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13
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28

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34
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67

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82

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90

88
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100

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101

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108
111

114

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121

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dG QG
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124

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125

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128
133

137

142

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R`````````e`````````````````dG O

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10

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fCGh OGb

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a qdG LCG
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dG e q G c fQ
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c OGG H AG e Y j GPe
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11

IOq `````````G UG````````````J

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13

b IMhh jJ :G dG (1
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: Y GQOb uG j
: fQ QH dG
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V

: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

a

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()
f d Sf b
G b c

N b

q LCG
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()
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N b

f d qa b
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N b

MCG
qc LQ MCG qdG b Mh G b e c M hJ ZQ :(CG) SdG
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14

: `````````SCG

.eMCG hJ ZQ LCG c J
MCG
.c hJ ZQ dG b M hj G b M :() SdG
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: `````````SCG

.c hJ ZQ OGG MCG J

BG aY
`dd ,`qbu dG J HJ g N IOe qdGh K oIOs e jG :e dhGG HdG qGE
p G jhe ,e q Y Rh LJ JOq e H dG
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q
LJ dG G Gg e IOG c H o s J Fja QG Z Y fe L c j
.q G dG q j h G IMh
e IQGM LQO Y h (FS hCG U ) e IQGM LQO Y G dG
V M Y G Gg e q d m dG b f g RZ e Vh
= m :ddG dG ah Jh
V

M`e
jq OY jhe q dG c J G IMd jhe e IOq e e q Y M j eY . d fG
IOq d q G d
q
: e h iNCG U Y Gh , = m HdG dG jJ V
V = m hCG m = .V

hCG IQGG LQO ) hdG q H jRZ hCG FS hCG U fe q G dG q J .dG K h G d f ( dG

15

: G dG b IMh
(m) dG fc GPEa .G dG b IMh USG = m ddG dG o n n r Jo
V
G dG IMh qEa (m3) G H jo (V) Gh (kg) GZdH oJ

.d qdG IMdG gh kg. m-3 e e d GZdH J

(kg)
kg. m-3

=m
V

(m3)
g. cm-3 :H e h iNCG GMh USG
: `J``e ` q```bCG

e jOdG hdG jRdGh FdGh dG OGG d G dG dG hG

.V h IQGM LQO
`jR`Z OG`e
(kg. m-3)G dG

0,083
1,2
1,82

F`S OG`e

`U OG`e

(kg. m )G dG IqO``G (kg. m )G dG IqO``G

IOq ``G
LhQdG
dG
240 qdG
790
AGdG
jdG jR 1000 EG 400 e G
920
HdG cCG K
AG
2700 CG
1000
FdG
7100 fdG
13600
7900 jG
8900 SdG
-3

-3

g. cm-3 H OGG g e d G dG LhCG

: ``````````U````G

,G Gg e G IMh c g fe G dG
. H d ejh
= m : ddG dG f e G dG jd
V
.M EG V h G c EG m eJ M
. kg. m-3 : g G d dG dG IMh
16

G d dG jdG (2
I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb uG j
.FS q d hCG U q d G dG j e q QH dG : ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.dG LCG c b .QG QG SGH dG LCGh FGdG MCG b .Q QJ IAGb c : dG LCd G dG -1

: ``MCG h q``LCG

m = 66,28g
66.28

0.00

:hCG dG
Z U L e qY NBG
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Ge SGH m c bCG `
.qc P Ge hCG hdEG

:dG dG
SGH M bCGh dG f NBG `
:ddG MGG e Qq e Q
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q SCG
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. V2 jG G G qSCG
V = V2 - V1 qdG M SCG

V1 = 50 mL

V2 = 58,4 mL

17

: `````````SCG

=m= m
V

= 7890 kg. m-3 dG q d G dG

V2-V1

: FdG OGd G dG -2

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

.e AG , IaG FGdG MCG e q Y NBG

.QG jQd ITG IAGdG jW Y q dG d V G jH bCG
.``q c P Ge hCG hdEG Ge SGH FdG e q dG J c jH bCG
Qa QG
AG e c aVEG H

QG c W H

= m = 100 = 1g. mL-1 : G c , AG g G FdG

V

100

1000 kg. m-3 g dG dG IMH Ad G dG

18

: ``MCG h q``LCG

.jdG jR Iq G g e HdG dG MGe H bCG

QG c W H

jdG e c aVEG H

Qa QG

= m = 92 = 0,92g. mL-1 = 920g. L-1 : g jdG jd G dG qCG LCG

V
100
920 kg. m-3 : g dG dG IMH jd G dG
: `````````SCG

.jd G dG Y Ad G dG J
: `J``e `q```bCG

V (mL)

10

30

40

50

m (g)

24

32

=m

60

FdG d MCG c H bCG

48
: HG hG FdG MCG K
q YCGh G Fd G dG Oq MCG
.hG

g.mL-1

: ``````````U````G

ITG IAGdG jW Y dG G hCG FdG d (V) G j j q Y

.Qq e Q jQd
.Ge SGH b a G dd (m)dG eq CG
,G d G dG Y G j = m dG Hh
V

.M (V) h G q dG c (m) M
19

: S````````````jEG

adG

IY adG IQY J

: f
dG b AS h dG c AS : f
G GH Me SQO SSCG dG e SOdG d
q YLG OGG SGQO N
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dG e Y dH c GdG g e H d fqdG adG Y d
. dG hG ah dG fa He edH
QTCG c HZ

(S S S V Y) ac
q bCG HZ

(2c / S) adG
6
1,3
3
4
2,6

(2c) MG

(2001)

162 155
2 381 000
1 759 540
732 550
1 025 520

dGOY

dG 1000

9 700 000
31 000 000
5 200 000
29 200 000
2 700 000

fJ
FGG
d
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fjQe

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: A```JCG h ``qeC JCG

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q j iMEH jjM Ic M GPEG
e S
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o n nJ q TCGh UGJ
q
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' qdG e ac YCG dG CG M dG ac e YCG ac jd EG '

20

:dG IMh f OYHh hdG f

EG ODJ dG QfG cCG IOd G dH e G dG fQe
.adG J Z Y G Gg iNCG UN
.FdG OGGh dG LCG ac j AG j
.GRdG ac j AGdG j

d=
dG ah ,AG EG dH FS hCG fc U fe IOe ac
'
.Ad G dG ' h IOG d G dG M

Rd G dG M d = ' dG ah ,AGdG EG dH RdG ac

.AGd G dG ' h

FdG hCG dG OGG EG ``dH `fYG GPEG

(V) G GP fe Y c : (m)
. hdG f AG e (V) G f c : (m)
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(V) G GP RdG e Y c : (m)
. hdG f AGdG e (V) G f c : (m)

m CG h
d=
= V = m qE a ' = m h = V
' 'V m
V
a qdHh IMdG f d d c f g adG
.IMh hH GOY q

21

: ````f Y YCG

:1 O``Y j

.13,6 g. cm-3 hJ dG h IQGd e hX Fd qG dG

.FdG e78,0 g M Y HG K dG dG IMH dG g Y q Y
:2 O``Y j

qG dG a J hX 120 g c qjjM b M Y HG
. 7800 kg.m-3 hJ jd
:3 O``Y j

hX ,J G Gg e 86 g CH Y fedCd q G dG Y HG
. 32 cm3 hj AdG e Gq M ,q e
:4 O``Y j

: dG hG Y f FdG d MCG c f eY
V(cm3)

50

100

150

200

250

m(g)

56

112

169

224

280

.G Fd G dG LhCG
:5 O``Y j

. 185 g c h 2,87 cm YJQGh 3,24 cm gb q fe fGSG

.G Gd G dG LhCG
h = JQGh R = dG MV = .R2.h : fGSG M : cJ
:6 O``Y j

. 6,21 kg ch 13,2 cm gb fe Ic
.q G c LhCG
4
R = dG M V = .R3 : IdG cJ
3

22

:7 O``Y j

. jW q f jPa IOq e e fGS q G dG jd

:hCG jdG (CG
fGSd h JQGh d dG H f
h = 39,0 mm h d = 21,0 mm CG a
m = 106,2 g a hdEG Ge SGH fGSCG c f
G jPdG IOd G dG Y HG
:G GSG ,fdG jdG (
HdG fGSG ee ddG fRdH f

m1

m1 = 42,1 g

m2
m2 = 148,2 g

m3
T

m3 = 55,8 g

hX Ad G dG CH Y GPEG G jq PdG IOd q G dG Oq M

1 000 kg.m3 hJ HdG
1 mL = 1cm 3 h 1Kg/m 3 = 1 Kg.m-3 = 10 3 g.mL-1 : cJ

jdG f H Qb (
?dP S g a dG H NG Lh EG
23

IQG LCGh a qdG LCG (3

``G ``dG
IQG LCGh adG LCG EG q dG Y GQOb uG j

.FdG dd qG dG e qG c fQ e FS

: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.ach G c M OGG

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

AG S Y J qfCG MCG .Ae H VM G e b VCG

?AG J GP

U ZQ AG S Y J GP .Ae H VM VCGh jG e b NBG

?G H fQe M

24

NGO OLG AG ZCG K G b OHCG f d q`dG e b NBG

.d cJCGh G b Y Vh dG LdG f Y VG
?MCG GPe

AG Y H
q j QG gAL
q d G b e e J qdG b qCG MCG
? dP dG a .G b e QG
.dGh G b e M UCG SdG e b e HdG YCG
?j GPe

