Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp.

319–338, 2006
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Printed in Great Britain
0160-7383/$32.00
www.elsevier.com/locate/atoures
doi:10.1016/j.annals.2005.12.001

EXPLORERS VERSUS PLANNERS

A Study of Turkish Tourists
Maria Alvarez
Gülden Asugman
Boğaziçi University, Turkey

Abstract: This study explores a segmentation design to differentiate tourists according to

their perceptions of online and offline information sources in the Turkish context. Further,
it aims to describe the segments identified in terms of their personal traits and the character-
istics of their chosen vacations. Using cluster analysis, two groups are identified: spontaneous
explorers and risk-averse planners. Explorers show a more negative view towards information
sources, are less concerned with risk, and exhibit a higher degree of involvement and explor-
atory tourism behavior. More females are present among the risk-averse planners, who also
usually travel via package tours and stay in four- or five-star hotels. Keywords: information
search, internet, exploratory behavior, risk-taking, segmentation.  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.

Résumé: Explorateurs comparés aux planificateurs: une étude de touristes turcs. Cette
étude examine un plan de segmentation pour différencier les touristes selon leurs percep-
tions des sources d’informations en ligne et traditionnelles dans le contexte turc. On essaie
aussi de décrire les différents segments selon leurs traits de caractère et les caractéristiques
des vacances élues. En utilisant l’analyse de groupement, on identifie deux groupes: les explo-
rateurs spontanés et les planificateurs ayant de l’aversion pour les risques. Les explorateurs
montrent une opinion plus négative des sources de renseignements, s’inquiètent moins du
risque et ont un plus haut niveau d’engagement et de comportement touristique d’explora-
tion. Il y a plus de femmes parmi les planificateurs n’aimant pas le risque, faisant d’habitude
des voyages organisés et logeant dans des hôtels à quatre ou cinq étoiles. Mots-clés: recherche
d’informations, internet, comportement d’exploration, prise de risques, segmenta-
tion.  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION
Differentiating tourists and classifying them into groups has been
found useful to understand the individuals’ behavior (Cohen 1972;
Wickens 2002) and to determine the appropriate products and com-
munication strategies to address the various segments. Furthermore,
tourist segmentation can also help destinations manage their resources
and design policies (Becken and Gnoth 2004; McMinn and Cater
1998). As different types of individuals have diverse requirements,

Maria Alvarez is Assistant Professor of marketing at the Department of Tourism

Administration of Boğaziçi University (Hisar Kampüs, Bebek 34342, Istanbul, Turkey. Email
<alvarezm@boun.edu.tr>). She is interested in the topics of tourist behavior, e-marketing,
and destination marketing. Gülden Asugman is Professor of marketing at the Department of
Management of the same university. Her research interests include interpersonal commu-
nication, services marketing, and consumer behavior.

319
320 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

understanding the characteristics of the tourists will help local author-

ities evaluate the competitiveness of the destination to meet their
needs. Accordingly, decisions related to infrastructure, resource alloca-
tion, and planning for transportation and accommodation in a locality,
are dependent on the types of individuals visiting a destination (Bec-
ken and Gnoth 2004). In this respect, linking the segments to specific
products is important for professionals and managers. However, the lit-
erature points to the gap observed between theoretical preferences
and actual destination and vacation choice, and suggests that decision-
making variables and individual information search differences could
be used as a basis to better discriminate among types of tourists (Bieger
and Laesser 2001; Decrop and Snelders 2005).
Segmenting the leisure market on the basis of the individual’s infor-
mation search is especially appropriate in tourism, due to the reliance
of this industry on information. Moreover, one’s awareness, selection
and choice of tourism and hospitality products depend heavily on
the information provided and used by the tourist (Bieger and Laesser
2001). Therefore, it is important to understand how persons differ
regarding their information seeking and planning styles. This need
to comprehend the individuals’ information search behavior is becom-
ing more significant as new online sources are appearing. The Internet
has especially influenced the industry as according to statistics (TIA
2004), 64 million individuals used this medium to plan their trips in
2003. Thus, organizations and destinations are faced with the chal-
lenge of comprehending how individuals perceive and use these online
sources, in addition to the previously existing ones, and whether the
Internet has changed their information searching and planning
behavior.
Although several researchers have examined the Internet in relation
to tourism information search (Gursoy and Umbreit 2004; Money and
Crotts 2003), these studies have mainly concentrated on determining
the use of online sources, rather than on establishing the perceptions
of individuals related to them. As consumers are faced with a pre-pur-
chase decision that generates a need for external information, they
evaluate the sources to be used based on their attitudes and beliefs to-
wards these sources (Jarvis 1998). Therefore, the present study aims to
better understand how individuals differ in relation to their percep-
tions of different sources for planning their vacations. Moreover, the
research seeks to determine whether tourists can be segmented accord-
ing to these perceptions, and to describe these groups in terms of their
personal characteristics and their holiday choices. Thus, the practical
relevance of the investigation is increased as the segments identified
can be linked to specific tourism products and diverse strategies for
the different groups.
According to Decrop and Snelders (2005), one of the limitations of
currently available typologies of tourists is that these are presented as
universal, without taking cultural environments into account. As most
segmentation and information search studies have been concerned
with North American or Western European individuals, there is a lack
of research related to the behavior of tourists from other emerging,
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 321

