‫المدرسة الوطنية المتعددة التقنيات‬

National Polytechnic School-ENP

‫مدرسة التكنولوجيا العليا‬
School of High Technology-ETS

Département de Génie Mécanique

Review and improvement of the performance of the micro-

turbine JetCat P550-Pro.

‫مراجعة وتحسين أداء المايكرو توربين‬

JetCat P550-Pro

BOUDEF Syrine

Rapport
Présenté dans le cadre du complément Master en Génie Mécanique

Promoteur :
▪ Mr. BENNOUR Hocine, Maitre-assistant
▪ Mr. GERMAIN Patrick, Professeur, Chercheur

ENP, 4 Mai 2023

10 Avenue des frères Ouddek, Hassen Badi BP182 El-Harrach 16200 Alger Algérie
www.enp.edu.dz Tél : (+213) 23 82 85 39 Fax : (+213) 023 82 85 29
ABSTRACT:
Modeling and simulation of gas turbines was a hot research direction at home and abroad. In
this paper, microturbojet was took as the research object.

This bibliographic research aims to provide a synthesis of current knowledge on the micro gas
turbine JetCat P550-pro, focusing on the most recent scientific studies on its performance and
current limitations. We have examined technical and scientific publications, as well as
relevant patents in the field, in order to understand the components of the turbine, its
operation and the factors that affect its performance. We have also examined improvements
proposed by engineers and researchers to increase the efficiency, reliability, and durability of
the turbine. Finally, we have discussed perspectives for future research in this field, with an
emphasis on research needs to address current challenges of the micro gas turbine for
industrial and modeling applications.

Key Words: Micro turbine-Aeromodelling-Performances-Micro Combustion

RESUME
La modélisation et la simulation des turbines à gaz ont été une direction de recherche très
active à l'échelle nationale et internationale. Dans cet article, le microturbojet a été pris
comme objet de recherche.

Cette recherche bibliographique vise à fournir une synthèse des connaissances actuelles sur la
micro turbine à gaz JetCat P550-pro, en se concentrant sur les études scientifiques les plus
récentes sur ses performances et ses limitations actuelles. Nous avons examiné des
publications techniques et scientifiques, ainsi que des brevets pertinents dans le domaine, afin
de comprendre les composants de la turbine, son fonctionnement et les facteurs qui
influencent ses performances. Nous avons également examiné les améliorations proposées par
les ingénieurs et les chercheurs pour accroître l'efficacité, la fiabilité et la durabilité de la
turbine. Enfin, nous avons discuté des perspectives de recherche future dans ce domaine, en
mettant l'accent sur les besoins de recherche pour relever les défis actuels de la micro turbine
à gaz pour les applications industrielles et de modélisation.

Mots clés : Micro turbine-Aeromodelisme-Performances-Micro Combustion

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTES
Abstract: ................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 4
Gas turbine ............................................................................................................... 8
Micro gas turbine..................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review of MGTs Component’s............................................................ 8
Compressor: ........................................................................................................................... 9
Combstor chamber ............................................................................................................... 10
Turbine Stage Improvements ............................................................................................... 10
Literature Review of Micro combustion: ............................................................ 10
Problèmes généraux de la micro combustion ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Stabilité de la combustion dans les microstructures............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Transfert de chaleur à travers les parois d’un microréacteur Error! Bookmark not defined.
Simple Gas Turbine Thermodynamic Cycle ....................................................... 12
Gas Turbine Performance Parameters................................................................ 16
Thrust ................................................................................................................................... 16
Specific thrust ....................................................................................................................... 17
Specific fuel consumption .................................................................................................... 18
Propulsive efficiency ............................................................................................................ 18
Thermal Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 18
Gasturb simulation ................................................................................................ 18
Cycle design ......................................................................................................................... 19
Off design calculation .......................................................................................................... 22
Conclusion : ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

3
 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 : Brayton thermodynamic cycle, (NASA, 2016) ....................................................... 13
Figure 2: Compressor characteristic map, (El-Sayed, 2008). ................................................. 15
Figure 3: Turbine and nozzle characteristic maps, El-Sayed (2008). ..................................... 15
Figure 4 : Aero engine thrust.................................................................................................... 17
Figure 5: design point calculation ............................................................................................ 20
Figure 6: Parametric Studies .................................................................................................... 20
Figure 7: Optimization ............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 8: Secondary Air System .............................................................................................. 21
Figure 9: Thermodynamic Stations .......................................................................................... 22
Figure 10: Single Point ............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 11: Operating Line ........................................................................................................ 23
Figure 12: Mission ................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 13: Flight Envelope ....................................................................................................... 24
Figure 14: Transient Performance ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 15: Controls and Limiters ............................................................................................. 24
Figure 16: Distortion ................................................................................................................ 25

4
 NOMENCLATURE

MIT Massachussetts Istitute of Technology /

UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles /

APUs Auxiliary Power Units /

MGTs Micro Gas Turbines /

GTs Gas Turbines /

GPA Gas Path Analysis /

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics /

SFC Specific Fuel Consumption

EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature [K]