. VG b q d UJ SdG b qCG MCG

.bdG d G JCG K Qq e Q NGO AG e H jdG e b GqL eCG
?j GPe
G
H ITe jR h Ae
q

G
e bdG H H G
q

25

HdG f

(kg. m-3) G dG

IOq ``G

AG S Y j
AG S Y j
AG S Y j
dG EG j
dG EG j

1000
240
750
920
7900
8900

AG
qdG
G
jdG jR
jG
SdG
: `````````SCG

.dG EG J Ad G dG G c J dG LCG
.AG S YJ Ad G dG Y G c J dG LCG
: `J``e ` q ```bCG

Q HdH G h dG e SdG dG Ke Y Z Y
.Ie c AG ie JQG Mf Ae a Qe
.AG S ie JQG S Y
.HGL Y .gCG JQG j dG CG

: ``````````U````G

.Ad G dG e qbCG qM H J AG S Y J dG LCG

.Ad G dG e cCG qM H J AG UJ dG LCG
d G dG qb qc : MCG jhG dG LCG EG dH
.AG e QG AG M f Ad G dG Y dG
qG dG e bCG q M H qJ e FS S Y J dG LCG
.FdG dd

26

Y f
q AGSG

: S````````````jEG

? dG L FGdG dG OLh e VdG g e

dHh AGdH dG G`g C fEa ,S EG AG YCG e fG dG jJ eY
J hCG ,JQG Y bJ d AG S EG dG JJ Ggh ,L M OGOj
M j dHh ,c e AGdG OJ ,S q dG Y fEa ,SCG EG
.L
AY Y EG OJ , `d FGdG dG j dG QhdG Y G IdG g EG
`Y QH PSCG g VY e hCG ch ,Y HdG dG fQa OcCG
. 1685
dG H J fCG M , S 200 GW gbq Uh IdG g SdG J bh
.OG MdG OH EG dG fH Y j h ,SQG
c SG dG SCG C ,dG MH bY FGdG `d qCG
q T h
Y ,fYq dG bJ f`c eYh ,Iq H `fYR jH EG MdG J ,FGdG
.dG EG J SCG fc ,cG
.G AjdG - jH c```d f

?FGdG dG j dG G QhdG PEG g e

G f e c f eCG Y VdG AGdG c f qCG h Y (1
IdG cP OQh q bfGh ,(dG jdG hG fG ) e hCG FS
AGdG aO ``q `qdG f dG M J Y GOYGh , YCG dEG QG hCG
`G `ch ,`dG CG ,Ap `e IQe `fc ```G ```c H Q``b
2
1
AGS MS AKCG fCG H J eh cP S e H Qb q K . AG S Y gh
. dG hCG G
? dG Ae MS CG dG AG MS SCG jCG QJ CG d g (2
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CG d g fdG IdG Y OYH (3
? hCq G GDdG Y HLEG cDJ
GKCG d SGh dqdG IdG LGQ (4
QJ GYGh edG b M
C jQC`dG Y dG `F`G
.Fja IgX

27

`````````````F```````dG ```````d``G
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q dfG IqKDG eGdG (7

? dG b jdG FdG J c

jq dGh qdGh c OGG H AG e Y MCG GPe Y

?...edGh dGh
? hGGh jOhCG e Y QeCG e Ge j GP
b Y g c G fe
c j g
q
? G H h

28

A`````dG `````fG (4
I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb uG j
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. ,
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: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.LeCG J
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: A```JCG h ``eq C JCG

* jG jc h Ae

S h Ae

* SdG jch Ae

? fG LeCG g H GdCG NG S e
AG q dG Oq GG fG

: ``MCG h q``LCG

` qG AG e c e ,10 g hJ m c dG e e q c eCG
.100 mL hj V M

SGMH j *
29

MCG

.de W d fe je Y h AG e e G eG

je Y MCGh AH e eG qdG qCG MCa ,qdH G VYC

q G fK H
.M W d fe
: `````````SCG

:q SCG ,hCG HdG

.dG FG G : Y
o
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.
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p rfG : fG jG Gg Y G EG Oq CG dG q dG
.
o n
: `J``e ` q```bCG

MCa , jG NCG q K qG AG e SCc f qdG e e VCG

.Y
q dG Gh Gh G Oq MCG . fe je Y
FGdG
e
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: ``MCG h q``LCG

d dG e q u c e , 30 mL hj V1 M d AG e q u c eCG
. 10 mL hj V2 M

qdc qj fe je Y MCG

Ae

* c

: `````````SCG

q `G :SCG ,M cCG gh ,AG

q ``G : SCG ,M
t bCG gh ,dG
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SGMH j *
30


q G e
q G q eCG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

V2 M d dG e q u c e ,10 mL hj V1 M d AG e q u c eCG
.50 mL hj

qdc qj fe je Y MCG

Ae

* c

: `````````SCG

q ```G : q j ,dG g M cCG gh ,dG

q ``G : q j ,dG g M UCG gh ,AG

.c :q j Y
o
q dG fG jG

: `eC
u G h HdG UM QbCG
,q``G M cCG FdG

q G :q SCG ,FS L e e
q
.t```G a NBG qeCG
AG RdG fG
: A```JCG h ``qeC JCG

MCG RZ he IQhQb NC
t G eY
? RdG Gg c jCG ,jRZ ba hN

SGMH j *
31

: ``MCG h q``LCG

: dGG HdH bCG qK ,fqeCG RZ e b VCG ,U QhO

NGO IQGa AG j
QdG
q a Oq hdG

feq CG RZ

e QdG

e QdG
Ae

SGMH j

W qe fCG

.AG dH
q j feq CG RZ
. JdGRH feq CG RZ jJ e ,HdG YCG

QhdG NGO AG j
QdG
q a ZQ

JdG RZ

e QdG

e QdG
Ae

32

W qe fCG

: q ``LCG
N
q H RZ he

RdG hG
q q c
q UCG ,U QhO
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: dGG

G Ae

: MCG

RdG hG : N
H RdG hG e YG RdG G Ae qj
q
.HdG cCG K j
: `````````SCG

.
q j NBG dGh AG
q J jq RdG LCG H
g qjRdG Hh h qfG G H IOLG qjRdG bdG
.HdG cCG K V e ,a qe GRZ
. q Fe d jCG dG g q S CG
: `J``e ` q ```bCG

.fG ,qd ,jG ,G : dqdG dG Y e SG dH GdG CeCG

NCGh qdG e e dEG VCGh Ae dG CeCG ,Ib a OQCG qc
...............Y G H ,AG ........... S qdG qCG dP ,b ...........
IdG e e e d VCG ,dP H .FOg Qf Y H bCG , .......... FG
.GK d jG Gg q MCGh
: ``````````U````G

q bCG Y q f L e j
q ,fe FS je g FG G
.AG gMCG j
.
q G q j a
q fG dG Gh
q G q j AG
.fG :q J FG G Y G EG Oq CG dG q dG
33

`````F```````e ``` ```````c``J (5

I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb uG j
,b GMh H cPh Fe cJ jJ
. dG qG dG qJ Y KEG
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.h
q e , : H u eCG
.G bh dG b

: A```JCG h `` qeC JCG

dGh GdCG e dG he a ShDc HQCG

? q j Jfe
q f qCG ZQ NBG EG e gdG dG Qq J S g e
? bCG ch J dG jOG g e
qG qH cdG bY
: ``MCG h q``LCG

e fH ,100 mL hj V1 M SdG jd v Fe u MCG

. (S1) `H G Gd eQCG .dG QRCG Y MCG .AG *SdG jc e IU

SGMH j *

34

V2M *SdG jd vFe MC

u G
e JU e fH , 100 mL hj
mK Y MCG .AG SdG jc
. (S2) `H G Gd eQCG .dG QRCG

MCG
. (S1) G d e bQR q TCG (S2) G d UCa ,
u G c YV
. (S1) G cJ e cCG (S2) G cJ sGE bCG
dG FG G W j AG e SCc qdG e IMGh b fG Y
f G `qdG q q c YJ qc IhM dG Gg OGOj .GM Y
.AG e G
: `````````SCG