demand-generating markets. The present study is carried out in the

context of Turkish tourists, both in relation to domestic and outbound
demand.
Although Turkey is not one of the main demand-generating coun-
tries, it is an emerging market with a high potential for growth. In this
regard, the tourism expenditures of Turkish nationals have reached
US$17.8 billion, representing 7.9% of the total consumption (WTTC
2005), and this figure is expected to rise considerably in the near fu-
ture. When considering trends in relation to Turkey’s per capita spend-
ing, urbanization, education, and human development, Koç (2003)
argues that tourism expenditures of Turkish individuals are due to in-
crease dramatically within the next few years. This forecast is also sup-
ported by other sources (WTTC 2005), which estimate an increase of
70% in average spending in Turkey between 2005 and 2015. Its large
population of 68 million (State Institute of Statistics 2000) and its sta-
tus as a European Union candidate are other reasons why organiza-
tions need to study this emerging market. Thus, here the aim is to
segment Turkish tourists according to their perceptions of different
online and offline information sources to plan for vacations, and to
investigate the personal characteristics and product choices of the
groups identified. This analysis will help tourism and destination pro-
fessionals improve the efficiency of their communications, and select
the appropriate strategies for the various segments. Moreover, distin-
guishing tourists visiting a destination and their vacation choices may
be instrumental to a better planning and allocation of resources to
increase competitiveness.

SEGMENTATION OF TURKISH TOURISTS

This study seeks to segment Turkish tourists according to their per-
ceptions of different information sources for planning vacations.
Although segmentation is a technique that has been widely used in
the industry, as markets evolve there is a continuous opportunity for
creating new ones to meet environmental changes that create new cus-
tomer needs (Doyle 1994). The tourism environment and the tourist’s
information search process have been revolutionized by the emergence
of the Internet as a medium that increases the quantity and quality of
the information available (Kulviwat, Guo and Engchanil 2004; Peterson
and Merino 2003). Therefore, different segments may be identified
based on the individual’s perceptions of online sources, as opposed
to pre-existing traditional ones, such as brochures, printed guides, or
travel sales agents.
Previous studies recognize the importance of the consumer informa-
tion search as affecting one’s purchase decision (Money and Crotts
2003). In this regard, several attempts have been made to classify tour-
ists according to their search behavior (Fodness and Murray 1997,
1998; Schul and Crompton 1983; Snepenger 1987). In an early study,
Schul and Crompton (1983) conclude that they could be grouped into
active or passive planners, according to the length of time during
322 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

which the vacation planning activity occurred and the number of rele-
vant organizations consulted. Cohen (1972) also identifies four types
of tourists based on their preference for familiarity and need for nov-
elty: the organized mass, the individual mass, the explorer, and the
drifter. His typology has been adapted by Snepenger (1987) who distin-
guishes three different categories that differ significantly with respect
to when they plan their trips and the information utilized in planning.
Fodness and Murray (1997) also determine that insights into behavior
can be derived by segmenting individuals according to their degree of
search.
The above typologies according to their information seeking activi-
ties (Fodness and Murray 1997; 1998; Schul and Crompton 1983; Snep-
enger 1987) are mostly concerned with one’s use of various sources
rather than perceptual considerations. A greater understanding of
the tourists’ perceptions of different sources is necessary to clarify
the processes by which consumers make choices among these. Jarvis
(1998) has proposed that external information search behavior can
be conceptualized as a decisionmaking process, to provide insights into
why they select among alternative sources. Moreover, when a prepur-
chase decision problem arises, it generates a desire for external infor-
mation, and consumers evaluate the sources to use based on their
enduring beliefs about these sources, learned through experience
and socialization (Jarvis 1998). It is thus relevant to understand how
individuals perceive different sources used for planning, and to deter-
mine whether these perceptions can be related to their personal char-
acteristics and holiday choices.
The link between information search and the characteristics of the
tourists has been investigated in previous studies (Chen and Gursoy
2000; Fodness and Murray 1999; Gursoy and Umbreit 2004; Hyde
2000; Money and Crotts 2003; Uysal, McDonald and Reid 1990). Hyde
(2000) proposes that demographic variables and the tourist’s level of
involvement affect the amount of information searching and vacation
planning. Differences in planning behavior have also been found
among individuals belonging to diverse cultural backgrounds (Chen
and Gursoy 2000; Gursoy and Umbreit 2004; Money and Crotts 2003;
Uysal et al 1990). Moreover, information search strategies are thought
to be affected by certain characteristics of the tourist, such as socioeco-
nomic status, level of previous experience, and stage in the family life-
cycle (Fodness and Murray 1999). In addition to these, perceived risk
and involvement have been used in the literature in relation to choice
behavior and information search. According to Lepp and Gibson
(2003), tourists seeking familiarity in their destination choice perceive
higher levels of risk than those looking for novelty. Vogt and Fesenma-
ier (1998) include involvement in the information search processes as
affecting the use of different types of sources.
In trying to understand the tourists’ search behavior, previous re-
search has also noted that some individuals enjoy traveling from place
to place, while being relatively unaware of what the destination has to
offer. For them, an integral part of the holiday is the enjoyment of the
experiences from not planning the details of the vacation, and the
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 323