Re Renolds number /

Cp Gas specific heat at constant pressure [ J/kgK ]

Q Heat [J]

W Work [J]

p Pressure [Pa]

T Temperature [K]

Fnet Net Thrust [N]

𝑚̇ Masse flow rate [Kg/s]

a air /

f fuel /

A Area [𝑚2 ]

𝑢𝑒 Exhaust jet velocity [m/s]

𝑢0 Free stream velocity [m/s]

N Rotational speed [rpm]

η Efficiency [%]

5
cv Control Volume /

Introduction

6
 The use of Micro gas turbines in the aeromodelling industry has experienced significant
growth in recent years.

Aeromodelling refers to all disciplines aimed at making a reduced-size flying machine, called
an aeromodel. This aeromodel can take the form of a plane, a glider, a helicopter, a hot-air
balloon, among the most common types of machines... But it can also be a product of
imagination or be a replica of an existing or past flying machine. In this case, it is called a flying
model. FFAM - Fédération Française d'Aéromodélisme

To propel the aero-models we use the Micro gas turbine such as JetCat P550-pro. This engine
is typically used to power large-scale models, like jets and helicopters. Its high thrust output
and fuel efficiency make it an ideal choice for these applications, as it allows for longer flight
times and more dynamic maneuvers. It is becoming increasingly popular in the commercial
aviation and hobby industries. (Jet Cat, n.d.)
They are also employed in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) used in missions related to
national security, telecommunications, remote sensing, crime fighting, disaster management,
agriculture and election monitoring, also in hybrid electric vehicles and small combine heat and
power generating plant applications as well as auxiliary power units (APUs) for modern aircraft.

Micro turbines are suitable for such applications due to their high power to weight ratio, multi-
fuel capability and simple design, low energy costs and emissions. These engines have
interrelated components, which have non-linear characteristics that limits their effectiveness.
Therefore, the overall performance of the engine depends on the performance of its individual
components.

Although, MGTs have outstanding advantages over its competitors in the aviation and power
environment, however, miniaturization of conventional larger gas turbines into MGTs leads to
engine efficiency and performance loss due to low Reynolds number, poor heat transfer, large
(compressor and turbine) tip losses, and other mechanical and geometrical limitations. Micro
turbomachinery inherently has low Reynolds numbers due to the small size of the engine,
therefore resulting in relative viscous forces dominating the inertia forces in the engine. This
can cause considerable loss of pressure and temperature and other thermodynamic variation in
the engine, hence reducing the efficiency and power output of the engine.
The engine’s low Reynolds number can lead to flow separation and transition in the compressor,
and consequently affects the compressor efficiency and pressure ratio. In addition, the relatively
high viscous effects can slow down the mixing of fuel and air, and hot and cold gases in the
combustor, therefore, reducing combustion residence time.

Those technical barriers that impede the engine performance include better understanding of
the aerodynamics of the engine components. The flow is characterised by viscous,
compressible, and turbulent phenomena. This includes thermo-mechanical characteristics of the
engine allied with relatively high operating temperatures, very low engine component pressure
ratios and efficiencies, and high rotational speeds. Additionally, heat transfer, tip clearance
losses, and low Reynolds number related problems affect the engine output.(Oppong et al., n.d.;
Présenté, 2014)

This bibliographic research aims to provide a synthesis of current knowledge on the micro
gas turbines, focusing on the most recent scientific studies on their performance and current
limitations. We have examined technical and scientific publications, as well as relevant patents
in the field, in order to understand their components, operation and the factors that affect their
performance. We have also examined improvements proposed by engineers and researchers to
increase the efficiency, reliability, and durability of the micro turbines. Finally, we have

7
discussed perspectives for future research in this field, with an emphasis on research needs to
address current challenges of the micro gas turbines for industrial and modeling applications.

Gas turbine
A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that operates continuously and consists of three
main components: a compressor, a combustor, and a turbine. The basic design, known as the
turbojet, includes an inlet nozzle that directs air at free stream velocity into the compressor.
This gas-powered device operates using the principles of the thermodynamic Brayton Cycle. It
converts the energy obtained from a working fluid into a usable form by doing work. There are
various types of gas turbines that are designed to perform different tasks but all work on the
same basic principles.

▪ The air is accelerated and compressed across the compressor stage and then it is directed to
the combustion chamber.
▪ In the chamber, fuel is injected combined with the high-pressure air, and ignited to create
combustion.
▪ The hot gas, which has expanded in the combustion chamber, is pushed through the turbine
blades, which causes the shaft to rotate and connect the turbine to the compressor.
▪ The exhaust gas then exits through an outlet nozzle, at high-velocity greater than the free
stream velocity producing thrust.
Modern gas turbines have many uses, such as providing auxiliary power for ground or aircraft
systems, propelling military aircraft at supersonic speeds, and driving the rotor system of
helicopters. The design and construction of a gas turbine require precision, informed material
selection, knowledge of thermodynamics, and the ability to model and machine metal
components due to the extreme temperatures and high rotational speeds experienced by the
engine components.(Alonzo et al., n.d.)

