‫المدرسة الوطنية المتعددة التقنيات‬

National Polytechnic School-ENP

‫مدرسة التكنولوجيا العليا‬
School of Higher Technology-ETS

Département de Génie Mécanique

Review and improvement of the performance of the micro-

turbine JetCat P550-Pro.

‫مراجعة وتحسين أداء المايكرو توربين‬

JetCat P550-Pro

BOUDEF Syrine

Rapport
Présenté dans le cadre du complément Master en Génie Mécanique

Promoteur :
▪ Mr. BENNOUR Hocine, Maitre-assistant
▪ Mr. GERMAIN Patrick, Professeur, Chercheur

ENP, 4 Mai 2023

10 Avenue des frères Ouddek, Hassen Badi BP182 El-Harrach 16200 Alger Algérie
www.enp.edu.dz Tél : (+213) 23 82 85 39 Fax : (+213) 023 82 85 29
ABSTRACT:
Modeling and simulation of gas turbines was a hot research direction at home and abroad. In
this paper, microturbojet was took as the research object.

This bibliographic research aims to provide a synthesis of current knowledge on the micro gas
turbine JetCat P550-pro, focusing on the most recent scientific studies on its performance and
current limitations. We have examined technical and scientific publications, as well as
relevant patents in the field, in order to understand the components of the turbine, its
operation and the factors that affect its performance. We have also examined improvements
proposed by engineers and researchers to increase the efficiency, reliability, and durability of
the turbine. Finally, we have discussed perspectives for future research in this field, with an
emphasis on research needs to address current challenges of the micro gas turbine for
industrial and modeling applications.

Key Words: Micro turbine-Aeromodelling-Performances-Micro Combustion

RESUME
La modélisation et la simulation des turbines à gaz ont été une direction de recherche très
active à l'échelle nationale et internationale. Dans cet article, le microturbojet a été pris
comme objet de recherche.

Cette recherche bibliographique vise à fournir une synthèse des connaissances actuelles sur la
micro turbine à gaz JetCat P550-pro, en se concentrant sur les études scientifiques les plus
récentes sur ses performances et ses limitations actuelles. Nous avons examiné des
publications techniques et scientifiques, ainsi que des brevets pertinents dans le domaine, afin
de comprendre les composants de la turbine, son fonctionnement et les facteurs qui
influencent ses performances. Nous avons également examiné les améliorations proposées par
les ingénieurs et les chercheurs pour accroître l'efficacité, la fiabilité et la durabilité de la
turbine. Enfin, nous avons discuté des perspectives de recherche future dans ce domaine, en
mettant l'accent sur les besoins de recherche pour relever les défis actuels de la micro turbine
à gaz pour les applications industrielles et de modélisation.

Mots clés : Micro turbine-Aeromodelisme-Performances-Micro Combustion

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 6
2. GAS TURBINE ................................................................................................. 7
3. MICRO GAS TURBINE ................................................................................. 7
▪ JetCat P550-Pro ............................................................................................................... 8
4. LITERATURE REVIEW OF MGTs COMPONENT’S .............................. 8
▪ Compressor: .................................................................................................................... 8
▪ Combstor chamber .......................................................................................................... 9
▪ Turbine Stage Improvements .......................................................................................... 9
5. LITERATURE REVIEW OF MICRO COMBUSTION ............................. 9
▪ General issues of micro-combustion. ............................................................................ 10
▪ Combustion stability in microstructures ....................................................................... 10
▪ Heat transfer through the walls of a micoreactor .......................................................... 11
6. SIMPLE GAS TURBINE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE ........................ 11
7. GAS TURBINE PERFORMACE MODELLING ...................................... 13
▪ Component Matching .................................................................................................... 13
▪ Gas Path Analysis.......................................................................................................... 14
▪ Stage Stacking ............................................................................................................... 15
▪ Wittenberg Method ....................................................................................................... 15
▪ Computational Fluid Dynamics .................................................................................... 15
8. GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ................................. 15
▪ Thrust ............................................................................................................................ 15
▪ Specific thrust ................................................................................................................ 17
▪ Specific fuel consumption ............................................................................................. 17
▪ Propulsive efficiency ..................................................................................................... 17
▪ Thermal Efficiency ........................................................................................................ 17
9. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 18
10. REFERANCES ............................................................................................ 18

3
 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: JetCat P550-Pro .......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2 : Brayton thermodynamic cycle, (NASA, 2016) ....................................................... 12
Figure 3: Compressor characteristic map, (El-Sayed, 2008). ................................................. 14
Figure 4: Turbine and nozzle characteristic maps, El-Sayed (2008). ..................................... 14
Figure 5 : Aero engine thrust.................................................................................................... 16

4
 NOMENCLATURE

MIT Massachussetts Istitute of Technology /

UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles /

APUs Auxiliary Power Units /

MGTs Micro Gas Turbines /

GTs Gas Turbines /

GPA Gas Path Analysis /

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics /

SFC Specific Fuel Consumption

EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature [K]

