-
cities of the grotind anchors. Also the magnitude of
friction of the free part of the anchor and the preser-
vation of this length as dependent on the construction
method were considered, whilst repeated loadings of
the same anchors should bring results on the influence
of these loadings on the bearing capacity.
 2. CONSTRUCTION Of GROUND ANCHORS
The permanent ground anchors investigated were
made using the rotary-percussive drill method called
«Alvik-X». Casing tubes 3.5 and flushing water were
introduced on the free length equal to 17.0 m.
The crawler drill on wheels was of the Atlas Copco
type BVB-33 whilst the tubes and extension rods
were placed in the soil by power rotated drill
(top hammer) of the BBE 57-01 type. Number of
of blows == 1950/60 s, torque moment == max. 80 kpm,
inclination == 1: 3. The boring along the length bond
to ground, equal to 10.0 m, was performed using the
same method but without casing tube and with bentonit
flushing. After the assumed depth has been reached the
bentonit suspension was pressed out by cement grout
(aqueous colloidal dispersion) with w / c == 0.4 to 0.5
Through raising the grout from the hole bottom level
concreting of the borehole took place whilst at the
same time through the upper end of the tube there
was a discharging of the ground and bentonite The
pressing of grout was stopped about 5 min after
a total removal of bentonit flushing occured. Im-
mediately after grouting a 7.5 0 Bridon wire strand
with centralisers placed in 2.0 rn_distance along the
whole anchoring length was pressed in the grout.
Grouting tubes were also installed. To avoid concret-
ing of steel strands along the free length special
packers were used.
Once the strands in the grout the anchor head. was
closed and the pressure was raised to about 15 at
(1.5 N/mm2) to increase the bond of the anchor
to the ground. One week after concreting of the
anchor a prestressing tests was made by means of a
hollow ram multi strand jack VSL for a force of 88 Mp
on one anchor. The loading force was then low~red
to working load of 59 Mp.
The temporary anchors were made using the over-
burden drilling method (00) with a very rich water
flushing. Reaching the assumed depth, the water
flushing was replaced by cement grout of w/c == 0.4.
The hole was filled with grout from the bottom level
using flexible tubes. The reinforcement consists of
" 7.5 0 wire strands but without centralisers. The
pulling out of casing tubes was connected with addition
of grout to keep a constant grout level in the hole.
Once the casing tube pulled out a 6.0 m long injection
pipe with one way valve was placed. By means of
this pipe the injection was performed under a pressure
of 7 at (0.7 N/mm2). Seven days later the anchors
were prestressed to 90 Mp. After prestressing the
.loading was loweied to 72 Mp.
Both methods used for construction of perma-
nent and temporary anchors, belong to the rotary-
3. LOADING TESTS
Loading tests of the permanent anchors by a force
of 88 Mp were performed in a simple way in the
following stages (fig. 1):
a) Prestressing of the anchor to 60 Mp with simul-
taneously measuring of the jack ram extension.
b) Locking-off the loading force through loosening of
the jack. The moving back wire strands placed in
the anchor" block of the VSL system pull the
gripping wedges and block the pulling system.
88
percussive drill method." The action of the bit is
a combination of torque and impact with a high
frequency, and of axial thrust. It causes a very effec-
tive remoulding of the ground whilst the removal of
the remoulded ground is assured by water flushing.
To obtain an optimum interaction between the ground
and the anchor, the remoulding of the ground around
the casing tube should extend as low as possible whilst
the water flushing should be limited as much as possible. "
These conditions are fuifilled using the Alvik-X system,
depending on the action of an eccentric bit boring a
hole which has a diameter slightly bigger than the
diameter of the casing tube. The tube penetrates by
following the bit but it does not rotate. This causes
a lesser remoulding of the soil along the tube shaft.. The
bit, because of the impact and torque, cuts the
soil simultaneously by the bit part and the reamer. The
water flushing is discharged through extension rods
and holes in the bit which has a special constructed
guide. This guide protects the pipe from inflow of
soil what means that a certain amount of grains is
pressed back into the soil whilst through the tube only
water flushing is discharged. In sandy soils it gives
a big increase of density.
In the OD-method the bit and the tube are in the
tip protected by a ring. They are under a torque and
impact transmitted by a common part, namely the
shank adapter. In the described cases, however, a
simplified OO-method was used. The penetration
took place using only casing tube whilst the soil
from the tube was removed by water flushing.
Analyzing both methods and the bearing capacities
of anchors obtained it can be stated that the 00-
method which seems to be simpler and needs less
work, does not give any significant increase of effi-
ciency when compared with the Alvik-X method.
The remoulding of the ground when using water flush-
ing and casing pipes, as occurs in the OO-method, has
very small influence on the bearing capacities obtained.
However, in the existing conditions the soil conditions
have had the most important influence existing around
the grouted body.
1t was additionally stated that if boring in layered
subsoil it is very important to observe the whole time
what kind of soil is' removed from the casing tube.
Only such an observation gives the possibility to
adjust the length of the anchor being installed. It
should also be" mentioned that it was found that the
bearing capacity of an anchor is strictly dependent
on the removal of bentonite
c) Moving back of the piston and further prestressing
to 88 Mp. The piston, when moving, is pulling out
the strand wires together with the stressing head.
Measuring of piston displacement for the maximum
load.
d) Measuring of prestressing losses one hour after
application of maximum force.
e) Releasing of prestressing load. The strand wh'es
together with the stressing head are moving back to
the bearing plate.
 0
50
SlPPOSED LOCK-J.I ~
LDSS l t-
150
Fig. 1. - Permanent anchors test Ioading scheme.
The applied test loading method is a two-stage
Inethod in which reaching of a load equal to 110%
of the working load is foreseen. Measurements of the
magnitud~ of the creep displacement for this load
should take place. The basic fauIt of this system is
the small amount of measuring points which gives a
very schematic loading diagram. Because no loading
and unloading cycles are available it is not possible to
determine the elastic and permanent displacements of
an anchor. It is also impossible to find the conformity
between the designed and actual free length of the
ground anchor. Aiso the displacement measuring
system of the anchor is simplified because it is assumed
that this displacement is equal to the extended length
of the piston. T'hese values can be found to be
li.
different when analyzing for instance the backward
movement of the anchored wall.
The necessity of a two stage prestressing method
results also from the fact that the maximum outgoing
of the piston depending on the structural solution of .
the jack is smaller than the total displacement· of the
free anchor length (17.0 m) for the .applied load
(88 Mp).
When testing the temporary anchors which were used
for temporary foundations loaded by a vertical or
inclined tensile force the following new test loading
procedure was introduced (fig. 2):
a) Prestressing of the anchor in steps to reach 125°iO
of the working load. The increase of load for each
step is equal to 15 Mp starting from the initial
load Fo == 15 Mp,
b) Unloading' after each loading step to Fo. Unload-
ing is starting from 30 Mp.
c) Keeping the observation time for loads of 45 Mp
equal to 15 min, for loads of 60 and 75 Mp -
30 min, and for the maximum load Fmax == 90 Mp
equal to 60 min.
d) Measuring of anchoJ; displacements by means of
measuring of the outgoing of the piston and settle-
ments of foundations.
e) Measuring of displacements immediately after loading
at a certain step (about 1 min) and at the end of the
loading steps to obtain the creep displacement.
The resulting prestressing losses were equalized by
increasing of oil pressure in the jack.
89
t
•.
~
~~
...,J~
~
E
T. ELAST1C EXTENSION
OF A TENlXJN
D MAX WSS OF WAD LESS
THAN 5 % TEST LOAD
The results obtained made it possible to present dia-
grams of the load-displacement curves using a new ela-
borated method which is an extension of the method
given in the German standard DIN 4125. These dia-
grams are made as follows:
a) Axis of a load-total displacement curve and a load-
elastic and permanent displacement curve are
drawn.
b) Measured results corresponding to all loading and
unloading steps are plotted.
c) The real zero coordinate is introduced by shifting
the loading axis to a distance equal to the measured
outgoing of the piston on the beginning of test for
zero increase of loading. . 1t corresponds to the
magnitude of the effect in the strand wires.-
d) An auxiliary axis is placed through the measuring
point which corresponds to the load Fo == 15 Mp.
e) Values are plotted on the permanent displacement
curve which correspond to following unloading
steps measured in relation to the auxiliary axis. It
is assumed here that the permanent displacements
for Fo are equal to zero.
f) In relation to the load-permanent displacement
curve the total displacement S is plotted while it
is measured from the axis going through. the real
zero. Points of the curve of elastic displacement
Sel are obtained.
g) A straight line is made through the above points '
which indicates the elastic displacements taking
friction into consideration. This straight line inter-
sects the loading axis. in a point of a coordinate
which is the sum of initial friction causing displa-
cements lower than should be expected according to
Hook's law. Distances between this line and a
parallel line plotted through the beginning of the
coordinate system correspond to the friction losses
on the following steps of the prestressing load.
h) If during the tests the ultimate bearing capacity
has· not been reached, dependent on the pulling
out of the anchor from the soil, an extrapolation
is proposed according to two schemes. In the
first the change of the curvature of the perma-
nent displacement curve is used. The second
depends on the increase of the load which corres-
ponds to the permanent displacement of the anchor

10
~
~
8 ELA5T/C EXTENSION
8'
70
20
10
10
20
30
equal to 10 mm whilst this load is multiplied by
1.30. Such a value was reached during failure
loading tests of ground anchors in similar soil
conditions.
Because of slight friction in the jack and on the
free length of the anchor, mainly due to the
straight arrangement of wires in the VSL wedge
system, a simplified version of the proposed method
was also used (fig. 3). 1t is based only on one unload-
ing step after the maximum test load. is reached and
on presentation of the two curves in the way shown
on fig. 3.
The conclusion that the anchors fulfill an require-
ments and may be used for permanent or temporary
structures can be drawn analyzing:
- the designed free .anchor length in relation to
the stated real one, calculated from the inclina-
tion of thecurve of elastic. displacements;
- the diffèrence between the ultimate bearing capa-
city and the working load;
- the allowable values of friction which are causing
lower deformations of wires on the free length
in the region of the anchor head an jack,
90
TENSILE
LOAD
80 FfMp}
li)
OF A TENDON
Fig. 2. - Temporary anchors
test loading scheme.
TENSILE
LDAD
F fMp}
ELAST/C EXTENSION
:::. A TENDON
........... '
'*-..
"'- ...........
...........
- the value of creep depending on time (for
permanent anchors).
1t should be stated that the free lengths obtained
from these curves were much lower than designed.
1t was probably the result of the simplified way
of reaching the free displacement of wires in the
free length· using the flushing out of grout by water.
The grout mixed with water came back to the hole
and made up an additional part of grouted body.
The strand wires in the free length were not isolated
or placed in plastic tubes which could allow them
to move along this distance. Consequently a signi-
ficant decrease of safety factor was obtained (fig. 4).
Repeated. prestressings indicated a small increase of
elastic displacements of anchors. 1t resulted probably
by cracking due to cycle loadings and unloadings of
the additional porous part of the grouted body, which
caused the increase of the free length of the anchor ..
Loading tests of 10 anchors have been made twice, after
7 and 130 days .fron1 concreting date. The differences
in displacements for the same prestressing load were
not higher than + 6 % to - 3 °10. This indicates that
there is no influence of time on the results of loading
tests.
 THE SEATING LDAD
Fb =15Mp TENSILE LOAD
100 F (Mp)

10

20

30

Fig. 3. - Simplified method of

ground anchors prestressing.

TENSILé
LOAD F(Mp)

EXTERNAL IJJAD
«XJNp

5,0

tQO SAM) FILL

1!iO
SAND W!TH ORGANe INTFRBEDDIVGS
SAND
SlLTY SAND
20,0
PLEISTOCENE CLAY
MIDCENE SOILS

GROUTED BODY

Fig 4. - SaIety factor variation in relation to anchor length.

During loading tests the magnitude of prestress-

ing lasses as a result of moving back of selfbraking of wedges by a hammer during preparation of the
wedges during blocking was also measured. It was stressing head for blocking and on its cleanhness.
srated that the back movement of wedges was from 3 ta 'fhe calculated lock-off lasses were in the range of
8 mm, whilst its magnitude depended on the pressing 5 Mp. They were confirmed during later measurements,

91
 RESEARCH ON GROUND ANCHORS IN NON-COHESIVE SOILS
Etude de tirants scellés dans des sols, pulvérulènts
by
H. OSTERMAYER and
Institute of ,Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Technical University, Munich/Fed. Rep. Germany
SOMMAIRE
Des essais d'ancrages en vraie grandeur sur
chantier ont été effectués dans des massifs de
sables graveleux compactés à différentes densités.
Des jauges de déformation collées sur des bar-
reaux d'acier donnent la distribution' des contrain-
tes dans la zone fixe d'ancrage. Ces dernières
augmentent progressivement avec la force appli-
quée en tête d'ancrage jusqu'à la rupture. Afin
d'e.stimer par ,des essais standards in situ, l'in-
'fluence du type et de la densité du sol sur la
capacité portante du tirant d'ancrage, on a pré-
senté le rapport entre la charge critique et le
nombre de corps d'essais de pénétration (marteau
de 50 kg).
INTRODUCTION
The last Conference on Diaphragm Walls and An-
chorages (London 1974) and the Seminar on the same
topic (London 1976) showed that current practice in
the field of ground anchors is ahead of theory and that
there is urgent need for a proper understanding of
the behaviour of the anchors and the surrounding
ground under working conditions (C.P. Wroth, 1975).
Design charts, which are based on field test results of
about 300 anchors (H. Ostermayer,1975) may help to
estimate carrying capacity of anchors in relation to
fixed anchor length in certain soil conditions. How-
ever, the main factor of soil density influencing the
TEST PROGRAM
On a test site five series of six anchors each were
installed and pull-out tests were· performed. A sche-
matic arrangement of the test pit is shown in Fig. 1.
The dimensions of the test pit were about 5 X 10 X 10
meters. A rigid concrete wall was used as abutment
for the pulling jack.
The anchors of the first series were installed in
the existing soil, which was sandy gravel of high
density. For the following four test series the soil was
replaced by gravelly sand. The grain size distribution
curve of the test. soil is given in Fig. 1, the coefficient
of uniformity was U == 8 to 10. The density of the
92
f. SCHEELE
SUMMARY
Full scale field tests on a'nchors have been
performed in one and the sa me gravelly sand
compacted to various densities. During the pull-
out tests the distribution of skin friction along
the fixed anchor length was determined from strain
gauge measurements. The results of 5 series of
tests comprising 30 anchors complement a pre-
viously published design chart and give an addi-
tional correlation between carrying capacity of
anchors and number of blows of penetration tests.
The variation of skin friction along fixed anchor
length with increasing load or with load kept cons-
tant over a longer period of time, helps to explain
the influence of soil density and fixed anchor
length on the carrying éapacity and longterm beha-
viour of anchors.
carrying behaviour of anchors in non-cohesive soil has
not yet been tackled systematically in field tests.
In 1975-1976 a major research program was carried
out in Munich to examine the influence of soil density
on the carrying capacity of anchors. In order to have
a better insight into the carrying behaviour of anchors,
research' aimed at investigating the distribution of
stresses for different anchor lengths. The effect of
time on the variation of stresses was also studied. The
so sought inforn1ation should then help toexplain the
various important factors that influence the carrying
capacity and long-term behaviour of anchors.
sand was varied for each series. After every test
series the soil was removed and compacted again in,
layers of about 30 cm height to a desired uniform
density with the help of vibrators. The compacted
sand carried a surcharge of about 2 f i grave!. For
each series the soil density was checked by 8 standard
penetration tests (SPT) and 4 dynamic penetration
tests (50 kg hammer weight and 15 cm2 cone area).
In 'addition unit weight and density index were
determined for at least 6 samples.
A temporary anchor construction (Type A) was
used with a total length of 9 m and an inclination of
 5tressing head ~ Electrical laad cel!
TABLE 1
Anchor and soit data for 5 series
OISPI~~::~~~~~U~?_ ~ HOllOoW :O~ j:Ck 0 • 0 0 • ~ of tests with 6 anchors each
: f- 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o
0 0 : 0 0 0 ;