Micro gas turbine

With the advancement of material processing techniques, gas turbine engines have become
smaller and can now power radio-controlled (RC) airplanes. The modern gas turbines used for
full-size aircrafts typically have axial compressors and multiple stages of blades in the turbines.
These multi-stage components improve the efficiency, pressure ratios, and performance
characteristics of the engines. However, RC jet modelers have discovered that small engines
can still be efficient and powerful with single-stage compressors and turbines. A common
design among RC jet enthusiasts is to match a centrifugal compressor with an axial turbine.
With this simpler design and the use of CNC machining and 3D modeling, it is now possible to
manufacture a complete miniature gas turbine with a relatively small investment.(Alonzo et al.,
n.d.)

JetCat P550-Pro
The JetCat P550-Pro is a micro gas turbine engine designed specifically for use in radio-
controlled aircraft, commonly referred to as aeromodeling. This engine is manufactured by
JetCat, a German company that specializes in the production of gas turbine engines for
various applications.

8
This MGT can produce a thrust of 550 N and reach a maximum speed of 83,000 revolutions
per minute. It has a diameter of 175 mm and a length of 419 mm. It weighs 4900 g and
consumes approximately 1650 ml/min of fuel at full load. It has a kerosene starter system and
an integrated generator that can recharge the turbine's battery. It is controlled by an electronic
unit that communicates with a graphical user interface (GSU) or a computer via RS232 or
CAN bus interfaces.

Figure 1: JetCat P550-Pro

Literature Review of MGTs Component’s

Compressor:

J. Ling, K.C. Wong & S. Armfield in 2007 increased the pressure ratio of the centrifugal
compressor at a lower mass flow rate. They designed and improved the compressor stage of the
KJ66 micro jet engine using ANSYS. CFX. According to them, this improved design surpassed
the original compressor stage in terms of performance.(Wong et al., 2007)
Jie and Guoping in 2010 re-designed 11 cm diffuser of an MGT compressor stage. They
focused on investigating the effect of varying the cross-sectional area distribution along the
flow path on the redesigned diffuser’s performance. The new diffuser configuration was
equipped with main and splitter blades. The Computational fluid Dynamics (CFD) and
experimental results confirmed that the new diffuser showed improvement, with an 11% thrust
increase and 9% reduction in specific fuel consumption for the jet engine.(Jie & Guoping, 2010)
Krige in 2012 redesigned the vaned diffuser of the BMT 120 KS engine. He aimed to maximise
the compressor stage pressure recovery in order to increase the engine’s total-to-static pressure
ratio, mass flow and thrust output. The experimental and numerical examination of the baseline
and modified diffusers showed that the pressure recovery increased from 0.48 to 0.73. The
static-tostatic pressure ratio across the diffuser increased from 1.39 to 1.44.(Krige, 2013)
Van Der Merwe in 2012 designed and optimised a centrifugal compressor impeller for the
BMT engine. The author sought to achieve a total-to-total pressure ratio of 4.72 and an
isentropic compressor efficiency of 79.8% at a mass flow rate of 0.325 kg/s. The new impeller
performance was validated by comparing its mean-line, experimental and CFD results. He
showed that the experimental and numerical data correlated well. (Botha Van Der Merwe,
2012)
De Villiers (2014) incorporated a 1D (1-dimensional) mean-line code and CFD software codes
F INETM/Turbo and F INETM/Design3D to design a centrifugal compressor stage for the BMT
engine. According to the author, the new compressor stage yielded a total-to-static pressure
ratio of 3.0, and efficiency of 76.5% and a thrust of 170 N at a rotational speed of 119 000 rpm
compared to the origininal BMT engine.(Christoffel & De Villiers, 2014)

9
Burger in 2016 designed and optimised a crossover diffuser for the BMT engine. The crossover
diffuser combined with Van der Merwe’s impeller improved the compressor stage total-to-static
pressure ratio from 2.62 to 3.65.(Burger, 2016)

Combstor chamber

Guidez (2009) investigated the feasibility of combustion in a miniature combustor. Their aim
was to study combustion stability and efficiency. They applied Raman spectroscopy and 1D
Rayleigh scattering and standard thermodynamic measurements to estimate the temperatures
and main species concentration along radial profiles at the combustor outlet. They measured
combustion efficiency of 80%. (Guidez et al., 2009)
Chaudhari (2012) report the design and simulation of a miniature annular combustion chamber
applying ANSYS CFX. They evaluated the impact of flow patterns and temperature
distributions on the combustion chamber liner walls. The numerical results showed that the
combustion chamber walls were significantly affected by combustion flames which can cause
combustor failure. (Chaudhari et al., n.d.)
Gieras (2012) conducted a 3D numerical simulation of the aerodynamic flow through a GTM-
120 micro jet engine combustor. They considered the effect of engine downsizing on the mass
flow, pressure losses and heat transfer in the combustor.
The aim of their research was to maximise thermal efficiency by minimising fuel consumption
and controlling emissions.(Gieras et al., 2002)
Krieger et al. (2012) discuss the design, numerical and experimental evaluation of a
combustion chamber for micro gas turbines. They analysed the behaviour of heat transfer on
the flow and temperature patterns in the combustion chamber. The authors argued that the
numerical and experimental results correlate well.(Krieger et al., 2012)