Re Renolds number /

Cp Gas specific heat at constant pressure [ J/kgK ]

Q Heat [J]

W Work [J]

p Pressure [Pa]

T Temperature [K]

Fnet Net Thrust [N]

𝑚̇ Masse flow rate [Kg/s]

a air /

f fuel /

A Area [𝑚2 ]

𝑢𝑒 Exhaust jet velocity [m/s]

𝑢0 Free stream velocity [m/s]

N Rotational speed [rpm]

η Efficiency [%]

cv Control Volume /

5
1. INTRODUCTION

The use of Micro gas turbines in the aeromodelling industry has experienced significant
growth in recent years.

Aeromodelling refers to all disciplines aimed at making a reduced-size flying machine, called
an aeromodel. This aeromodel can take the form of a plane, a glider, a helicopter, a hot-air
balloon, among the most common types of machines... But it can also be a product of
imagination or be a replica of an existing or past flying machine. In this case, it is called a flying
model. FFAM - Fédération Française d'Aéromodélisme

To propel the aero-models we use the Micro gas turbine such as JetCat P550-pro. This engine
is typically used to power large-scale models, like jets and helicopters. Its high thrust output
and fuel efficiency make it an ideal choice for these applications, as it allows for longer flight
times and more dynamic maneuvers. It is becoming increasingly popular in the commercial
aviation and hobby industries. (Jet Cat, n.d.)
They are also employed in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) used in missions related to
national security, telecommunications, remote sensing, crime fighting, disaster management,
agriculture and election monitoring, also in hybrid electric vehicles and small combine heat and
power generating plant applications as well as auxiliary power units (APUs) for modern aircraft.

Micro turbines are suitable for such applications due to their high power to weight ratio, multi-
fuel capability and simple design, low energy costs and emissions. These engines have
interrelated components, which have non-linear characteristics that limits their effectiveness.
Therefore, the overall performance of the engine depends on the performance of its individual
components.

Although, MGTs have outstanding advantages over its competitors in the aviation and power
environment, however, miniaturization of conventional larger gas turbines into MGTs leads to
engine efficiency and performance loss due to low Reynolds number, poor heat transfer, large
(compressor and turbine) tip losses, and other mechanical and geometrical limitations. Micro
turbomachinery inherently has low Reynolds numbers due to the small size of the engine,
therefore resulting in relative viscous forces dominating the inertia forces in the engine. This
can cause considerable loss of pressure and temperature and other thermodynamic variation in
the engine, hence reducing the efficiency and power output of the engine.
The engine’s low Reynolds number can lead to flow separation and transition in the compressor,
and consequently affects the compressor efficiency and pressure ratio. In addition, the relatively
high viscous effects can slow down the mixing of fuel and air, and hot and cold gases in the
combustor, therefore, reducing combustion residence time.

Those technical barriers that impede the engine performance include better understanding of
the aerodynamics of the engine components. The flow is characterised by viscous,
compressible, and turbulent phenomena. This includes thermo-mechanical characteristics of the
engine allied with relatively high operating temperatures, very low engine component pressure
ratios and efficiencies, and high rotational speeds. Additionally, heat transfer, tip clearance
losses, and low Reynolds number related problems affect the engine output.(Oppong et al., n.d.;
Présenté, 2014)

This bibliographic research aims to provide a synthesis of current knowledge on the micro
gas turbines, focusing on the most recent scientific studies on their performance and current

6
limitations. We have examined technical and scientific publications, as well as relevant patents
in the field, in order to understand their components, operation and the factors that affect their
performance. We have also examined improvements proposed by engineers and researchers to
increase the efficiency, reliability, and durability of the micro turbines. Finally, we have
discussed perspectives for future research in this field, with an emphasis on research needs to
address current challenges of the micro gas turbines for industrial and modeling applications.

2. GAS TURBINE

A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that operates continuously and consists of three
main components: a compressor, a combustor, and a turbine. The basic design, known as the
turbojet, includes an inlet nozzle that directs air at free stream velocity into the compressor.
This gas-powered device operates using the principles of the thermodynamic Brayton Cycle. It
converts the energy obtained from a working fluid into a usable form by doing work. There are
various types of gas turbines that are designed to perform different tasks but all work on the
same basic principles.

▪ The air is accelerated and compressed across the compressor stage and then it is directed to
the combustion chamber.
▪ In the chamber, fuel is injected combined with the high-pressure air, and ignited to create
combustion.
▪ The hot gas, which has expanded in the combustion chamber, is pushed through the turbine
blades, which causes the shaft to rotate and connect the turbine to the compressor.
▪ The exhaust gas then exits through an outlet nozzle, at high-velocity greater than the free
stream velocity producing thrust.
Modern gas turbines have many uses, such as providing auxiliary power for ground or aircraft
systems, propelling military aircraft at supersonic speeds, and driving the rotor system of
helicopters. The design and construction of a gas turbine require precision, informed material
selection, knowledge of thermodynamics, and the ability to model and machine metal
components due to the extreme temperatures and high rotational speeds experienced by the
engine components.(Alonzo et al., n.d.)

