A theory of gravity

PETERRASTALL
i a 1W5
Pllysics Deporttnent, University of British Collrmbio, Vat~colrver,British C o l ~ ~ r n b V6T
Received May 7, 1975

It is known that a slight generalization of the Newtonian theory ofgravity is compatible with all
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present-day observations. This 'super-Newtonian' theory is not a complete theory of gravity,

since it applies only t o static o r quasistatic gravitational fields. We develop here a simple,
complete theory of gravity that contains the super-Newtonian theory as a special case. The
gravitational field is described in terms of two real functions, and the field equations are derived
from a variational principle. The homogeneous cosmological solutions of the field equations all
correspond to open universes. T h e gravitational 'constant' decreases with time in the version of
the theory that is compatible with Dicke's measurement of the solar oblateness, but not in the
version compatible with an almost spherical Sun. The gravitational field of a slowly rotating body
is not of the Lense-Thirring form.

On sait qu'une genCralisation assez simple de la theorie Newtonienne de lagravitation permet

de rendre compte de toutes les observations faitesjusqu'i aujourd'hui. Cette theorie 'supernew-
tonienne' n'est pas une theorie complete de la gravitation, puisqu'elle s'applique seulement aux
champs de gravitation statiques ou quasi-statiques. Nous developpons ici une thiorie simple et
complete de la gravitation, qui contient la theorie supernewtonienne comme cas particulier. Le
champ de gravitation est decrit au moyen de deux fonctions reelles, et les equations du champ
sont deduites d'un principe variationnel. Les solutions cosmologiques homogenes des equations
For personal use only.

du champ correspondent toutes a des univers ouverts. La 'constante' de gravitation dtcroit en

fonction du temps, dans la version de la theorie compatible avec les mesures de Dicke sur
I'aplatissement du soleil, mais non dans la version compatible avec un soleil presque spherique.
Le champ de graviation d'un corps en rotation lente n'est pas de la forme Lense-Thirring.
[Traduit par le journal]
Can. J . Phys., 54.66 (1976)

1. Introduction for several reasons, of which one is good. It is

The Newtonian theory of gravity is incom-
patible with some astronomical observations.
This defect can be removed by a slight and
natural generalization of the theory. The resulting
'super-Newtonian' theory is easy enough to be
taught to undergraduates (Rastall (1975), to be
referred to as I). However, it is not a complete
theory of gravity, since it applies only to static or
quasistatic gravitational fields. We are going to
show that it can be generalized, in a simple way,
to give a complete theory; but first we shall try to
convince the reader that it should be generalized:
that it makes sense to invent a new theory of
gravity.
The super-Newtonian theory isvery subversive.
It explains all present-day observations, and it
follows that there is at present no way of
distinguishing between theories that are com-
patible with the super-Newtonian theory. In such
a situation, one might argue that theorists should
abandon the field for a while, until new experi-
ments are performed. They are reluctant to do so
that there are astronomical observations (violent
events in the nuclei of galaxies, the possible
existence of black holes, etc.) which may re-
quire gravitational explanations.Theorists should
therefore examine a variety of gravitational
theories, as diverse as possible, in order to get
some idea of the gravitational phenomena that
astronomers and experimental physicists may
expect to find. It would be foolish for them to
confine their attention to one theory in the hope
that God, if He be virtuous, will one day send
them experimental evidence to support it. The
theory that we are going to develop is certainly
one of those that should be explored. It is perhaps
the most obvious generalization of the super-
Newtonian theory, and it is technically fairly
easy to handle.
We summarize briefly the results of the super-
Newtonian theory. According to this theory,
there are special coordinate systems, called 4,
charts or Newtonian charts, in which the com-
ponents of the metric are
 RASTALL: A THEORY OF GRAVITY 67