~ .' ,<:" ~
Test .series No 1 2 3
14 5

:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gravel surcharge 0 0 1 1

L:~~·en;·:~o~:::~tSi~o~~:::~~
Prestressing- 4 X 16 mm
steel tendon dia. 32 mm dia.
'jT
L
hydraulic p~mp
Autamatic electrical
laad regulatar
50
0.06

~~/~1i11
2.0[mm) 6 0 ·

.'
. 1 U/l]
~
~
ro
ro
""0
~
0
Casing
diameter (mm) 89 1
76 89
.
114

~ Grouting 0 0.5 0.5 0.5

(closed loap) 0 ()
pressure to and and
s::
Fig. 1.' - General arrangement of full-scale anchor test < (MN/m2) 5.0 1.0 2.0
set-up.
Bond length
about 20°. As shown in Table 1 series 2, 3 and 4 of tendon (m) 3.0 1 2.0 and 4.5 1
3.0
had bond lengths of tendon Lv of 2.0 m and 4.5 m 1 1

respectively. The bore hole diameter of 89 mm and sandy

the grouting pressure of about 0.5 MN/m2 was kept Soil type gravel gravelly sand
constant. The anchors of series 1 and 5 had a bond 1

length of 3.0 m. For these anchors different bore hole Density

diameters (76 mm to 114 mm) and different grouting index D 1.1 1.14 0.76 0.28 0.82
ro
pressures (0 to 5 MN/m2) were used. ~ --- --- ---
""0
,....... Dynamic
·0 penetr. test > 80 76 20 2 30
Detail A Vl -
(N/I0 cm)
--- --- ---
Standard
1 penetr. test > 130 120 43 Il 60
load cell (N/30 cm)

A total of 9 anchors were specially prepared for

the pull-out tests. In the laboratory temperature com-
8orehole pensating strain gauges were attached to the steel bar
Plastic tube at pre-selected points. A typical arrangement of the
Prestressing bar, 32 mm dia. gauges along the bond length Qf tendon and the free

l Strain gouges
Grouted body
tendon length is shown in Fig. 2. It is pointed out
that the gauges were mounted on the profiled sicles
of the bar, which were carefully treated before the
gauges were cemented to the steel-bar (see Detail A).
To protect against the grouting, the strain gauges and
wire connections were given several waterproof coatings~
Each gauge was calibrated in t4e laboratory by
stressing the steel bar.
The procedure of the installation of the anchors was
as follows:
- the steel casing was driven to the depth of about
8 m;

Fig. 3. - One test series in sand

dug out for careful examination.
 - the anchor bars with fix.ed spacers (àlong the bond
:length) were inserted into the· casing;
- the bore hale was grouted under constant pres-
sure along the planned bond length while retract-
ing the casing simultaneously;
- in the upper part of the bore hale the remaining
cement suspension was flushed out with water;
- the pull-out tests were performed after a period
of about 14 days.
The pulling force was applied in steps by a hollow
ram jack until the failure load was reached. Between
each step, loading and unloading cycles were applied
according to the German Standards for Fundamental
Tests (DIN 4125).
For each loading step, the displacements of the
anchor head were measured manually through the
readings of the dial gauge, while the measurements of
the strain gauges were recorded automatically.
At certain loading steps, the force was kept constant
with the help of an -electric-hydraulic regulator for a
period up to 2 months.
AlI the anchors were dug out after the pull-out
tests (see Fig. 3) and the grouted bodies were carefully
examined. The diameters and lengths of the grouted
bodies were measured and the surrounding soil condi-
tions were checked.

TEST RESULTS

Load Carrying Capacity behaviour is a progressive failure mechanism which

In Fig. 4 the failure loads (ultimate load carrying
capacity Tf) of the five test series are presented in
relation to the length of the fixed anchor (bond-to-
ground length La). The results confirm the validity
of the previously published design chart (H. Oster-
mayer, 1975) and supplement the chart with additional
~urves for loose gravelly sand and very dense sandy
gravels~ The diagram shows the smallest linear
increase of carrying capacity with increasing bond
length for loose sands. Contrary to this in case of dense
sands, the greatest increase is encountered for smaller
lengths which then tapers off steadily with increasing
length. With lengths of more than 6 to 7 m the
increase of carrying capacity per m length will probably
be the same whether the anchors are installed in loose
or in dense sands and gravels. The reason for this
will be investigated in the following paragraphs.
In addition it should be noted that compared to the
large influence of the soil density on the carrying·
capacity the influence of grouting pressure (minimum
pressure 0.5 MN/ m 2) as well as the influence of the
diameter of the grouted body (diameter of 10 to 15 cm)
seems to be negligible.
Distribution of Skin Friction
As a result of strain gauge measurements at anchors
in dense sand a typical distribution of tensile forces
in the steel tendon is represented in Fig. 5. Th~ de-
crease of forces from the front part to the rear of
. .l
the bond l~ngth corresponds with the load transmis-
sion from the tendon into the grouted body. As

SPT
Type of soil Oensity N30[bl/30cm]
2000
Very dense
• Gravelly
Very dense 120
__ 1800
z:
~
• sand Oense 60
• U=d60/ dl0 Medium d. 43
..... 1600 =1,6/0,16
t-.:.
• Loose 11
-~

u
c
1400 x
Sandy gravel
U=15/0,3
Very dense >130
a.
c
u 1200 .11,3 =Diameter of grouted body do=ll.3cm
CJ)
c::

Ë' 1000
c JITITill Sandy gravel
llJII1II u 5~10
U

=
'1J
c 800
0

- QJ

c
600 Gravelly sand

~
E U=8~10
and
::;::) 400
Medium ta coarse sand
(with gravel)
200 U= 3,5 ~ 4,5

2 4 6 8 10 Oiameter of grouted bodies

Bon d - t 0 - 9r 0 und lengt h l 0 [m] do :: 10 ~ 15 cm

Fig. 4. - Carrying capacity of anchors in sandy gravel and gravelly sand showing influence of soil type, density and
bond~to-ground length. .

94
 ---------~--------=------------:,....,.,...--------------~-------------------

Test series 5
1000 Anchor Lv =3,0 m
Test series 5
:z
average do =155mm
~ 900 Anchor Lv =3,0 m
average do =155mm Failure
'- 1000 skin friction
-c 800
c
0 C'J
E 900
~ 700 :z:
.::tt:. Short - term
Cf)
c
800 m~~~--r- skin friction
~
Q)
-t--
600 \
\ c:
Long - term
0
700 skin friction
'\..-10'(Minutes) u
500 \ .;: 600
\
\ c:
\ .::tt:.
ln
400 \
500

300 400

300
200

200
100

L--
length 100
-
-
-
=
~
~
~
~
Il 1 1 1 1 ~ length

%f(~~a~.
1 1 1 1 1 l--l

Slroin gougesJ.t-- Lv =3,01:1 --~I !~~~M--i

Strain gauges . la ----~ Lv =3,Om

Fig. 5. - Distribution of tensile load along bond length of . Fig. 6. - Distribution of skin friction in the soiljgrout
tendon (grouted body in dense sand). interface along bond length (grouted body in dense sand).

Increase

shown in Fig. 5 the forces in the tendon increase not

only when the applied test load at the anchor head is
increased (here 5 loading steps), but also when the
-
E
z
~

load iskept constant for a period of time (in the

example of Fig. 5 three loading steps were kept c
o
constant for about one day).
The difference in the values of forces measured at
two adjoining points divided by the circumference
area of the grouted body (grout-soil interface) gives rime
the value of «skin friction». these calculated values c
are shown in Fig. 6. Obviously there are maximum .~ [minutes]
-0
skin friction values, the location of this maximum o
moves from the front -part of bond length towards the :>

anchor end when the test load is increased. The Oecrease Test series
reason is that the elastic deformations of the steel Anchor Lv = 3,0 m
tendon cause progressive displacements in the grout/ average do =155 mm
soil interface. This progressive displacement causes
the shear resistance of the dense sand to shift beyond Fig. 7. - Variation of skin friction along bond lengthover
the peak -point into the region of lower residual a period of 300 minutes (load of 785 kN was kept
shear values. constant).

l t is worth noting that at each loading step the

same maximum friction value is reached for a short
time (maximum «short-term skin friction») and that
this value tapers off with time until a certain «long- For the load of 785 kN this balancing over a period
term skin friction» value is not exceeded at any point of 300 minutes is illustrated in the three-dimensional
along the bond length. As the applied test load is plot of Fig. 7. The decrease and increase of skin
kept constant during one loading step, a decrease of friction along the bond length is shown for several
skin friction in the front part of bond length will points of time and demonstrated with the aid of shaded
result in a corresponding increase of skin friction in areas. 1t is pointed out that for any particul~r time the
the rear part. This kind of balancing could not be shaded area showing friction decrease in the front part
attained for the last loading step 'of 850 kN, so that is equal to the shaded area showing friction increase
failure occurred within 10 minutes. in the rear part.

95
 Q) Short Anchor
When evaluating skin friction 'ts in the grout/soil
interface from the bond stresses 't b in the steel bar/
grout interface (Fig. 8) it must be taken into consi-
deration that the bond-to-ground length La is longer
than the bond length of tendon Lv. In the front part
of the grouted body there is no steel/grout bond (due
to the plastic tube), so that the forces resulting from
skin friction 'ts in this area are transmitted further
back and cause a concentration of bond stresses 'tb in Grouted body
the front part of bond length of tendon. These very Bar
high bond stresses which are obtained by strain gauge , ~ f
measurements are schematically shown in Fig. 8, where t db do
the existing 't b is converted to an equivalent skin •
friction 't's through the factor db/do, ('t/ == 'tb . db/do).
The actual skin friction is achieved by equalizing the
equivalent value over the entire length including the
front part of the grouted body (see area d 'F) in order
to get the actual skin friction 'ts.
In the case of dense sands the limit values of skin
friction, max 'ts ' are effective along a .relatively short
length. For 'short anchors this length will correspond
almost with the whole bond-to-ground length (Fig. 8 a).
For long anchors this length of max 'ts is only- a part
of the bond-to-ground length. The location of this
part shifts towards the anchor rear when the test load
is increased (distribution of skin friction near failure
load is shown in Fig 8 b). Assuming that the limit
value max 't s is identical for different bond-to-ground
lengths, the mean values (mean 't s ) for long anchors
are smaller than for short anchors. This has already T's skin fr i ct ion i n the 9r 0 ut / soi 1 i nter face
been presented in the chart of Fig. 4 in terms of carrying
capacity versus bond length. ' Tb bond stress in the steel bar / groùt interface
For the last loading step before failure load was Fig. 8. - Qualitative distribution of skin friction and
reached Fig. 9 shows. the «long-term skin friction» bond stresses for short and long anchors in dense ground
values of all test anchors in sand, which were equipped at ultimate load.
with strain gauges (diameter of grouted body being 9
to 12 cm).
Soi 1 densi ty Bond length
. For dense and very dense sand the skin friction Lv
values obtai.ned experimentally fit very well with the .....0-- Very dense 2.0 m
qualitative distribution of skin friction of Fig. 8, thereby -e- 4.5 m
confirming the assumption made. The limit values, -0-- Dense 3.0m
max 't5 of shorter anchors (Lv == 2 m) ho\vever are likely 1300
to exceed the corresponding values of longer anchors
(Lv == 4 m). The difference may be partly traced back 1200 -.-
-0-

-IJ.-
Medium
dense
Loose
l.Om
4.5 m
2,0 m
to the larger radial confining pressures in the front 1100 4.5 m
part of anchors.
E 1000
In loose and medium dense sand the skin friction ~
~
is found to be more or less constant along the whole
bond-to-ground length. This corresponds with the
stress-strain-behaviour of the sand for these densities. L~ 800
c:
The decisive influence of soil density is obvious in .; 700
these tests when for example in the case of long anchors ..t: 600
one compares the limit values of skin friction for 100 se .~
~

and medium dense sand (about 150 and 300 kN/m 2 V> 500
respectively) with the limit values for very dense sand 400 0 Medium
(about 800 kN/m2). .....---, dense
These high values of skin friction are mainly the 300 ·~.~!..-:=-::::'~·-r
result of an interlocking or wedging effect due to the '" max Ts~meanTs
dilatation of soil (E. Wernick, 1977). The peak values
of up to 1 300 kN/m 2 do not represent the actual ~~~·~~~t~
~ • moxTs",meonT
skin friction but the equivalent skin friction as already s
explained in Fig. 8.
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Length [m]
1 .
.
Penetration Tests and, Carrying Capacity =rm__?::ŒZ::@_~'0055i5555550J
of Anchors Lv =2.0m Lv =3.0m Lv =4.5m
Fig. 9. - Distribution of long-term skin friction 't s at
As the density of non-cohesive soils is in current ultimate load in relation to bond length Lv and soil
practice very often indirectly determined by penetro- density.
meter tests, it was decided to plot a diagram showing Grouted bodies (do = 9.1 - 12.6 cm) in gravelly sand.

96
 carrying capacity of anchors in relation· ta penetration
resistance. Fig. 10 shows the results of the 30 test
~ 2000
i-i--T--l-JiDf anchors supplemented by additional results of other

.~[
z:
---
~

1800 in situ tests (fundamental tests of different anchor

~
1 1 Sandy systems). This chart may be used for a rough. esti-
mation of the carrying capacity of anchors which are
1:' 1600
u
a
Cl.
a
u
1400 illlllili gravel
properly installed. 1t must be emphasized however,
that only for the 30 anchors in the test' pit bath
dynamic. penetration tests (50 kg hammer) and stand-
0)
c: 1200 +-----+---+------f-I-+--t-W'Y-+-+-+-t~~P<t__'k_l LI_~
0:: '3 m
ard penetration tests (SPT) have 'been carried out.
~ For the other in situ tests only dynamic penetration
L-
1000 Gravelly
a tests were used. The chart may be adjusted and
u sand
"0
a 800 extended for sandy gravel soils depending upon the
~ results of additional future test data.
~
600
a
E
400
~
:::>
200 Standard penetration test
40 50 60 70 80 [N /30 cm J Nu mber
Fig. 10. - Relationship between carrying capacity, bond
0 20 30 40 [N/10cm] of blows length of anchors and dynamic penetration resistance in
penetration test (50 kg hammer) two types of non-cohesive soils.