3. MICRO GAS TURBINE

With the advancement of material processing techniques, gas turbine engines have become
smaller and can now power radio-controlled (RC) airplanes. The modern gas turbines used for
full-size aircrafts typically have axial compressors and multiple stages of blades in the turbines.
These multi-stage components improve the efficiency, pressure ratios, and performance
characteristics of the engines. However, RC jet modelers have discovered that small engines
can still be efficient and powerful with single-stage compressors and turbines. A common
design among RC jet enthusiasts is to match a centrifugal compressor with an axial turbine.
With this simpler design and the use of CNC machining and 3D modeling, it is now possible to
manufacture a complete miniature gas turbine with a relatively small investment.(Alonzo et al.,
n.d.)

7
 ▪ JetCat P550-Pro

The JetCat P550-Pro is a type of micro gas turbine engine mainly used in aeromodeling,
which are radio-controlled aircraft. This specific engine is designed and manufactured by
JetCat, a German company specializing in producing gas turbine engines for various
applications.

With a diameter of 175 mm and length of 419 mm, this MGT is capable of producing a
maximum thrust of 550 N and reaching speeds of up to 83,000 revolutions per minute. It
weighs 4900 g and consumes approximately 1650 ml/min of fuel at full load. The engine is
equipped with a kerosene starter system and an integrated generator that recharges the
turbine's battery. It is controlled by an electronic unit, which can communicate with a
graphical user interface (GSU) or a computer via RS232 or CAN bus interfaces.

Figure 1: JetCat P550-Pro

4. LITERATURE REVIEW OF MGTs COMPONENT’S

▪ Compressor:

In 2007, J. Ling, K.C. Wong & S. Armfield increased the pressure ratio of the centrifugal
compressor of the KJ66 micro jet engine at a lower mass flow rate by designing and improving
its compressor stage using ANSYS-CFX. They reported that the performance of the improved
design surpassed that of the original compressor stage.
In 2010, Jie and Guoping redesigned the 11 cm diffuser of an MGT compressor stage and
investigated the effect of varying the cross-sectional area distribution on its performance. The
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and experimental results showed an 11% thrust increase
and 9% reduction in specific fuel consumption for the jet engine. In 2012, Krige redesigned the
vaned diffuser of the BMT 120 KS engine to maximise the compressor stage pressure recovery
and increase the engine's total-to-static pressure ratio, mass flow, and thrust output. The
experimental and numerical results showed that the pressure recovery and static-to-static
pressure ratio across the diffuser increased.
Also, in 2012, Van Der Merwe designed and optimised a centrifugal compressor impeller for
the BMT engine to achieve a specific total-to-total pressure ratio and isentropic compressor
efficiency at a mass flow rate. The new impeller performance was validated by comparing its
mean-line, experimental and CFD results.He showed that the experimental and numerical data
correlated well. (Botha Van Der Merwe, 2012)
De Villiers incorporated a 1D mean-line code and CFD software codes FINETM/Turbo and
FINETM/Design3D in 2014 to design a centrifugal compressor stage for the BMT engine,

8
yielding a total-to-static pressure ratio of 3.0, efficiency of 76.5%, and a thrust of 170 N at a
rotational speed of 119,000 rpm compared to the original BMT engine.
In 2016, Burger designed and optimised a crossover diffuser for the BMT engine, which
combined with Van der Merwe's impeller to improve the compressor stage total-to-static
pressure ratio from 2.62 to 3.65.
▪ Combstor chamber

Guidez (2009) investigated the feasibility of combustion in a miniature combustor. Their aim
was to study combustion stability and efficiency. They applied Raman spectroscopy and 1D
Rayleigh scattering and standard thermodynamic measurements to estimate the temperatures
and main species concentration along radial profiles at the combustor outlet. They measured
combustion efficiency of 80%. (Guidez et al., 2009)
Chaudhari (2012) report the design and simulation of a miniature annular combustion chamber
applying ANSYS CFX. They evaluated the impact of flow patterns and temperature
distributions on the combustion chamber liner walls. The numerical results showed that the
combustion chamber walls were significantly affected by combustion flames which can cause
combustor failure. (Chaudhari et al., n.d.)
Gieras (2012) conducted a 3D numerical simulation of the aerodynamic flow through a GTM-
120 micro jet engine combustor. They considered the effect of engine downsizing on the mass
flow, pressure losses and heat transfer in the combustor.
The aim of their research was to maximise thermal efficiency by minimising fuel consumption
and controlling emissions.(Gieras et al., 2002)
Krieger et al. (2012) discuss the design, numerical and experimental evaluation of a
combustion chamber for micro gas turbines. They analysed the behaviour of heat transfer on
the flow and temperature patterns in the combustion chamber. The authors argued that the
numerical and experimental results correlate well.(Krieger et al., 2012)

