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language incomprehensible to outsiders, speakers The scene described below is one of those
of Camfranglais use various techniques of word incidents that occur on a daily basis in the streets
formation such as borrowing from various lan- of Yaoundé. It is an account of a traffic accident in
guages, coinage, elision, affixation, inversion, and which a posh car has just run over a dog. The forces
reduplication. of law and order are interrogating eye-witnesses.
Camfranglais first emerged in the mid-1970s Among the people being interrogated, there is a
after the reunification of Francophone Cameroun recalcitrant young man who explains in an unusual
and Anglophone Southern Cameroons. It became lingo why he will not testify:
fashionable in the late 1990s, due partially to its
Tu nyai mon pied? C’est les mberés qui ont book.
use by popular musicians such as Lapiro de One day j’ai seulement nyé une aff, je n’étais pas
Mbanga, Petit Pays and others. Kouega (2003) gives inside, on m’a tcha, on m’a put au ngata. On m’a
a striking account of the social distribution of dit soté j’ai moto […] Papa! a no dé fo’dé fo sé ka
Camfranglais: sé dans kin’a dog na dog for djintété. Dan kin’a
An impressionistic inspection of the profession matoa na matoa for djintété. Lep me je broute
of fluent Camfranglais speakers outside school ma granut nayo yah!”2
premises reveals that they are peddlers, and This strange language is “Camgfranglais” and the
laborers, hair stylists and barbers, prostitutes story recounted is the subject of a popular play
and vagabonds, rank and file soldiers and police- written by the talented Cameroonian playwright
men, thieves and prisoners, gamblers and con
Essindi Mindja. Could this be described as linguis-
men, musicians and comedians, to name just the
tic vandalism or banditry? Is it rather an invention
most popular ones (Kouega 2003:513).
akin to the French argot called Verlan? Could this
The lexical manipulation, phonological truncation, be perceived as the manifestation of cultural cre-
morphological hybridization, hyperbolic and dys- ativity conditioned by a linguistic environment in
phemistic extensions characteristic of Camfran- which official languages (English and French) have
glais reflect the provocative attitude of its speakers been taken hostage by indigenous languages?
and their jocular disrespect of linguistic norms and In any event, Camfranglais, a hybrid lan-
purity, clearly revealing its function as an anti- guage composed of borrowings from French,
language (Halliday 1977). While this lingua franca English, Pidgin and Cameroonian indigenous
functions like other slangs all over the world, it is languages (Duala, Ewondo, Bassa, etc), has become
somewhat unique in that it combines elements a popular lingua franca amongst high school and
from French, English, and Pidgin and Cameroo- college students in Cameroon. The rampant use of
nian native languages. this language in academic circles is a great cause
In an article titled “Le Camfranglais, Un for concern for English and French language teach-
cousin du Verlan?” (1989), Michel Lobé Ewané ers and professors. According to a certain profes-
draws striking parallels between Camfranglais and sor, this language translates not only the rejection
Verlan, a slang language spoken by young people in by Cameroonian youths of foreign languages
the French banlieue (suburbs). Verlan was invented imposed on them but also the adoption of a sophis-
as a secret code by youths, drug users and criminals ticated mode of expression that is intelligible to
to communicate freely in front of authority figures members of a select group. Camfranglais is a lin-
(parents and police). Here is a translation of Ewané’s guistic melting-pot comprising at least four differ-
article: ent languages. Its vocabulary, syntax, imagery,
Among the youths of every generation, there accent and pronunciation are constantly being
is always a speech code reserved for initiates. remodeled according to rules formulated on the
Camfranglais was invented by students at the basis of new findings by members of this restricted
University of Yaoundé about ten years ago as a circle. The end result has been the birth of a jargon
result of the imposition of bilingual curricula intelligible to high school and college students as
on them by the State. It first saw the light of day well as the rank and file.
at a time when students came face to face with The syntactic structure of Camfranglais is
the reality of a national bilingual education calqued on French syntax. Inside the sentence,
policy which compelled them to take courses in some words are replaced by either English words
a language in which they were not proficient: which may be conjugated like in French, or by
French for Anglophone students and English for words borrowed from one of the indigenous lan-
Francophone students. It started as a joke. Stu-
guages, namely Duala, Ewondo or Pidgin. Example:
dents wanted a mode of communication that
“J’ai tcha (pris) le métro et vous knowez (savez qui
would distinguish them from other segments of
the population. Camfranglais has come to stay. vient de ‘to know’) qu’il ne run (roule) pas vite.”3
It has become widespread and deep-rooted. Another example: “Je te give (donne, ici, je te payes)
huit kolo fap (8500 CFA Francs in Pidgin).”4 The
origin and etymology of Camfranglais words are limelight in a letter addressed to the editor of one
diverse. of the local newspapers, Cameroon Tribune. Ironi-
It seems to me that Camfranglais has bor- cally, his letter was only published ten years later
rowed a lot from the French Verlan as exemplified in a bi-weekly, Weekend Tribune in a column
in the following sentence: “La nga (ou la meute, devoted to Camfranglais. Here is what the teacher
c’est-à-dire la nana) dont je t’ai tok (parlé) m’a said: “As far as I am concerned, Camfranglais is a
bondi (m’a snobé).”5 Recourse to the word “bondir” language associated with ease of communication.