Turbine Stage Improvements

Bar and Czarnecki (2009) performed a mean line and CFD analysis of a micro jet axial turbine.
The Concept NREC AXCENT code was used for aerodynamic computations to develop 2D
and 3D entropy performance contours for the turbine. The authors assert that a lower tip
clearance, higher Reynolds Number, and specific speed coefficient boost turbine efficiency and
overall engine performance(Baba Hassan et al., 2012).
Verstraete (2010) investigated and improved the overall performance of the KJ66 turbojet
engine. A spherical dimple vortex turbine blade profile was adapted for the axial turbine stage
in order to obtain the required performance improvement. The authors claim that the improved
engine showed an efficiency increase of 2 to 6% compared to the baseline engine.(Oppong,
2016)
George and Basson (2014) they performed 1D and 3D numerical analyses on the new
turbines(George & Basson, 2014).
Smit (2014) manufactured Basson’s turbines, and obtained experimental results for the newly
designed turbines.(Large & Pesyridis, 2019)

Literature Review of Micro combustion:

The increasing need for portable energy has contributed to the emergence of the concept of
MPG (Micro Power Generator), While its potential in 1995 was promising, there were
significant obstacles that made its implementation seem unlikely. Some researchers believed
that producing a combustion flame on a millimeter scale was impossible. However, progress

10
has been made since then, and today there is an abundance of literature that shows that several
barriers have been overcome. As a result, micro combustion has transitioned from a theoretical
concept to a widely accepted technology. This parts considers scientific publications from 2000
to 2022 and presents the current state of the art, including the challenges of micro combustion
and the solutions that have been developed to overcome them.

General issues of micro-combustion.

In 2003, Norton and Vlachos conducted a study using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
to investigate the characteristics of combustion and flame stability at the micro scale. They
focused on premixtures of methane and air and used a two-dimensional elliptic CFD model of
the micro burner to analyze the effects of various factors on flame stability, including the
dimensions of the micro combustion chamber, conductivity, wall material thickness, and
external heat losses. The results indicated that conductivity and wall thickness are crucial in
determining the upstream heat transfer required for ignition and flame stability. The study also
found that there is a narrow range of flow velocities that can sustain combustion in a micro
burner. Despite the small scale, significant transverse and axial gradients were observed under
certain conditions, and periodic oscillations occurred near extinction when there were
significant heat losses through the walls.(Norton & Vlachos, 2003)

In 2004, Norton, D.G. and Vlachos, D.G. conducted another CFD study focused on the
stability of micro flames in propane/air mixtures [14]. This study found that the micro
combustion system exhibits significant temperature gradients despite its small size. The
researchers also confirmed that the thermal conductivity of the walls plays a crucial role in
maintaining the stability of the micro flame. They identified a specific range of velocities that
enable stable combustion in micro chambers. Additionally, the study highlighted the
importance of the dimensions of the micro burner, which strongly affect thermal
stability.(Norton & Vlachos, 2004)

Combustion stability in microstructures

Hua J, Kumar K et Wu M conducted numerical simulations of hydrogen/air mixture

combustion in micro-combustion chambers. This study consisted of two parts. In the first part,
numerical simulations were performed using CFD code to study the stoichiometric combustion
of the hydrogen/air premixture in a number of cylindrical combustion chambers. The detailed
mechanism of chemical reactions was introduced in the simulations, which consisted of a model
of nineteen reversible elementary reactions and nine species. In order to study the effect of
scaling on combustion, the ratio of the combustion chamber remained the same in all
simulations while the input dimensions of the micro-burner (diameters) were reduced from
millimeter to micrometer. In this article, the authors analyzed the effects of the reactor's
geometric parameter, heat propagation through the walls, and combustion characteristics. The
results obtained first validated the use of CFD codes for the study of reactive flows in micro-
combustion chambers, indicating that combustion stability in the micro chamber can be
achieved by balancing the combustion time and the reactants' residence time as well as
optimizing the thermal conditions between generated heat and lost heat. Given that the
residence time is shortened by small dimensions of the micro-reactor, it is also necessary for
the chemical reaction time to be shortened to ensure complete combustion. According to the
theory of chemical kinetics, one way to reduce the chemical time is to increase the reaction rate
by ensuring that its temperature is high, which can be achieved in micro-reactors by reducing
wall heat losses(Hua et al., 2005a). The second part of this article focuses on the study of fluid
flow dynamics, heat transfer within the combustion chamber, and heat loss at ambient