G Gg cJ OGOj ,AG e se M xe q c fG Y
.C H cd eQCG .
q G c OjORG e
G H cdG bY
: ``MCG h q``LCG
* SdG jd v Fe MC
u G

e fH ,200 mL hj V2 M
dK Y MCG .AG
u G Gg e
. C3 cJ h (S3)G Gd eQCG .dG QRCG

MCG
.C3

<

. (S1)G d e bQR
q bCG (S3)G d
C1 : GPEG (S1) G e GcJ
q bCG(S3) G

SGMH j *
35

: `````````SCG

, (V) M Fe Y d
x e e e q c fG Y
. (V) G OjORH G Gg cJ j
b IMh - cdG jJ
.G e MGh d qG q dG H ,e
q e Fe , C cdG q j
c Hh , V G M ee j c OYH Fe C cdG j
C = m : d`qdG dG
q ah q ojh m G G
V

g.L-1 ```H d efh dG r Gn `r`rdG IMH C cdG Sj

. mg.L-1 h g.mL-1 eh cdG d iNCG GMh f CG c

: ``M``````e
e qc fG Y , dP e ,x% : qjFG dG MH cdG Y qdG
e c f gh , 5% g MG f ,AG e 100g 5g gQGe dG e
.
q G G c EG qdG
ihj G M sCG f e dZ ,cdG N CG ,cdG V FG dG
.
q G M e
Hh fG b q G dG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

H Wh bQhO : GG qc iMEG Y VCG M hCG fRdH bCG

m1 H IYCG VCGh SdG jc e b a U hMh qG AG e q q c
: hCq G Sq dG dEG QG q dG Y GG IHG d
m1

FG SqdG jc

hCG fRdG

Ae IQb

.N
H qdG f Y YCG q K ,QhdG AG IQbh Sq dG jc eCG
q
36

m1

fqdG fRdH bCGh

FG Sq dG jc

. fqdG fR dG jG hj hCG fR dG jG
: `````````SCG

q dG FG G ch L e qGh qG c
.jhe iNCG L e Y

: `J``e ` q ```bCG

Y d dG AG e q q H Le dG qdG c MG
.50g.L-1 hj C cJh 400 mL hj V M qS Fe

: ``````````U````G

.G e MGh d qG q dG H ,e
q e Fe ,CcdG q j
.G M OjORH bjh qG G c OjORG e OGOj Fja QGecdG
.fG q Y Y q G dG `s J

37

: ````f Y YCG

.C ``H e cJh ,V ``H L M h , m `H L d ef :cJ

:1 O``Y j

:dq dG MG e e c Y CN hCG `H LCG

M eeh m uG G c H j H Fe cJ j (1
.V qdG ``G
C = m / V ```H c``d ef (2
. `q G Ae G cJ e cCG dG Ae G cJ (3
. dG Ae G cJ e cCG IO OGh Ae G cJ (4
:2 O``Y j
dG
q HLEG eCG eY VCG
.tG g AG qj dG G ` CG
.dG eh AG e j
fe je g dG FG G `
q
.U q Fja dM L ehO
q G j `
.GG M Fe Y MCa ,qdG j ` O
:3 O``Y j
,e : JBG dG e Sj ZGdG cCGh dq dG UG fdG Hc YCG
.fG ,```G ,G ,G ,fG
A`G `qcM AG`S MCG ,Y Ae H AfEG VCG ,dG e e b UEG H NBG
J b W qd ,FGQ X AG CG h ,qqc ````j M qjQJ qj G qCG `cq MCG ``d hCG
fCG bCa .AG NGO SG b d W Ad Gf ````j PEG G ...........UCa
. .......``H Y
q qdG dG FdG YOCGh....... H g dG YOCGh ........
c bCG G Yfh . ........`H G eG fCH d hj dG h G e c cCG AG q SCGh
H Ga c GPEGh .Gce q j G H dG G . ........H AG e
. Yj G
:4 O``Y j
-1
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dG e c b c ,jd M Qb , G AM e jd W OQCG GPEG (1
.Gjd dG j q M aVEG dG idG
eGZ N a Vh q d ,d MQb ,cdG HdG
q AG H dG NCG qJ (2
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38

``````q ```d``````fGh ``````````TEG (6

I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb uG
,q dfGh TEG jJ
,e
s qdfEGh C cdG b Y OYEH e EG q dG

: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.b IMhh cdG SCG

: A```JCG h ``eq C JCG

. jG T Mqe iMEG IQdG

q qJ

?G Sj
q c
?AdG e SCG dG
q Gg j GP
39

s G FG G
: ``MCG h q``LCG

: hCG dG
, 100 mL hj V M G qe Ae j QhO
, m1 = 20g c dG e e q q c VCG
. jG NCG qK

MCG

.fe je Y MCG h AG e G
q j
m1
FG G Gg cJ
C1 =
= 200 g.L-1 : g Y G
q
V
: dG dG
m2 = 15g `c G e iNCG u c hCq G `d VCG
mt = 35g ihJ a aG q G G c a
.bdG d G q MCG

MCG

.fe je Y M h AG e G qfG
FG G cJ UCG
C2 = ((m1 + m2) / V) = 350 g.L-1 : Y G
q
ddG dG
, 2g hJ G e m3 c NCG FG d VCG
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j b dG J e WCG Iq G q MCG
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MCG

G e U SGhQ a J jG j dH e
G h jG TJ H
mr = 1g c LCG SG
q
,V = 100 mL M AG e qq c e qG ,dG qG dG
25 C `H IQq e jq OY IQGM LQO ms = 36 g hJ

40

: `````````SCG

.IOh AG e e M G dG e c
.q e q j Y G dG FG G
Cs = 360 g.L-1 : g e q G FG G Gg cJ
25 C hJ IQGM LQO

: q dfG jJ

. s H d efh q dfG q j Cs TEG M Y G cJ

. e Fe g C = s cJ d Fe
q c

: ```M``e
s = 360 g.L-1 hJ ,(25 C `H IQq e qjOY IQGM LQO ) dG e qdfG
: `J``e ` q ```bCG

s = 360 g.L-1 hJ dG e q dfG qCGh Y ,GG hG CG

VCG dG dG e c FG G M
bdG G c : q e
cdG b
(SG)
CG f
(g) H AG (mL) G H
q
76
80
80

200
200
400
: ``````````U````G

j Hb Z ,e
q Fe
q c ,q e IQGM LQO
. s q dfG jOY hj Cs cJ q e g G Gg fG
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a GPEG ,
q G e jG f Hb j G sEa C < s fc GPEG
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41

: ````f Y YCG

. s `H q dfGh C ``H e cJh ,V ``H L Mh ,m `H L d ef :cJ

:1 O``Y j

s ,e ,qdfG , FdG
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:2 O``Y j

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.`q e Fe g ,q dfGh cdG e
q c a ihj Fe
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HCG
q
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q Gf q dfG
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42

: ```````aG````````e

Jee EG VCG

(mg.L-1) MGdG dG GuG H fG

H cJ MG KdG
u
: 1999 S TCG N SH b YSG S f Y IO OGh Ae e
eCG

cCG

AGdG IQGM LQO

(C)

AG IQGM LQO
(C)

1853

7^9

10^7

10^4

2029

10^4

14^8

14^1

1922

9^6

18^3

15^5

2262

9^8

17^8

16^6

1423

6^4

21^4

20^5

1136

8^3

28^9

23^7

1259

9^1

29^8

27^8

1383

6^9

27^7

25^2

1947

8^9

32^7

27^2

1487

6^7

24^4

18^8

10

1476

9^5

18^3

14^9

11

1847
1668

10^2

13^2

10^3

8^7

20^6

17^9

12
e

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. HLEG `uY ? dG TCG W HK e

q uc cJ j g (1
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43

q dfG IqKD G eGdG (7

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.
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. 25C hJ IQGM LQO Y ,10 mL hj V M

Fe Y jG N H MCG
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SJdG Gf e
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Gf e b d VCG
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MCG
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.
t G f `t H AG s q dfG s J GPEG
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44

Y G G qcG d Fe d q dfG hj GG hG
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316
360
767
49

q G G
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45

: `````````SCG

.IQGG LQO JQH JJ ,AG SJdG Gf q dfG

:AG IQGM LQO q J e g.L-1 H LCG H q dfG q J u dG hG
100C

80C

60C

40C

20C

10C

485

215

125

773

656

562

458

357

333

388

384

373

366

360

358

0,77

0,94

1,16

1,41

1,65

1,76

2080

1960

1760

1600

1440

1360

754

550

400

265

207

174

9520

6690

5250

3760

2200

1700

1,6

1,9
2040
0,002
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u
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48

: ````Kh ````SCG

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73

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75

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76

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80

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82

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86

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87

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88

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89

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90

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91

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95

FHdG JdG b (16

I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb G j
ddG :FHdG JdG b RL EG q dG
ddG SGH FHc IQGO f H FHdG qJdG b
. H JdG
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

dH q FHc IQGO RG
: A```JCG h ``qeC JCG

FHdG JdG b ILCG G q dG hMCG

.Y eSG RedG a hMCGh a Gq L q CG
? Y SG VG ej GPe EG
? dG RL b `d j GP
96

: `````````SCG

ddG JdG b RL q j
:e IjY GfCG dd
qJd ITG IAGd IHEG ITCJ a Jh HEG ddG
.Rd G qSGh ITCqdG OYH hCG
.TdG
q Y qJd ITG IAGdG a Jh bq dG ddG
qJq dG b EG aVEa FXdG IOq e ILCG g J CG
.q FHdG ehG b hCG / h FHdG Qq dG Iq T d jCG dSG
j h /hCG (+) edG dZ j gMCG , b dd
qdG OSCG j h /hCG (-) edG j NBGh qdG MCG
: `H fdG SdG dd ej
V
jQH

FHdG IQGdG ddG Uh

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

LC
q G

:dGG FHdG IQGdG CG

de

FHdG G

MCG

da

.q e qJJ G ddG jh FHdG G Aj

: `````````SCG

HH RGdH FGO ddG Uj UAB FHdG JdG d

B dGh dd (+) ed eG hCG MCH G
q dH A dG
.(-) ed eG hCG OSH G
q H
HEG dd (+) ed eG hCG MCH G
q dG Uj : ```M``e
dd qdG dG Ujh qdd LG dG L e J IQGq dG e H FGO
.qdd ddG
q dG L e J IQGq dG f e iNCG H
97

f H FHdG JdG b
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

.WCG d q h eh qde e J
q dH FHc IQGO CG
hCG Me bQ da SGH (qdG b) N h P dG H UPN JdG bCG
.(2dG) fK Me P h N dG H UNP JdG bCG .(1dG)
V

(2dG)

V
N

N (1dG)
M

MCG
.dS qJJ G j fqdG dG h Le qJJ G ddG j hCG dG
j d UNP Jd G dG hJ UPN Jd G dG
UPN = - UNP : edG
: `````````SCG

Y d Nh P dG CG j Ga e Z Nh P f H JdG c GPEG
.H SdGh fdG JdG Gg .qFHdG dG f
N
P
.dG Jg HUPN JdG EG P EG Ne G dG ej
UPN
.dG Jg H UNP JdG EG N EG P e G dG ej
N
P
UNP
FHc IQGO f H JdG d Ge SG M
.GG TT ce Y FdG G ``Ho h Gd SCGdG SG f qfEa
UPN = TdG ce Y FdG G H Gd SCGdG SG
f qfEa FHc IQGO f H JdG d HG ddG SG M
:bdG EG ODJ dG dG dBG IHEG GfGh JdG H q SdG UN

UPN = (n) IHEG dEG J dG jQdG OY

bCG jQdG OY
(N)
UPN = nC
N

(C) QdG

:`H bdG d ejh

.N jQdG CG Qq G qdG jf G IHEG q dG i`odGqJdG b g C QdG

98