CONCLUSIONS

Ta investigate the important influence of the density
of non-cohesive soils on the carrying behaviour of
anchors it was for the first time that full scale field
tests were performed in one and the same sail com-
pacted ta different densities. Under these controlled
conditions the exact distribution of skin friction along
the bond length could be calculated from strain gauge
measurements.
On the basis of the results of the 5 series of tests
comprising 30 anchors, the original design chart of
1975, showing carrying capacity versus bond length
for different sail conditions, has now been cample-
mented. Furthermore a diagram is presented from
which it is possible ta estimate carrying capacity of
anchors with different bond lengths from ': the number
of blows of standard penetration tests (SPT) and
dynamic penetration tests. When using one of these
charts it must be borne in mind that certain fluctua-
tians in test results are possible due ta the inhomo-
geneity existing in the sail at site, even when the
anchors have been properly installed.
The different shapes of distribution of skin friction
which were derived through measurements help ta
give an explanation for the influence of bond length
of anchors and density of soils on the carrying capacity
as shawn in the design chart (Fig. 4).
The different shapes of distribution of skin friction
of skin friction along the bond length with increasing
load paved the way for the inclusion of valid assump-
tians in the calculation of carrying capacity in terms
of sail constants.
In addition the variation of skin friction with res-
pect ta time was measured for several loading steps.
The results (shown for only one anchor in Fig. 7)
will provide a basis for anticipating the long-term
behaviour of anchors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The tests were performed at the Institute of Sail

Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Techniçal Uni-
versity, MunichjGermany, guided by Prof. Dr-Ing. R.
Jelinek. The authors are grateful to Bundesministe-
rium für Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Stadtebau, ta
Bundesministerium für Verkehr, ta Innenministerium
des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen and to Hauptverband
der Deutschen Bauindustrie for financial support:

REFERENCES

Deutsche Normen. - « Verpressanker für vorüber-

gehende Zwecke im Lockergestein : Bemessung,
Ausführung und Prüfung ». DIN 4125, Blatt 1,
Beuth Verlag, Berlin (1972).
OSTERMAYER (H.). - «Construction, Carrying Beha-
viaur and Creep Characteristics of Ground An-
chars», Proc. Conf. on Diaphragm Walls and An-
chorages, London 1974, Institution of Civil
Engineers, London, pp. 141-151 (1975).
WERNICK (E.). - «Stresses and Strains on the Surface
of Anchors», 9th Int. Conf. SMFE, Specialty
Session 4: Ground Anchors (1977).
WROTH (C.P.). - Discussion on Papers 18-21
(Report). Proc. Conf. on Diaphragm Walls and
Anchorages, . London 1974, Institution of Civil
Engineers, London, pp. 165-169 (1975).

97
 NON LINEAR ANALYSIS Of THE ANCHOR-GROUND-WALL SYSTEM
Analyse non linéaire de l'ensemble ancrage-sol-paroi
by
Ass. Professor Mihail POPESCU
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Chair, Civil Engineering Institute, Bucharest, Romania
and
Lecturer Crisan IONESCU
~
Mathematics Chair, Civil Engineering Institute, Bucharest, Romania
SOMMAIRE
Les dispositifs d'ancrages se sont montrés parti-
culièrement économiques pour assurer le soutien
des parois des excavations lorsqu'elles sont gran-
des. Le projet d'un mur flexible ancré est une
opération complexe qui dépend de la connaissance
de l'interaction entre l'ancrage, le sol et le mur.
Dans la présente étude, on montre un procédé
numérique qui prend en considération cette inter-
action.
Le premier but de l'analyse faite fut d'examiner
au moyen de ce mode de calcul, la dépendance
entre la force d'ancrage et un certain nombre de
variables primaires comme la flexibilité du mur, la
raideur de l'ancrage, la profondeur de la fiche et
les conditions initiales des contraintes, variables
qui régissent le comportement des murs ancrés
à plusieurs niveaux. Les valeurs calculées de la
réaction d'ancrages ont été comparées à celles pré-
dites par les règles semi-empiriques usuelles.
Les solutions proposées dans cette communication
sont basées sur l'analyse d'un grand nombre de
situations. Elles sont utiles, à notre avis, pour
l'évaluation par l'ingénieur de l'ensemble du pro-
hlème du comportement d'une structure ancrée.
INTRODUCTION
The tied-back wall is employed with increasing
frequency as a form of support for deep temporary and
permanent excavations, due to the improvement of
grouted anchors which offer high bearing capacities at
fairly low costs (Habib, 1969). Although the combined
«anchor-ground-waIl» system has been investigated ex-
tensively and the behaviour of anchors has been
known for sorne time, the effect of various factors
influencing the anchor force is not weIl documented.
The recent development of modern computers, which
are able to handle the comprehensive programmes
required to calculate the stresses and strains in a
continuun1 with specified boundary conditions, has
opened' up a possibility of obtaining improved solu-
tions to the problem of anchored flexible walls. These
98
SUMMARY
For wide excavations the tied-back system has
proved a particularly economical way of secur-
ing the walls of excavations. The design of a
tied-back flexible wall is a complex operation
which depends on a knowledge of the interaction
between the anchors, the ground and the wall.
1n the present study, a practical numerical proce-
dure taking into consideration this interaction, is
introduced.
The primary purpose of the undertaken analysis.
was to examine, by means of this procedure, the
dependence of the anchor force on some. of the
primary· variables, such as the wall flexibility,
.
anchor stiffness, embedment depth and initial
stress conditions, controlling the performance of
the multianchored walls. The computed anchor
reaction values were compared with those pre-
dicted by means of the usual semi-empirical
rules.
The paper findings, based upon a large number
of analysed situations, are, in our opinion, useful
for engineering evaluation of the over-all problem
of the anchor systems behaviour.
programmes which are based on the finite element
method (Clough, Tsui, 1974) are still not developed
far enough to be used for design. purposes. Moreover
their use is limited by the high computing cost.
In the present study, a practical numerical proce-
dure to determine stresses and strains in an anchored
flexible wall is introduced, taking into account the
nonlinear soil and anchor behaviour. Comparison
of the results obtained by this procedure with the
finite element method results has shown good
agreement.
The behaviour of single-anchored flexible wall has
been studied bath theoretically and experimentally
by Rowe (1955). Rowe's design curves are accepted
and used now, in general, by the profession.
 As the use of multianchored walls developed, the
empiricial designs for multistrutted walls were appUed,
despite the fact that there were basic differences in
behaviour between the two support systems.
For this reason it was decided to carry out a
parametric analysis of the multianchored walls, using
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
In structural mechanics, the flexure equation forms
the basis of the theoretical. analysis of the behaviour
of a flexible elastic element, but the relationship bet-
ween lateral pressure and deflection must be specified
before such an approach can be used to analyse the
deflections, moments and stresses in a flexible wall.
An efficient discrete-element solution for a flexible
wall on elasto-plastic foundàtion has been presented
by Haliburton (1968) and we will use an analogous
model. The wall is divided into equal increments and
effects are concentrated at the increment points along
the structure. This procedure allows freely disconti-
nuous variation of flexural stiffness, transverse and axial'
loads, and elasto-plastic foundation support along the
wall.
However, the earth pressure variation law is a non-
linear function both in respect to deflection and depth.
To. represent nonlinea~ soil response, we consider that
this response may be described at sorne point along the
structure by a nonlinear lateral earth pressure-structure
deflection curve, as seen in fig. 1. v
Kondner (1963) has shown that the nonlinear
stress-strain curves for a number of soils could be
approximated reasonably accurately by hyperbolas. If
we substitute the earth pressure deflection (p-w)
relationship frOlTI' Fig. 1 by two hyperbola branches,
the relationship can be represented two equations of
the form:
W
Ep == Epo - (for w < 0)
- 1 w provision that this curve be introduced by points.
-
Eoa
+ Pa
-
-w-,
Ac/ive
Laierai earlh
pressure fl J
At resf
..-t._ _--" :....-_ _..L----L_--------L.---
o deflee/io/7 W
~ Expansio/J CompressiolJ
(-)
the proposed procedure (Popescu, 1977). This study
is limited to the anchor force dependence on sorne of
the variables which control performance of multian-'
chored walls. The primary factors which have been
inchided in the analysis are: (1) the wall flexibility;
(2) the anchor stiffness, (3) the embedment depth;
(4) the initial stress conditions.
W
Ep == EPa + (for w > 0) (1 b)
_1_, +~
Eop Pp
in which Po == at rest pressure, Pa == active pressure,
Pp == passive pressure, Eoa == initial tangent modulus
of soil in expansion, Eop == initial tangent modulus of
soil in compression and E == 1. In the above equations
the absolute values are considered for aIl parameters.
The sign convention is given in fig. 1.
The relationships above apply to the soil mass
behind the structure and above the dredge Hne. For
the soil below dredge Hne, two different curves must
be developed because passive pressure increase and
active pressure decrease are ocurring at the same time
on different sides of the structure. The right-hand
curve corresponds to that shawn in fig. 1, whereas
the left-hand curve is a symmetrical one with respect to
the origin, but with different values. The correspond-
ing equations for the left-hand curve are given by (1 a)
and (lb), in which E == - 1 and Pa and Eoa values
are interchanged with Pp and Eop values. The two
curves are then automatically superimposed and a
combined curve developed.
The deformation characteristics of the anchors can
be introduced by a specified anchor yield value or,
more realistically, by a specified anchor rod curve.
As the force-deformation curve for anchor rods has a
(1 a) general form, it was considered more suitable ta make
r-+W _
Fig. 1. - Nonlinear IateraI earth pres-
sure-structure deflection curve and
sign convention.
?assive
Def/eelion e (±)
_8.-.t......@_Soll
resistance
Leff RIghi
SOli mass so/Imass
~
Structure
J
(+)
99
 !Je/lee/io/l far/i7 pressures BtJ!7r./i17!/ moment
r
il LJ /] cm [; 20 ~o kN/m 2 l]woBoO k Nmjm

/
/
\ '.:'-,
• " ,',~!
f::2

'/
/
\)
: /
.,'.\ . ~~l
'-l'--+
~ /.-:--/ I~-~ It--~-o"""'-'l./-- ~. ,00
0\' / ~?:o' 1
/ ':.' .. 1/ ~/.' i
/ .'
Sand \\ //.~.' !
1
1
1

rf=.Jo° 1
:. \. //:'Il
~i
~'
1
id 13 kIV/m~ '. \ .\ ~i
'0 \ \ /

Fig. 2. - Comparison of 1 =
the proposed procedure
results with the results
1
\
ri =/oklV/m J '. \
'0

: \ \.
\ •

(
1 1
1
,
~ll
i
obtained from other me- \
thodso \ \ \ \ 1

'. i'
\ \ . \ \ 1

\ 00 \ \ \ \ 1

o··· '':-':'';~,~.
0

\
\
....
-- /'
/'
"
,,"-
"

~I
'\ '.
\
,', .
'\.
\
.~
/// ";:'\.: \ t <D'!
., \ \
:\ \_--~
PafJtJr /T/.3/~71.l(JI (og P =-~g
nÎ7/le e/emefll me/IJoC! ,4l7chor !I/e/d = 0, 00/ fi
rreB Earl?7 sLlflflor!

Ta solve a flexible"~ wall with nonlinear anchor- computed deformations, earth pressure distribution and
supports on nonlinear sail, repeated trial and adjust- bending moments are in fairly good agreement with
ment solutions are made with a simple complete "elastic those obtained from the finite element analysis. The
wall solution in each trial. The convergence criterium results obtained from the «free earth support method»
consists of the comparison between two subsequent are also given in fig. 2.
elastic lines of the wall. Consequently a digital The differences between the results of the method
computer solution was used. proposed in the paper and the results obtained from the
Ta test the capabilities of applying this particular finite element analysis are 'small and on the safe side.
procedure' ta the anchored flexible wall problem, 'one Taking into account its simplicity and the saving of the
of the walls included in Bjerrum's State of the Art computation time, the numerical procedure used in this
Report at the Madrid Conference (1972) was analysed paper seelns ta be a good toàl for obtaining a proper
and the comparative results are presented in fig. 2, The solution for anchored flexible walls.

CHARACTERISTICS Of THE ANALYSED MULTIANCHORED WALLS

It has been established that there are a' large 1969) earth pressure distribution, the spacing of the
number of variables that influence the behaviour of tie-back is adjusted sa that the same load is
an anchor-supported flexible wall, Single anchor transmitted in each tie-back (fig. 3). The load-redistri-
walls has been investigated in detail by Rowe (1955). bution effects of wall continuity and the effects of
By introducing a coefficient of flexibility yielding of each anchor-support are disregarded.
H4 In order to supplement the small amount of empirical
P == El (2)
data available, it was decided ta attempt to analyse
in which H is the total height of the wall, E, its the anchor reaction variation in respect to sorne of
modulus of elasticity and l, its modulus of inertia, the primary influence factors, by means of the
Rowe gave for the first time a quantitative' corre~ proposed procedure.
lation between the anchor reaction and the flexibility This study is based on the analysis of a 14 m
of the wall. The important effect of flexure below length wall, having a 4 m embedment depth. The
the dredge level and flexure above the anchor level, wall was considered supported by two, three and
was pointed auto respectively four anchor rows. The layout of the
In designing the multianchored walls, the empi- systems is shown in fig. 4. The soil, with a nonlinear
rical rules for multistrutted walls are often applied, behaviour has the following characteristics: no cohe-
despite the fact that the experience underlying the sion, angle of internaI friction == 30°, unit weight
recommended rules is meagre. By assuming a tra- == 19 kN/m3 , initial tangent soil modulus in compres-
pezoid (Tschebotarioff, 1951) or a rectangular (Peck, sion linearly increasing with depth, according to

100
 Fig. 3. - Semi-empirical rules for
anchor load prediction.

1scheboAJrioff (/951) ?ec/( (/969)

CA5E 1 CASE Il CA5E III

fO xJY/m 2
.---r--.--T~/okN/m2 ......--.--.-----+--r---.-IO i<N/m
2

2.

Fig. 4. - Layout of the sys-

3
t!,
tems.
2
3

Terzaghi (1955) expression: In order to analyse the influence of wall flexibility

Eop == th (z/D) (3)
~ stiffness values were incorporated in the study, namely
where th == 3 000 kN/m3, D is the effective embed-
ment depth, z, the equivalent soil depth taking into
account the surcharge load. 1t was assumed that
Eoa == 0.5 Eop •
Initial strësses in the soil are taken as those corres-
ponding ta an at-rest condition with a lateral pressure
coefficient K o == 0.577.
1 <t
on anchor reaction a large range of wall flexural
from 28 850 kN/m2 to 1 920000 kN/m2 • Actual
walls with similar stiffness values would range from
a 2B type Larsen sheetpile to a 1.0 m thick concre~e
slurry wall. The corresponding range of the Rowe
flexibility coefficient, log p, is - 2.83 to - 4.65, p
. being introduced in Rowe's original units (ft4/lb in2
per ft).