is justified by the impression the speaker wants to We, the youths, want to simplify everything. In
create in the mind of the listener. He wants to fact, we want to prove to everyone that we are
underscore the idea of being given the cold shoul- learning several languages, and that we are capable
der by a girl he admires. The image created by this of achieving alchemy of words… We must not lose
usage may have far-reaching ramifications, espe- sight of the fact that languages taught in school are
cially when it is affiliated with an English language poorly mastered.”
lexicon. For example, “Je suis filingué (attiré) par This view was corroborated by remarks made
cette nga”.6 The word “filingué,” coined from the by the national pedagogic adviser for the French
English “feeling” could also be used in reference language who claims: “I do not view the use of
to a singer, performer or even a professor that one Camfranglais by our students as constituting a
admires. learning obstacle. However, if this new code became
In sum, Camfranglais is chap (difficult) to worrisome, it would be necessary to integrate it
understand, chap to tchatcher (speak).7 It is the into our national language syllabi in order to make
lingo of students and the working class distinct learners aware of the risks they may run by using
from the business language of pacho (papa). Our it. The school milieu is governed by rules. So it is a
pretty girls speak it too. There are countless syn- safe-guard.”
onyms at the disposal of Camfranglais speakers. The birth of Camfranglais in Cameroon is not
The following words refer to “woman”: Wa, Nga, an isolated occurrence in Africa. Moussa or Nou-
Meute, Gnoxe, (the word ngoxer is often used to chis (the lingo of the Loubards in Treichville) in
mean “make love,” etc. Political and economic Ivory Coast is analogous. Undoubtedly, these cre-
events in Cameroon have favored the rapid evolu- olized linguistic varieties will soon become the
tion of this language. Neologisms are being created language of theater and cinema, as has been the
day in day out to replace old ones. For example, on case with pidginized French used by humorous
account of the economic crisis in Cameroon attrib- playwrights such Jean Miché Kankan and Daniel
uted to the severe austerity measures imposed on Ndo in Cameroon. With their black humor, these
the citizens by the International Monetary Fund playwrights have no reason to be envious of French
(MF), it is now common to hear Camfranglais Verlan speakers.
speakers say: “Le Cameroun est fmisé (soumis aux All in all, it is clear from Michel Lobé Ewané’s
contraintes du FMI).”8 The language has become article that Camfranglais has clear social func-
so popular that renowned musicians are using it as tions. It signals rebellion against authority and
a medium of self-expression. They find the humor, societal expectations. It is often associated with
imagination and inventiveness of the anonymous opposition to authority figures. In addition to
creators of Camfranglais very appealing. Preposi- switching to a code that most adults will not under-
tions, concord and the gender of nouns are all stand, Camfranglais provides a ‘cover’ for the use
muddled up. The context of communication is that of taboo forms as well as ‘covert’ prestige for those
of everyday life: friendship, school, love, courtship, who identity with this linguistic variety.
parents, dating, leisure… A number of Cameroonian fiction writers
One of Cameroon’s musical virtuosos, Lapiro have begun to transcribe Camfranglais and other
de Mbanga, whose latest release caused a furor last Camerounismes9 in their creative writing. Here are
summer, talked about “Big Katica for Ngola.” The a few examples of Cameroonianisms that a reader
clip was censured for some time because the is likely to find in a Cameroonian novel or play of
expression Big Katica actually refers to the Presi- French expression:
dent of the Republic. Katica is an indigenous word On dit quoi? = quoi de neuf?
designating someone who invites friends to a game On va porter le même pantalon = je ne te lâche
of poker, and Ngola is the original name for the pas.
capital city, Yaoundé. It is evident that Camfran- Le dehors est mauvais = les temps sont durs/
glais has it own coded political lexicon. Camfran- difficiles
glais is considered ‘cool’ not only by high school Grever = organizer/mener une grève.
and college students, but also by some youthful Faites-moi le changement de 1000 francs
teachers. A few years ago, a high school teacher CFA = donnez-moi la monnaie de 1000 francs
brought the question of Camfranglais into the CFA.
Appuyer une nana = avoir des rapports sexuels I don’t quite know who I am.
avec elle. Je ne sais pas au juste qui je suis.
Cogner un plat de riz = le manger avec appétit. Some call me Anglo;
Fesser un enfant = lui donner une fessée. D’autres m’appellent Frog.
On t’a cherché avec ton ami = ton ami t’a
I still don’t know who I am
cherché.