[1.1] g,,, = 61,,e-2$; g,, = go, = -6
PO
where $ = 4 - 40 is a constant, 4 = @Ic:,
$03
@ is the Newtonian gravitational potential, and
CE is the constant, measured
speed of light. The summation convention applies
to lower case Latin indices (range (1, 2, 3)), and
to lower case Greek indices (range (0, 1, 2, 31).
Those unfamiliar with the super-Newtonian
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e 2$ when Yo = 0. The norm of Y with respect to g is
Ig,, Yp Yvl'I2, and the norm with respect to g is
lg,, YVyv~'I2, Intuitively speaking, we can there-
fore say that replacing the metric by corre-
sponds to 'stretching' vectors parallel to the x0
direction by a factor e$, and vectors orthogonal
to the xO direction by a factor e-$. There is now
a n obvious way of generalizing the theory. One

jntroduces a flat metric and a vector field n , and

note that the metric 1 is
~ u l l e dfrom the air, but is derived from general
principles. The exponential dependence of the
metric components o n $ is a consequence of the
assumption that the gravitational potential is
arbitrary to the extent of an additive constant-
the same assumption that is made in the classical
Newtonian theory. A complete discussion is
given in I.
Let x p be the coordinates of a 4, chart, and
definef,p = af/ax"Or function f. The field
equation satisfied by $ in the super-Newtonian
theory can then be written
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defines a metricg that stretches vectors parallel to
,, by a factor elk, and vectors orthogonal to n by a
factor e - $ (as before, one c ~ o o s e sthe sign of
g,, YpYvto be the same as that of g,, YvYv).One
then finds equations for and $ such that [ I ,11
and [ I .21 hold under appropriate, special condi-
tions. the next sections we will make these
ideas more precise.
2. The Metric
I n the super-Newtonian theory, there is
a chart in which the components of the
metric are given by [].I], or equivalently by
+

g,,, = e-2$(q,v (1 - e4"')6,06vo). T o generalize

11.21 $,,rlr,r + a$,lI1$,rll
= 4"'
the theory, we assume thatg = e-2$(g fn*@n*), +
where k = G,c,-~, GI: is the experimentally o r in terms of con~ponents
measured value of the gravitational constant, E is
the energy density of the sources of the gravita- t2.l 1 s,, = e - 2Jl(gllv+ fnllnv)
tional field, and is a constant. If one chooses where + and f are functions, n* is a timelike,
a = 0, the theory predicts values of the gravita- covariant vector field with components n,,, and g
tional red shift, the relativistic perihelion advance is a flat metric. The contravariant components of
of planets, and the bending of light by the Sun and g are defined by g ~ v g v , = 6,,, gwg,, = 6,,,
which are the same as those given by the Einstein and one finds that
:
theory. The choice a = - may be physically
more appealing because it implies that the energy [2.21 g" 'e2'(g" - f ( l +f~)-lfi"')
density of the gravitational field acts as a source where = g ~ ~ nJ v=, g ~ ~ n , n= v 6vn,.
of the gravitational field in the same way as any L~~ be the vector field with components
other form of energy. In this case the predicted n~ = g ~ ~ = n ve2$(1 + f ~ ) -15,. ~f yis a vector field
values of the red shift and light bending are the orthogonal ton, then g , v n ~ ~ \ na v= ~ = v 0, and [2.11
same as before, but the perihelion advance is g , v = ~ ~ ~y ~ y vsimilarly,
~ e-2",v , one has
only 11/12, o r 92%, of the Einstein value, and is g,vn~,,v = e 2 + ~ ( 1+ . f ~ ) - I ,andg,vnpn~= e 4 $ ~ ( ]+
compatible with Dicke's measurements of the f ~ ) - so
~ , that g,vilp~~v = e-'$(l + fJ)g,,nPnv. By
oblateness of the Sun, but not with those of Hill analogy with the s u p e r - ~ e w t o n i a n theory, we
(Dicke and Goldenberg 1974; Dicke 197O; Hill ,,quire that vectors parallel to n be 'stretched7 by
et al. 1974). a factor e$ when one passes from the metric
AS well as the metric g, we can define a second g t o the metric g , We therefore assume that
metric g o n spacetime by requiring that g,, = q,, e-2$(1 +fJ) = e2+, or that
in the 4, chart x , where q = 6,,,,, qPo = TO, =
- 6,,. We call g a j a t metric because its Riemann [2.3] 1 +fJ=e4$
tensor vanishes. If Y is a vector field with compo-
nents Yp, [I.]] givesg,, YpYv= e2$g,, YUYvwhen
Defining , = npn,, we have
y1 = y2 = y3= 0, andg,,YPYv = e-2$g,vYpYv [2.4] np = e-2%zp; N = e-2$$'n, =e - 2 $ ~
 68 CAN. J. PHYS. VOL. 54, 1976