101
 EFFECT OF WALL FLEXIBILITY AND ANC'HOR STIFFNESS ON ANCHOR REACTION

Questions were raised concerning the wall stiff- If the double-anchored wall is analysed it may he
ness influence on anchor reaction values. This observed that the two anchors are equally loaded for
influence can be analysed only in direct relation with a particular value of wall flexibility. This particular
the support stiffness. value increases with anchor yield increase. For the
The wall stiffness values 'considered in this study walls with· three and four anchor rows, there is no
range from those corresponding to very flexible sheet particular value of wall stiffness resulting in an equal.
pile walls to values corresponding to very sUff concrete load in each individual anchor.
cast-in-situ walls. Il is probable that for the slurry As regards the anchor loads predicted by means
trench wall cracking can occur, resulting in a substan- 'of the semi-empirical rules treated by Tschebo-
tial reduction in wall rigidity. In such èases the cracked tarioff and Peck, they overestimate the upper anchor
. moment of inertia is recommended for use in calcu- pull and understimate the lower anchor pull.
lations. The presence of tie-backs can he more realistically
In order 10 study the influence of anchor yield, considered by introducing in the support points the
three values of this parameter were considered in the corresponding nonlinear anchor deformation curves
present study, namely 0.0, 0.1 and 0.20/0 of the wall rather than an arbitrary anchor yield.
height.· The results of the analyses are presented in Tie-backs can very in stiffness by a factor of 10
fig. 5 a, band c, showing the calculated anchor reac- depending upon whether tie rads or multistrand cables
tion values versus wall flexibility for different anchor are used. In these analyses two values of anchor
yields. The diagrams are self-explanatory and it may stiffness, EA, were considered namely 3.5 . 103 kN/m
be observed that the anchor reaction. values depend in and 3~5 . 104 kN/m. The anchor nonlinear curve cha-
a great degree on the wall flexibility an anc];lor yield. racteristics are based on the elasto-plastic behaviour
For the zero anchor yield case, the lower tie-back is of steel.
the most loaded and the reaction difference between The effect of anchor stiffness on anchor reactions is
this anchor and the upper anchors is very large. The shown in fig. 6 for all three analysed cases. The
more flexible the wall, the less low the anchor reaction. main outcome of the results presented În fig. 6 is that
As expected, the greater anchor yield results in a the stiff anchors are more unequally loaded than the
decrease of the lower anchor. reaction. Aiso it results flexible anchors.
in a decrease of the upper anchor reaction, for the When stiff tie-backs are used, the lower anchor is
usual range of wall flexibility. For 0.1 % and 0.2% the most loaded one, whereas the upper anchor is
anchor yield cases, the wall flexibility increase yields the least loaded one, under all .circumstances. The
to an increase of the lower support reaction and a difference between anchor pull values may be as high
decrease of the upper support reaction. as 80% for the flexible walls.

500-r-----------------------...,
Anchor !JiBld CASE 1
-0 ," .

---- 01%11
...... 02%11
'!{)O
~
.~
~
~
~
t 300 a CU

~ ------ _--12\
1-'"
'-_--:/~
·····~·2··c:...J Fig. 5 a. - Anchor reaction ver-
f
,/
.."
.." ...... - -- ........... ~ sus wall fIexibility and anchor
yield (case 1).
/'
", 1
/

/
/
2
'.
2 ,, /
/
'.(
/ "" .. -.
/
100 / " .
~ ..... " -----~1

---- -'_:"~:.::..::.::..::.: .::I~

~ '1' }
,_/

O...L------~----.....,_----__r_----__.,_---:---___f
-5;0 -'1,5 -'/,O
- /ogjJ --
102
 500
Anchor !lie/d CASE. 11
0
01% /1 3
02;{11
, '100

~
300
t .CS
~ Fig. 5 b. - Anchor reaction ver-
~ sus wall flexibility and anchor
~ ~ __ ..Jt""3.. .
-- -- yield (case II).
\j

~ ~
\
..... /

~
200 ~ ~
1
~
===2 { /.2.3
3
100

--
O------r-----~------r-----r----------f
-5,0 -~5 -'1,0 -3,5

logp
'J 1100
Aocoor .fIeld CASE III
.--0
~---Ol ill
·······02%11
300
~
.~
f ~
~

~ ~
QJ
~

Fig. 5 c. - Anchor reaction ver-

~21JO
~. 1i
sus wall flexibility and anchor ~
yield (case III). 1 t

?d.-
!(JO L

o ~-----P----------.------..---------.----------'
-50 -'15 -'10 -3.5 -3.0 ~25

When flexible tie-backs are used, they are more
uniformly loaded. For each case analysed, there is
a particular wall stiffness value when the reactions
of individual anchors are practically equa1. This par-
ticular value corrysponds to a log p of - 3.75, for
the double-anchored wall and - 4.00, for the walls
supported by three and four anchor rows.
- l0.f.?--
. In general, as the wall flexibility increases, the upper
anchor load decreases and the lower anchor load grows,
for both anchor stiffness values. For· the intermediate
anchors, the anchor pull shows an increasing or a
decreasing tendency, but these variations are not quite
ifl?portant. 1t may be also noted that the stiff anchor
load is less influenced by the wall flexibility, when
comparing with the flexible anchors.

103
 A!lchOI stlffness
............ ·3.5
~
· IOit
J
!< MI'1 m
------~5·IO kN/m
300or---------------------------_
CASE 1 .- - .
.... .. ..
.. . . '
'

f 200 ;.·2·.. ·····

2
~ ------ --- --:--..-::::... - ....... ."
."
"..

~
~
~
.~
~
~
1100 ~
~
.... . .
~
13
~
0
-5,0 -Ll,o -2,5
-Iogp
300
CASE Il
~
.t::S

~
~ .
~ .. ' .... G Fig. 6. - Anchor reac-
Q ~ tion versus wall fle-
~ :"3 ' .J ;"3') ~ xibility and "a n c ho r
2····· ."...---- ,_/ stiffness.
== 1 -' ." ." ~ ~J
3 .. ··. ,,-' /-\
~
1 100
~" 2~~~~~~~~~;'~';:";:..tc.:..;: ~ - - - - - _l,?)
-~------ ----....... . .
1
- .......
(1':' " " ~.~.~.~;: .-:-.'~D
O+-------r--------r-------r------r-----~
-5,0 -'1,0
-logp
200------------------------~--
,~ CASE !IJ ······················
~ 1:4.'······· .
~ . _" __(4)_1
:::. f(J(J 2,: ::~:~~~.~.~ ~~:_..-~-:;;.-;~:.~~~! 2
~ :.2:~·..·~L&~_~----_----_/213,'1

1 ~ ".~~~.~.~~.~~.~ ~.~.~~:~~~~~~~;:;~;I~
.....

o j~--r---:....--r-------.....--.---.----~
-5;0 -2,5

The computed anchor yields are (0.0055 - 0.055)

%H for the stiff tie-backs and (0.065 - 0.45) %H for
the flexible t'Ïe-backs. It can easily be seen that
a zero deflection (simple support) condition at each
anchor location would have been too restrictive. The
stiffer tie-backs reduce wall deflections, but the reduc-
tion is not in proportion to the stiffness change, since
an increase in tie-back stifness by a factor of 10 is
required to cause a 30-60% reduction in movements.
Comparison of the computed anchor reactions with
those estimated by means of the semi-empirical rules
proposed by Tschebotarioff and Peck, again shows
differences, whichgrow with wall stiffness decrease
and anchor stiffness increase. As can be seen from
fig. 6 these differences are not always on the safe
side.
 EFFECT OF THE INITIAL STRESS CONDITIONS AND EMBEDMENT DEPTH ON ANCHOR REACTION
In order to .begin our computations it is necessary
)'
to define the initial horizontal stresses which are /lorizontal
assumed to correspond to an at-rest condition. pressure
In the determinationof earth pressure at rest, there
constantly occur discrepancies between experimental
and theoretical results. There were several authors
who underlook research on the determination of
the coefficient of earth pressure at rest for granular
soils, and presented different equations (Myslivec,
1972). Using these equations with our soil charac-
retistics, the following values of the coefficient' of at
rest pressure were obtained: Jaky: K o == 1 - sin 0
== 0.5; Brooker and Ireland: K o == 0.95 (1 - sin 0)
== 0;475; de Wet: 1(0 == (1 - sin2 0)/(1 + sin2 0)
== 0.5; Siedek:. K o == 0.75 tg 2 (n/4 - 0/2) + 0.25
== 0.499; Wierzbicki: Ko == tg 2 (n/4 - 0/3) == 0.491.
Pruska (1972) showed that the conditions for the
so-called pressure at rest are fulfilled for different values o Vertical 'pressure
of vertical to horizontal pressure ratio, which form a
conical zone, 1 (fig. 7). The lower and the upper Fig. 7. - Limits of the earth pressure at rest zone.
.limits of this zone are defined by the equations:
K 01 == tg (n/4 - 0/2) (4 a)
1(02 == tg (n / 4 + 0 /2) (4 b)
. The zones II are the local plastic area zones and the depth increases. The most important variations
zones III are impossible strength zones. For our parti- (40 - 100 0/0) of the anchor reaction values occur in
cular soil 1(01 == 0.577 and 1(02 == 1.732. the embedment depth range 2 to 4 m. It is to be
noted that below the 4 m embedment depth the values
It '.may be observed that Jaky's equation as weIl of the tie-back reactions, so far constant, quickly
as the other previous equations, refer to the lower limit differentiate, thus making the upper tie-back completely
of the coefficient of pressure at rest. useless. As far as the lower one is concerned, this
The influence of the coefficient of earth pressure at reaches the over high values given in fig. 8. The
rest and the influence of embedment depth on the corrèsponding soil restraint is of a sinking support
anchor reactions, for the double-anchored wall, are type.
illustrated in fig. 8. The anchors stiffness is The effect of K o increase is a reduction of the
3.5 . 103 kN/m. lower anchor reaction. During the same time, the upper
As embedment depth increases the lower anchor anchor load increases, for the very flexible wall and
reaction. decreases, tending to a constant value, whe- decreases, for the very stiff wall. But the anchor load
reas the upper anchor reaction increases. For the changes induced by the 1):.0 variation between the two
very stiff wall, the upper reaction r'eaches a maximum extreme limits, are not greater than 15% and are
value and then slightly decreases when embedment relatively independent of embedment depth.

K
Of
= f-X_!L.)
\ Li 2
k:
02
= (JL_!L)
Lj2
El= 1820000 k/,lmJm: ._._.-.
\EI=28.850 kNmfm ----- .
.
.,
\

\'. .'.>,".":"
\ "''':-.~,
\ . ""':"".---
\ .... :-::-: :-: .-: .-: .-:" .-:-. -:-.7. :-: .-: .-: .-:.7'. :-: :-: :-:
"

" Fig. 8. - Anchor reaction ver-

sus coefficient of earth pressure
at rest and embedment depth.

10

- emoBdmellf dejJfl7 [ml

105
 CONCLUSIONS
The design of a tied-back flexible wall is a complex
operation which depends on knowledge of the inter-
action between the anchors, the ground and the wall.
The numerical procedure for computer analysis of
the anchored walls used in this paper takes this inter-
action into consideration. Nonlinear anchor beha-
viour and nonlinear soil reponse can be properly
represented. Capabilities of the method have been
illustrated by the good agreement between the method
results and the finite element analysis results. It
should be noted however that the accuracy of the
method can obviously not be better than that of the
input-data provided.
The primary purpose of this study was to examine,
by a numerical method, how the anchor reaction is
influenced by sorne of the primary factors which
control the over-all behaviour of multianchored flex-
ible walls. This objective was achieved by consider-
ing the influence of the wall flexibility, anchor stiffness,
embedment depth and initial stress conditions on anchor
pull values.
, REFERENCES
[1] BJERRUM (L.) et al. - «Earth pressure on
flexible structures - A State of the Art Report»,
Proc. 5th European Conf. SMFE, vol. 1, Madrid,
pp. 169-196 (1972).
[2] CLOUGH (G.W.) and TSUI (Y.). - «Perfor-
mance of tied-back walls in clay», ! ourn. Geo-
techn. Div., vol. 100, no GT 12, pp. 1259-1273
(1974.)
'[3] HABIB (P.). - «Les ancrages, notamment en
terrain meuble», Rapport Général, Sess. Spécial
15, Proc. 7th ICSMFE, Mexico (1969).
[4] HALIBURTON (T.A.). - «Numerical analysis
of flexible retaining structures», !ourn. SMFD,
vol. 94, no SM 6, pp. 1233-1251 (1968).
[5] KONDNER (R.L.). - «Hyperbolic stress-strain
response: cohesive soils», !ourn. SMFD, vol. 89,
no SM 1, pp. 115-143 (1963).
[6] MYSLIVEC (A.). - «Pressure at'rest of cohesive
soils», Proc. 5th European Conf. SMFE, Madrid,
vol. 1, pp. 63-67 (1972).
106
In the design .of tied-back wall systems the anchor
pull evaluation is often based upon the semi-empirical
earth pressure diagrams such as those suggested by
Tschebotarioff and Peck. The comparison of the values
obtained by these practical rules with the results of
our analyses shows that the differences are not always
on the safe side for the anchor forces evaluated by
means of these rules.
It may be concluded that the computation method
must be chosen on the basis of the extent to which it
simulates the actual behaviour of real anchor-ground-
wall system. Thereafter' the value of the_ safety factor
in respect to the ultimate pull-out capacity of the
individual anchor and its application might well be.
left in the hands of the designer. This factor of safety
allows for time effects, ground variability, repetitive
loading and grouping action.
Despite the limitations related to the particular soil
and structures considered in this analysis, it is believed
that the findings of the paper are of general value
for engineering evaluation of the over-all problem of
the anchor systems behaviour.
[7] PECK (R.B.). - «Deep excavations and tunneling
in soft ground», State of the Art Volume, 7th
ICSMFE, Mexico, pp. 225-290 (1969).
[8] POPESCU (M.). - «A numerical .analysis of
flexible cast-in-situ diaphragm walls considering
nonlinear soil behaviour», Constructions Review,
no 5, pp. 17-22 (1977).
[9] PRUSKA (L.). - «Basic equations of pressure
at rest of granular materials», Proc. 5th European
Conf. SMFE, Madrid, vol. 1, pp. 69-76 (1972).
[10] ROWE (P.W.). - «A theoretical and experi-
mental analysis of sheet-pile walls», Proc. fnst.
of Civ. Eng., London, part 1, pp. 32-69 (1955).
[11] TERZAGHI (K.). - «Evaluation of coefficients
of subgrade reaction», Geotechnique, vol. 5,
pp. ~97-326. (1955).
[12] TSCHEBOTARIOFF (G.P.). - «Soil Mechanics-,
Foundations and Earth Structures», Mc. Grow-
Hill, N.Y. (1951).
 FIRST .ApPLICATION OF ,A TOTALLY PROTECTED ANCHORAGE
Première application d'un ancrage à protection totale

by

c. MASTRANTUONO et A. TOMIOLO
Ing. G. RODIO et C.S.p.A.
Casalmaiocco, Milano· Italia

SOMMAIRE
Cet article décrit la première application d'un
nouveau système d'ancrage entièrement protégé
contre les dommages causés par la fissuration
et· la corrosion des barres d'acier.
Cet ancrage appartient à la famille des ancrages
à bulbe comprimé.
La technologie d'exécution du bulbe de scelle·
ment injecté est celle utilisée dan's le système
bien connu IRP à injection répétée en pression.
Chaque barre est protégée sur toute sa longueur
par une gaine plastique jusqu'à la plaque du fond,
sur laquelle se fixe chaque ancrage.
La plaque du fond est enrobée dans un mortier
de résine époxy. Ainsi, même si quelques fissures
se développent dans le bulbe de scellement injecté
précontraint, aucun point ne peut être attaqué par
la corrosion, l'acier étant entièrement protégé par
la gaine en résine époxy.
Dans cet article, on présente les résultats de
prototypes réalisés dans le rocher et dans des
sols alluviaux mous.
Les essais effectués dans le sol mou ont été
exécutés à l'aide de dispositifs de mesure mon-
trant la distribution de la transmission des charges
au terrain. Ces distributions ont été comparées à
celles de deux tirants IRP traditionnels exécutés
dans le même sol.
SUMMARY
This paper describes the first experimental appJj·
cation of a new anchoring system thoroughly
protected against dangers connected with fissur·
ing and corrosion of the steel rods.
This anchorage is similar to the type of anchors
with a compressed bulb.
The grouted bulb placing technology is the same
as used in the weil known IRP system, i.e., with
repeated high pressure, grouting.
Each rod is protected, along its entire length,
by a plastic sheath down to a bottom plate on
which each anchor is fixed. The steel bottom
plate itself. is embedded in epoxy resin mortar.
ln this way even if some fissures develop in the
stressed, grouted bulb, no point is left open to
attack by corrosion, the steel being entirely pro·
tected by the plastic sheath of epoxy resins.
This paper reports the results of prototypes in
rock, and in soft alluvial soils. .
The tests in a soft soil were carried out with
instrumentation detecting distribution of the trans-
ferred loads to the soil. These distributions have
been compared to those of two traditional IRP
anchors built in the same soil.