```M``e

aW H JdG j ,FHc QJ a ,Ue S b K Y

.QdG IT fc e eeY
(Qq dG Iq T b RL) e eCG b H Gq L V FGO JdG j
.FHc QJ a
A dG e ,qdG QN FHdG QdG Ea ,Le UAB JdG c GPEG
.dH dGh B dG G
: `J``e `q```bCG

: ddG FHdG IQGdG f

? JdG d IQGdG g ddG RL Uf c (1
?dS qJJ d dd LG dG Uf f jq CH (2

: ``````````U````G

ddG SGH f H FHdG JdG Sj

V : `H fdG SdG dd ej
ddG Uj ,FHc IQGO e f H UAB FHdG JdG d
(+) ed eG hCG MCH G
q dH A dG HH RGdH FGO
.(-) ed eG hCG OSH G
q H B dGh dd

99

dH IQGO HdG JdG jRJ

dH FHc IQGO

?dH FHc IQGO NGO hdH FHdG qJdG Rj g

? Ye FHc IQGO NGO FHdG QdG Rj c
? FHdG bdH f GPe

100

FHdG JdG jRJ (17

dH FHc IQGO
``G ``dG

:Y GQOb G j
.dH FHc IQGO FHdG qJdG jRJ fb J
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.ddG SH f H FHdG JdG b

.H JdG
qJdG jRJ fb
jQH

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

K
e
FHc
B

ehG

UAB

UBC

FHdG Qd Gqde GdG Y UhCG

.IQGdG ZCG K ILCG KKh Qd Wbh
GJdG ddG SGH bCG
D
UCD h UBC h UAB

UCD

UAC
UAD

MCG
JdG FGR G b H JdG hj ehGh G FdG b H JdG
.ehG b H
CD h BC h AB AGLCG b H GJdG g AD AG b H JdG

101

: `````````SCG

H GJdG hj FHc IQGO e AL f H JdG

.dG Jg H GdG Y cG ILCG b
UAD = UAB + UBC + UCD

G fb
UAD = - UDA : UG Y OYH
q
UAD = UAB + UBC + UCD

bdG qCG qHCG

: dq dG dG
q G Oq DJ
UAB + UBC + UCD + UDA = 0

:dG q dG Y jh G fb bdG g
.GU hj e IQGO NGO GJdG

: `J``e `q```bCG

IQGO NGO GJdG MCG

qde e feh e ,dH FHc
.FHc h FHc eh FHc

: ``````````U````G

b H GJdG hj FHc IQGO e AL f H JdG

.IQGq dG g GdG Y cG ILCG e RL c
.GU hj e IQGO NGO GJdG

102

e
q b FKh qde b FK H eAG (18
G dG

b FK e qde b FK eAe e qdG Y GQOb uG j

.IQGq dG Z b ,q e
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

q G qe b FKh qde b Fd qFHdG FG IAGb

. e
q c bH
.qde b FKh q e b FK H dG

: A```JCG h ``qeC JCG

?iNCG hO IYCH qFHdG ILCG H J GP

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

hCG H
Rh dq eh K Wbh ,FHc e e cJ dG dq dG IQGq dG REH bCG
: A eeCG RL e qjQHh
I
4,5 V

A
Rh

MCG
.fq dG b M FHdG Qq dG Iq T J H dq G dGR q MCG ,WdG Z b
G dq G dGR cq M qc OGOjh G e j aN GQf MCa WdG ZCG
.Fe IQGO EG qW H G j : SG
.J OhM Rh Y G JEG QMCG
a j dG I FHdG Qq dG Iq T h AG G b H UqJq dG b e qc bCG
? MCG GPe :Y
q IQcG G QbCG .G Y c a fCG q K
103

fK H
.Hq dG f YCGh U FHc q G VYC
q G ,HdG
q IQGq dG
M
I
4,5 V

A
Rh

MCG

FHdG Qq dG Iq T Y MCG H dq G dGR q MCGh ZCG ,IQGq dG q G Vh b

.fq dG
Fe Z IQGq dG :JJ JQGM qCG Y a FHdG QqdG Qhe ZQ j q G ,IQGq dG ZCG
.q G T
qCG QMCG :TG q G CGj ,q e ie h ,SG G dq G dGR q MCG eY
?Fe IQGq dG g g - a idG YS RhCG
fCG q K ,j dG I FHdG Qq dG Iq Th G q G b H U qJq dG b e qc bCG
? MCG GPe : Y
q IQcG G QbCG .q G Y G G
: `````````SCG

H UqJqJ e q e q FHc hX EG G h q G j
eY e
q c j dG I FHdG Qq dG Iq Th e
q c b
. e MGh
q c H j dGh j
: `J``e ` q```bCG