and N < 0, J < 0 because n* is timelike. F r o m there is a function 0 such that n, = O,,. (The
[2.1], [2.2], and [2.3] metric [l . l ] corresponds t o 0 being a function of
x0 alone). We emphasize that there is n o com-
+
[2.5] g,,. = e-2$(g,v J-'(e4$ - l)n,n,) pelling physical reason for making this assump-
[2.6] g'" = e2*(gpv+ J-1(e-4$ - I)fipfiv) tion.
The field equations are derived from a varia-
Since g is a flat metric, there is a chart in tional principle 6 S = 0, where S = S, + SF, and
which g,, = g" = q,,? We call such a chart a g S,, SFcorrespond to the gravitational and non-
Minkowski chart, or s ~ m p l ya Minkowski chart if gravitational fields respectively. In terms of
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no ambiguity can arise. At any point p, one can Lagrangian densities, 9, and 9 , , we write
choose a g Minkowski chart such that n,,,(p) = 0, SG= 19,(-det g)1i2 d4x and SF= l Y F ( - d e t
,
J = - n ( P)', and then from [2.5], g ,,,, (p) = g)1i2 d4x, where det g is the determinant of the
e - 2 + ( ~,,,,,,
) 6 g,,(p) = - e2*(P)6,p.In general, there
components g,, of the metric in the chart x, and
is n o g Minkowski chart in whlch these equations d4x = dxOd x l d x 2 dx3.
hold at every point, so that [I. I] are valid. When We assume that 9, is independent of the non-
such a chart exists, it is called a Newtonian chart, gravitetional fields, and that 9Fis independent
as in 1. of the derivatives of the g,,. One can usually
In the special case when a Newtonian chart x guess 9, from the corresponding special relati-
exists, one can define another Newtonian chart x ' vistic Lagrangian density 9s.If .Ys is a co-
by x'"' = eYxfJ1 and x" = e - b O , for any constant variant function of the variables qA that describe
X, and in x' the components of g are g',,,, = the nongravitational fields, the first derivatives of
- 2(" +r)&
I,ln, g'llo = - e2(*+fi6,,0.The g',, can be qA, and the components of the Minkowski metric
written in the form [2.5]:
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tensor, then Z F is assumed t o be the same

covariant function of the q,, their first deriva-
tives, and the components of the metric g.
Landau and Lifshitz (1962) show that the
where n,,,' = 0,J' = g*'L'vn,,'nv',g*',v= g*'," = q,,, variation in SF corresponding to the variation
but the flat metric g * is not the same as g. (In the 6gPvof the components of the metric is
chart x, one has g* ,,,,, = e2", ,,,, = e2%,,,, , , and
g*,o = e-2",, = -e-2+r6 ,). We recall that in I
it was assumed that $ is arbitrary to the extent of where the Tpv are the components of the energy-
an additive constant. In the present theory, even momentum tensor of the nongravitational fields,
when Newtonian charts exist, this cannot be o r of the sources as we shall say for brevity. The
assumed without proof. sign of the T p vhas been chosen opposite to that
of Landau and Lifshitz. The 6g,, in [3.1] are
3. Field Equations found from [2.5],In a g Minkowski chart one
T o make the theory simple, we assume that has

We assume that 9, is quadratic in the first derivatives of $ and 0:

where thef,,, are functions of $ alone. We shall try to determine thef,,, by requiring that the theory
reduce to the super-Newtonian theory in the appropriate circumstances. We writef,,,' = dJ;,,/d$, etc.
From [2.4], we note that gpv0,,O,, = e-2$gpv0,,0,v = e - 2 * and
~ gPO,,,$,, = e-2$gpv0,y$,v.
The field equations for 0 and $ are most easily derived in a g Minkowski chart. Puttlng g,, = q w v
in [2.5], one gets d e t g = -e-4*, and using [3.1], [3.2], [3.3], one finds that
 RASTALL: A THEORY OF GRAVITY 69

where the g p vare given by [2.6] with g p v= qyv.

It is conventional to define the energy dens~tyof the sources in any chart to be -Too (recall that
the sign of our T,, is opposite to that of Landau and Lifshitz). However, in the present theory it is
more natural to define it invariantly by
P.61 E~ = N-'TPvn,nV = e2*J- ITpVn,nv
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where we have used [2.4].