11
temperature. The experiments were conducted on the MIT (Massachusetts Institute and
Technology, USA) micro-gas turbine prototype.
The performance of the device is evaluated in relation to conditions of heat loss to the outside,
at different mass flow rates and various mass fractions of the mixture. It emerges from this
article that a low wall temperature of the micro combustion chamber is necessary to stabilize
the flame and thereby increase the efficiency of the system. To achieve a low wall temperature,
lean combustion is suggested.(Hua et al., 2005b)

In 2010, Jejurkar S et Mishra D suggest preheating of reactants to improve the stability of the
flame in a microreactor. They studied the sensitivity of the flame to changes in the inlet
temperature of a cylindrical microreactor burning a stoichiometric air/hydrogen mixture. The
proposed configuration uses a hollow inner tube filled with nitrogen to facilitate flame
stabilization. A detailed axisymmetric numerical reactive flow model was developed and tested
for this purpose. The model predictions were used to properly evaluate the proposed design for
gas turbines and other applications in terms of different thermal performance indicators. The
baseline data showed the feasibility of this operation(Jejurkar & Mishra, 2011).

Heat transfer through the walls of a micoreactor

The problems encountered in microreactors are local flame extinction, blowout, eruption, and
self-sustaining flame. They are largely attributed to heat losses through the walls and wall-flame
interaction. In the context of micro-combustion, heat exchange around the combustion chamber
wall plays a crucial role. Combustion takes place in a narrow gap, and the flame is almost in
contact with the internal walls of the reactor. Heat transfer is therefore predominant by
conduction, convection, and radiation. In addition, there is a specific problem of material
resistance given the high operating temperatures and the location of the flame, which creates
hot spots. Microreactors are mostly cylindrical, rectangular, and even multiform, depending on
the type of flame produced, the critical dimensions to be achieved, and even the type of fuel.
The walls are made of materials such as aluminum ceramic, polycrystalline alumina, alumina,
quartz tubes, and stainless steel tubes.

In 2008, Spadaccini, C.M. et I.A. Waitz classified micro combustion chambers into two
categories:

▪ Homogeneous gas-phase combustion chambers

▪ Catalytic combustion chambers

Gas-phase micro combustion chambers are limited by residence time constraints that can be
quantified in terms of the Damkohler number. The performance of micro catalytic chambers is
limited by the diffusion of fuel species to the active surface as described by the Péclet number.
Both types of systems are vulnerable to thermal losses.(Spadaccini et al., n.d.)

Simple Gas Turbine Thermodynamic Cycle

The standard Brayton open-air cycle is the thermodynamic representation of a gas turbine
engine.It is shown in Figure1 using T-s and p-v diagrams. The cycle is ideally composed of
four processes: isentropic air compression, constant pressure heat addition, isentropic gas

12
expansion, and constant pressure heat rejection. However, in reality, these processes are not
isentropic.
There are two types of cycles: open and closed. In a closed cycle, the engine's working fluid is
kept in the system, and the exhaust gas temperature is cooled and reused in the cycle. In an open
cycle, the working fluid exits after expansion in the turbine. At all working conditions the
working fluid is assumed to be calorically perfect with a constant specific heat ratio (γ) and
specific heat capacity (cp) throughout the cycle.

Figure 2 : Brayton thermodynamic cycle, (NASA, 2016)

The Brayton cycle T-s and p-v thermodynamic processes are described as follows:

▪ 0-3 Isentropic compression in the compressor.

▪ 3-4 Constant pressure heat addition in the combustor.
▪ 4-5 Isentropic expansion in the turbine.
▪ 5-8 Isentropic work done in the nozzle.
▪ 8-0 Constant pressure heat rejection to the atmosphere.

By referring to Figure 1, it is possible to analyze the gas turbine (GT) as a turbomachinery

device at different stations using the energy equation.

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2 (1)

̇ ̇
= 0 = 𝑄𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + ) − 𝑚̇𝑒 (ℎ𝑠𝑒 + )
𝑑𝑡 2 2

= 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚̇ 𝑖 ℎ𝑠𝑖 +𝑖 𝑚̇𝑒 ℎ𝑠𝑒 (2)

𝑉𝑖2 (3)
ℎ0𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + )
2

13
 𝑉𝑖2 (4)
ℎ0𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + )
2

For a steady flow process in the engine:

𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇ (5)

Hence the energy equation can be simplified as:

𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚𝑐̇ 𝑝 (𝑇0𝑖 − 𝑇0𝑒 )=0 (6)

The thermodynamic parameters at the various engine station points can be computed by
applying equation (6)