meeting of the unknown and unexpected (Hyde 2000). The literature

has mainly used sensation seeking, defined as the requirement for var-
ied, novel, and complex sensations, and the willingness to take risks for
the sake of such experience (Zuckerman 1979), to describe the tour-
ists’ need for exploration. Sensation seeking has also been related to
different aspects of recreation, such as the preference for high-risk nat-
ural activities (Cronin 1991), the inclination for adventure tourism
(Gilchrist, Povey, Dickinson and Povey 1995), and the tourists’ expec-
tations about facilities at recreational parks (Galloway 2002). Some
researchers have also investigated hedonic motivations as influencing
the search for information and the sources used. For example, Vogt
and Fesenmaier (1998) recognize that individuals have different
knowledge needs, including functional and hedonic, which influence
the nature of the search.
In accordance with the above literature, the present study proposes
that tourists may be differentiated with respect to their attitudes to-
wards information search. Specifically, the research aims at determin-
ing whether the Turkish population could be segmented according
to its perceptions of the usefulness of different sources for planning
vacations. The study includes both offline and online sources, since a
major aim is to understand how Turkish tourists perceive Internet-
based sources, as well as traditional ones. Moreover, linking the individ-
uals’ perceptions of the sources with their personal characteristics,
involvement level, perceived risk and vacation choices is an important
objective. Therefore, the study also seeks to describe the segments in
terms of the tourists’ personal factors, their degree of perceived risk
and involvement level associated with the vacation, and the character-
istics of the holidays chosen by them.

Study Methods
The research used a structured questionnaire to collect data related
to the Turkish tourists’ perceived usefulness of information sources to
plan for vacations. An important aim was to understand their percep-
tions of sources, including those Internet-based, in order to establish
whether tourists can be segmented according to these views. In line
with these objectives, the population was based on Turkish individuals
who have access to the Internet and who travel for leisure purposes at
least once a year. The study was limited to tourists who could connect
to the Internet, in order to understand the attitude of the respondents
towards different online and offline sources of information, given their
access to the medium. The questionnaire included several screening
questions to establish these requirements.
The respondents were chosen among those working in Istanbul,
through the use of purposive sampling. A probabilistic sampling meth-
odology could not be applied to the study, since the hit rate of respon-
dents fulfilling the requirements of accessing to the Internet and
traveling for leisure at least once a year would have been too low and
would have required a prohibitive amount of resources. According to
324 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

the last population census, the population was 68 million, with over 10
million in Istanbul (State Institute of Statistics 2000). In relation to
Internet penetration, there are 6 million users in the country (ITU
2004). Although the residents of Istanbul represent around 15% of
the total population (State Institute of Statistics 2000), 50% of all Inter-
net users are reported to be in this city (Medya.Net 2003). Moreover,
according to the State Institute of Statistics (1999), Istanbul, as the larg-
est metropolitan area, supplies the major market for outbound and
domestic tourism (Koç 2003). These facts suggest that residents of this
city constitute a logical choice for the research.
_
A study of trends (TÜSIAD 1999) established that two main factors
that increase the level of involvement in the tourism activity among
nationals are a higher level of education and belonging to the working
population entitled to annual paid leave (Koç 2003). Therefore, the
respondents were purposively selected among those working in Istan-
bul. In Turkey, there are an estimated 24 million gainfully employed,
of which three million are located in Istanbul (State Institute of Statis-
tics 2003). In order to distribute the questionnaires, the researchers
used a list of Istanbul-based companies obtained from the Chamber
of Commerce, to select a total of 25 organizations from different indus-
tries. These were purposively chosen to be diverse in terms of size, sec-
tor, domestic versus foreign capital-based, and public versus privately
owned, in order to increase the diversity of the sample. The choice of
the companies was also based on the need to obtain maximum variety
with a minimum number of organizations, in order to limit the cost
of data collection. Of the chosen companies, 32% were foreign, 20%
public, and 24% small and medium-sized enterprises with less than 50
employees. In total, 14 different industries were represented. In each
organization, permission to distribute the questionnaires was obtained
and a contact person, knowledgeable about the human resources as-
pects of the company, was identified and briefed about the purpose
and the requirements of the research. These individuals led the
researchers to the employees within the organization that were able
to access the Internet as part of their job, to maximize the number of
valid responses obtained. The researchers distributed the surveys at
employment places and waited to collect the completed questionnaires.
According to recent statistics, 77% of the working population in Tur-
key is under 45 (State Institute of Statistics 2003). Therefore, in order
to access older individuals, under-represented in the workplace, the
researchers utilized a different sampling procedure. Questionnaires
were distributed to graduate and undergraduate students for their par-
ents. These students comprised individuals from two different schools,
including five departments, of a major public university in Istanbul,
under the assumption that there would be a PC and Internet connec-
tion at home. Students who lived in Istanbul with their parents were
identified and their class schedules were obtained. The researchers
gained permission from the students’ instructors to address them in
class. Following a briefing about the purpose of the research, they were
instructed to take the surveys home and bring them back after having
them filled by their mother or father. A total of 807 questionnaires
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 325