Our assumptions about Y F and Y Gimply that the energy-momentum tensor of the sources
satisfies the usual equation

where the semicolon denotes the covariant derivative with respect tog. If the sources consist of 'dust'
(that is, if there is a function CE and a vector field u such that Tpv= CEupuv and g,,uI'rv = - I), then
[3.7] implies that the paths of the dust particles are geodesics (cf. Synge (1960), p. 175). As in other
theories of gravity, one shows that slowly rotating bodies of small but finite size also follow approxi-
mately geodesic paths. This is compatible with the results of the super-Newtonian theory.'

4. Determining the f,,

The functionsf;,, in the Lagrangian density [3.3] are determined by requiring that the theory should
For personal use only.

reduce to the super-Newtonian theory in the appropriate circumstances. The necessary and sufficient
condition for the metric [2.5] to reduce to the metric [1.1] of the super-Newtonian theory is that 0
be a function of x0 alone. We can then write 0,,, = 6,0€lo. If in addition $,o = Oo,o = TlllO = 0
(static fields and no momentum flux), then 0, is a constant, and [3.4] and [3.5] become

where we have used [3.6].

We can satisfy [4.2] by taking f3 = 0, that is by dropping the last term in [3.3]. As in the super-
= E (cf. I, equation 6.7). We assume that f , does not vanish, and
Newtonian theory, we write e - 2 * ~ E
+ -'
write f,'f, = a. Equation 4.1 then becomes

Equation 4.3 is equivalent to [I .2] of the super-Newtonian theory provided that the following condi-
tions are satisfied: (i) cr must be constant (in I we considered the cases cr = 0 and cr = - 4); (ii) the
term f2'f-'002 must be negligible; (iii) the equation -If,-' = 4rrk = 4 r r G , ~ , - ~ must hold;
(jU)e - 4 6 ~ ~ r must
n be negligible in comparison with E.
Condition (ir) holds in most astronomical applications of the theory. We shall choose f 2 so that
(ii) holds in noncosmological applications of the theory (in cosmology, the term f2'f-1002 may be
important). Condition (i) implies that f , = h e2"*,where h and cr are constants, h # 0. Condition (iii)
then becomes k = G , c , - ~ = -(8rrh)-' eC2'*, or GE = GE*e-2"*, where GE* = -cE4(8nh)-'.
This means that the gravitational 'constant', G,, is not truly constant unless cr = 0. In fact, the
contributions of individual astronomical objects to $ are usually small. The contribution of the Sun,

'In the notation of I, Sect. 7, the Lagrangian of a particle is

L = -t,lc2(1 - u ~ ~ - ~ )=' I-t)lgCt2
~ e"(l - ~2 e-4*cE-2)'/Z = -r,lECE(e2*CEZ- e-Z*U2)112 =
- t?zEcE(-gpv(dx11/dt)(dxv/dt))112
where the g,, are defined by (1. l ] above.
 70 C A N . J . PHYS. VOL. 54, 1976

for example, is nowhere greater than about It is therefore often good enough t o replace $ by
an average value $, and take

We shall later identify $, as the potential corresponding to some cosmological model. If a # 0,

the time dependence of the cosmological \lCc gives rise t o a time dependent GE, as seems to be re-
quired to explain the Moon's deceleration (Van Flandern 1975). If a < 0, a decreasing$, corresponds
t o a decreasing G,.
In deriving the above results, we assumed that 0,, = 6,,0,. This means that 0 is proportional t o
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the x0 coordinate of the g Minkowski chart in which the sources are at rest (TmO= 0). In general,
there is no g Minkowski chart in which the sources are at rest, and we cannot guess the solution of
the field equations in such a simple way.
On physical grounds, one expects the boundary conditions on 0 to be determined by the matter
distribution in the universe. If one considers the usual, simple cosmological models, in which the
matter distribution is idealized as a homogeneous fluid that fills spacetime, then it is natural t o
assume that the vector field n is tangential to the paths of the fluid particles. This means that in local
problems, where one considers a system in a cosmologically small region Q of spacetime, one can
assume that there is a g Minkowski chart w and a constant 0, such that (aO/awp)(w) + Sp00, when
wmwmis large. One can characterize w in more physical terms as being a g Minkowski chart in which
the average velocity of galaxies in the neighborhood of Q is zero. More briefly, one can say that w is
a t rest wit11 respect to the galactic frame in Q.
Any g Minkowski chart x is related to w by a Lorentz transformation. We restrict ourselves to the
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case when the speed of x in w is small compared with the speed of light. That is, if Vm are the com-
ponents of the 3-velocity of x in w, we assume that VmVm<< cE2.For simplicity, we assume also that
the spatial axes of x are parallel to those of w. The boundary conditions on 0 in x are that

for large values of xmxn',where 0,, = aO/axp.