Je ne sais toujours pas qui je suis.
On est ensemble! = A bientôt! /On se tient au
My name c’est Le Bamenda;
courant!
My name is L’Ennemi dans la maison;
Il se comporte = il agit bien/ il prend ses
My name c’est le Biafrais;
responsabilités.
Mon nom is second-class citizen;
Tu es là depuis? = ça fait longtemps que tu
My name c’est le maladroit.
m’attends?10
Taisez-vous! Shut up!
Lexical items borrowed from Cameroonian Don’t bother me!
indigenous languages are gradually finding their Ne m’embêtez pas!
way into Camfranglais. I have selected a couple of Don’t you know that je suis ici chez moi?
examples from Kouega’s article for purposes of Vous ignorez que I belong here?
illustration: I shall fight to my dernier souffle
Kongolibon = close-shaven To forge a real name pour moi-même.
Kumbu = big dish You shall call me Anglofrog!
Longo-longo = tall and usually slim Vous m’appelerez Franglo!
Mbambe = someone who does hard labor for a Shut up! Taisez-vous!
wage Don’t bother me!
Mbut = idiot Ne m’embêtez pas!
Mimbo = alcoholic drink Vous ignorez que I belong here?
Jobajo = locally brewed beer Don’t you know that je suis ici chez moi?
Odontol = home-distilled liquor
I shall fight to my last breath
Mola = man
To forge a real lingo for myself.
Mof-me-de! = piss-off!
I’ll speak Français;
Nayo-nayo = very slowly
Je parlerai English
Ndoh = money
Together we’ll speak camfranglais;
Ndomo = hit someone in a fight
C’est-à-dire qu’ensemble,
Tara = friend
We’ll speak le Camerounisme,
Toum = sell
Because ici nous sommes tous chez nous (10).
Villakonkon = rustic; uncivilized person
A bon entendeur salut!
Weh-heh! = exclamation expressing pity
He who has ears should hear!
Wolowoss = prostitute
Jambo = gambling Anyone with the remotest interest in literary
In his latest detective novels Cameroon’s translation cannot help but ask the nagging ques-
most popular novelist, Mongo Beti, has transcribed tion: what are the implications of this usage for the
Camfranglais and other Cameroonianisms into translator? As literary critic Paul Bandia has pointed
French. In Trop de soleil tue l’amour (1999), Beti out: “The difficulty of translating pidgins and cre-
inserts Cameroonianisms such as: “Quand le grand oles in the African novel lies in the fact that there
chef disparaît de chez nous là pour passer deux is hardly any direct equivalent relationship between
mois à Baden-Baden là, tu vas même lui dire que English-based pidgins and French-based pidgins in
quoi? Je te demande, Norbert, qui va même lui dire West Africa” (Bandia 1993: 103). Yet Camfranglais
que quoi?” (120). Announcing the death and burial and other forms of Cameroonianisms are charged
of his mother to his boss, the same character has with socio-cultural information that reveals a lot
recourse to a typical Cameroonianism: “Mais non, about the characters in the narrative as we have seen
grand,11 ce n’est pas la même; nous sommes en in Ewané’s article. It is, therefore, of crucial impor-
Afrique non? Quand je dis ma mère, ce n’est pas tance to retain these linguistic variants in the
toujours celle qui m’a accouché,12 vous savez bien; translation process because they are employed by
grand, vous êtes Africain, non?”(120). In Branle- the creative writer in order to capture the socio-
bas en noir et blanc (2000), Beti writes: “C’est cultural context of the novels. Eugene Nida has
comme les bordelles,13 il faut passer à la casserole” underscored the importance of maintaining dia-
(23). lectal forms in the translation process as follows:
In a poem titled “Identity Crisis,” Vakunta More frequently the dialect forms used by writ-
(2001) has recourse to Camfranglais to express his ers are either horizontal (geographical or verti-
dual identity: cal (socioeconomic) dialects, and rarely do
authors or translators consistently represent all
and Meaning, Baltimore, University Park Kourouma, A. (1990): Monnè: outrages et défis,
Press. Paris, Éditions du Seuil.
Kouega, J.- P. (2003): “Word formative processes in Kourouma, A. (1998): En attendant le vote des bêtes
Camfranglais,” World Englishes 22-4, pp. 511- sauvages, Paris, Édition du Seuil.
539. Nida, E. (1976): “A Framework for the Analysis and
Kouega, J.- P. (2003): “Camfranglais: A novel slang Evaluation of Theories of Translation,” in
in Cameroon schools,” English Today 19-2, Brisling, R.W. (ed.), Translation: Applications
pp. 23-29. and Research, New York, Gardner.
Kourouma, A. (1970): Les soleils des indépendances, Vakunta, P.W. (2001): African Time and Pidgin
Paris, Éditions du Seuil. Verses, Pretoria, Duplico.