were distributed between January and March 2003, of which 595 were
handed out to working individuals and 212 to students. Those com-
pleted by persons who indicated in the prescreening questions that
they did not have access to the Internet or did not travel for leisure
once a year, were considered invalid and eliminated from the sample.
Overall 503 valid questionnaires were obtained, establishing a response
rate of over 62%.
In spite of the efforts made to include older individuals in the sam-
ple, the number of invalid questionnaires increased considerably as el-
der persons were accessed. This was due to the fact that many of these
respondents did not fulfill the requirements of having access to the
Internet and traveling once a year for leisure purposes. Therefore,
the study’s sample is skewed since only 13.8% are over 45 (Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents (N = 503)

Demographic Variables Frequency Percentagea

Gender
Male 231 46.1
Female 270 53.9
Age
Less than 25 95 19.0
26–35 254 50.8
36–45 82 16.4
46–55 51 10.2
More than 55 18 3.6
Marital status
Single 273 43.3
Married 199 51.3
Widower/Divorced 27 5.4
Education
High school or less 66 13.2
University 344 68.7
Postgraduate degree 91 18.2
Occupation
Clerical/Blue collar 23 4.8
Expert/Lower management 132 27.8
Middle management 180 37.9
Top management 24 5.1
Teacher/Academician 26 5.5
Housewife/Retired 28 5.9
Student 33 6.9
Professional/ Business owner 29 6.1
Net annual family incomeb
US$6,500 or less 84 18.4
6,501–17,000 180 39.5
17,001–35,000 108 23.7
35,001–53,000 44 9.6
53,000 or more 40 8.8

a b
Percentages have been calculated after excluding the missing values. Turkish Liras have
been converted to US Dollars.
326 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

Similarly, 68.7% of the sample includes university graduates. Statistics

regarding the profile of Turkish Internet users support this tendency
and establish that 76% of users are employed, and 66% are university
graduates. Moreover, 79% of the users are between 18 and 40, while
another 12% are between 41 and 50 (Superonline 2003). Although
the study’s sample is not representative of the general population in
Turkey as portrayed by the latest census, it corresponds to the Internet
user and tourist profile that is described in recent research as including
younger and well-educated individuals, entitled to annual paid leave,
and living in the main urban areas (Koç 2003; Medya.Net 2003; Super-
_
online 2003; TÜSIAD 1999). Therefore, the sample was deemed appro-
priate for the purpose of this study.

Questionnaire Development. The variables included in the survey instru-

ment were derived from the literature related to tourism information
search (Fodness and Murray 1997, 1998, 1999; Hyde 2000; Money
and Crotts 2003; Schul and Crompton 1983; Vogt and Fesenmaier
1998), and the results of a preliminary qualitative study involving two
focus groups and six indepth interviews. The focus group participants
were purposively selected to represent the typical Turkish tourist and
Internet user, as reflected in recent studies (Koç 2003; Medya.Net
2003; Superonline 2003; TÜSIAD _ 1999): young, well educated, and
from higher socioeconomic levels. To obtain insights from persons
not included in the focus groups sample, three indepth interviews were
carried out with lower middle class individuals, employed in clerical
jobs. Another three were conducted with persons aged more than
55. The respondents were prescreened to ensure that they fulfilled
the requirements of having access to the Internet and traveling for lei-
sure at least once a year. The participants were interviewed in relation
to their vacation planning habits and their usage and perceptions of
tourism information sources, including the Internet. These were
tape-recorded and the transcripts were analyzed using both content
analysis and ethnographic summary.
The findings of the qualitative study were first of all useful in order
to determine the main sources of information used by Turkish tourists
when planning for vacations. Previous studies have established several
classifications of sources. For example, Chen and Gursoy (2000) main-
tain that tourists use four broad external information sources when
planning their trips: family and friends, destination specific literature,
media, and travel trade consultants. In a recent study, Money and
Crotts (2003) also include the Internet, classifying the sources used
by tourists as nonmarketer dominated (personal advice, professional
tourist guide, and channel member) and marketer dominated (adver-
tisements, travel agencies, the web, and tourism offices). Bieger and
Laesser (2004) provide an extensive list of 17 possible tourism sources,
including tradeshows, printed material, different types of media, and
information orally provided by various parties.
Given the extensive number of information sources described in the
recent tourism literature (Bieger and Laesser 2004; Chen and Gursoy
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 327