We shall derive approximate forms of the field equations, [3.4] and [3.5], and then solve them with
the boundary conditions [4.5] for the case of a spherically symmetric source at rest in x. The require-
ment that the metric be similar to that predicted by the super-Newtonian theory will then determine
function f,.
We assume that everywhere 0,,0,,, << 0,,'. (This is consistent with [4.5].) We assume also that the
gravitational fields are weak, so that terms quadratic in the $,, are negligible. From [2.5] and [2.6],
one has in the chart x

Taking f, = 0, k* = G,*c,-~ = -(8nh)-I, fi = -(8nk*)-I eZuJI,E = E~ e-'*, and using [3.6], we

find that [3.4] and [3.5] become

If $,o = 0, = 0, Tmp= 0, and if the f2' term in [4.8] is negligible (cf. condition (ii) above), then
[4.8] and [4.9] reduce t o

In addition, we assume that E is spherically symmetric, and that there is a constant so such that E
vanishes when s = (X"X"')~I~> so. If $(x) + $ C , a constant, as s + co,then the solution of [4.10] in
the region s > so is
 RASTALL: A THEORY OF GRAVITY 71

[4.12] = \lrc - (11s)

where I is a constant. We suppose that 11s is small, so that is negligible. Substituting [4.12] in
[4.11], and assuming that f2 does not vanish, one finds that for s > so
[4.13] 0,,,, + K ~ s - ~ x " ~=, ,0
where K = f2'(\lrc)/f2(\lrc), a constant. The solution of [4.13] that satisfies the boundary conditions
[4.5] is
[4.14] 0(x) = V " C ~ - ~ ~ ~+X4 "~(1~~ - +
l ) OOxO+ 0,
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where 0, is a constant. It follows that

[4.15] 0,,,,(~)= ~"c,-l0, + $KIC,- 'O,(vms- - vpxpxms-3,
Substituting [4.12] and [4.15] in [4.6] gives

The second term vanishes provided that K = 4(e2*c + e-2*c)/(e2*c - eC2*c). That is, g,, is constant
if terms in I2s-, are negligible and if f2(\lr) = p(e2* - e-2*)2, where p is constant. More generally,
if we take

where p and p are constants, [4.16] becomes

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In physical terms, we have calculated the gravitational field due to a spherically symmetric object,
such as a nonrotating or slowly rotating star, that is moving slowly with respect to the galactic frame.
It is reasonable to assume that our Sun is such a star, and although the speed at which it moves is
unknown, it is unlikely to be very much smaller than its orbital speed of approximately 250 km s-'
about the center of our galaxy. It follows from the results of Rastall (1969) that (P(e2*c - e-2*~)Iis
unlikely to be greater than about if the predicted motion of the planets is t o agree with observa-
tion.
We have now determined the functionsJ,, to a considerable degree. The revised expression for the
Lagrangian density [3.3] is

where h, p, a,and p are constants, h-' = -8nk*, k* = G,*c,-~, GE = G,* e-2"*. Since from [4.17]

the field equations [3.4] and [3.5] in any g Minkowski chart become

In the approximate field equations [4.8] and [4.9], valid in a g Minkowski chart where 0,,0,, << OVo2
and the products \lr,p\lr,v are negligible, one has only to substitute for f, and f,' from [4.17] and [4.20].
Using [2.4], [2.6], and the fact that det g = -e-4* in a g Minkowski chart, we write the general
equations, [4.21] and [4.22], in the covariant form
 72 C A N . J. PHYS. VOL. 54, 1976

where the semicolon again denotes the covariant derivative with respect to g.
As an application of the theory, we calculate the approximate form of the metric g outside a
spherically symmetric body which is rotating with a constant angular velocity in a g Minkowski
chart x. The center of the body is taken to be at the spatial origin of x, and the axis of rotation
passes through its center. The body is assumed to rotate slowly enough, and its mass is small enough,
for the approximate field equations, [4.8] and [4.9], to be valid. The center of the body is supposed to
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be at rest in the galactic frame, so that the boundary conditions are that $(x) + $, 8,,(x) + 6,,8,
~ ~CO, where $, and 8, are constants. We assume that the components Tmnof the
as s = ( x " ' x " ' ) ~4
energy-momentum tensor are negligible, and that $,, = 0, TPV,,= 0, and 8,,, = 0. It follows from
the last equation and the boundary conditions that 8,, = 8,.
As usual in noncosmological problems, we assume that the f,'term in [4.8] is negligible, and we
find that