INTRODUCTION

During the last few years the application of ancho-
rages has become more and more widespread.
The generalized use of these systems involves pro·
blems of various types. Among them the protection of
anchorages against attack by corrosion and quality
control on the job sites are of particular importance.
In the first part of this paper a new type of anchor
called TPT, entirely protected' .against corrosion, is
described. The results of two series of tests on proto·
types of such anchor are reported. Prototypes in the
first series have been' installed in rock whilst those
of the second series in normally consolidated clayey
silts.
Anchors of the second series, in soft soils, were
instrumented so as to n1easure distribution of stresses
along the length of the grouted bulb. These measu-
rements were, also carried out on traditional anchor
prototypes placed in the same soil thus allowing a
comparispn between the two anchoring systems.

1. DESCRIPTION Of TPT ANCHOR

As shown in figure 1 the characteristics of the TPT
arrchor may be summarized as follows:
1 ( .... - The TPT anchor consists of a number of cables
placed aIl around a pipe equipped to perform
repeated high pressure grouting.
- Each strand is protected by a plastic sheath down
to the bottom plate, thus preventing .any possible
contact of the steel with waters present in the
ground, even if fissuring of the grouted bulb
occurs.

107
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION

DETAIL OF THE BOTTOM ANCHOR DEVieE

350 mm

E
E
o
~

plastic tube equipped

with multi - stage
grouting devices

- - -- tendons

114-lJc.....:.--..'-.-l--- steel spiral

'",

-metallic net

section A-A ®
section' B-B

LEGENDA

G) mortar of epoxy resins ® reinforcement steel spiral

® cement grout (j) terminal steel plate

@ tendons protected with a plastic sheath ® devices for fixing the steel tendons

@ devlce for positioning the tendons ® tendons 'without plastic sheath protection

® tube equipped with grouting device

Fig. 1. - TPT anchor system.

- The bottom plate equipped with strand fixing

devices is embedded in epoxy resin mortar. In
this way all the steel parts are thoroughly protected.'
- The prestressing device may be any one of those
employed for other traditional anchors.
- The TPT anchor belongs to the family of anchors
with compressed grouted bulb in that the steel
cables may run ,within the plastic sheaths and
transfer the load to the bottom plate.
- The TPT anchor grouted bulb is carried out using
the same construction method employed for the
IRP anchor. (4)
- Hence it is possible to combine the advantages of
repeated high pressure grouting with those °relating
to protection against corrosion both of cables and
bottom plate.

2. STRENGTH Of GROUTING 'MORTARS

A particularly important problem involved in grouted a) stresses transmitted by bottom plate;

anchors, especially those' with compressed bulb, is b) confining effect due to the soil surrounding the
that related to strength of the injected miXe grouted bulb.
This mix undergoes a state of triaxial stresses 1t is well known (1) that by varying the mechanical
wherein the principal stresses are due to: properties of the grouted bulb and surrounding soil,

108
 distribution and magnitude of stress states in the
grouted mix will also vary. 61
1000
The author has carried out tests with a view to deter-
mining the strength range of a grouting mix of the type 900
commonly employed, subject ,to triaxial stress states.
800 . /~
These tests were performed at ENEL (Government V
Electrical· Agency) Laboratory at Niguarda, (Milan).
/
Tests were carried out on eight sets of specimens of a V
grouting mix with the following characteristics: 500 V --

- size of specimens . la x .10 X la cm;

400 /
- pozzolana cement 325;
- water/ cement ratio 0.55 ; 300 / Rendulic
plane
f -

Results of these tests are given in figure 2 where two 200

curves are plotted, representing, in Rendulic's plane, 100

the strehgth range limits of the grouting mix subject
to triaxial stress states. The maximum stresses usually o ~
o 100 200 300 400 500 Vi"- 62 = V2- 63
acting on the mix injected near the anchor bottom plate ( Kg/cm 2 )
vary from 500 to 600 kg/sq.cm. By comparing these
stresses with the stresses shown in figure 2. it will be
seen that these states of stress do not cause breaking Fig. 2. - Variation of strength of grout under triaxial
of the mix when the surrounding soil is able to exert . state of stress.
such a confining pressure that the ratio between the
principal stresses is equal to 0.3.

3. TEST ON PROTOTYPES

Tests on TPT anchor prototypes were carried out on
two test sites representative of two limit conditions.
. In the first case the soil consisted of rocks showing
the best mechanical characteristics, while in the second
case the soil was formed by clayey silts of very poor
geotechnical properties. In both cases the aim of the
tests was to provide information on the following
points:
- verify that the TPT anchor actually worked as a
compressed bulb anchor;
,< • - verify that the strength of th~ injected mixes
submitted to triaxial stress states \vas consistent
with strength measured by the laboratory tests
described in the preceding paragraph;
- compare the behaviour of compressed bulb TPT
anchors with that of the traditional IRP anchors.
The tests performed led to some conclusions which
may be sumlned up as follow.s:
- in practice, the measured free lengths coincide
with the theoretical lengths thus showing that the
anchors actually behave in the same way as anchors
with compressed bulb;
- stresses transferred by the bottom plate to the
groute~ mix were 800 kg/sq. cm. approx. and
no failure phenomenon occurred.
This confirms the validity of values found through
the experimental tests referred to in paragraph 2.
Following the successful outcome of the tests, TPT
anchors have been employed in general in an jobsites
involving anchors in rock which required a definitive
protection against corrosion.

3.1. Tests of TPT anchors in rock

on the Sorrento jobsite (Naples)
Six TPT anchors were built in soil consisting of
calcareous rock.
The tests. were carried out from July to September
1976. The characteristics of these anchors were the
following:
length: 25 m
drilling diameter: 120 mm
testing load: 11 7 t
The test load value is determined by the yield point
of the steel. The tests were performed according
to the procédure described by Portier (2), Le. the cycle
method. This systen1 offers the possibility of inter-
polating the free length of the anchor taking into
account the loading and unloading curves measured
during the tests.
M·easurements taken were highly satisfactory for they
showed differences of 7 % from the theoretical free
lengths ..
As an example, we show in figure 5 the stress/strain
curve measured during the test on a TPT anchor. Fig. 3. - Rupture caused by uniaxial state of stress.

109
 120 , - - - - - - - - ,

100 f------+-------t---U----t----t-t'------l

80 t----------t-- -----H'II~__t'+__-H----___j

70 f------f--------A'--f---f'----+---t---I-----

~ 60
.2 actual free
length
50 f----------I-f-Ji'---JL------H--f----------j

Fig. 4. - Rupture caused biaxial state of stress.

40 f-----H--H--f--I----IF----f----------j

30 f---+-I--:II---+----c3-----f-----
At present (March 1977) a jobsite where about
150 anchors of this type are being installed, is being 20 f-----fJ-H-t'------I-I-----------l!-------
set up. In this jobsite measurements, of the free
lengths are systematically carried out. 10,w-r----f--.t-f-------t--------j

3.2. Tests on TPT anchor in soil O"----------"------ "------ ~

o ~ 100 ~O
of poor geotechnical ~haracteristics extension (mm)

In February 1977 a series of tests were begun on Fig. 5. - Stress/strain curve.

TPT anchors, installed in soils of very poor geotechni-
cal characteristics, that is alluvial clayey silt soils in the
Po river delta.
The anchors were set out in the same site where
traditional IRP anchors were under construction. This
allowed comparison on the behaviour of the two types
of anchors in the same soil.
A 'number of anchors were instrumented with remo-
vable strain gauges.
Measurelnent were taken by instruments and techni-
cians of «Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées»
of Saint-Brieuc (3). The tests made it possible to take
measurements on stress distribution within the bulb on
both TPT anchofs (loaded by a bottom plate)' and
traditional IRP anchors where the load transfer to
the bulb occurs by adhesion between, steel and cement
mix).
At present (March 1977) the testing programme is
still under way, hence it is impossible to give general
results on the behaviour of TPT anchors in soil of poor
geotechnical characteristics.
Nevertheless we think it is of sorne interest to refer
to the results of the straingauge measurements detect-
ed along the bulb length, referred to in figure 6, 7
and 8.
In figure 6 a typical section of the work is given,
showing both anchor position and points where strain
gauge measurements were carried out. Measurements
were taken only at the grouted bulb and strain gauges
placed in the same position for aIl anchors.
ln figures 7 and 8 strain measurements carried out
both on a IRP anchor and a TPT anchor are reported.
A numerical evaluation of these results will form the
subject of a future. paper that will be published after
completion of the present investigation programme.
Here we are just making a few remarks of a qualitative
character.
ln figure 7 bulb deformations as a function of
applied load for a TPT anchor are given. We have five
load/deformation diagrams each referring to one of
the points indicated in figure 6.
1t should be noted how at the plate, the deforma-
tions are very high while they decrease towards the
top of the bulb. This confirms the success of the
anchor, from the technological point of view, in that
working performance approaches theoretical perfor-
mance, even in the range of the lowest loads.
ln figure 8, curves relating to IRP anchor, similar
to those in figure 7 are shown.
As already stated, in this type of anchor, load trans'-
fer occurs by adhesion of the strands to the grouted
mix. Deformations decrease towards the end of the
bulb.
1twill be seen that the strain gauge. placed near
the înflatable packer on top of the bulb detects no
deformations.
1t is interesting to note that unit maximum per cent
deformations, in anchors with bulb undergoing tensile
stress, are much higher than those of anchors with
compressed bulb. This proves the risk of bulb micro-
fissuring, as already pointed out by various authors
(Ostermayer, 1974, for instance) (5).

110
 CROSS SECTION WITH ANCHORS
and distribution of deformations Fig. 6. - Cross section with an·
as a function of loads chors. Position of points of
measurements.

+1.20
y

0.00
y

-1.00

U)~

~I-J

~_··......:..i_LIJ:::bb1-:
00

1
-8.00
Y

Il -diaphragm wall
ü

"ii
~ points of measuremenl

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ( t)
1 H - - = - . __.--...,...-o--...,... ~ ......,
0
-14.00
_..Y---_
~
u
c -15.00
~i-JL--._-----l....__ .L..--_-----l...._----I + .?o
....L-_---.:........L...:.--_--L-_ _

~ >- ~--- --_.- -

::~
iiü

~i
tI~
I/ll/l

Fig. 8. - Deformations in the 1RP anchor.

JI
The loads are transferred to the bulb by
adherence between tendons and groute r---~--"""'--------.----r-----' - 400

1----+---+-----j----6"",.r.=-----1 - 200
2 0
"-
'"
o
+200
'\
~ Î\. +400

~i~
II)
'\~ +600
- 600

"'"
C
0ëij

~ +800
- 400

- 200
3 --... o (+1000)
~
~ I~
"'- +200
0

U)~
" "- +400
- 600

~I-J
II)
C
\ +600
- 400

o~

il
'1\ +800
- 200

4
-~
\ o (+1000) 0 10 . 20 30
0
50 (t)

r-o--o...
1\
U)$2

~i-J
'"1'\ l
+200

+400
Fig. 7. - Deformations in the
fPT anchor. The loads are trans~
ferred to the bulb by a bottom
steel plate. The measurement
points are referred to those of
II) +600 fig. 6.
C
"Cli
~ +800

@ 0
~
~.

~i-J +200
 AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Mr. (

Bellotti of the ENEL Laboratory of Niguarda for his
research on triaxial stress states in grouting mixes, and
to Mr. Jézéquel of Laboratoire des Ponts et Chaussées
of Saint-Brieuc, for measurements taken by means of
removable strain gauges.

REFERENCES

[1] COATES (D.F.) and YU (Y.S.). - «Three-dimen-
sional stress distribution around a cylindrical hole
and anchor», Proc. 2nd Congress IRSM, Beograd,
vol. 3, Theme 6-7 (1970).
[2] FENOUX (G.Y.) and PORTIER (J.-L.). - «La
mise en précontrainte des tirants», Travaux,
n. 449/450, 33-43 (1972).
[3] JEZEQUEL (J.-F.), HERVE (G.) and LIBERGE
(P.). - «Extensomètres amovibles pour la mesure
des relations contraintes-déformations des pieux
chargés. verticalement», Rapport interne Labora-
toire Régional des Ponts et Chaussées de Saint-
Brieuc (1973).
[4] JORGE (G.R.). - «Le tirant IRP réinjectable
spécial pour terrains meubles, karstiques ou à
faible caractéristiques géotechniques», Proc. 7th
ICSMFE, Mexico, Spec. Session 15, 159-163
(1969).
[5] OSTERMAYER (H.). - «Construction, carrying
behaviour and creep characteristics of ground
anchors», Proc. Conference on Diaphragm Walls
and Anchorages, London, Sept. Pap~r 18, 141-151
(1974).