Gas Turbine Performance Modelling

The performance of an engine at the design and off-design points can be obtained from gas
turbine performance modelling. Off-design evaluation is required to model the operating range
of gas turbines due to the engine’s nonlinear thermodynamic behaviour. Off-design behaviour
is also used to examine the impact of a change in engine component characteristics on engine
output. Cumpsty (2003) agrees that a gas turbine’s performance at off-design conditions should
be satisfactory and safe irrespective of its non-linear behaviour. El-Sayed (2008) emphasises
that although gas turbines are designed to operate effectively at specific design points, the
engine should also work acceptably at off-design conditions. According to (Asgari, 2014), off-
design modelling is the most suitable means of optimising, maintaining and predicting the
performance of a gas turbine. The off-design performance of a gas turbines involves
performance predictions, condition monitoring and degradation analysis. The engine diagnosis
and degradation analysis are normally executed based on the performance predictions
(Suraweera, 2011). The off-design performance of gas turbines can be evaluated using the
following methods: component matching, stage stacking, gas path analysis, computational fluid
dynamics and the Wittenberg method (Thirunavukarasu, 2013). These modelling methods are
mathematically formulated with linear and non-linear equations into computer programs for
performance simulations.

Component Matching

Among the off-design performance prediction methods, the conventional component matching
method is the most popular and easily implementable. It forms the basis for the other
performance prediction techniques. According to Cohen et al. (1996), component matching is
suitable for the non-linear off-design simulation of gas turbines due to its flexibility,

14
consistency, simplicity and better accuracy. Component matching combines momentum, mass
and energy conservation theory to generate engine thrust and power. Accordingly, component
matching depends on the compatibility of engine mass flow, work, and rotational speed taking
into account mechanical losses. Component matching is accomplished using the compressor,
turbine and nozzle characteristics shown in Figure 2.4 and 2.5. The maps are defined by the
pressure ratio, efficiency, non-dimensional mass flow and speed. Substantial gas turbine
performance analyses have been performed with component matching.

Figure 3: Compressor characteristic map, (El-Sayed, 2008).

(a) Turbine map (b) Propelling nozzle map

Figure 4: Turbine and nozzle characteristic maps, El-Sayed (2008).

The component matching technique for gas turbine performance evaluation can be achieved
through either the nested loop or matrix iteration methods. The nested-loop technique is easy
to implement but becomes computationally unstable for larger loops. This method selects
operating points from the compressor characteristic and computes the turbine and nozzle
parameters to determine engine thrust or power iterative Component Matching ly until
convergence is reached. On the other hand, the matrix iteration method is computationally
efficient for larger loops and is widely implemented in gas turbine simulation programs. This
method updates guessed variables cntinuously until the constraint parameters are fulfilled,
using equal values of matching guesses and constraints. The matrix iteration method is
commonly used for advanced gas turbine off-design performance simulations in programs such
as GasTurb, Flownex SE, PROOSIS, GSP, and TURBOMATCH.

Gas Path Analysis

Gas Path Analysis (GPA) is one of the oldest engine off-design modelling methods proposed
by Urban in the late 1960s. The progress made by this method in the gas turbine industry has
led to different derivatives of GPA being used in the gas turbine industry. GPA is used for
evaluating non-linear performance parameters such as flow capacities, efficiencies and
pressure ratio. The GPA of an engine does performance analysis making use of independent

15
and dependent variables. The dependent parameters are temperature and pressure whereas the
independent variables are mass flow rate and efficiency The independent variables are
affected by changes in the dependent variables. The independent values are constantly
updated until the dependent variables converge.

Stage Stacking

Stage stacking performance is similar to the conventional component matching method and is
normally used for compressor performance prediction. The stage stacking method is a simple
and effective tool for compressor performance estimation to determine a gas turbine engine’s
performance (MacIsaac and Langton, 2011). The method requires characteristic performance
maps for its implementation. The ordered stage parameters can be determined with gas
dynamics equations with known first stage compressor inlet conditions (Suraweera, 2011).
The outlet conditions of the preceding stage are used as input values for the next stage.

Wittenberg Method

In 1976 Wittenberg developed a performance modelling method which does not require a
compressor, turbine and nozzle maps for performance prediction. Unlike the component
matching method the Wittenberg approach applies gas dynamic equations to evaluate a gas
turbine’s performance. Although the method does not require characteristic maps, it can be
implemented with compressor maps to assess the effects of compressor efficiency variation on
the engine. Mirza-Baig and Saravanamuttoo (1991) examined the performance of the Garrett
731-2 turbofan engine based on this method. Their approach required design point parameters
only. They concluded that the obtained results agree well with the available engine data.

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a finite numerical simulation volume method that
employs the mass, momentum and energy equations to evaluate gas turbine performance.
Detailed complex flow physics in the engine can be captured with CFD. This includes the study
of flow behaviour in the compressor, combustion chamber and the turbine. The CFD method
of evaluating engine performance does not require engine characteristic maps.

Gas Turbine Performance Parameters

Gas turbine performance can be evaluated by means of experimental tests or theoretical,
analytical and numerical simulations. These engine assessment methods analyse the engine
performance parameters. The output of a gas turbine is characterized by the thrust, specific
thrust, specific fuel consumption, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency and overall
efficiency (Farokhi, 2014).