2000; Money and Crotts 2003), it became necessary to use the discus-
sions of the participants during the preliminary qualitative research
in order to identify the main sources used by Turkish tourists. There-
fore, the questionnaire included the following nine sources recognized
as important: recommendations from friends and family, websites of
tourism offices and nonprofit organizations, travel books and printed
guides, websites of tourism companies (online travel agencies, hotels,
and airlines), travel sales agents, travel agencies’ catalogues and bro-
chures, Internet forums and newsgroups, tourism offices and consul-
ates, and television, radio and print advertisements. The perceived
usefulness of these sources was measured using a 4-point scale in order
to avoid indecisive answers. The reliability of the nine-item scale (Cron-
bach’s alpha) obtained was 0.823. Furthermore, the tourists’ actual use
of different sources in planning their last vacation was also included as
a separate question in the survey.
The qualitative study established that the perceived risk of the desti-
nation and involvement are important determinants affecting the
amount of search carried out before the vacation. Respondents main-
tained that they performed thorough searches when traveling to new
or more exotic destinations, or to countries that are dangerous in some
way or lacking in infrastructure. This finding is consistent with the lit-
erature related to perceived risk and information search (Dowling and
Staelin 1994; Lepp and Gibson 2003). Furthermore, some participants
stated that they considerably enjoyed the planning of their vacations
and were observed to exhibit a high degree of involvement related to
their holidays.
In line with the above findings, the survey also included questions to
determine individual factors, characteristics of the last vacation of the
respondent and situational variables such as involvement and per-
ceived risk. The situational involvement measure used in the question-
naire was adapted from the studies of Zaichkowsky (1985) and
Lichenstein, Netemeyer and Burton (1990), while perceived risk was
measured according to the scale used by Murray and Schlachter
(1990). The reliability figures obtained for these scales were 0.813
and 0.822, respectively.
The analysis of the focus group and indepth interviews revealed the
existence of two types of individuals differing in relation to their atti-
tudes to vacation planning and the need for information. Some
claimed that they only felt comfortable after having obtained all the
available knowledge related to the destination beforehand, using sev-
eral sources to collect large amounts of data before leaving. On the
other hand, another group maintained that they preferred their vaca-
tions to be an adventure, and that they did not even feel the need to
reserve a hotel or to collect information related to the destination in
advance. The literature suggests that tourists can be distinguished
according to their being active or passive planners (Schul and Cromp-
ton 1983) and their preference for familiarity or need for novelty
(Cohen 1972). Moreover, Hyde (2000) proposes that some may enjoy
not planning their holidays and derive pleasure from the experience of
facing the unknown and unexpected.
328 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

Therefore, the present study included a scale to measure the behav-

ior of the respondents in relation to planning beforehand, the collec-
tion of information prior to the vacation, as well as the need for
exploration and variety in the destinations. This measure, here named
‘‘exploratory tourism behavior’’, was developed by the authors follow-
ing Churchill’s (1979) procedure for developing better scales. Sample
items were generated from the existing literature (Cronin 1991; Gallo-
way 2002; Gilchrist et al 1995; Hyde 2000; Snepenger 1987; Zuckerman
1979) and from the discussions derived from the preliminary qualita-
tive research. The scale was pre-tested in a pilot study administered
to 36 Turks employed in a firm based in Istanbul.
An exploratory factor analysis using the principal components meth-
od was performed to determine the dimensions of the construct (Table
2). The results show that exploratory tourism behavior is multidimen-
sional, with heterogeneous facets, where all parts together form the
whole (Peter 1979). Thus, the scale is formative in nature, as each of

Table 2. Factor Analysis for the Exploratory Tourism Behavior Scalea

Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

Attitude to tourism as a new experience

When I travel I like it to be an adventure 0.727
When I travel, I am looking to gain 0.694
new experiences
When I travel, I prefer to go to places that I 0.662
have not seen before
Risk taking
I would never go on vacation without 0.781
having a hotel reservationb
I prefer to travel independently rather 0.672
than with a package tour
I prefer to pay more for a vacation in order 0.591
to reduce the risk of something going wrongb
I do not enjoy traveling with a fixed itinerary 0.522
Variety seeking
I prefer to travel to familiar destinations, 0.761
rather than to exotic and strange onesb
I usually travel to places where I have been 0.752
before or that have been recommended
to me by my friendsb
Attitude towards planning beforehand
Collecting too much information before 0.852
a holiday, may reduce its pleasure
I like to know everything related to 0.753
the destination before I travelb
Eigenvalues 2.646 1.744 1.243 1.212
Percentage of Variance Explained (Cumulative) 24.05% 39.91% 51.21% 62.22%

a
Varimax rotation was used; Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin = 0.678; Barlett’s Test of Sphericity—
Significance = 0.000. Factor loadings smaller than 0.5 are not included.
b
Reverse coded.
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 329

the indicators presents unique aspects of the construct (Homburg,

Hoyer and Fassnacht 2002). One of the characteristics of these forma-
tive scales is that the different items included are not interchangeable,
but need to be used together in order to describe the construct (Bollen
and Lennox 1991; Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001; Peter 1979).
Four main dimensions of exploratory behavior are captured: attitude
to tourism as a new experience, risk taking, variety seeking, and atti-
tude towards planning beforehand. Individuals with high levels of
exploratory behavior view their trips as an experience and are more
prone to taking risks. Variety seeking and a tendency not to plan their
holidays in advance are also other characteristics of those showing a
high level of this behavior.
The exploratory behavior scale, being formative in nature, does not
lend itself to reliability assessment procedures as explained in the liter-
ature (Bollen and Lennox 1991; Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001;
Homburg et al 2002), and thus its reliability was not evaluated. In their
seminal article on this issue, Bollen and Lennox (1991) argue that for
constructs that are multidimensional, with heterogeneous facets, item
correlations, and reliability estimates are difficult to rationalize since
these are based on the interchangeability of the different items.