▪ Turbine Stage Improvements

Bar and Czarnecki (2009) conducted a study on a micro jet axial turbine using both mean line
and CFD analysis. They employed the Concept NREC AXCENT code for aerodynamic
computations and developed 2D and 3D entropy performance contours for the turbine. The
authors concluded that a lower tip clearance, higher Reynolds number, and specific speed
coefficient can enhance turbine efficiency and overall engine performance.
Verstraete (2010) focused on improving the performance of the KJ66 turbojet engine by
investigating and optimizing its overall performance. To achieve the desired performance
improvement, a spherical dimple vortex turbine blade profile was incorporated into the axial
turbine stage. According to the authors, the improved engine exhibited an efficiency increase
of 2 to 6% compared to the baseline engine.
George and Basson (2014) conducted both 1D and 3D numerical analyses on the new turbines.
Smit (2014) manufactured Basson's turbines and obtained experimental results for the newly
designed turbines.

5. LITERATURE REVIEW OF MICRO COMBUSTION

The need for portable energy has led to the development of the Micro Power Generator (MPG)
concept. Although it showed promise in 1995, there were significant challenges that made it
seem unlikely to be implemented, as some researchers believed that producing a combustion
flame on a millimeter scale was impossible. However, progress has been made over the years,

9
and there is now abundant literature showing that many of the barriers to micro combustion
have been overcome. As a result, micro combustion has transitioned from a theoretical concept
to a widely accepted technology. This article reviews scientific publications from 2000 to 2022
and presents the current state of the art, including the challenges of micro combustion and the
solutions that have been developed to overcome them.

▪ General issues of micro-combustion.

In 2003, Norton and Vlachos conducted a study using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
to investigate the characteristics of combustion and flame stability at the micro scale. They
focused on premixtures of methane and air and used a two-dimensional elliptic CFD model of
the micro burner to analyze the effects of various factors on flame stability, including the
dimensions of the micro combustion chamber, conductivity, wall material thickness, and
external heat losses. The results indicated that conductivity and wall thickness are crucial in
determining the upstream heat transfer required for ignition and flame stability. The study also
found that there is a narrow range of flow velocities that can sustain combustion in a micro
burner. Despite the small scale, significant transverse and axial gradients were observed under
certain conditions, and periodic oscillations occurred near extinction when there were
significant heat losses through the walls.(Norton & Vlachos, 2003)

In 2004, Norton, D.G. and Vlachos, D.G. conducted another CFD study focused on the
stability of micro flames in propane/air mixtures [14]. This study found that the micro
combustion system exhibits significant temperature gradients despite its small size. The
researchers also confirmed that the thermal conductivity of the walls plays a crucial role in
maintaining the stability of the micro flame. They identified a specific range of velocities that
enable stable combustion in micro chambers. Additionally, the study highlighted the
importance of the dimensions of the micro burner, which strongly affect thermal
stability.(Norton & Vlachos, 2004)

▪ Combustion stability in microstructures

Hua J, Kumar K et Wu M conducted numerical simulations of hydrogen/air mixture

combustion in micro-combustion chambers. This study consisted of two parts. In the first part,
numerical simulations were performed using CFD code to study the stoichiometric combustion
of the hydrogen/air premixture in a number of cylindrical combustion chambers. The detailed
mechanism of chemical reactions was introduced in the simulations, which consisted of a model
of nineteen reversible elementary reactions and nine species. In order to study the effect of
scaling on combustion, the ratio of the combustion chamber remained the same in all
simulations while the input dimensions of the micro-burner (diameters) were reduced from
millimeter to micrometer. In this article, the authors analyzed the effects of the reactor's
geometric parameter, heat propagation through the walls, and combustion characteristics. The
results obtained first validated the use of CFD codes for the study of reactive flows in micro-
combustion chambers, indicating that combustion stability in the micro chamber can be
achieved by balancing the combustion time and the reactants' residence time as well as
optimizing the thermal conditions between generated heat and lost heat. Given that the
residence time is shortened by small dimensions of the micro-reactor, it is also necessary for
the chemical reaction time to be shortened to ensure complete combustion. According to the
theory of chemical kinetics, one way to reduce the chemical time is to increase the reaction rate
by ensuring that its temperature is high, which can be achieved in micro-reactors by reducing
wall heat losses(Hua et al., 2005a). The second part of this article focuses on the study of fluid
flow dynamics, heat transfer within the combustion chamber, and heat loss at ambient