Thrust

Gas turbine engines are designed to create thrust for propulsion at different flight conditions.
The engine air mass flow and the fuel added in the combustion chamber create the desired thrust
via a burning process to release higher kinetic energy at the propelling nozzle outlet. The thrust
of a turbine jet engine is influenced by the ram effect, altitude, air mass flow, air speed, and
propelling nozzle dimensions. The engine thrust can be obtained by describing the engine as a

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control volume and applying momentum and mass conservation laws to the boundaries as
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 5 : Aero engine thrust.

The engine thrust is mathematically expressed as:

Net thrust = Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust - Momentum drag

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑢0 − (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒 (7)

The engine thrust is governed by the choked and unchoked condition of the propelling nozzle.
For a choked nozzle, the engine nozzle pressure ratio is higher than the engine critical pressure
ratio.
Therefore the pressure thrust is included in the thrust equation. On the other hand, in a non-
choked nozzle, the engine exit flow expands to ambient pressure. The thrust equation converts
to:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑢0 (8)

Ideally, the fuel-to-air ratio is assumed negligible and then thrust is given as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇(𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) (9)

For stationary or test rig engines the free stream air velocity reduces to zero. The engine thrust
is then given as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑢𝑒 (10)

Specific thrust

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The specific thrust of the engine is the thrust of the engine per unit mass flow of air. According
to Cohen et al. (1996) the specific thrust of the engine determines the engine size, weight, frontal
area, and drag on the engine. It is therefore important to maximise the specific thrust of an
engine in order to generate thrust with the smallest amount of airflow and minimum engine
frontal area. Specific thrust is expressed as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 (11)
𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 =
𝑚̇ 𝑎

Specific fuel consumption

The engine specific fuel consumption is the ratio of mass of fuel to net thrust or power of the
engine. Producing higher thrust or power at a lower rate of fuel consumption reduces engine
weight and fuel cost. Reduced SFC in a gas turbine engine is also related to better engine
efficiency. The specific fuel consumption is given as:

𝑚̇𝑓 (12)
𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡

Propulsive efficiency

This is the engine thrust power per the power transferred to the engine airflow. The propulsive
efficiency of an engine depends on the engine combustion process and the amount of energy
wasted in the nozzle. The propulsive efficiency is expressed as:

𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) (13)

ɳ𝑝 =
𝑚̇𝑎 [𝑢𝑎 (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) + (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 )2 /2]

Thermal Efficiency

This is the ratio of the mechanical power output produced by the engine to the heat energy
input. The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is increased by increasing the compression
pressure ratio and the turbine inlet temperature. The overall cycle efficiency depends on the
thermal efficiency. For a simple Brayton cycle, thermal efficiency can be increased by the
addition of a heat recovery cycle to the baseline cycle. The thermal efficiency of a Brayton
cycle for a gas turbine is given as

1 (14)
ɳ𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑝03 𝛾−1
(𝑝 ) ^
01 𝛾

Gasturb simulation

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 GasTurb is a numerical simulation program designed specifically for both aircraft and
industrial gas turbine cycle analysis. It is easy and flexible to evaluate engine thermodynamic
cycle performance at design and off-design conditions (Kurzke, 2012).

The program also has geometric engine designs that permit disk stress calculation. GasTurb can
handle different categories of engines such as single and twin spool turbojets, turboprops,
turbofans and turboshafts. Figure 2 illustrates a single spool turbojet engine layout such as the
JetCat engine in GasTurb. The numbers 0 to 8 indicate the station points of the engine from the
front to the rear of the engine. These points describe the engine configuration and show where
exactly the thermodynamic properties of the flow occurs in the engine. The program use the
work, speed and mass flow compatibility, applying the matrix iteration component matching
method to compute the engine performance parameters. The engine model starts with the
selection of a rotational speed, and other boundary conditions such as the compressor inlet mass
flow rate, inlet pressure and temperature, the combustor outlet temperature and the turbine
efficiency. The system fuel flow rate and turbine mass flow rate are determined based on the
combustor outlet temperature, fuel heating value and the compressor mass flow rate.

The software possesses three work scopes where different degrees of simulation detail are
offered. They are, ordered by increasing complexity :

1. Basics: if the objective is only to study fundamental questions such as gas turbine cycle
analysis as described in many engineering textbooks. The input data are limited to the most
important properties like pressure ratio, burner inlet temperature and the component
efficiencies. All sophisticated details of the other two scopes are set to default values and
hidden.

2. Performance: this scope adds the detail required for professional gas turbine performance
simulations. The user get more data input options including the simulation of the internal air
system and turbine cooling. Furthermore, there are more calculation options like cycle
optimization and Monte Carlo studies.

3. More: the more complex working scope, while for the Performance scope only a few
dimensions of the engine were required as the nozzle area of a turbojet engine, in More the flow
area at all the thermodynamic stations will be calculated during cycle design and from that the
static quantities are determined during both cycle design and off-design simulations.
Additionally the dimensions of the flow annulus are derived, compressors and turbine disks
designed and a cross section of the engine is shown.