: dqdG G CGb ,AHdH G BG iMEG Md Y

Rating : DC 3V - 250 mA
Use battery 1,5V*2

? q e FHc RL d jq QH
q CG SG g
? jH qjQH AGT Y QYEG H PqJG q Y j e
: ``````````U````G

e qdG dG FK eAe e qdG j FHdG IQGq dG Z b

q G b H ,UqJq dG e
q c b eAe e qdG : q G dG FK
.a j dG I FHdG Qq dG Iq Th
104

: ````f Y YCG

:1 O``Y j

42 jQdG Y - jQJ 100 Y j -da IHEG SG U JJ b Y

.SG U JdG b LhCG .30V QdG SG Y
:2 O``Y j
GQY SH U GJJ -jQJ 100 Y j - HEG da SGH f
:GG hG Ae CG .
U (V)
(C) QdG
(n) jQdG OY

15

30

90

30

15

:3 O``Y j

G e FHc IQGO JBG dG

Y NG

? dS CG Le -SG JdG eY g e (1
. b bh dGJdG q S SQCG (2
-1
j FdG G beh 5 V .cm g Gd SCGdG SG CG Y GPEG (3
.G b H JdG b MCG ,IQGq dG Z b Y c q Y YCG f 2,5cm
:4 O``Y j
B
A
:HG dG n q G FHdG IQGdG f
:ddG GJd jq G dG g e
CG Y GPEG UDC , UCD , UBC , UBA
. 4,5 V hJ UAB Jd G dG
D

105

:5 O``Y j

.SCG hG Ae CG .HG dG G FHdG IQGdG f

UAC (V)
UDC (V)
UBD (V)
UAB (V)

-5

-4

8
8

5
-18

-3

20

-17

:6 O``Y j

.a ,Qq dG ,jq QGM ,IQGM ,q FHdG : dq dG dG iMEH Ga

q c CeCG
Ye fGSG Y e hqdG IOq e e e jW S Y ........ICaG
LQO EG .........hqdG S FHdG........ q .Qfd Hb Z dRY IOq e e
.........bW EG q FHdG b qdG J
:...........jh QGMG
q
:7 O``Y j
dGG q FHdG IQGq dG j dG G Oq MCG
.dP qYCGh
1
4
3
2

:8 O``Y j
Oq MCGh dGG q FHdG IQGq dG SH bCG (1

.FHdG QqdG G
.IQGq dG g qFHdG b qdG
q Oq MCG (2

106

R1

:9 O``Y j

I
4,5 V

A
Rh

: dq dG fdG Y MCG ,IQGq dG Z Y

I = 0,2 A, UPB = 1V , UBO = 1,6V , UON = 1V

?dq G b H qJdG b g e (1
Y c qK FHc jJ g ,IQGq dG g FHdG G J Y (2
? 1,8V , 0,20 A : dq dG fdG

Jee EG VCG
q FHdG b qd TG
q Sd dG
q aCG Y ffCG HCG
ffG Ie jhY
http://www.edunet.tn/physique/savant. html
http://www.infoscience.fr/biograph-som..html
?Ghh eCGh da : Ad q dG KBG Y HG

107

AdG
jDh`````dG ```````e
ShCd jq dG UG
Ad G QfG

dH dG HG VJ "XG" Hc
gcP dG , dG e jDhdG fG jd
MO j M e c ah ,aSCG
jDhdG Y EG : jDhdG fG jd
dh QHG Y e J TH J
e G Td dG SH J jDhdG
...QHG Y NJh LQG ATCG

eh 965 Y IdG dh : dG HG G
." RdG" SH HhQhCG jh 1040 Y IgdG

108

SdG efdG e e
(YS 10 EG 8 e) A````````dG
``gGh i`G
jDhdG e
AdG QOe
G LCG IG LCG Ad Tc dG
Ad iNCG Te
dG
q jQc FV he -

fCGh GOGb

:I`q G GgCG
:Y GQOb qG j

iNCGh Ie LCG Ige N e

.FV Qe EG qdG : noj e
Lh Ae L H dG .e
qoJ dG LCG qEG iJ dG qCG Te H EG dG .Ak V
.AdG
: Yf AdG QOe qCG q
.jDhdG hT J G LCG0
IG LCG 0
: Y FV Qe Ige
OY LR b ie
s Qh hCG N b sje Qh hCG TMCG LR b GNG M ShCG G fCG J
d AdG

M ShCG J .qjdG JUN

Sh ,qT Sh H dG .Y Shh qT

Ad G QfG
AdG h Ae Sfa Ige
SG
q FdG QG QGh nu dG QG e SGh
FdG QGh
SG
q
Ad G QfEG J H REG
qnudG
q FdG eMCG RGHE Q REG
G QfG Y d dSGh e aZ REG
: Ad TT Y Ae VGh IQU
Y G
IQdG
FdG dG P
q
q fG Jh
qFdG eMCG RGHEG b jJ dB NGdG AGLCG je
G adG e HdG LhCG
QfG J
LCG
: Ad G
q d J OjEG
dBGh G adG - Ae L qX Y d H REG
jdG qdG ee RGHEGh Se
s FV Q
rdGh qdG rdGh
dG QGWCG - d (HdG) In G HdG SG
G dGh G JgX
dGh
dG QGWCG M qe OGYEG

q npf FV Qe H dG .Se
s Qeh
G QfG CG e cP .Ad
eMCG H dG .q FdG
FV T SQ .qFdG eMCG SQ adG IQdG fG J .jdG dBGh G
Qe A e L
q X SQ .f
p
.Ae d rdGh qdG SQ G J g X J q G Sq dG REGh dGh
.d
.dG QGWCG J -

ShCd jq dG UG
qdG SdG
qdG SdG
dG SdG

109

jDhdG e
AdG QOe (19
jDhdG hT - QHEG : AdG Te (20
ShCd jdG UG (21

SQO OGYG e q SfdG AV d

?G ceCG jDhdG J GP
? AdG Y G c
? ShCG N e VdG H ATCG if g
? QHEG j c

110

A```````dG QO````````e (19

I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb G j
,FV Qe EG q dG
,e Lh Ae L H dG
.Se
q FV Qeh f FV Qe H dG
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

dG GMG Y dG IAVEG - IQGG LQO JQG H LCG gq J

. dG Z GMG Y JAVEGh
: MCG h eq C JCG

,e f hCG c NGO
e GPEG EG H j e Y dG
,T hCG Sfa TCG CG O .qdH
ATCG jDhQ e CGh G AdG j
.IAG

: ``MCG h q ``LCG

LC
q G
.WCG K ,LQG AdG ae c Sq H ,aZ NGO T hCG FHc Sfa TCG

MCG
.dG Y a CfG GPEG eCG ,e c GPEG SfdG jDhQ e CG
.Y f e GAL a ,SfdG e OQGdG AdG AVCG GPEG qEG adG KCG jDhQ e CG
111

: `````````SCG

J e Y Oj AV OLH EG ATCG e dM e iJ CG d
.IAe LCG hCG Ad YH LCG g q FG LCG
q c .ATCG
AdG QOe GfCG
: AdG Qe jJ

. Ad Qe g AdG e j L c
: AdG QOe H cPCG

,jdG ,QTCG ,q dG ,dG ,FHc Sfa ,T d ,dG

... dG b ,KCG
AJCG

?J dG Ad I`ude FG LCG c g
: Yf AdG QOe

q dGh dG
q e Ae La ,dM qj h AdG dj JGH e Qe
. Gh
.dG e eo La ,NBG Qe e j dG AdG e A Kf Qe

```M``e

.Fe Z IAe fc dG LCG J Y OQGdG AdG Z Y

SG QGh dG QG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

.e Aa Y d aGdG Z MCGh YdG AGVCG CWCG f CG hdG b

:hCG f
LhCG H Y IKe K MCG ,SHO SGH
.iG QdG e Y
.LQN e J CG ,FHc Me dG NGO VCG

MCG
.VH dG S Y dG iQCG : FHdG G J b
.G dG e Y dG S Y gTCa dG e AdG Rj : G J Y
.Ad f GQe K c j
q
112

: K f
e ,HdG YCG
. TCG GPh Se
q a
jL e G d IQGdG ZCG

MCG
qe dG Y dG e AdGj
.Ad Se
q GQe J e Me Lh
q c Y
: `````````SCG

SdG Se e H UCG JSe fc GPG f AdG Qe j

.iNCG G qc Se
q QG jh .H G

```M``e
es EG dP Ojh ,f FV a ,f g FdG QG j CG
.dG e gG Y dG d hCG dG IQGT e d
: `J``e ` q ```bCG