10
temperature. The experiments were conducted on the MIT (Massachusetts Institute and
Technology, USA) micro-gas turbine prototype.
The performance of the device is evaluated in relation to conditions of heat loss to the outside,
at different mass flow rates and various mass fractions of the mixture. It emerges from this
article that a low wall temperature of the micro combustion chamber is necessary to stabilize
the flame and thereby increase the efficiency of the system. To achieve a low wall temperature,
lean combustion is suggested.(Hua et al., 2005b)

In 2010, Jejurkar S et Mishra D suggest preheating of reactants to improve the stability of the
flame in a microreactor. They studied the sensitivity of the flame to changes in the inlet
temperature of a cylindrical microreactor burning a stoichiometric air/hydrogen mixture. The
proposed configuration uses a hollow inner tube filled with nitrogen to facilitate flame
stabilization. A detailed axisymmetric numerical reactive flow model was developed and tested
for this purpose. The model predictions were used to properly evaluate the proposed design for
gas turbines and other applications in terms of different thermal performance indicators. The
baseline data showed the feasibility of this operation(Jejurkar & Mishra, 2011).

▪ Heat transfer through the walls of a micoreactor

The problems encountered in microreactors are local flame extinction, blowout, eruption, and
self-sustaining flame. They are largely attributed to heat losses through the walls and wall-flame
interaction. In the context of micro-combustion, heat exchange around the combustion chamber
wall plays a crucial role. Combustion takes place in a narrow gap, and the flame is almost in
contact with the internal walls of the reactor. Heat transfer is therefore predominant by
conduction, convection, and radiation. In addition, there is a specific problem of material
resistance given the high operating temperatures and the location of the flame, which creates
hot spots. Microreactors are mostly cylindrical, rectangular, and even multiform, depending on
the type of flame produced, the critical dimensions to be achieved, and even the type of fuel.
The walls are made of materials such as aluminum ceramic, polycrystalline alumina, alumina,
quartz tubes, and stainless steel tubes.

In 2008, Spadaccini, C.M. et I.A. Waitz classified micro combustion chambers into two
categories:

▪ Homogeneous gas-phase combustion chambers

▪ Catalytic combustion chambers

Gas-phase micro combustion chambers are limited by residence time constraints that can be
quantified in terms of the Damkohler number. The performance of micro catalytic chambers is
limited by the diffusion of fuel species to the active surface as described by the Péclet number.
Both types of systems are vulnerable to thermal losses.(Spadaccini et al., n.d.)

6. SIMPLE GAS TURBINE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

The Brayton open-air cycle is a thermodynamic representation of a gas turbine engine,

consisting of four processes: isentropic air compression, constant pressure heat addition,
isentropic gas expansion, and constant pressure heat rejection. However, in reality, these
processes are not isentropic. The cycle can be either open or closed, with the working fluid
either kept in the system (closed) or exhausted after expansion (open). The working fluid is

11
assumed to be calorically perfect, with constant specific heat ratio (γ) and specific heat capacity
(cp) throughout the cycle. Figure 1 illustrates the cycle using T-s and p-v diagrams.

Figure 2 : Brayton thermodynamic cycle, (NASA, 2016)

The Brayton cycle T-s and p-v thermodynamic processes are described as follows:

▪ 0-3 Isentropic compression in the compressor.

▪ 3-4 Constant pressure heat addition in the combustor.
▪ 4-5 Isentropic expansion in the turbine.
▪ 5-8 Isentropic work done in the nozzle.
▪ 8-0 Constant pressure heat rejection to the atmosphere.

By referring to Figure 1, it is possible to analyze the gas turbine (GT) as a turbomachinery

device at different stations using the energy equation.

𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2 (1)

= 0 = 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + ) − 𝑚̇𝑒 (ℎ𝑠𝑒 + )
𝑑𝑡 2 2

= 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚̇ 𝑖 ℎ𝑠𝑖 +𝑖 𝑚̇𝑒 ℎ𝑠𝑒 (2)

𝑉𝑖2 (3)
ℎ0𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + )
2

𝑉𝑖2 (4)
ℎ0𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑠𝑖 + )
2

12
For a steady flow process in the engine:

𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇ (5)

Hence the energy equation can be simplified as:

𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 − 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + 𝑚𝑐̇ 𝑝 (𝑇0𝑖 − 𝑇0𝑒 )=0 (6)

The thermodynamic parameters at the various engine station points can be computed by
applying equation (6)

7. GAS TURBINE PERFORMACE MODELLING

Gas turbine performance modelling is a useful tool to evaluate the performance of an engine
at both design and off-design points. The non-linear thermodynamic behaviour of gas turbines
requires off-design evaluation to model the engine's operating range. This off-design behaviour
is also useful in assessing the impact of changes in engine component characteristics on engine
output. It is important to note that the engine should work acceptably at off-design conditions,
in addition to its specific design points. Off-design modelling is the most suitable means of
optimising, maintaining, and predicting the performance of a gas turbine. The off-design
performance of gas turbines involves performance predictions, condition monitoring, and
degradation analysis. The engine diagnosis and degradation analysis are typically based on
performance predictions. Various methods can be used to evaluate the off-design performance
of gas turbines, including component matching, stage stacking, gas path analysis, computational
fluid dynamics, and the Wittenberg method. These modelling methods are mathematically
formulated with linear and non-linear equations and implemented into computer programs for
performance simulations.