Since the mass of the body is not large, its contribution to $ is small, and we can replace $ by $,
on the right-hand side of this equation. The solution of [4.25] can then be written in the form
+ = $(,) + $(,), where $(,) is the solution when one sets TI"' = 0, and $(,, is the solution when
E = 0. The Tn'O are proportional to the components of the 3-momentum density of the sources. We
suppose that the body rotates in such a manner that the 3-momentum density is orthogonal to the
radius vector from the center, that is x'"Tn'O = 0. Since $(,, is a function of s alone, one gets
For personal use only.

- 0; and since
$(l),r,,T"10 is a linear function of the T"', and terms quadratic in the T"' are
negligible (slow rotation), we conclude that $,,,T"'~= 0. It follows from [3.7], [4.6], and [4.7] that
TnO,,,,= To0(e4$- 1)8,,,,$ ,,,,8,-' (we are again neglecting 8 ,,,,8 ,,,, in comparison with OVo2),
and one
can show that [4.9] reduces to

whose solution is 8,,,, = 0. Hence, g,,,, = 0 from [4.6]. This result differs from that of the Einstein
theory, where the corresponding metric is of the well-known Lense-Thirring form (Lense and
Thirring 1918). One may be able to distinguish between these metrics by measurements on an
orbiting gyroscope (Schiff 1960; Rastall 1966).

5. Cosmological Assumptions
We next discuss elementary cosmology. In this section we summarize, without proof, some well-
known cosmological results which greatly restrict the possible form of the metric [2.5]. The complete
determination of the metric requires the use of the field equations, and is considered in the next
section.
We assume, in the usual manner, that a family 9- of time-like geodesics is defined on spacetime,
such that exactly one geodesic of 9- passes through each point. The geodesics are identified with
the world lines of an idealized, smooth matter distribution. The descriptions of the universe given by
observers whose world lines belong to 5 are assumed to be all equivalent. One can prove (see, for
example, Robertson and Noonan (1968), Chap. 14; Eisenhart (1926), Sect. 27) that there is a chart y
in which the components of the metric g are
f5.11 gP0 = -hPO; gntn = hInnR2(1+ $5r2)-2
where r 2 = yPyP,R is a function of alone, and 5 E (0, f 1 ). We call y a cosmological chart. The
elements of 9 are the coordinate curves, and are orthogonal to the level surfaces of yo (the
 RASTALL: A THEORY OF GRAVITY 73

surfaces yo = constant). The level surfaces of are homogeneous and isotropic, and have constant
curvature.
The vector field n must be parallel t o the tangent field v of the family of geodesics Y. (That is,
nm = 0 in the cosmological chart y.) For if n were not parallel t o v, then its projection orthogonal
to v would give a field of preferred directions on the level surfaces of yo, which contradicts the result
that these surfaces are isotropic. It follows that n* = H dyO for some function H and, from the
assumption of Sect. 3 that n, = 0,,, or n* = d0, we see that 0 is a function of yo alone.
It follows from 15.11, 12.41, and 12.51 that J = -e2$Oro2 in the chart y, and that
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The condition for g to be a flat metric is that its Riemann tensor should vanish, which one easily
shows is equivalent to [(e2$~2),o]2
= - 4 5 ~ ' , or to

When 5 = 1, the only real solution of 15.31 is the trivial one, R = 0. We have, therefore, to consider
only the cases 5 = 0 and 5 = -1.
When 5 = 0, 15.31 integrates t o give
15.41 eqR = A2
where A is a constant (recall that I) and R are functions of yo alone). We assume that A # 0. We
see from 15.21 that in this case the cosmological chart y is related to a g Minkowski chart x by
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The g Minkowski chart is in fact a Newtonian chart, and the geometry of the level surfaces of yo
and x0 is Euclidean.
When 5 = - 1, the cosmological chart y is related to a g Minkowski chart x by the equations

where r 2 = yPyP. One can check 15.61 by using 15.21. Equations 5.6 were derived in the standard
way by parallel propagation of an orthonormal tetrad from the origin.
We assume that the matter which fills our model universe is an ideal fluid. The paths of the fluid
particles are the geodesics of the family Y, and the components of the energy-momentum tensor
are

where 6, and p, are the proper energy density and pressure. In any chart, vpvp = g,,vpvv = - 1, and
it follows that

Since n is parallel to v, one has 6, = N-'Tpvn,nv = E,, from [3.6].