: q K IQdG eq CJCG
.q SCGh AdG QOe q JCG
.SG
q QOG e dG QOG q eCG

: ``````````U````G

.Ie LCGh e LCG Yf AdG QOe

. fQe GU c GPEG q f AdG Qe j
.Ic q f Me fc GPEG Se
q AdG Qe j

113

A```````dG ``````Te (20

I``G G``gCG

: Y GQOb G j
.jDhdG hT q J
.AdG Te H EG dG
: `` `q `dG J```e qcJCG

.jDhq dG - IG LCGh G LCG- AdG QOe

: A```JCG h ``qeC JCG

Jh
AdG Y GH Ic OGe
q
? GP ,Y jQGb iNCG qOGe

? jDhq dG IgX dG QhO g e

? Ad
q J GP
q Vq H - ...dGh FGdGh dc - LCG H UN
q
? J ch iNCG AdG
q Te g e
? JJ IgX
q CHh qjdG G e
Ad e - dG -I
QHEG Y dG -1
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

: hCG H
fCG q K ,Y bM dG eCGh Iq e IBGe fCG ,Yb NGO IQfEG IOh jhGR
? MCG GPe ,q dG YCGh IAVEG cCG cQ EG
114

.AdG
q jGH qJh M IQfEG bJ Y dG bM J
q .dG OGORG qc cCG Y gJ -

: fK H
,Y bM dG eCGh Iq e IBGe fCG ,Yb NGO IQfEG IOh jhGR ,dG AKCG
? MCG GPe ,AdG
q WCG qK
.jDhQ J h fGdCG J h gTCG c dG G e OQGdG AdG
q j ,dG
.GdCG h dG e IQdG
q J
: `````````SCG

.M q a AdG
q q H dG bM qKCJ
.G dP e JCe ac IAVEG dG EG OJ eY e L jDhQ q J
.IAVEG jGH jDhq dG J
FG G e AdG
q fG - : WH jDhq dG qJ
.G Ad
q dG q J fG jd dH dG HG VJ zXG{ Hc
j M e qc q ah ,aSCG gcP dG dG e jDhdG
SH J jDhdG Y qEG : jDhdG fG jd MO
.G e G TCd dG
: qjdG G M FKh -2
: MCG h eq C JCG

(CG)
()
115

hCq G G -CG
? jRGe ()h (CG) G g
.IG SH dP e qcCJCG

(CG)
()

dG G -
? jhe ()h (CG) G b g
.IG SH dP e qcCJCG

ddG G -
? Ke dG g

HGdG G -

(CG)

()

? Ke jcG JFGq dG g
: ``MCG h q``LCG

IQTEG H M ,(stroboscope)SHhS - jQhOh de FV GQTEG Sj Sfa

? T IG b bJ e FdG GQTEG JGJ MCG g . T`H QJ Ib Ie iNCGh
e FdG GQTG JGJ VH q eCG fdG N OhM e T IG b J eY .SfdG
1
GQTG JGJ eCG (T = 20 s)fdG Y f OhM EG Jh T IG b bJ eY .fG hH UGe IQfG hJ PG SfdG e FdG
IG qb GPG QdG JGJ fEd a ,dG fb Y IQdG ehG IgdG g J
q
1
. s Y iNCGh IQdG H T
20

116

: `````````SCG

GdCH hCG -dGh hCq G G - TCH eEG ,fMCG dG SM

q qKCJ
FV JQTEG H UdG TedG H hCG - HGdGh ddG G - ZdG
.dG GH Gg jh bGdG Y edG IQdG
q a ,de

Ad iNCG Te -II
Fc - FV Tc : dG
q jQc -1
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

dG
q Gd Fe
Fe
jOdG jQd
e fCG
Y Z

jOdG
q jQd Fe
Ad
q e

.dG
q jQc : dG HCG SGQ Hj Fe Y MCG
jOdG Gf + dG
q jQc

j `dG
q Gf + jOdG jQc

: Y MCG gH Hh dG
q AV EG HfCG V`Yq CG
jQc SGQ d
fCG ,dG
q
dG G
.dM Y H ,dG

dG
q jQc SGQ d
.jq OeQ UCG
117

``MCG

.Oeq dG EG ,G fCG dG
q jQd ,HCG dG j
q
.dM Y qG fCG dG
q jQd HCG dG j
jQd HCG dG QhH j
q AdG
q EG Vq J q K qdG fCG Y dG dGREG H
.Oeq dG EG dG
q

: `````````SCG

HCG e fd a
Y qG dG
q
q AV dG
q jQc qKCj
. Ad
q Tc dG
q jQc : OeQ EG
WTCG q Y q Jh
q dG eCG H q J q UG g
(dG
q eCG H e j
q bQ AZ ) FdG h qaGZJdG
GOGS OGOJh Ad
eCG H e fG
ZCG Oq J
q Vq J qc dG
q
q
r
.Y qG AdG
q Iq T M
.Fc -FV Tc g AdG
q Jfe
q q J L
q c

fEG IH : ```M``e
Iq e dW qc cCG J (IS) H a
dG
q
q AH fEG IH qKCJ
j ,dG
q SqM IH d jd dH ,Yh .(SSCG q dG a ) q TCd Vq dG
.HdEG e J gGe SH
iNCG Te -2
e e coJ qc AGG JdG GQhCG q J

.Jq dG I AdG
q IQhV ,AdG
q Qe f dG
q Oq Y IgR GQhO qcDj

118

q fhdEG q YUEG TG - OGG Y AdG KCJ -III

FdG
q hG -1
: ``MCG h q``LCG

,dH fq G IQGq dG CG
qdeh FV heh he e
.e eCGh

FdG
q hG
he

.GU hJ FHdG QqdG Iq T J dG

.IQfEG jGH b J M ,FHdG Qq dG Iq T q J FdG hG Y AV
o S
n jo M
: `````````SCG

.Ad
q e FdG hG
d e IAVEG jd GZJdG jdG jCG FdG hG j
.fhdEG SdG j c jJ jf dG

CCD bdG : iNCG q YUEG Te -2

qFdG
q jG jY e CCD bdG j
q

q J .G d IQU dEG e q
j a j T Y f K M e
.q bq dG hCG jq OdG edG
: `J``e ` q```bCG

G Gq G q SCG ,Fc -FV Tc Y G e q H UCG

.HqdG fh
.Ad
q TdG Gg J J cPCG
119

-1
-2

: ``````````U````G

e GOQGh GAV dG GPEG qEG L jDhQ e qJ a QHEG Y g dG

.Ad q dG TG e gh
.Fc -FV Tc g AdG
q KCH Jfe
q q J L
q c
.Ad YUG TG e g FdG
q hGh CCDbdG

: ````f Y YCG

:1 O``Y j

:dG HLEG QNCG

.e GOQGh GAV dG GPEG qEG L jDhQ e qJ a QHEG Y g dG -1
.G c c GPEG L CG jDhQ e qJ QHEG Y g dG -2
.Fc -FV Tc g AdG
q Jfe
q qJ L qc -3
:2 O``Y j

.Ad
q Tc ,dG
q jQc ,AV : V e SG dG VCG SG GdG
:OeQ EG HCG e fd a
Y qG dG
q
q .......................... qKCj
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q jQc
:3 O``Y j

d gf fY GPe .fdG IQU 24 H QU JGJ FdG VdG RL QGe

.HGL Y ? fdG QU N H QdG g JGJ
:4 O``Y j

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.AdG Qe f

120

ShCd jdG UG
(21
q
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:Y GQOb G j
;jdG JUN
M ShCG J
q
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q T Sh ,`q `T Sh H dG
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.IG LCGh G LCG - AdG QOe

: MCG h qeC JCG

: ddG fdH G
q UdG de fq e dZ ,AdG a
SGh QG N
q J GQq dG FS Y ; VGh Z jDhdGh c dG GZ
.IQhdG Y AGVCG
eY q e qc Ia`q dG AGVCG FdG
q j
.hGU V hCG NO H
? ATCG jDhQ e QdGh NdGh dG q j GP
? fMCG Qq dG AGVCG S Cf GP
j qdG UGe g ,IQq dG AGVCG qJ d
? H
jq dG ShCG GfCG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

.HG IQdG
q Y G cq dG CG
.AG G Hh H Md VCG
GdCG q UCG q K ,dG f Iq e
q c q ZCG
.AG d jDhQ Vh M

121

e G dG
G IOe

e G dG
LdG IOe

(ee CG qHV CG VGh) AG G jDhqQ Vh ie

e G dG
hG QdG IOe

dG IqOe f
LdG
hG QdG
N
qjdH e Qh
ie
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: `````````SCG