▪ Component Matching

The conventional component matching method is a widely used technique for predicting the
off-design performance of gas turbines. It is based on the conservation of momentum, mass,
and energy, and is known for its flexibility, consistency, simplicity, and accuracy. According
to Cohen et al. (1996), component matching is suitable for simulating the non-linear behavior
of gas turbines at off-design conditions, and depends on the compatibility of engine mass flow,
work, and rotational speed while accounting for mechanical losses. The compressor, turbine,
and nozzle characteristics are defined using pressure ratio, efficiency, non-dimensional mass
flow, and speed, and maps are used to carry out the matching. Component matching has been
extensively used for gas turbine performance analysis.

13
 Figure 3: Compressor characteristic map, (El-Sayed, 2008).

(a) Turbine map (b) Propelling nozzle map

Figure 4: Turbine and nozzle characteristic maps, El-Sayed (2008).

The matrix iteration method is a more efficient way of implementing the component matching
technique for gas turbine performance evaluation. It updates guessed variables continuously
until the constraint parameters are fulfilled by using equal values of matching guesses and
constraints. This method is widely implemented in gas turbine simulation programs such as
GasTurb, Flownex SE, PROOSIS, GSP, and TURBOMATCH. In contrast, the nested-loop
technique selects operating points from the compressor characteristic and computes the turbine
and nozzle parameters to determine engine thrust or power iteratively until convergence is
reached. Although the nested-loop technique is easy to implement, it becomes computationally
unstable for larger loops. Therefore, the matrix iteration method is preferred for advanced gas
turbine off-design performance simulations.

▪ Gas Path Analysis

Gas Path Analysis (GPA) is a widely used off-design modelling method in the gas turbine
industry. The method was first proposed by Urban in the late 1960s and has since undergone
significant development. GPA is used to evaluate non-linear performance parameters such as
flow capacities, efficiencies, and pressure ratios.

GPA involves the analysis of the gas flow path through the engine and the thermodynamic
processes that take place along the path. The method makes use of independent and dependent
variables. The dependent parameters are temperature and pressure, which are affected by
changes in the independent variables, which are mass flow rate and efficiency. The
independent values are continuously updated until the dependent variables converge.

It has several advantages over other off-design modelling methods. It can be used to predict
engine performance under a wide range of operating conditions, including variations in
ambient conditions, changes in fuel composition, and degradation of engine components. It

14
can also be used to identify the causes of performance degradation and to optimize engine
operation.

▪ Stage Stacking

Stage stacking is a process used in gas turbine engine design and analysis to estimate the
performance of compressor stages. It involves breaking down the compressor into multiple
stages, and analyzing the performance of each stage separately. The outlet conditions of the
preceding stage are used as input values for the next stage, and the process is repeated until the
entire compressor is analyzed.

The stage stacking method requires characteristic performance maps for its implementation.
The ordered stage parameters can be determined with gas dynamics equations with known first
stage compressor inlet conditions. This method is simple and effective for compressor
performance estimation and can be used to determine the overall performance of a gas turbine
engine.

▪ Wittenberg Method

In 1976, a performance modeling method was developed by Wittenberg that doesn't need
compressor, turbine, and nozzle maps for predicting gas turbine performance. Unlike the
component matching method, Wittenberg's approach uses gas dynamic equations for
performance evaluation. Although it doesn't require characteristic maps, compressor maps can
be utilized to assess the effects of compressor efficiency variation on the engine. Mirza-Baig
and Saravanamuttoo (1991) investigated the performance of the Garrett 731-2 turbofan engine
using this method. Their method only required design point parameters, and they found that the
results obtained agreed well with the available engine data.

▪ Computational Fluid Dynamics

CFD stands for Computational Fluid Dynamics, which is a numerical simulation method that
uses the mass, momentum, and energy equations to analyze the performance of a gas turbine.
CFD is capable of capturing complex flow physics in the engine, including the behavior of the
flow in the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. Unlike other methods such as
component matching, the CFD method does not require the use of engine characteristic maps.

8. GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

To evaluate gas turbine performance, there are several methods available, including
experimental tests, theoretical, analytical and numerical simulations. These methods aim to
analyse various engine performance parameters such as thrust, specific thrust, specific fuel
consumption, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency, and overall efficiency (Farokhi, 2014).

▪ Thrust

Gas turbine engines are specifically designed to produce thrust for various flight conditions.
They achieve this by combining the air mass flow with fuel in the combustion chamber, which
results in a combustion process that releases high kinetic energy at the nozzle outlet, creating
the desired thrust. Several factors influence the thrust of a turbine jet engine, including the ram
effect, altitude, air mass flow, air speed, and nozzle dimensions. To determine the engine thrust,

15
the engine can be treated as a control volume, and momentum and mass conservation laws can
be applied to the boundaries, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 5 : Aero engine thrust.