In a cosmological chart y, the functions p , and 6, depend only on yo, and vp = F,,. From
~ v- 1, one has V,V";~=,,and it follows that [3.7] is equivalent t o the equations
g , v ~ p=

Equation 5.9 contains no new information (we know that vP;,vv = 0 because the paths of the
fluid particles are geodesics, and we know that p,,, = 0).
From 15.11, the determinant of the g,, in the chart y is - ~ ~ +
( 1$ 5 r 2 ) - 6 , and it follows that
up;, = 3R-'R,,. If one neglects p, in comparison with E,, as seems to be justified in our universe,
then 15.101 integrates to give
[S.ll] &,R3 = B
where B is a constant.
 74 CAN. J. PHYS. VOL. 54, 1976

6. Equations for R and $

T o determine the functions R and $, and hence the explicit form of the metric [5.1], we must use
the field equations, [4.23] and [4.24]. In the cosmological chart y, we write (-det g)112 = y, and
from [5.1] we get

Since n, = 8 ,,,, = $,, = T"' = 0, one has 17' = - 6 O,,, N = gP,,n'nV= - OSo2,and
'?
E, = 5, = -Too,
3p, = -Tm"gm, from [3.6], [5.8], and 15.11. Equat~ons4.23 and 4.24 become
Can. J. Phys. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Lakehead University on 06/16/13

Substituting [6.1] in [6.3], and remembering that R, $, and 8 are functions of alone, one finds

for some constant C. We again assume that p , is negligible in comparison with E,. We use [5.1 I],
[6.1], and [6.4] to eliminate E,, y, and 8,, from [6.2], and get

Equations 5.3 and 6.5 determine R and \Ir. When 6 = 0, [5.4] holds, and writing R,, = R', etc.,
For personal use only.

one finds

T o integrate [6.6], one multiplies by 2R'R-'". We write the result only for the case P = 0:
[6.71 R r 2 - D R - ~ + ~ ~ ( A B-R 1)-2
- ~ + ER~E-1 = K R ~ "
where K is a constant.
When 6 = - 1, [5.3] gives (eZCR2),,= +2R. Define z = f4 eZCR2,so that z' = dz/dyO = R,
eZC= *2z/zf2. Equation 6.5 then becomes

A full discussion of [6.6] and [6.8] and their
cosmological consequences is an ideal thesis
topic, and will be published elsewhere.
The cosmological solutions that we have dis-
cussed determine the average 'background
metric' of the universe. When we consider the
gravitational interactions of a system in a
cosmologically small spacetime region 0 , the
cosmological solutions-which we now write as
$, and 8,-determine the boundary conditions
on $ and 8. One can usually take $, and €I,,, to
be constant on 0. We identify $, with the I) ,of
[4.4], and we write e,,, = eo!,O, where 80 is a
constant. The boundary cond~tionsare obtained
by transforming from the cosmological chart y t o
a g Minkowski chart x by means of [5.5] or [5.6].
One chooses the origins of the charts to be in 0,
so that r << 1 on 0 , and one identifies x with the
chart w of Sect. 4.
7. Conclusion
It should be possible to test the theory in the
near future. By measurements of the solar
oblateness, or of the orbits of satellites or as-
teroids, one can determine the constant a. The
time dependence of the gravitational constant
given by [4.4] can then be compared with
astronomical observations. If one can measure
the precession of an orbiting gyroscope to an
accuracy of about 1%, then one can check the
 RASTALL: A THEORY OF GRAVITY
metric of a spinning body derived at the end of
Sect. 4.
The most obvious applications of the theory
are to cosmology and to collapsing objects. Its
most obvious weakness is perhaps the assump-
tion that n, = O,,. It will probably be worthwhile
to look at least at the next simplest case, when
LZGis the sum of a term quadratic in the +,, and
a term quadratic in the first derivatives of the n,.
Can. J. Phys. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Lakehead University on 06/16/13
Acknowledgments
This work was begun at the University of
Auckland. I wish to thank Professor D. J.
Hooton and the Department of Physics for their
hospitality.
For personal use only.
75
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