Study Findings
A cluster analysis was performed to determine the possible existence
of different types of individuals in relation to their perceptions of the
usefulness of various sources of information. As a first step, a hierarchi-
cal cluster analysis determined the existence of two distinct groups.
Therefore, as a second phase, a two-cluster K-means cluster analysis
was carried out. The ANOVA table obtained indicated that the variable
perceived usefulness of recommendations from friends and family is
not significant, and thus it does not discriminate between the two
groups. Therefore, this variable was eliminated and a K-means cluster
analysis was again performed with the rest. The analysis produced a
solution according to which 147 respondents belonged to cluster
one and 275 to cluster two (81 questionnaires containing missing vari-
ables were excluded).
The data related to the final cluster centers show that the two groups
could be distinguished in relation to their more negative or positive
perceptions of the sources of information. Respondents in the first
or negative cluster view all of the sources, including those online, as
less useful than the individuals in the second or positive. Regarding
the actual use of different sources, the analysis reveals that there are
more users of the various sources among the tourists belonging to this
positive cluster, except for personal recommendations. While 65.1% in
the first cluster used recommendations from friends and family when
planning their last holiday, only 50.5% in the second employed this
source. In contrast, travel sales agents and travel agencies’ catalogues
and brochures were used by 20% and 28% of the positives, respectively,
as opposed to 3.4% and 6.8% of tourists in cluster one. Furthermore,
330 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

there are more users of online sources in the positive cluster, as can be
seen by the fact that websites of tourism offices were employed by
29.8% of individuals in this and 17.8% in the other cluster. Similarly,
websites of companies and Internet forums were used by 22.9% and
8% of positives, respectively, as compared to 15.1% and 4.8% in cluster
one. There are also more users of tourism offices, advertisements and
printed guides among tourists in the second cluster, as opposed to
their counterparts.
As the final step in the analysis, the two clusters were described via
logistic regression using the stepwise Wald method. Only metric vari-
ables pertaining to personal and situational factors were entered.
The results of the logistic regression provide the variables that signifi-
cantly predict membership in one of the clusters (Table 3): exploratory
behavior, number of sources used, perceived risk, and situational
involvement. The model was found to be significant (v2 = 44.617;
p < 0.001), with an overall predictive value of 70% ( 2 Log Likeli-
hood = 352.739; Nagelkerke R-Square = 0.188). The Hosmer and Lem-
eshow test illustrates the goodness of fit by showing a nonsignificant
difference between the observed and predicted classifications
(v2 = 1.867; p = 0.986). An examination of the means of the different
variables for each cluster (Table 3), show that members of cluster
one exhibit a more exploratory behavior, use a lower number of
sources to plan their holidays, are less concerned with risk, and are
more involved with their vacations than the individuals in the other.
To determine a possible relationship between the demographic vari-
ables, the attributes of the destination and the characteristics of the

Table 3. Logistic Regression of Membership to each Cluster

Variables Included in the Model B S.E. Wald Significance Mean for each
Cluster

Exploratory tourism behaviora 1.586 0.524 9.175 0.002 Cluster 1 2.29

Cluster 2 2.34
Total 2.32
Number of sources used 0.359 0.090 16.077 0.000 Cluster 1 1.49
Cluster 2 2.07
Total 1.86
Perceived riska 0.573 0.237 5.823 0.016 Cluster 1 3.27
Cluster 2 3.09
Total 3.15
Situational Involvementb 0.561 0.279 4.047 0.044 Cluster 1 1.44
Cluster 2 1.53
Total 1.50
Constant 1.230 1.197 1.056 0.304

a
Measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale: 1 highest level, 4 lowest level.
b
Measured on a 4-point semantic differential scale: 1 highest involvement level, 4 lowest
involvement level.
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 331

vacation, and membership in one of the clusters, chi-square tests were

carried out. The only demographic characteristic found to be signifi-
cant was gender (v2 = 9.542; p < 0.01). While only 43.5% are females
in cluster one, the other includes 59.3%. Moreover, the research find-
ings indicate a significant difference between clusters in relation to vis-
iting a known destination (v2 = 5.747; p < 0.05). While 54.8% from
cluster one traveled to a destination they had previously visited, only
42.5% of the other journeyed to a known place. A significant relation-
ship was also found between cluster membership and traveling via
package tours (v2 = 20.367; p < 0.01) and type of accommodation
(v2 = 16.308; p < 0.05). A higher percentage of people from cluster
two traveled on package tours and stayed in four- or five-star hotels,
as opposed to their counterparts.