112
 STRESSES AND 5TRAINS ON THE SURFACE OF ANCHORS
Contraintes 'et déformations à la surface d'ancrage
by
E. WERNICK
Institute for SoU and Rock Mechanics~
SOMMAIRE
Des essais d'arrachement d'ancrages de sol de
petit diamètre (5 à 15 cm, longueur 3 rh) ont
donné des résistances limites élevées que l'on
ne peut pas expliquer à partir de la pression du
poids des terres.
On a exécuté des essais à grande échelle,
dans lesquels la résistance au frottement
('t rz == - 'tzr) et la contrainte normale (cr r ) à la sur-
face (rugeuse) de l'ancrage ont été mesurées à
l'aide de cellules. Les rapports entre les efforts
de cisaillement et les contraintes normales ont
donné des angles de frottement très élevés, qu'il"
n'est pas possible de déduire d'essais triaxiaux
ou d'essais de cisaillement. De plus, des contra-
dictions apparaissent si l'on tient compte des
conditions cinématiques tout en retenant les hypo-
thèses courantes au sujet de la coaxialité des
contraintes et des déformations. Par contre, si on
abandonne l 'hypothèse de coaxialité tout en pre-
nant en compte la dilatance des matériaux dans
les conditions 'de cinématique existantes, l'analyse
des cercles de Mohr pour les contraintes et les
déformations permet d'éliminer toute contradic-
tion dans les résultats des essais. Ces analyses
théoriques prouvent que les effets de dilatation
sont le facteur prépondérant qui détermine la
force limite d'ancrages cylindriques.
On explique les modifications que l'on a été
conduit à apporter aux essais classiques en labo-
ratoireet les résultats ainsi obtenus confirment
les considérations énoncées ci-dessus.
On discute finalement les conséquences fonda-
mentale qui en résultent pour le calcul de la
force limite d'éléments d'ancrage cylindriques.
INTRODUCTION
Pull-out tests of cylindrical anchors with small
diameters (5 to 15 cm) reveal a bearing capacity (as
a consequence of skin friction) much higher than what
would be expected from the overburden pressure
(H. Zweck (1970), H.-D. Werner (1972), H. Oster-
mayer (1975)). Further in many experiments it is
observed (T.H. Hanna (1973), B.M. Das (1975)) that the
skirt friction does not exceed a limiting- value beneath
a certain depth.
1t is difficult to analyse these phenomena because
there are a lot of factors influencing the bearing
capacity of ground anchors such as:
- overburden pressure;
113
Karlsruhe~ GFR
SUMMARY
Pull-out resistance tests on cylindrical ground
anchors with small diameters (5 to 15 cm) show a
high qearing capacity not derivable from the over-
burden pressure.
To investigate this fact full scale tests were
performed measuring skin friction ('t rz == - 't zr ) and
nor.mal stress (cr r ) on the anchor surface (rough)
with the help of installed cells. Analysing the
ratio of skin friction and normal stress, large
angles of internai friction were stated. not to be
derived from triaxial tests or from direct shear
tests. Beyond that contradictions appear if kine- .
matic conditions and usual assumption of coaxiality
of stresses and strain increments are taken into
account. However, if coaxiality is disregarded and
using Mohr's stress and strain circles with regard
to the kinematic conditions concerned, the test
results do not point out any contradicti'ons. These'
theoretical considerations reveal that dilatancy
effects are above ail responsible for the bearing
capacity of cylindrical anchors.
Modifications of conventional laboratory tests are
explained and test results of a «true direct shear
tests» are given confirming the considerations
stated above.
The fundamental impact of these results on the
calculation of the bearing capacity of cylindrical
anchors is discussed.
- boring technique (ramming or boring);
- diameter and inclination of anchors;
- bond length;
- pressure of cement injection;
- rate of penetration of cement suspension into soil;
- soil density;
- grain size and grain-size distribution of soil.
This variety led to simplified tests to separate the
influence of soil parameters and to state the author's
opinion that the pulling resistance of ground anchors
is decisively influenced by dilatancy effects.
 PULL-OUT TESTS

Large scale tests were performed to determine r

the pull-out resistance of vertical cylindrical anchors. ...-- '-'-'1-"-'"
They corisisted of pieces of steel pipe connected inside
with threaded steel ,bolts. The bolts were provided i
with strain gages to measure the skin friction for each
of the pipe sections. The anchors (diameter. ~ 5 to
10 cm with rough surface) are held vertically in a
round test bin (diameter 2.5 m, height 3 m, see E.
Wernick (1974)) and the bin is then filled with sand,
varying d~nsity from test to test.
At the anchor surface cens were inserted .(fig. 1) to
measure the skin friction ('t rz == - 't zr ) and the normal 1
stress (cr r ) at the same place. The details of the
cells (with semiconductor strain gages) are given else- ·-·-f-·_·
where (see B. Prange (1971)). section A-'A front view
,------ cable channel
cell'
cover
rough surface
Fig. 1. - Arrangement of cells in the anchor. .V ( pasted sand grains )
/-,.L-,,~F---- cylindrical anchor

cross section

CELL MEASUREMENTS

A representative result of cell measurements, obtain-

ed at a depth of z == 2.12 m below ground surface,
i.e., surface of the sand body, is shown in fig. 2.
Poin~ «1» represents the anchor erected in the centre
of the test bin; a11 stresses here are zero (reference sta-
dium). During sand filling Icrrl increases to about
10 ,kN/m2 ' (0.10 kp/cm2, «2») which is in good agree-
ment with the earth pressure at rest and can be
calculated as cr r == Ko • 'Y . z (1 - sin q)') r 0, z =
t rz [kN/m2]
80t-----,------.-------,-----+~-----t
- (1 - sin 40°) . 17.14 kN/m~ . 2.12 m ==
- 13.0 kN/m2• But one may not be deceived by this
agreement, because cr r is also influenced by «negative
skin friction» caused by relative displacement between
sand and anchor surface during filling, in this case
't rz ~ - 5 kN/m2 ( - 0.05 kp/cm2) was measured.
During the fo11owing pull-out test -after overcom-
ing the «negative skin friction»- !cr r ! and 't rz increase
ton <p'

1.1.+---:-,--------r------r----r-------r----.---------,

60 +----t--------t------4=------/--+--....,a!r) 0.9 ~-----4---+----+---+--~.-c+---+------::=.J

~
."..g .
0.7 ;,-~:;-
40 +----t----------:-4~--~----+--- -.-- -.--
0.5
Q6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

~
0 0.2 0.4
density index 0
20 ;------~~~~+\----+---'-----+---
<> cetl at anchor surface ( compare Fig.2 )
0--0 " true direct shear test" (Wernick 19770)

cJr
1
A-·-A triax ia 1 test (Mei nner 1971 )
.-- --r--.-.rr--+----.L-+-~--+----+_--___4
1
0----0 convent ionaL shear box .test
?7 ...?
o _. - -20 -40 -60 -80 -100
o D A 0 peak state
[kN/m 2 ] •• A • critical state
Fig. 3. -. Angles of shearing resistance obtained in
"l 1

Fig. 2. - Typical stress path measured on the anchor different types of shear tests on the same sand.
surface during pull-out test.
114

.....
_---------------------------_.~ ~-~
 rapidly until the maximum bearing capacity, Zmax' of
the anchor is reached. During this period the angle
of shearing resistance rises up to <1>' p == 45° (p == peak).
-, Continuing the test strain-controlled (<< 17» to «23») <1>'
dropped to a critical value <1>' k == 34.5°. After relieving
(<<27») skin friction vanished andcr r ~ - 8 kN/m2
( - 0.08 kp / cm2) corresponded to the earth pressure at
rest again.
Two main points should now be noted:
- the increasing Icrrl clearly shows the wedging effect
arlslng during pull-out test because only the
pressure at rest existed before starting; .
- ,very large angles of shearing resistance appeared.
The latter is not confirmed if these angles are
compared with the resu1ts of the conventional shear
box and triaxial tests conducted on the same sand
(fig. 3). In fig. 2 the. initial density index Was
D == 1.1
(D (Y-YZ)/(Yd-YZ), Yz unit weight in «loosest»,
y d in «densest» state packing, see DIN 18 126).

THE {(TRUE DIRECT SHEAR APPARATUS»

This discrepancy and the appearance of a shear band

tan;'.
close to the anchor surface (pointed out in E. Wer-
nick (1977 a)) led to the development of a «true
direct shear apparatus}>' (fig. 4). The primary modi- 1.0
fication to the conventional .box shear apparatus is
that the loading platen is not permitted to turn, but
0.8
can move' in the vertical direction only. Three typical
resu1ts of the <drue direct shear test» are given in
fig. 5. 0'6++----+-------...~---+---+-~--+----+---+------+-----1

During horizontal displacement h -enforcing a

horizontal shear band inside the sample- the angle 1: 0: 1.01
of shearing resistance reaches a peak value <1>' p and a D.4-4-1--I-----4---+---+-------+---+---+-----+------l
residual one <1>' k (fig. 5 a). <1>' k corresponds to a critical n: 0:: 0.83
ID: 0:: 0.49
0.2 ---4---+----+----,----+-----+---+----+--~

raller loading plate raller bearing O-f----t!------+----+----+------+---+---+-"'-----t~

support a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
horizontal displacement h
upper [mm]
frame
vertical displacement [mm]

shear force O.8*-----,---.-----~--r---

.--.
:'\
O.6+---+---+---r7-r---+----L~_;;;~~- ......_r_tr1
1

1
relier . "1
support ---1 sample O'4+--------+-~-I~---,--~....,....-- / - - - t - - - - - - r - - - r~ "! .

·~r
's-
oi
'-r-

2 3 4 5 678
horizontal displacement h
[mm] 5

Fig. 4. - Cross section and pic-

ture of the « true direct shear
apparatus ».

Fig. 5. - Results of « true direct

shear tests ».

115
density index inside the shear band not being influ-
enced by the initial density index. Transfering these
<1>' p and <1>' k values Into fig. 3 ami comparing especially
<1>' p with results of triaxial and conventional direct
shear tests, a great discrepancy is observed again.
But there is a good agreement between <1>' p and <1>' k
measured by the cell (see rhombus in fig. 3).
The different values of <1>' p and <1>' k are to be
explained by the varying kinematical conditions of
the different shearing procedu~es: on the anchor
STRESS AND STRAIN CONDITIONS
1t is not desirable to consider the stress and strain
conditions on the anchor surface at first because strain
increments are unknown except 0 Ez being zero (o == in-
crement) assuming that the anchor is rigid and that
the failure occurs along a shear band appearing at the
anchor· surface.
«TRUE DIRECT SHEAR TEST»
ln contrast to this the strain conditions of the
<drue direct shear test» are known (and are compa-
rable with those of the anchor tests as to be seen
later):
- the failure occurs along a shear band fo11owing a
zero extension line i.e. 0 Ex == 0 (fig. 6 a);
- assuming that a11 deformations are confined to the
shear band the angle of dilatancy v can' be cal-
culated from fig. 5 b by tan v == cd/oh and
a Ey == ai/s, s == thickness of shear band;
- the third strain 0 Ez (marked with 2 to distinguish
it from z in fig. 1) is zero (plane strain).
Using this information Mohr strain circles can be
drawn. Test 1 from fig. 5 was chosen to draw the
Mohr circles in fig. 6 band 6 e. Fig. 6 b has been
drawn for the stadium of peak friction, v being 13°
at this stage (fig. 5 b). Fig. 6 e represents the strain
circle for residual stadium, v being zero here.
To draw the Mohr stress circles a further assump-
tion has to be made, because only cry (vertical stress)
and 't yx (shear resistance) are known. The usual
as.sumption in soil mechanics is coaxiality of stresses
and strain increments -yielding dotted circles in
fig. 6 d (peak state) and fig. 6 (residual state). Accord-
ing to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the plane of maxi-
mum stress obliquity gives an angle of peak shearing
resistance <1>" p == 53.1 ° and a residual one of <1>" k == 41.7°.
Comparing tan <l>p == 1.33 (D == 1.1) and tan
<1>" k == 0.89 with the results of shear tests in fig. 3,
it is obvious that the assumption of coaxiality cannot
hold in this case.
Instead of this we now make the assumption, that
the failure fo11ows a static characteristic i.e. a plane
of maximum stress obliquity. In this way one can
get the solid circles in fig. 6 d and 6 f. The angles
of shearing resistance measured directly in the «true
direct shear test» now correspond to the inclination
ANCHOR
We can now consider the stress and strain condi-
tions near the anchor surface again. Starting from
the appearence of a shear band near the anchor surface
we have to estimate the deviation of the actual
116
surface and inside the shear band the kinematical
conditions are more restricted than in triaxial tests
(strains in two directions) and conventional shear box
tests (turning of loading plate allows additional strains).
Only a few types of direct shear apparatusses
avoid this additiona11y kinematical freedom as the
direct shear machine with an automatic recorder,
C.R.M. Maguin (1956) and likewise the improved direct
shear apparatus of J.R.F. Arthur et al. (1977).
of the tangents to these Mohr circles and the above
contradictions vanish. The deviation of the principal
axes of strain increments and stresses is (45° - v/2) -
(45° - <1>' /2) == <1>' /2 - v/2 (the deviation would be
zero, if coaxiality were valid).
It would be desirable to compare these somewhat
unusual results with results of other investigations
particularly with respect to
- large angles of shearing resistance;
- the assumption of non-coaxiality.
Peak angles of shearing resistance of the same
magnitude were found by J. Vardoulakis (1977).
who performed plane strain tests with the same
sand. This agreement is at first surprising since the
stress strain conditions in' these tests run coaxial up to
the peak differing from thosè in «true direct shear».
Hence the conclusion may be drawn that the Mohr-
Coulomb criterion is valid in both cases with the
same angle of shearing resistance irrespective of the
deviation of the principal axes of strain increments
from those of the stresses.
The investigations of J. Vardoulakis (1977) als~
confirm the assumption of non-coaxiality in shear
bands under certain kinematic conditions. They prove
theoretica11y (conceiving the formation of shear bands
as a bifurcation problem) and experimenta11y that the
non-coaxiality holds inside a shear band under
kinematic conditions as is the case here.
. J.R.F. Arthur et al. (1977) also found developing an
empirical model and discussing data from different
shear apparatuses that principal axes of stress and
strain increment do not always coincide. They prove
that the deviation of principal axes of stress and
element forming thin rupture layers. For kinematical
conditions as discussed here they also found a deviation
as given in the last chapter.
strain state from plane strain. In doing this we
assume that the first invariant of strain increments
,4<
(volume change) in «true direct shear» (t.d.s.) 1
la E' tds == aEx + aEy + 0 Ez == ~i/s, (fig. 6 a) (1)
 direction of E y•1,2 ÔYyx
, Ô·
1 J
y.i displacem .
•
Ôi

s
x,h

a}

~100

/
...,/
Fig. 6. - Stress and strain
analysis in the
band.
shear T x

""
pol
/
100

c) d)
static
7fl
characteri st i c t[kN/m 2 ]

e) f) t[kN/m 2 }

coaxial not coaxial

is equal to the volume change inside the shear band .convention of continuum mechanics used: for traction
near the anchor surface (a) and extension positive signs) and setting
d ou ou lô E' tds == lô E' a (3)
lôE,a == 0 Er + 0 Et + 0 Ez == - d + -, (fig. 7) (2)
r r we obtain the differential équation
d ou . ou oi
Assuming that the first invariant of stresses la has
no influence on 1ô E or is of the same magnitude (sign dr + r = s (4)