:dN e LCG jDhQ ie M ShCG q J

,e H jDhQ : G dG h G
,VGh Z h q HV jDhQ :jdH G QdG h hG LdG
. VGh jDhQ : QqdG
jq dG ShCG
jDhQ e q ShCG qc ... V Y dG Ae dch LdG ,dG
q AG ,AGdG
.aqT ShCG a ; AdG Qh J dHh ATCd VGh
Y AGh OGh GQG dch Y cJ OjG dGh ,iG
q QdG ,G
.Y ShCG a ,dN e ATCG jDhH J h AdG Qh fe LGM J
q ...Je
AL Qh EG J ShCG ... dH hCG jdH qG QdGh ,hG QdG ,G
q LdG
.aT ShCG a VGh Z dN e ATCG jDhQh AdG e V
122

: `J``e ` q ```bCG

: ShCG N e dG d EG fCG

QqdG e U : SdG

LdG e d : SdG

N d : SdG

( ee ,VGh Z , VGh ) jDhq dG f fCG ,HdG

q gG e e qd

: ``````````U````G

.qT Sh g VH dN e LCG jDhH j Sh qc

.Y Shg ee dN e LCG jDhQ J Sh qc
.
q T Sh g HV dN e LCG jDhQ J Sh
q c

: ```M``e
Y Sh G q K
qdG Aa ,f AT Y hCG Sh aT
q T Sh G jQJ j
q
.e G h QdG YCG j e Ggh .Ad AG UeG f S OjORH

123

Ad CG QfG
Ad G QfG CGe (22
FdG eMCG (23
Ad CG QfG J (24

QXdG AV

? Ae Lh Qe H AdG q j Qe CG
? GZJdG jdG AdG j QhO CG
? KhM dG eh dG QGWCG g e
? Gh dG JgX aC
q G c

124

Ad G QfEG GC e (22
I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb G j
,Ad CG Qfp G CGe cP
.FV T SQ
: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.ShCd jdG UG
- AdG QOe
q
Ige

e aZ

e aZ

dM e Qf j Sfa TCG CG Oq .jDhdG Jh dG qj IAe Z aZ NGO

.(dG g SfdG) ,Qe e bfG j AdG qGE bCG .adG ALQCG jh
(Y LCG) KCG OLh .AG dG Gh G hCG G H VGdG dG MCG
hCG dhdG fCG) X We a ceCG H SfdG AV j ,IAG adH
.(fGG N
Ad G QfG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

.FV Qe eCG,S d eM ie
q Qh VH Ad f GQe CG .K ie
q QH O K N e SQG G fCG .S h O H AdGQe Y T K H dK bQh VCG .O N e AdG
q jDhd FG VdG Y HCG .IMGh eSG Y Oh T ,S qCG KCG ,IHG hCG Ohe N SGH 125

OT S
OT S

: `````````SCG

.SO G b f
q H AdGq ,gG Y G Qe e dfG Y
Ad G QfG CGe

AG G G (AdG Qe) AG G e ,fG qdG SdG AdG j

.e W qN q e

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.NBG G qT Sh e AdG QfG YS q J

c = 300 000 km.s-1 hJ GdG AdG YS b :e
aG j j
150 000 000km GH VQCGh dG cc H UdG aG Qq J
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?VQCG G d dG AV j dG
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aG =edG
YdG q e
8min 20s CG 500s = 300 000 / 150 000 000 =edG
A

FdG dG

AdG
q QfG qJG dG
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L
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: e
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Y bM f AO dGQe ah j e
. O gG
126

: `J``e ` q ```bCG

,S fQe e G (...Ch B,A) AdG q TCG H dGG IQdG q

(...c h b,a )iNCG q TCG Hh
A
,S' NBG Qe e G
B
. S' h S e
q c Ve IQdG Y Oq MCG (1
: fH SQCG (2
c
C
S' e e A d jRGe ,d YT
a
b
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: ``````````U````G

e WN q e gG
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q Qe Y FV T SG j
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300 000 km.s-1 b gJ YH AdG AdG j

SQd Y J Y HCG

B
A

:NGdG f
A
B hA f jOY SqHO qKCG
. N Md S e
hMCGh. AB G qJG fCG
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c Gq e Gq e Iq Y dG YCG
.C dG Ve Iq e
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.edG IG dG d dG H cPCG
C

:dG UGdG
c Id AB dG G fCG
e Z IG J .eSG e qCG
.AB d
q j dG f MCG qCG q J GPG
127

FdG eMCG (23

I``G G``gCG

:Y GQOb G j
; FdG eMCG H dG
.FdG eMCG SQ
: `` q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

FdGQOG
Ad G QfG CGe
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q FdG
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q
: ``MCG h q``LCG
qe

Ub

.HG IQdG
q Y G cqdG CG
Sfa

e jJ hCG OHEH qG be q ZCG

.S FdG
q QG

MCG

Me gTCG q G SG hH
. IYeh e H IOq IAe
128

: AdG
q Qe Y q jQJ G HCG eY
e H IOq IAe Me gTCG
. jRGeh

: AdG
q Qe Y cCG G HCG eY
H IOq IAe Me gTCG
. HQe h e

: `````````SCG

.e q TCG Y T Y ,Qe e bfG ,AdG

q j
.qFV eM e Y qc q SCG

,Ad GQfG AKCG q TCG YJ GPEG

.IYe eM Y MCG

IYe eM

MGh e Y eG q TCG fc EG
.jRGe eM q SCG (IMGh eSG)
jRGe eM
129

,Ad GQfG AKCG q TCG HQJ GPEG

.(HQehCG) q e eM Y MCG
q e eM

```M``e
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q M bdG q FdG eG J
M SH q j f CG fCG EG q FV
q eM e MGh T Y `j
.GL bO fGSG
: `J``e `q```bCG

: M ah AdG a j Vh e eCG cPCG

,IYe
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.FdG QG f e e FV q TCG Y e FdG eG J

q
.QfG Y AdG q TCG YJ e GPG IYe FdG eG J
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.QfG Y AdG q TCG HQJ e GPG (HQehCG) q e FdG eG J

```M``e
q FdG
q TCG WJ Y
q eG J
q
.IYe q FV eM G q G

130

: ````f Y YCG

:1 O``Y j

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O.............. dGf S............ dG e OQGdG FdG............SQCG
.AdG............... j d eM............qH
:2 O``Y j

HG IQdG Y eSG FdG q TCG

. f FV QOe KK e J
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: AdGQOe bGe Oq Mh SdG q CG - 2
S3 hS2 hS1

:3 O``Y j

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? MG g qcDJ Y M
q CG ,AdG j Adc dG qCG Y GPEG - 1
? dP qY ? dG CG AdG SCG jq CG - 2
:4 O``Y j

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300 000 km.s-1 YH ec S W AdG j dG aG q FdG dG qCH Y

?edH FdG dG He g e ,ej 365 q J dG qCGh

:5 O``Y j

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.QG - q G - Y - q TCG -G
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.IYe q FV eM G.......... q FdG
......... WJ Y
q eG J
q

131

:6 O``Y j

.IYe - q e - jRGe : ddG dG e Sj e Ga

q c cCG
---- M T AG IQe AV j
bO .............M T Qd q TCG J
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q adG H a e dG q TCG J

:7 O``Y j

eG d b h a YdG j
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; YdG WJ f SQCG-1
; FdG eG f q YCG -2
A dG eq dG dG SQCG -3
.eG f G j idGh

132

I Ad G QfG J (24
jdG dBGh G adG

q G dG

: Y GQOb G j
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: ``q``dG J```e c`H `SQd ``SCG

.FdG G -FdG dG -CG QfG CGe -AdGQOe

G adG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

e aZ CG
: SdH e ddG dH bCG ,iG
q QdG e G jRGe Y SGH

.qdH e
q T QH G LdG VYC
q GLh Sh , Qe SGH ,K MCG .
q dG
q Qd HG dG
133

.dG LhCG MCG p bCG

.TCG K T MCG
dG a j Vh dG VCG
.jJ Ge h dG d db
S GfCG q K YdG AGVCG CWCG
: TdG e j dG
q dG QdG
.e Vh dG d IQU gTCG
OHG hO NBG G e e dG fCG
: dG Y Gc

MCG
.dH dGh ,QdG G dG IQU de ,dG G dG fG GPG
qbCG gOhM UCGh dG IQU c ,G adG K e dG HbG GPG
.MVh
.VhCG gOhMh UCG IQdG QU dG Y dG HG GPG
Se IQU TdG Y gTCG ,FHc dG dSG GPEG ```M``e
.G d
: `````````SCG