Cycle design

Design Point Calculation

When designing a gas turbine, various thermodynamic cycles are considered and evaluated.
Eventually, one cycle is chosen as the reference point(cycle design point) for the overall design
of the gas turbine. Based on this reference point, the mass flows, total pressures, and
temperatures at the inlet and exit of all the engine's components are determined.

To establish the aero-thermodynamically important dimensions of the gas turbine, appropriate

Mach numbers and hub-tip ratios are selected at the boundaries of each component. Defining

19
the cycle design point enables the determination of the flow annulus geometry, which in turn
allows estimation of the gas turbine's weight.

Figure 6: design point calculation

Parametric Studies

Parametric studies give an overview of the design space. Two parameters can be varied
simultaneously generating a range of possible outcomes, visualized in a carpet plot.
These calculations are completed expeditiously, and the results can be presented in various
formats.
The resulting images can be printed or copied to the Windows clipboard and used as vector
graphics in programs such as PowerPoint or Word.

Figure 7: Parametric Studies

Optimization

Numerical optimization can be employed for finding the best cycle. The optimization
algorithm searches for the best solution taking into account up to 12 optimization variables and
12 constraints.
Any cycle output parameter, including the composed values, can be selected as a figure of merit
that can be maximized on the one hand (e.g. specific thrust) or minimized on the other (e.g.
specific fuel consumption).
The search strategy can either be random or systematic based on gradients.

20
 Figure 8: Optimization

Secondary Air System

The secondary air system used in GasTurb is able to simulate internal flows used for turbine
cooling and sealing as well as external flows for aircraft systems.

An engine diagram explains the secondary air system and the location of the thermodynamic
stations, for which all the temperatures, pressures, velocities, etc. are shown in a table.

Figure 9: Secondary Air System

Thermodynamic Stations

GasTurb identifies the major thermodynamic stations between components using the
nomenclature described in SAE AS755. The values at each station are summarized in a table.

21
 Figure 10: Thermodynamic Stations

Off design calculation

Single Point

Off-design simulations deal with the behavior of a gas turbine with a given geometry. This
geometry is found by running a single cycle design point.
To prepare for an off-design simulation, the component design points must first be correlated
with the component maps. This can be done automatically using the standard GasTurb maps
and the standard design point settings in these maps. The maps will be scaled to size before the
off-design calculation commences in such a way that they are consistent with the cycle design
point.
This approach works well if the primary interest lies in the basic off-design behavior of an
engine type. However, if more accurate simulations of a specific engine are required, then
special compressor and turbine maps should be used.
GasTurb allows the replacement of standard maps with maps that are more representative for
the gas turbine being simulated. GasTurb has an additional ready-made component map
collection available, which includes many compressor and turbine maps. Moreover, the Smooth
C and Smooth T programs enable compressor and turbine maps to be prepared easily and
accurately for performance simulation programs.

Figure 11: Single Point

Operating Line

In GasTurb an operating line is a full performance curve from maximum power to idle. The
distance between the points is defined as equal steps in gas generator spool speed, thrust or
shaft power. Many operating lines can be calculated in just one run.

22
 Figure 12: Operating Line

Mission

GasTurb can simulate a complete flight mission in one go. It can also be run in batch mode
with an unlimited number of points, in which case the output will be written to an excel sheet.

Engine performance can be examined throughout the flight envelope. Various limiters ensure
that the engine operates safely in all flight conditions. So, for example, you can plot the spool
speed at maximum rating as contour lines, for example…

Figure 13: Mission

Flight Envelope

Engine performance can be examined throughout the flight envelope. By setting limiters it is
simple to generate maximum ratings, which may be plotted as shown.

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 Figure 14: Flight Envelope

Transient Performance

GasTurb can simulate gas turbine acceleration and deceleration processes. Inertia, heat
soakage and even changing tip clearance can be taken into account.

Figure 15: Transient Performance

Controls and Limiters

Using the options available under Controls it is simple to set up maximum or minimum values
for many parameters. Also automatic schedules may be defined for most control parameters
and handling bleeds.

Figure 16: Controls and Limiters

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Distortion

It is possible to simulate both pressure and temperature distortion at the inlet. Parallel
compressor theory is used to show the effect on the operating conditions on the downstream
compressors.

Figure 17: Distortion

Conclusion
In conclusion, this bibliographic research report has examined the performance, limitations,
and improvement perspectives of the JetCat P550-pro micro gas turbine for industrial and
modeling applications. We have found that the turbine is a high-performance solution but also
has limitations such as its fuel consumption and energy efficiency. However, significant
improvements have been proposed in the literature to enhance the efficiency, reliability, and
durability of the turbine. We have also highlighted the importance of future research in this
field, emphasizing current challenges such as improving energy efficiency, reducing fuel
consumption, enhancing durability, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, we have
concluded that the JetCat P550-pro micro gas turbine is a promising technology that can be
further improved to meet the increasing requirements of industrial and modeling applications,
and that continued research in this field is essential to achieve this goal.

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