The engine thrust is mathematically expressed as:

Net thrust = Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust - Momentum drag

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑢0 − (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒 (7)

In a gas turbine engine, the amount of thrust generated is determined by whether the
propelling nozzle is in a choked or unchoked state. When the nozzle is choked, the
pressure ratio at the nozzle outlet is higher than the engine's critical pressure ratio,
resulting in the inclusion of pressure thrust in the thrust equation. Conversely, in an
unchoked nozzle, the engine exit flow expands to ambient pressure, and the thrust
equation is modified accordingly.

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑢0 (8)

Ideally, the fuel-to-air ratio is assumed negligible and then thrust is given as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇(𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) (9)

For stationary or test rig engines the free stream air velocity reduces to zero. The engine thrust
is then given as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑢𝑒 (10)

16
 ▪ Specific thrust

The specific thrust of a gas turbine engine is defined as the thrust generated by the engine per
unit mass flow of air. This parameter plays a crucial role in determining the engine size, weight,
frontal area, and drag, as pointed out by Cohen et al. (1996). Therefore, maximizing the specific
thrust of an engine is of great importance as it enables the engine to generate thrust with the
least amount of airflow and minimum frontal area. Mathematically, specific thrust can be
expressed as:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 (11)
𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 =
𝑚̇ 𝑎

▪ Specific fuel consumption

The engine specific fuel consumption is the ratio of mass of fuel to net thrust or power of the
engine. Producing higher thrust or power at a lower rate of fuel consumption reduces engine
weight and fuel cost. Reduced SFC in a gas turbine engine is also related to better engine
efficiency. The specific fuel consumption is given as:

𝑚̇𝑓 (12)
𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡

▪ Propulsive efficiency

This is the engine thrust power per the power transferred to the engine airflow. The propulsive
efficiency of an engine depends on the engine combustion process and the amount of energy
wasted in the nozzle. The propulsive efficiency is expressed as:

𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) (13)

ɳ𝑝 =
𝑚̇𝑎 [𝑢𝑎 (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 ) + (𝑢𝑒 − 𝑢0 )2 /2]

▪ Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is defined as the ratio of the mechanical power output
generated by the engine to the heat energy input. This efficiency can be improved by increasing
the compression pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature. The overall cycle efficiency is
dependent on the thermal efficiency. To enhance the thermal efficiency of a simple Brayton
cycle, a heat recovery cycle can be added to the baseline cycle. The thermal efficiency of a gas
turbine Brayton cycle is expressed as:
1 (14)
ɳ𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑝 𝛾−1
(𝑝03 ) ^ 𝛾
01

17
 9. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this bibliographic research report has examined the performance, limitations,
and improvement perspectives of the JetCat P550-pro micro gas turbine for industrial and
modeling applications. We have found that the turbine is a high-performance solution but also
has limitations such as its fuel consumption and energy efficiency. However, significant
improvements have been proposed in the literature to enhance the efficiency, reliability, and
durability of the turbine. We have also highlighted the importance of future research in this
field, emphasizing current challenges such as improving energy efficiency, reducing fuel
consumption, enhancing durability, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, we have
concluded that the JetCat P550-pro micro gas turbine is a promising technology that can be
further improved to meet the increasing requirements of industrial and modeling applications,
and that continued research in this field is essential to achieve this goal.