Y G SGH ,RL g G adG

.IAehCG e LC Se QU
.AdG Qe Ve H JSeh IQdG Vh q j
AdG Qe SQCG
.gG
q c FV q TCG H Y GQOb ,f GQe dG d e f
q c J
dG q b e OQGdG qdG SQCG
.T dG c GQhe S
S
B
T
TdG Y ST dG
A
q j
A
IQU S' dG q . S' dG
B
S
.S dG QG
QdG Y C
q G, jdG H
.dGe ...B,A iNCG d ... B, A
.dG
q d IQU Y C
q ... B, A,S dG HQCG
134

: `````````SCG

S f e G adG TT Y eSG IQdG qdCJ

.adG H GQhe,AG G f e G q TCG
.MVh qbCG IQdG fc YqJG dG OGORG qc

```M``e

GZJdG jdG dBG

jdG dBG fe
q

: MCG h eq C JCG

IqaG BG J ejJ dBG qaCG

.dG IgdGh GSCG
HCGhjdG dBG AGLCG Y q JCG .AL c Xh Y
: `````````SCG

: ddG SSCG AGLCG e jdG dBG qcJ

; jdG dBG Y OQGdG Ad e ; q dG e aZ ; IQdG jd q e ,G adG b Vj ,AdH qKCq dG jT a ; QdG dG bhCG QN ,AdG Nd fe OGq S ; jJ OGG G WCJ e G q jJ RL .jdG fG QR : ``````````U````G

Se IQU Y G e q GRL jdG dBGh G adG

.Ae hCG Ae
.gqJG jh IQdG `qJ H Ad CG QfG CGe OYG j
135

: S````````````jEG

Jee EG VCG
jdG dBG V
qj Z hCG e hCG T IQU dG
: dG Y H dG
aG V
G Hh Mf e dBG T ce Y dG J dG aG eAe dG g qJ
.iNCG Mf ejdG dBG YQG
q
.NBG hCG qJG dG eM GQhH dG j
Y jdG dBG J CG dG OHCG G J dG eM Y
q G bQCG
.IOG dG H dG e qh ,jJ OGG G
j dG g .q e dG qC Z aG V Y, dG Bd dH
.QG
Y feCGh jdG RL Y OYG
q
jdG dBG S a V -Ad jdG Ie V
YQOdG Ad dG VY Iq e CG VdG bd jdG dB J dG AdG q c J
.dG dh ,jJ OGG G
VdG bJ V
2s,1s, 1/10s,1/25s, 1/50s,1/100s,1/500s bQCd eM LQq e qSjdG dBG
.G Qq dG Y dG Y AdG Y dG VY Iq e G bQ
q c ej
dG a V
Qq G G GT YqJG j a N e ,AdG NOG e dG q
.dG SMh VdG bdh
a j Y ,jdG BG H dG Ad jdG Ie V SbRL Yj
.FG dG
20-16-11-8-5,6-4-2,8-2 bQCG H e SG bdG OYH FG dG V j
.GQhd Hb W j dG
.f G dG Me dAJ 11 dGG dH 8 dG jd dG jOCGGPG : e
K jdG dB IadG AdG q c YV 5,6 dG G 16 dG e dG dHCG GPG
.Gq e
136

II Ad G QfG J (25

o r n tdGh dG

?dG j c
I``G G``gCG

: Y GQOb G j
.Y dGh dG Y d Ad G QfG CGe XJ
.G be M Ae dGh dGJ J
.Am e
n sdGh
u dG SQ
: `` q``dG J```e qcJCG

- ShCd jdG UG
-G QfG CGe - Se
q
q Qe - Ad f Qe
FdG G
Y L
q X
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

W q de ,Y jq hc L AVCG
FHc e SGH ,aQ N
.(f Qe) G U
; AH TT hdG G N q KCG
G TCG qK YdG AV WCG

aQ N

Y L

AH TT

137

.e e QU G Lh qCG M IAVEG WS Ad Vq G IdG Lh UCG

.VGh gOhM ,dG jFGO ,e H TdG Y X

.gHCG q K dG G e TdG q bCG

dG G e TdG GbG Y MVh gOhM OGOJh TdG e G dG Me qJ
.TdG HG GPEG MVh
q bCG gOhM Jh YqJG G MG OGOJ H ;

. HCG qK dG G e G q bCG
; dG G e AdG Qe bG qc MVh qbCG gOhM Jh G MG qJ
.dG G Y AdG Qe HG qc gOhM qJh qJ qfCG M

dG jJ
QG e G FdG eG Qe SQCG
.C dG G Vj dGh S dG
E
d SG h ed IOG TCG CG MCG
E TdG Y dG G X Th OhM J

: `````````SCG

N X ,f Qe e G AdG Qe Y L VYG qc
.G X J e H
AdG Qe Y dG G Hq H OhM Vhh dG Me q J
.TdG Y Hh
: `J``e ` q ```bCG

.AH TTh Ad f Qe H ,fGSG Gq e Y J

j CG CG ? IFGO T ? Hq e T TdG Y dG X j g
.HGL qY ?NBG T

138

`````dG
: ``MCG h q ``LCG

S1

S2

hCq G f
dG jdG RG f SCG .HdG HdG SG
M dG IdG AVCG .He S2 h S1

.e G Lh qGC M Ae Id eeCG LdG hj .dG jFGO gc e H E TdG Y J . C G e E TdG jQJ bCG

.X TCG Me WdG M dG H e G dG J .dG hCG dG H a X bCG MG eCG C G H dG IjT dG J S
C

A
B

K f
C G e HdG YCG
. S Se
q FV Qe SGH
E
dG IjT Sh e E TdG YJ
X bCG W H j G
q X J
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H G be H dGh dG Me J
.TdGh AdGQe
dGh dG jJ
SG
q Qd A q dG e G YdG SQCG
. C G
r H r SGh S
B SCG qdG e rG rYdG
o SQCG
. C G rd rSGh S SG
q Qd

q Sh e Y MCG G N
.dG q fK W qX
139

: `````````SCG

dX WJ Y ,Se Qe e G AdG Y L VYG GPEG

.dH J X
q bCG e H dG J e Sh e

: `J``e `q ```bCG

.X HQCG Y d qCG Mf e dZ ,dG Id dG HG AKCG

? IgdG g J
q GP
? GP ?dG f dG J G e e CG

: ``````````U````G

H TdG Y J ,TTh Ad f Qe H Y L b Y
.TdG Y G X q J,dG G Se JSe J e
.TdGh AdG Qe H dG G b dG Se J
Me TdG Y J ,TTh Ad Se
q Qe H Y L b Y
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.SG FdG QG e a AL e AdG dG IOLG dG qJ
Ad CG QfG Ff e g dG h dG

140

: S````````````jEG

Jee EG VCG

dG dBG - a fS T QWEG YS

de T YS

HK T YS

:e dG YdG J
q
; QdG YS EG J bQCGh N Y f hCG SQ qe Md
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W dG q TC Vq e e OY Y IJe ,aCG qG MG J e dZ
Y qaCG qe YdG J ,G H .(... eY MS hCG eL U )QdG YS
.dG EG L
q e QGL
q dG H ,d gdG GQhdG e eGe ,YdG S Y qbG X qj
.G H dG bdG YQdG e c
:jQdG Y dG YdG
g dG "da" j .bdG a H SGh ,dG e dG YdG fEG Y
.dG YS cCG
de GQJ
q dG YdG aY .OG b S 1500 EG T YS hCG jQJ Lj
YdG Y Y Y HGdGh SdG fdG H dG dG NOCG e q gCG e ,jQdG Y
FGG Shh QdG LGh Y a JSG YT .YU ah dG
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dEG q J GJ a ,dG YdG SG Y dG ZQh VG fY EG dH
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141

Ad
q G QfG GC e J (26
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:Y GQOb qG j
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: `` `q `dG J```e qc`JCG

Ad CG QfG CGe
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: ``MCG h q``LCG

H
T VQCG IdG ,dG d Ad SeQc
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T
142

MCG
: hCG ```M``e
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G fG
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L IdG

T G

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q M gQGe Y q dG bG M

jDhQ a ,T G db

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?dG jDhQ CG c

L IdG

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TT
143

S G AV

Y gd hj VQCG M dG GQhO G ,dG

q G b L IdG J eY
g Hj e Ggh S G AV G qLe X g T ``d G fG bCG
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q hCq G
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: dK ```M``e
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S Y e T gj a
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L IdG

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L
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L IdG
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T
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144

L G AV

: HGQ ```M``e
L IdG e q FG MG qJ

, T G M fGQhO UGJ gh
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