CONCLUSION
The study determines the existence of two groups of Turkish tourists,
who can be distinguished according to their perceptions of usefulness
of online and offline information sources. Individuals in the first exhi-
bit a more negative attitude towards the various sources, except per-
sonal recommendations. This group can be named ‘‘spontaneous
explorers’’, and described as predominantly male, exhibiting an
exploratory behavior, less concerned with risk, more involved with
their vacations, and using a limited number of sources to plan their
trips. Moreover, these individuals are less likely to purchase package
tours, and they tend to return to the same destinations and to stay in
different types of accommodation other than four or five-star hotels.
Individuals in the second cluster are ‘‘risk-averse planners’’ since
they are more concerned with risk and less likely to involve themselves
in exploratory tourism behavior. They exhibit a more positive attitude
towards different sources and use a greater number of them to plan
their holidays. There are more females in this cluster and they are
more likely to travel on a package tour and stay at four or five-star ho-
tels. At the same time, these individuals are less involved with their hol-
idays and have a lower tendency to return to the same destinations. In
this regard, risk-averse planners bear a resemblance to the institution-
alized tourists (including organized and individual mass tourists) in
Cohen’s typology (1972), who usually travel via package tours and re-
main in an environmental bubble where risk and uncertainties have
been taken out. Moreover, these institutionalized tourists may visit var-
ied destinations, as countries become interchangeable in the tourist’s
mind, and it becomes relatively unimportant when looking for good
beaches or old historical cities where these are located.
The results of the cluster segmentation of Turkish tourists also show
a link between the typology of tourists, differentiated according to
their perceptions of information sources, and perceived risk. This con-
nection has been determined in a previous study (Lepp and Gibson
2003) that examines the relationship between Cohen’s tourist role
typology and perceived risk. Lepp and Gibson (2003) conclude that
332 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

explorers and drifters exhibit lower levels of perceived risk as opposed

to organized and independent mass tourists. Similarly, the present
study carried out in the context of Turkish tourists, establishes that
risk-averse planners are more concerned with risk, while they have a
more positive perception of the different sources of information that
may help reduce it.

Implications
This study provides implications for tourism service providers to tar-
get and communicate with individuals, who can be differentiated
according to their vacation planning and perceptions of information
sources. The research is especially of practical use for organizations
seeking to penetrate the emerging Turkish domestic and outbound
tourism market, as it provides knowledge related to the Turkish tourists’
perceptions of information sources, including those Internet-based,
and relates these views to specific individual characteristics and product
choices. Moreover, as destination management organizations (national,
regional, and local authorities) are able to distinguish among the types
of tourists visiting the place, they may use this knowledge to determine
which products would be most suitable for the region. This in turn will
result in the identification of potential impacts and the establishment of
specific policies for the destination. Moreover, local authorities can
base decisions related to planning and allocation of resources on the
demand for specific products and attractions at the destination.
First of all, the research can offer suggestions to companies on how
to reach different segments of tourists. Businesses that provide infor-
mation in order to sell their products, such as travel agencies, are more
likely to be in contact with risk-averse planners since they use a greater
number of sources, while they also tend to purchase package tours.
However, companies may consider different ways of reaching the spon-
taneous explorers, who would normally not be interested in using
these sources or in purchasing preplanned vacations. Since these indi-
viduals value personal recommendations from friends or relatives only,
organizations may need to find ways to create positive word of mouth
for their products. This personal exchange of information may be
encouraged by providing individuals with ways to share their vacation
experiences with others. Destination and company websites may also
differentiate the information provided for each of the groups. Informa-
tion related to tourism products, package tours, and activities at the
destination may be addressed to the risk-averse planners. For the spon-
taneous explorers websites may emphasize content and testimonials
provided by other tourists through the use of bulletin and discussion
boards or Internet forums.
The study also determined that spontaneous explorers are less likely
to purchase package tours, and that they exhibit a higher exploratory
behavior. Therefore, companies may offer this group very targeted
products that emphasize experience and exploration aspects of the
vacation. Since these individuals are risk-takers, they may provide a
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 333

good market for adventure tourism and high-risk recreation services.

