SH1661

Biological and Cultural Evolution

Biological and cultural evolutions are key concepts in the study of the origins of modern humans.

Biological evolution refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits
of biological populations from one generation to another. Biological evolution is based on the theory of
evolution that was introduced by the famous English naturalist and geologist Charles Darwin. He
hypothesized that the evolution of species happens through the process of natural selection.

Natural selection is the outcome of a process that affects the frequencies of traits in a particular
environment. Traits that enhance survival and reproductive success increase in frequency over time.

Principles of natural selection:

1. Every species is made up of a variety of individuals wherein some are better adapted to their
environment compared to others.
2. Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can be inherited.
3. Organisms that have most suitable to their environment will survive and transfer these variations to
their offspring in subsequent generations.

Cultural evolution or sociocultural evolution refers to the changes or development in cultures from a
simple form to a more complex form of human culture. Sociocultural evolution happens as a result of human
adaptation to different factors like climatic changes and population increase.

The process of sociocultural evolution explains why human societies change through time. Societies
produce new forms of subsistence, acquire more knowledge, develop different levels of innovation, and
apply new forms of technology as a response to the challenges posed by the environment.

Level of Development

A. Hunting and Gathering Societies

The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is hunting and gathering. Hunting and
gathering societies produce simple forms of tools used to hunt for animals and gather plants and
vegetation for food. Since hunting and gathering societies rely on nature for their food, they frequently
move and did not have permanent settlements. Hence, they are nomadic societies. Family is the basic
unit of hunting and gathering societies. They usually have a shaman or priest who acts as a leader of
the group. Since hunters and gatherers rely on nature for food and survival, they believe that spirits live
in the world.
B. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
Horticultural societies are described as semisedentary societies because they do not frequently move
as opposed to hunting and gathering societies. These societies subsist through small-scale farming.
They produce and use simple forms of od hand tools to plant crops.
Pastoral societies' principal means of subsistence is animal domestication. Pastoralist societies are
classified as animal herders and subsist based on the resources provided by their animals. They are
also engaged in small-scale trading with other groups.
C. Agricultural Societies
Agricultural societies started to cultivate wheat, barley, peas, rice, and millet. Humans began to farm
and domesticate animals as a form of subsistence. During the Neolithic Revolution, agricultural
societies developed and their population increased into millions. They also settled permanently and
improve the technology for farming. Through the agricultural revolution, members of society produced
a surplus of the food supply that was transported by animal-powered wagons. Money became a form
of exchange replacing the barter system.
D. Industrial Societies
Industrial societies began when the industrial revolution swept through Europe during the late 18 th
century. During the Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were harnessed, advanced forms of

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technology were applied, and types of machinery were invented. These changes led to the
industrialization of the transformation of agricultural society into production and manufacturing.
E. Post Industrial Societies
With the development of information technology and computers, many societies transformed into post-
industrial societies. The Post-Industrial Revolution is an important development from the Industrial
Revolution as economic production focused on the use and application of new information technology
rather than factories. In the post-industrial era, production centers on computers and other electronic
devices that create, process, and apply ideas and information.

Political Evolution and the Development of Early Civilization

A civilization develops because of a society’s highly advanced level of culture, social organization, political
developments, the judicial system, arts, and another form of culture at a particular time.

Four Major Civilizations

a. The Sumerian civilization that developed along Tigris and Euphrates River in West Asia
b. Indus Valley civilization that started along the Indus River Valley in India
c. Shang civilization of China that developed near the Huang Hi/ Huang He River
d. Egyptian civilization that started along the Nile River

Reference:
Contreras, A., Dela Cruz, A., Erasga, D., & Fadrigon, C. (2016). The Padayon Series: Understanding
Culture, Society, and Politics. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

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