117
whose solution with the boundary condition - dilatation or tan v, is zero (for residual case for
ou (ra) == 0 (.5) example);
(r a == radius of anchor, fig. 7) is - r approaches ra and
- rais very large (with r == ra + s the ratio
oi (r- r;2) ralr ~ 1).
OU = = - - - - - - (6) For aIl these cases the plane strain condition is
2's achieved.
Taking now the ratio 0 êtIDevoE,tds' DevoE,tds being These considerations reveal that results of the «true
the deviator of strain increments of the «true direct direct shear test» can be used to calculate bearing
shear test», as a measure for the deviation from plane capacity of cylindrical, anchors. Neglecting the above
strain we obtain. considered deviation of plane' strain they permit
~
2s
(l_'a:rJ.. \) determination of
- the correct angle of shearing resistance;
Dev OE ' tds
~ 2 oi 2
+ + 'f)h2
(7 a) the correct, angle of dilatancy and
- the magnitude of dilatation inside the shear band
from (6), which for r == rI (fig. 7) is
Y3.s s
ra + 2
V3tanv (1-*) ra + s
(11 )
(7 b)
2. V2 tan v + 1.5
2 or at the end of pull-out test (in total) is
where s
o· ra +2
o~ = tan v, (fig. 6 a) . (8) U1 == ie ( 12)

In order to make a quantitative estimate of the ratio

in (7) it is necessary to set a limiting value ralr and
thus for rais. For reasons explained elsewhere (see
E. Wernick (1977 a)) the ratio of anchor diameter
to thickness of the shear band is limited to r,U
2ra /s'210. (9)
Considering middle of the shear band r == ra + si 2
and inserting tan v == 0.25 as the most unfavourable
value, we obtain.
oêtlDev ôE '1dS == 3% . (10)
Even for these unfavourable conditions the deviation
of the strain state inside the shear band from plane ÔU,
strain is very small and therefore negligible. Further
it is interesting to consider three limiting cases in r, shear band
equation (7 b): '
Fig. 7. - Cross section of
anchor with shear band,
40 80 120 160 notations.
skin friction t [KN/m ]

O.5~~~~---+--~~---~-----~---_---:..--+-

2.0

Fig. 8. - Distribution of skin

friction a t maximum bearing ca..
, pacity (anchor diameter 7.42 cm).

118
 For le ln relation to initial density see fig. 5. The
thickness of shear band for the sand used here is
s ~ 15 . d so , d so being the average grain size, E.
Wernick (1977 b).
• Equation (12) quantifies the' wedging effect in a
very simple manner and it is now obvious that dila-
tancy causes skin friction not being a function of the
overburden pressure.. This is stated also by results
of pull-out tests given in fig. 8.
We remark that the depth of initial constant
skin friction is a function of its magnitude or of soil
density index, which is not discussed in more detail
here. Further more, from the distances of the average
CONCLUSION
Analysing the stress and strain conditions on the sur-
face of cylindrical anchors it was possible to prove
that the high bearing capacity is caused by a
. wedging effect produced by dilatation. Furthermore
large angles of shearing resisfance were measured with
the help of cells installed on the surface of anchors,
which could not be confirmed by conventional shear
tests. These values could, however, be confirmed by
the test results of a «true direct shear apparatus».
The apparatus' also permits the determination of the
angle of dilatancy inside a shear band.
Analysing stress and strain conditions of the «true.
direct shear test» it was pointed out that the usual
assumption of coaxiality does not hold. .Further-
more, the results of «true direct shear test» are
transfered ta the anchor with help of invariants
proving that the deviation of plane strain is negli-
gible in the shear band. Wedging effect could thus
be quantified and it is now obvious that skin
friction is not a linear function of the overburden
1./ pressure but is ma~nly a consequence of wedging
REFERENCES
ARTHUR (J.R.F.), DUNSTAN (T.), AL-ANI (O.A.J.L.)
and ASSADI (A.). - «Plastic deformation and fai-
lure in granular media», Géotechnique 27, No 1,
pp. 53-74 (1977).,
DAS (B.M.) and SEELEY (G.R.). ~ «Uplift Capacity
of Buried Model Piles in Sand», Proc. - of the
American Soc. of Civil Engg., Vol. 101, No GT 10,
pp. 1091-1094 (1975).
DIN 18 126, Deutsche Normen. - «Bestimmung der
Dichte nichtbindiger Boden bei lockerster und
dichtester Lagerung», Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin
30 (1976).
HANNA (T.H.) and TAN (R.). - «The Behavior of
Long Piles Under Compressive Loads in Sand»,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 10, No 3,
pp. 311-340 (1973).
MAGUIN (C.R.M.). - «Experience with a New Direct
shear Machine with an Automatic Recorder»,
Proc. 2. Australian-New Zealand Conf. on Soil
Mech. Found. Engg. Christchurch, N.Z., pp. 27-33
(1956). . Ergebnissen von direkten' Scherversuchen ». Die
MEISSNER (1-1.). _ « Nichtlineares Kraft-Verformungs-
verhalten zylindrischer Korper aus rolligem Erd-'
stoff », Veroffentlichungen des Institutes für
J
1 Bodenlnechanik und Felsmechanik der Universitat
Fridericiana, Karlsruhe, H. 45 (1971).
OSTERMAYER (H.). _ «Construction, Carrying
Behaviour and Creep Characteristics of Ground
Anchors», Conference on Diaphragm Walls and
Anchoràges, London, Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, London, pp. 141-151 (1975).
119
lines in fig. 8 it can be concludèd -with respect to
written density index D- that skin friction increases
more than linear with increasing density index. But
considering the influence of density index it has to be
remembered that the test having D == 1.20 was com-
pacted by vibration whereas the others were built up by
sand rain.
AlI these considerations reveal that a theoretical
model to calculate the skin friction has to take into
account the appearance of a shear band near the
anchor surface and wedging effect causecl by dila-
tancy. Such a model using results of «true simple
shear tests» is under preparation and will be publish-
ed elsewhere.
effect, being a geometrical effect. This led to the
judgement that a reasonable ratio of. grain size or
thickness of shearband to diameter of anchor or
corresponding mea~ure has to be observed for model
tests in granular materials producing stresses as con-
sequence of hindered deformations. Above that the
compressibility of the surrounding soil has to be
imitated correctly. To avoid such difficulties the
problem under -discussion here was investigated in full
scale.
The «true direct shear test» is of much more
importanc,e far beyond the anchor problem. Corre~t
soil parameters can be ascertained ,for all problems
where shear bands of corresponding kinematics appear
or can be assumed. The higher shear resistance
actually available could be used to obtain economic
design in soil and foundation engineering. For this
reason the introduction of the «true direct shear test»
as a routine test is recommended. It is shown that
this can be carried out by a simple reconstruction of
conventional shear box apparatuses.
PRANGE (B.). - «The state of Telemetry in Soil
Mechanics. Stress and Strain Behaviour of Soils»,
Proc. Roscoe Mem. Symposium 1971 (1971).
VARDOULAKIS (J.). - «Scherfugenbildung in Sand-
korpern aIs Verzweigungsproblem», Veroffentli-
chungen des Institutes für Bodenmechanik und
Felsmechanik der UniversiHit Fridericiana, Karls--
ruhe, H. 70 (1977).
WERNER (H.-U.). - « Diè Tragkraft langzylindrischer
Erdanker zur Verankerung von Stützwanden unter
besqnderer Berücksichtigung der Lagerungsdichte
kohasionsloser Boden », Dissertation, Reichsuni-
versiHit, Gent, Belgium (1972).
WERNICK (E.). - «Tragverhalten von Verpress-
ankern in rolligem Baden », Proceedings : Founda-
tion of Underground Constuctions in dense Building
Conditions, High Tatras CSSR, pp. 301-313 (1974).
WERNICK (E.). - « Zusammenhange zwischehn der
Mantelreibung von zylindrischen Ankern und
Bautechnik, 1977, H. 8 (1977 a).
WERNICK (E.). - « Vergleich und Bewertung, von
Reibungswinkeln aus Routinelaborunterschungen
mit Messwerten aus Pfahlzugversuchen ». Donau-
Europaische Konferenz für Bodenmechanik und
Grundbau, 1977. Bratislava, CSSR (1977 b). Vol. l,
pp. 437-448, (1977 b).
ZWECK (H.). - « Rückwartige Verankerung von
Baugrubenwanden », Vortragsveroffentlichungen,
Haus der Technik, Essen, Heft 241 S. 32-49 (1970).
 LONG TERM ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY IN SATURED CLAVS
Résistance à long terme d'un ancrage dans de l'argile saturée
by
Bing C. YEN
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, California State University, Long Beach, California - USA
Steve J. YOUNG
Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, California State University, Long Beach, Califortiia - USA
SOMMAIRE
Cette communication présente les résultats
d'une étude en laboratoire sur le comportement
du système ancrage-sol soumis à un chargement
de longue durée dans de l'argile saturée, normale-
ment consolidée.
Des sondes piézométriques miniaturisées enre-
gistrent la pression interstitielle autour de l'an-
crage et la dépression interstitielle (aspiration)
sous l'ancrage. Les résultats expérimentaux ont
mis en évi'dence des relations fonctionnelles entre
le déplacement de l'ancrage, la charge de l'ancrage
et la pression interstitielle associée au processus
de consolidation.
INTRODUCTION
Although the use of anchors to moor ships repor-
tedly began in the Bronze Age, according to Frost
(19Q3), significant research in an' organized manner on
model anchor breakout resistance did not begin until
the 1930's in the United States (Howard and James,
1933; Leachy and Farrin, 1935; Lucking, 1936). In-
creased ocean engineering applications have, in the last
two decades, increased the amouilt of research devoted
to anchor holding capacity considerably. The research
results can be broadly classified into two categories.
The first category treats the anchor problem mathemati-
cally. The transformation of classical cavity expansion
solutions into anchor problems represents one form of
this approach, e.g., Gibson (1950) for clays; Skempton,
et al (1953) for sands; Ladanyi (1959) for sands, for clay
(1967), for sensitive clays (1967) and in permafrost
(1974); and Vesic (1971, 1972) among others. The
finite element numerical simulation represents another
mathetical approach, e.g., Sandhu and Wilson (1969);
Christian and Boehmer (1970); Ghaboussi and Wilson
(1971); and on-going research in the Civil Engineering
Laboratory of the U.S. Navy.
Although it is possible to solve sorne important, cha-
racteristic anchor problems with a rigorous theoretical
and/ornumerical solution, the. time and cost required
usually makes this approach prohibi'tive for engineering
applications. In most cases, the solutions depend uron
120
SUMMARY
The results of a Îaboratory model study inves-
tigating the behavior of deeply embedded anehors
are presented. The primary purpose of the tests
- is to study the' behavior of the anchor-soi 1 system
under long-term loading in saturated, normally
eonsolidated clay.
The tests were eondueted in soil of two diffe-
rent shearing' strengths. For each soil strength,
three different long-term load tests were perform-
ed. Long-term loads applied were at stress
levels equivalent to 25 % , 50% and 75 0/0 of the
short-term (undrained) anchor break-outeapacity.
Pore pressure responses around the anehor, in-
eluding the negative pore pressure (suetion)
beneath the anehor, were monitored using minia-
ture piezometrie probes. The test results provided
funetional relationship between anehor displaee-
ment, anehor load and pore pressure responses
associated with consolidation proeess.
many soil factors which are only known approximately
or which have to be postulated. The anchor holding
capacity problem appears to be a non-conservative
mechanics problem. There are theoretical difficulties
in solving non-conservativemechanics problems at this
time. The second category of previous research is
primarily related to model tests and/or field observa-
tions. Numerous articles are available particularly for
sandy soils and for on-shore projects. Gnly limited
data are available for model tests in cohesive soils and
even less for off-shore projects, Mariupolskii (1965);
Adams and Hayes (1967); Meyerhof and Adams (1968);
Bhatangar (1969); Bemben (1973, 1975); Colp and
Herbich (1972); Meyerhof (1973) and Beard (1974).
For anchors in clay, only a few had pore pressure mea-
surements for the clay soil within which the anchors
were embedded (Adams and Hayes and Beard). The
authors are aware of only one, Beard (1974), that
included the pore pressure measurements around the
model anchor in a simulated condition of saturated
submarine clayey soil.
From a practical viewpoint, a deep ocean embedded
anchor in service will be under load for a long period
of time. The long-term anchor-soil behavior is related
to the consolidation and flow of water into or out of
the soil surrounding the anchor. Consequently, the
pore pressure/pore suction and the migration of pore
 water may have either a strengthening and/or wea- in such soils, this aspect of the soil-anchor behavior is

, kening effect on the surrounding soil and thus influence

the holding capacity of the anchor. Most deeply
embedded ocean anchorages will occur in saturated nor-
mally consolidated clays. Since ·little is known about
the pore pressure/ suction response around the anchor
considered in this paper, i.e., the long-term behavior of
deeply embedded anchors in normally consolidated,
saturated clayey soi!. Deep embedment is a condition
in which the ratio of the depth of embedment to the
diameter of the anchor is greater than 5.

TESTING PROGRAM

Soil conditions and equipment used
The soil used is a low plastic clay (CL/ML, according
to the Unified Soil Classification System) which has a
liquid limit of 23°k> and plastic index of 6. To insure
into the soil after they had been filled with deaired
water. The pore pressures were monitored by diffe-
rential pressure transducers and recorded on strip-chart
recorders. Soil consolidation is monitored by pore
pressure probes. When the measured pore pressure is

Oi,charga eubin9

-~~._--~

' __ ~tI __ ~ __

OfH,lr~d
wate, - - - ,

Anehor -~::.-_-_ ....

8
_-
__ f/.
Prflmhinq
mud I"mplfj
- _ - Soft Ile dl ment.
"
0
Fig. 1. - Schematic diagram showing sample pr.eparation
system.

complete' saturation, special mixing equipment is_ neces-

~- -,--
sary. A vacuum apparatus and the general test set-up
are schematically shown in figure 1, in which soil is ~
mixed with water to provide a deaired slurry. The ~x '0 1--- --~
slurry is then consolidated under its own weight or
surcharged in a consolidation, bine Another apparatus
used is a modified concrete mixer in which soil is
u
z
\
\ -i-
~
mixed àt 29°k> ± moisture content under vacuum then 1
consolidated under its own weight. The soil strength
profiles in which the anchor tests were performed are
-\-- ----
shown in figure 2.
\
A disk-like stainless steel anchor with built-in piezo~
metric' probe(s), figure 3, was embedded in the consoli-
dation bine The consolidation bin has an elastic lining
20
-\ ~
to decrease side friction. «Wicks» were installed to
accelerate consolidation by radial drainage. Pore pres-
25
sure response was monitored by stainless steel piezo- o 100 '!JO 200 Z50
metric probes which have a 0.035 inch (0.089 cm) LD. VANŒ: $HEAR STAEtlGTH, PSF
and 0.065 (0.1588 cm) 0.0. Two side ports were cut
in the closed end probe and the probes were inserted
- - N '''iu, to'"olidold undof
O~" ..,. ~'o'" th"",

S nrlu, "v'ch.,~"t

Fig. 2. - Vane shear strength vs. depth - • - 1)!erlu, 1'\0 .urchlu", pre-mlao.
(1": 2.54 cm; 1 psf: 47.9 N/m2). it ".,. Il 2'·/.