10. REFERANCES

1. Alonzo, D., Crocker, A., James, E., & Iii, J. K. (n.d.). Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature
Turbojet Engine A Major Qualifying Project Submitted to the Faculty of WORCESTER
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor
of Science.
2. Asgari, H. (2014). Modelling, Simulation and Control of Gas Turbines Using Artificial Neural
Networks.
3. Baba Hassan, A., Mohammed, A., Adeniyi, A. A., Hassan, A. B., & Mohammed, A. K. (2012).
International Journal of Emerging trends in Engineering and
Development Issue 2, Vol.4 (May
2012) ISSN 2249-6149.
International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Development Issue, 2.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225075315
4. Botha Van Der Merwe, B. (2012). Design of a Centrifugal Compressor Impeller for Micro Gas
Turbine Application. http://scholar.sun.ac.za
5. Burger, C. J. (2016). Design Procedure of a Compact Aerodynamic Crossover Diffuser for Micro
Gas Turbine Application. https://scholar.sun.ac.za
6. Chaudhari, K. V, Kulshreshtha, D. B., & Channiwala, S. A. (n.d.). Design and CFD Simulation of
Annular Combustion Chamber with Kerosene as Fuel for 20 kW Gas Turbine Engine. In
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) (Vol. 2). www.ijera.com
7. Christoffel, L., & De Villiers, B. (2014). Design of a Centrifugal Compressor for Application in
Micro Gas Turbines. http://scholar.sun.ac.za
8. George, J., & Basson, T. (2014). Design methodology of an axial-flow turbine for a micro jet
engine. http://scholar.sun.ac.za
9. Gieras, M., Stańkowski, T., & Sta´nkowski, T. S. (2002). Computational study of an aerodynamic
flow through a micro-turbine engine combustor Journal of Power Technologies 92 (2) (2012) 68-79
Computational study of an aerodynamic flow through a micro-turbine engine combustor.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267940877
10. Guidez, J., Roux, P., Poirson, N., Jourdanneau, E., Orain, M., & Grisch, F. (2009). Investigation of
combustion in miniaturised combustor for application to micro gas turbines. 469–480.
https://doi.org/10.1051/eucass/200901469
11. Hua, J., Wu, M., & Kumar, K. (2005a). Numerical simulation of the combustion of hydrogen-air
mixture in micro-scaled chambers. Part I: Fundamental study. Chemical Engineering Science,
60(13), 3497–3506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2005.01.041
12. Hua, J., Wu, M., & Kumar, K. (2005b). Numerical simulation of the combustion of hydrogen-air
mixture in micro-scaled chambers Part II: CFD analysis for a micro-combustor. Chemical
Engineering Science, 60(13), 3507–3515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2005.01.042

18
13. Jejurkar, S. Y., & Mishra, D. P. (2011). Effects of wall thermal conductivity on entropy generation
and exergy losses in a H2-air premixed flame microcombustor. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 36(24), 15851–15859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.08.116
14. Jet Cat. (n.d.). jet cat p550 pro. Https://Www.Jetcat.de/En/Products/Gasturbines/P550-Pro/. .
15. Jie, C., & Guoping, H. (2010). Redesign of an 11 cm-diameter Micro Diffuser. Chinese Journal of
Aeronautics, 23(3), 298–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1000-9361(09)60219-3
16. Krieger, G. C., De Campos, A. P. V., Filho, F. L. S., & De Souza, R. C. (2012). A swirler stabilized
combustion chamber for a micro-gas turbine fuelled with natural gas. Journal of the Brazilian
Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 34(4), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-
58782012000400004
17. Krige, D. S. (2013). Performance Evaluation of a Micro Gas Turbine Centrifugal Compressor
Diffuser. http://scholar.sun.ac.za
18. Large, J., & Pesyridis, A. (2019). Investigation of micro gas turbine systems for high speed long
loiter tactical unmanned air systems. Aerospace, 6(5).
https://doi.org/10.3390/AEROSPACE6050055
19. Norton, D. G., & Vlachos, D. G. (2003). Combustion characteristics and flame stability at the
microscale: A CFD study of premixed methane/air mixtures. Chemical Engineering Science,
58(21), 4871–4882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2002.12.005
20. Norton, D. G., & Vlachos, D. G. (2004). A CFD study of propane/air microflame stability.
Combustion and Flame, 138(1–2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2004.04.004
21. Oppong, F. (2016). Micro Gas Turbine Performance Evaluation. https://scholar.sun.ac.za
22. Oppong, F., Sybrand, J., Van Der Spuy, T., Von Backström, A., & Lacina, D. (n.d.). AN
OVERVIEW OF MICRO GAS TURBINE ENGINE PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATION.
23. Présenté, D. (2014). UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC.
24. Spadaccini, C. M., Zhang, X., Cadou, C. P., Miki, N., & Waitz, I. A. (n.d.). Preliminary
development of a hydrocarbon-fueled catalytic micro-combustor $.
25. Thirunavukarasu, E. (2013). Scholar Commons Scholar Commons Modeling and Simulation Study
of A Dynamic Gas Turbine System Modeling and Simulation Study of A Dynamic Gas Turbine
System In A Virtual Test Bed Environment In A Virtual Test Bed Environment.
https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd
26. Wong, K. C., Armfield, S. W., Ling, J., & Armfield, S. (2007). Numerical Investigation of a Small
Gas Turbine Compressor. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43472634
27. Mirza-Baig, F. and Saravanamuttoo, H. (1991). Off-design performance prediction of
turbofans using gasdynamics. In: ASME 1991 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine
Congress and Exposition, pp. V002T02A034–V002T02A034. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
28. Cumpsty, N. (2003). A simple guide to the aerodynamic and thermodynamic design and
performance of jet engines.
29. El-Sayed, A.F. (2008). Aircraft propulsion and gas turbine engines. CRC Press.
30. Suraweera, J.K. (2011). Off-Design Performance Prediction of Gas Turbines without the
use of Compressor or Turbine Characteristics. Master’s thesis, Carleton University Ottawa.
31. Cohen, H., Rogers, G. and Saravanamuttoo, H. (1996). H, 1996, gas turbine theory.
32. GasTurb - GasTurb

19