At the destination level, natural resources in the region can be man-
aged to provide exciting products such as climbing, trekking, rafting,
or parachuting. In terms of infrastructure, these tourists do not neces-
sarily require expensive accommodation options or high-quality trans-
portation. Therefore, destinations catering to these tourists may
choose to provide products that have a lower negative impact on the
place, such as ecotourism. Pensions and smaller accommodation facil-
ities, as well as minor country roads, may be used to support this type in
the locality. Moreover, spontaneous explorers are a desirable segment,
since they tend to return to the destination, hence providing a loyal
customer base. In this sense, destination management organizations
should use the local resources to provide memorable tourist experi-
ences that may result in endearment to the place.
In contrast, the research concluded that risk-averse planners require
more information and are more concerned with risk. Therefore, tour-
ism organizations need to fulfill this segment’s need for planning and
risk reduction by providing extensive information related to the vaca-
tion and the destination. Different sources, both online and offline,
can be used to reach this group. Destination management organiza-
tions may also want to emphasize safety and security issues in their web-
sites and brochures. Moreover, destination websites may also offer links
to various hotels and attractions to help risk-averse planners fulfill their
need for planning.
Expensive preplanned vacation options may also be offered to risk-
averse planners, who are more likely to purchase packages and stay
in four- or five-star hotels. Destinations wishing to access this segment
need to develop their infrastructure to provide high-quality accommo-
dation facilities and safe and comfortable transportation modes. The
service level offered to these tourists needs to be above a minimum
standard. This in turn requires qualified human resources, both at
the managerial and at the employee level. Therefore, destinations
catering to the risk-averse planners need to establish a long-term plan
for attracting, educating, and training individuals to work in the
locality. The quality of the tourism products should be emphasized
and satisfaction guarantees may be offered for upscale services. Supple-
mentary products aimed at reducing risk, such as travel insurance, may
be offered to these individuals.
According to the study, more females are present among the risk-
averse planners. Therefore, sources of information and preplanned
vacations may need to be more particularly targeted to women. Desti-
nation-specific literature included in websites, catalogues, brochures,
and printed guides may emphasize activities, such as shopping, which
are in general more appreciated by women. In this sense, cities that po-
sition themselves as shopping destinations, such as New York, Paris, or
London, may reach their target markets by using a variety of informa-
tion sources, including the Internet. Such places also need to manage
their resources and plan their infrastructure to provide high-quality
accommodation, transportation and shopping facilities, required by
tourists belonging to the risk-averse segment.
334 EXPLORERS VS. PLANNERS

Directions for Further Research

The present study contributes to the identification of a new segmen-
tation method based on the perceptions of usefulness of various online
and offline information sources used for planning vacations. The typol-
ogy of Turkish tourists identified is related to the individual’s personal
characteristics, vacation choices, and other factors related to the holi-
day situation. Thus, this study identifies a combination of variables that
are used to classify Turkish tourists in two distinct groups: spontaneous
explorers and risk-averse planners.
The research determines that exploratory behavior distinguishes be-
tween the two clusters of Turkish tourists, and a measure is proposed.
The scale points to four different aspects of the construct: attitude to
tourism as a new experience, risk taking, variety seeking, and attitude
towards planning beforehand. However, these four factors identified
explain just over 62% of the variation, so that future research needs
to explore other dimensions that are likely to tap all the domain of this
construct.
According to this study’s findings, spontaneous explorers use less
information sources to plan their holidays, and they value the explora-
tion and experiential aspects of their vacations. In contrast, risk-averse
planners show a greater use of sources and are less concerned with
exploration. This finding points towards the possible use of the hedo-
nic and utilitarian consumption literature to explain these differences
in planning and tourism behavior. Hirschman and Holbrook define
hedonic consumption as ‘‘those facets of consumer behavior that re-
late to the multi-sensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one’s experi-
ence with products’’ (1982:92). The experience of emotional arousal
is a major motivation in the purchase of many products such as novels,
plays, and sports (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982).
Recent literature has started to pay some attention to the hedonic
and emotional aspects of the consumption of tourism products (Bigné
and Andreu 2004; Hyde 2000). For example, Hyde (2000) indicates
that some consumers avoid vacation planning because experiencing
the unknown may be key to the hedonic experiences sought when trav-
eling. Thus, this study points towards the need for further research to
establish a possible link between spontaneous explorers and hedonic
consumption, and risk-averse planners and utilitarian tourism con-
sumption. The research shows that the spontaneous explorers exhibit
a higher level of involvement with the vacation. This finding supports
the distinction of these two groups according to their hedonic or util-
itarian behavior, since involvement has been related to emotional con-
sumption in the literature (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Mano and
Oliver 1993; Swinyard 1993). This argument needs to be empirically
tested in future research.
Furthermore, the study has established that spontaneous explorers,
who value the experiential aspects of the holiday, are more likely to re-
turn to previously visited destinations. An explanation for this behavior
may be related to a possible emotional attachment experienced by
them to the destinations that they have visited, due to the value that
 ALVAREZ AND ASUGMAN 335

they assign to the holiday experiences. The relationship between

emotional attachment and increased tendency to return has been
investigated and related to the role of affect and emotions in the con-
sumption behavior (Golden and Zimmer 1986; Meoli, Feinberg and
Westgate 1991). Similarly, the positive experiences associated with
the destination of the spontaneous explorers in the present research,
may be explained as emotional attachment that results in a tendency
to revisit the same place. Further research may explore whether spon-
taneous explorers are more prone to emotional attachment to the
destinations.
The research is limited by the fact that it is restricted to the Turkish
context. Several studies have pointed to the influence of cultural values
on the tourist’s information search process and the use of different
information sources (Alvarez and Asugman 2002; Gursoy and Umbreit
2004; Money and Crotts 2003). Moreover, Decrop and Snelders (2005)
also argue that typologies of tourists should not be considered as uni-
versal and that the influence of the cultural environment should be
taken into account. Therefore, research is needed to understand the
attitude towards information sources and their use in other cultures.

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Submitted 9 April 2004. Resubmitted 1 December 2004. Resubmitted 23 March 2005.

Resubmitted 17 May 2005. Final version 21 June 2005. Accepted 9 August 2005. Refereed
anonymously. Coordinating Editor: Dogan Gursoy