121
equal to the hydrostatic head of the soil in the consoli-
dation bin, a state of normal consolidation is reached.
An average o~ 2 to 3.5 weeks was usually required
for complete consolidation, Le. excess pore pressure
less than 0.005 psi which is the limit of the pore pres-
sure monitoring system.
Test results
Table 1 shows the types of model tests performed.
speaking, the quality of test data varies according
to the percent of the short term failure load applied.
The best quality data is at 75 0/0 of the short-term
failure load, for which significant changes in pore
pressures and displacements were recorded. The data
at 25 % of short term failure loads are generally too
small and are not very consistent. Consequently,
only NL-3/4, SL-3/4 and DL-3/4 have been selected (
for a thorough analysis. Testing results from NL-l/2
are included in the analysis where appropriate.

TABL'E 1
Mode! tests performed

Testing
Condition Short-Term
Capacity Long-Term Tests (*)
Soil
Preparation

N-Series
Consolidated Vnder NO ,NL-l/4 NL-lj2 NL-3/4 (*)
Own Wt. from Slurry

S-Series
Consolidated Vnder SO SL-l/4 SL-l/2 SL-3/4
Surcharge from
Slurry

D-Series
Consolidated Vnder DO ---- ---- DL-3/4
Own Wt. at ave. W%
=:·290/0
1

. (*) Long-term tests under 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 of" Short-Term holding
capacity; e.g. NL-3 /4 indicates a long-term test uildèr a load equal to
3/4 of short-term anchor capacity in a soil which was consolidated from
slurry under its own weight.

:A short term capacity test is defined as one in which .

virtually undrained soil conditions exist during iticre- 3 PROOES I/I~" 00
mental loading until the anchor is pulled out. Once
the short terro capacity for each testing series is IIIIV
.:::l i·
determined, long-term tests with loads equal, 1/4,
1/2 and 3/4 are performed and they are designated "l'"
- ... :::::! .-- 3/'6" 0.0.
as shown in table 1. ",If,
Il,'',
«N» and «S» series tests were performed' with a ","1
3" (7.62 cm) diameter anchor (fig. 3) while the «D.»
series was performed with a 1.75" (4.45 cm) diameter
anchor.
(•
.i~ft-.----:.t.J-rJ--I-;-!·~
le '-t-
Large pore pressure responses and significant dis-
placements were recorded during .the NL-3/4, SL~3/4, Fig. 3. - Anchor mode!.
and DL-3/4 tests. However, as would be expected,
when the load applied to the anchor decreases, both
the displacement of the anchor and pore pressure
response in the surrounding soil decrease às weIl.
In terms of displacement, NL-l/2 Is approximately The test results are analysed in terms of dimension-
1/10 that of NL-3/4 while NL-l/4 displacement is less parameter so that preliminary generalized conclu-
only 1/25 that of NL-3/4. The total displacement sions can be made regarding the soil-anchor behavior
of NL-3/4 is 1/2 inch (1.27 cm). For the surcharge during loading.
(S-Series) model tests, the displacement for SL-l/2 is
only 1/250 of that for SL-3j4 and SL-l/4 displace- Pore pressure versus displacement
ment data is too small and erratic to be consistent
with the other two. The total displacement of The pore pressure (V) is normalized by the average
SL-3/4 is about 2.5 inches (6.35 cm). Generally anchor contact pressure (P) (1oad divided by anchor

122
 u.] ------··----1----'.--_.-_._---
1

0.2
l 1-=:J
c ."",
Fig. 4. - Normalized pore pressure responses vs. norma-
lized anchor displacement for 75 0/0 short term holding
capacity..
\
/ l'robe Location
D.I area) . The corresponding anchor displacement is
normalized by the total displacement (0 max) for the
given test. For exainple, figure 4 is a representative
plot of normalized pore pressure (U IP) vs. normalized
displacement (oIOmax) for the probe located on the
IJ. u bottom surface on the anchor. This probe consistently
measured the largest negative pore pressure (or pore
suction) during all short and long term tests. The pore
p pressure responses in the surrounding soil correspond-
ing to ~ifferent anchor displacements, is shown in
-B.I figure 5 with the use of normalized pore pressure
contours. The continuous shifting, expanding and con-
tracting of the pore pressure responses shown in figure
5 demonstrates the complexities in the soil response
-0.2 for an anchor under long term loading. It will be a
formidable task to develop a complete solution which
describes this phenomenon. Instead, a simplified ma-
thematical model which is needed. for practical
engineering applications will be presented in the
-'1.] Analysis section.
0.2 O.Eï D.B r
Fig. S. - Normalized pore pressure contours is anchor
<5 I.omax displacement ratio for NL - 3/4.
 5..------_-----_------------------_
Symhol. Source i. célp:ic i t Y

x SI.. r:1. 75
o SL. NL 50
o

•'•.
41-------f------I fJ-l 75
0-6 50
8..ty mud. CEL 7 5~:
5cill neh. S11t. CEL 45± ~\

. Jt-----+---~,-+-
" X
'{J ~-_yo_--.,.__.-__t
',---t-'---+I~---t
6 -Se;) 1. Beh.' Sllt. CEL 5S~

t . '" '0
~
~
75% of short term
311chor capac! ty

Fig. 9. - Relationship bet-

lM" '"
,
ween Iiquidity index and ra-
tio of mobilized cone surfa-
ces.

1
50% of short " " "
term capacity
--~I" "'" ........... d~
" "1 1

>--'--I~-I

0\-)-------,LI----~lf-.-----,~----+-4-------I
1

tiqtnidity Index

1969. The conical surface varies. If the conical sur-
face is -too small· the product of the frictional resis-
tance (P N / . tan CPt') and Au is less than the anchor
load, a greater conical surface has to be mobilized
until the product of frictional resistance and the en-
larged Au is equal to the anchor load. This mobilizing
process exhibits itself qualitatively in figure 5. During
this process, the soil consolidates and shears under
large strain due to the ascending anchor. Consequen-
tIy, the conical surface of figure 8 advances against
the resistance, P N / due to soil overburden, Po'.
PN/ may be approximated by the passive resistance
P N / =:. K p • Po' . cos e (2)
in which I<p is the coefficient of passive pressure.
Combining equations (1) and (2) and noting that
Au =: .A e in which A is the circular area of the
SIn
anchor, the long term anchor load can be expressed
as follows:
L == I<p . Po' . tan cp' f . (A u2 - A2)1I2 (3)
Or, in terms of average anchor contact pressure
L -:/
P =: A'
P =c= K p • P'o. tan <J}'f' (~2 _1)'12 (4)
For the tests performed, all terms of equation (4) are
known except Au .
Figure 9 shows the relationship of Au as a function
of soil liquidity index. It can be seen that Au increases
with the stiffness of the soil and increases with the
magnitude of the load applied. Figure 9 also shows
data from prototype tests performed by .the Civil
Engineering Laboratory of the V.S. Navy that check
satisfactorily with this study. Although additional
studies are needed to further define Au/A, equation (4)
appears to provide an engineering estimate on anchor
holding capacity under long term load.

CONCLUSIONS
1) There are two distinct stages of soil-anchor inter-
action under long term loading. The parameters
in the relationship of U/P versus %max appear to
be significant in describing this phenomena.
2) For the soil tested at liquidity index greater than 1,
there is no evidence indicating that the long term
capacity is smaller than short term capacity.
3) A simplified mathematical model has been develop-
ed to provide an engineering estimation for the Jong
term anchor load in normally consolidated clay.
This model involves the effective angle of internal-
friction and depends on liquidity index. The model
compares well with anchor performance in field
studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by the Civil Engineering
Laboratory (CEL) of the U.S. Navy. Mr. R. M. Beard
of CEL participated in the discussion and provided
field testing results. Mr. Tony Vandagriff, formerly a
technician at California State University, Long Beach
contributed in developing the testing equipment.

126
 REFERENCES
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Uplift Capacity of Shallow Foundations», Onta-
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(1967).
) [2] ALI (M.S.). - «Pullout Resistance of Anchor
Plates and Anchor Piles in Soft Bentonite
Clays», Duke University, Soil Mechanics Series
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[3] BEMBEN (S.M.), KUPFERMAN (M.) and KA-
LAGIAN (E.H.). - «The Vertical Holding Ca-
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[4] BEMBEN (S.M.) and KUPFERMAN (M.). -
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ding», Offshore Technology Conference, paper
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[5] BEARD (R.M.). - «Development of an Expe-
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in Long-Term Holding Capacity», CEL Report,
Port Hueneme, California (May 1974).
[6] BEREZANTSEV (V.G.). - «Bearing Capacity
of Foundations at an Axially Symmetric State of
Stress», Proc. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Engr.,
Gostroyizdat, Moscou, USSR, p. 84 (1956) ..
[7] BHATANGAR (R.S.). - «Pullout Resistance of
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«Plane Strain Consolidation by Finite Elements»,
Journal of Soil Meehanies and Foundations
Div. ASC,E, Vol. 96, p. 1435 (1979).
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of Inclined and Eccentric Load Application on
the Bteakout Resistance of Objects Embedded
in Sea Floor», CQE Report 153, Sandia Labora-
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[13] HOWARD (W.E.) and JAMES (R.K.). - «In-
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( 1933).
[14] JOHNSTON (G.H.) and LACANYI (B.). -
«Field Tests of Deep Power-installed Screw
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[15] LADANYI (B.). - «Deep Punching of Sensitive
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127
[16] LADANYI (B.) and JOHNSTON (G.H.). -
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[17] LADANYI (B.). - ' «Etude Théorique et Expéri-
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[18] LAMBE (T.W.) and WHITMAN (R.V.). - «Soil
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(1969).
[19] LEACHY (W.H.) and FARRIN Jr. (J.M.). -
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(1935).
[20] LUCKING (D.F.). - «The Experimental Deve-
lopment of Anchors for Seaplanes», Transactions,
Institution of Naval Architects, p. 201 (1936).
[21] MARIUPOLSKII (L.G.). - «The Bearing Capa-
city in Anchor Foundations», Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering (translated from Rus-
sian), by Consulting Bureau, No 1, p. 26 (1965).
, [22] MEYERHOFF (G.G.). - «The Uplift Capacity
of Foundations Under- Oblique Loads», Canadian
Geoteehnieal Journal, Vol. 10, No 1, p. 6 (Feb.
1973)..
[23] MEYERHOFF (G.G.) and. A;DAMS (J.I.). -
«The Ultimate Uplift Capacity of Foundations»,
Canadian Geotechnieal Journal, Vol. 5, p. 225
(1968).
[24] SANDHU (R.S.) and Wilson (E.L.). - «Finite
Element Analysis of Flow in Saturated Porous
Elastic Media», Journal of Engineering Meeha-
nies Division, ASCE, Vol. 95, p. 641 (1969).
[25] SKEMPTON (A.), YASSIN (A.A.) and GIB-
SON (R.E.). - «Théorie de la Force Portante
des Pieux dans le Sable», Annls. /nst. Tech.
Bat. Trav. Publ., 63/64, p. 285 (1953) ..
[26] VESIC (A.S.). - «Breakout Resistance of Ob-
jects Embedded in Ocean», Journal of Soi! Me-
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Vol. 97, No SM 9, p. 1183 (sept. 1971).
[27] VESIC (A.S.). - «Expansion of Cavities in
Infinite Soil Mass», Journal of Soi! Mechanies
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No SM 3, p. 265 (March 1972)..
[28] YEN, BING (C.). - «Deep Anchor Long Term
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(Dec. 1976).
[29] YEN, BING (C.) . - «Response of Embedded
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 TABLE DES MATIERES
Pages
R.H. BASSETT (Great-Britain)
Underream~d ground anchors 11
Ancrages dans le sol avec élargissement
M.P. BOON - W.H. CRAIG (Great-Britain)
Model ground anchors under gravitational and centrifugaI accelerations 18
Modèles réduits d'ancrages au sol en gravité normale ou en centrifugeuse
. M. BUSTAMANTE - F. DELMAS - J. LACOUR (France)
Comportement des tirants précontraints dans une argile plastique 24
Behaviour of prestressed anchors in plastic clay
A.J. da COSTA NUNES - P.H.V. DIAS (Brazil)
Experimental verification of an anchored curtain wall 35
V érification expérimentale d'un rideau ancré
A. EVANGELISTA - G. SAPIO (Italia)
Behaviour of ground anchors in stiff clays 39
Con1portement de tirants d'ancrage en argiles raides
Y. FENOUX (France)
Enceinte étanche de la centrale électrique de Blaye: essais et mesures sur les tirants d'ancrage 48
Ground anchors: tests and measurements
K. FUJITA - 1(. UEDA - M. I(USABUI(A (Japan)
A method to predict the load-displacement relationship of ground anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
NIodèle pour calculer la relation charge-déplacement des ancrages dans les sols
P. HABIB - M.P. LUONG - D. AUGER - Y. TCHENG (France)
Détermination de la longueur libr~ optimale d'un tirant d'ancrage soutenant une paroi 63
Determination of the optimal free length of the line of an anchor supporting a wall
A.S. KANANYAN - M.I. NII(ITENI(O - Y.A. SOBOLEVSI(Y - V.N. SUKHODOEV (URSS)
Base calculation of anchor foundations using approximate model testing . 69
Calcul des fondations d'ancrages à l'aide des modèles approximatifs
H. I(RAMER (Germany)
Determination of the carrying capacity of ground anchors with the correlation and regression
analysis . 76
Calcul de la force portante des tirants d'ancrage à l'aide de l'analyse de la corrélation et de la .
régression .J

G.S. LITTLEJOHN - D.A. BRUCE (Scotland) - W. DEPPNER (Great-Britain)

Anchor field tests in carboniferous strata , 82 1

Essais en place d'ancrage dans un sédiment carbonifère 1

B.I(. MAZURI(IEWICZ - T. NAJDER (Poland) 1

1

Contribution to loading test procedure of ground anchors 87 i

Contribution à la méthode d'essais des tirants d'ancrage

H. OSTERMAYER - F. SCHEELE (Germany) 1

Research on ground anchors in non-cohesive soils 92

Etude de tirants scellés dans des sols pulvérulents
M. POPESCU - C. IONESCU (Romania)
Non linear analysis of the anchor-ground-wall-system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Analyse non linéaire de l'ensemble' « ancrage-sol-paroi »
C. MASTRANTUONO - A. TOMOLIO (Italia)
First application of a totally protected anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Première application d'un ancrage à protection totale
E. WERNICK (Germany)
Stresses and strains on the surface of anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Contraintes et déformations à la surface d'ancrage
B.C. YEN - S.J. YOUNG (USA)
.~
Long term anchor holding capacity in saturated clays . 120
Résistance à long terme d'un ancrage dans de l'argile saturée

128
 REVUE FRANçAISE DË GEOTECHNIQUE
Janvier 1978 N'3
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- Dépôt lésal : t* trimestre 1978
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