1.

L'Amour:
 l'amour source de bonheur: 
-Les deux amoureux partagent le même sentiment d'amour qui est
fondé sur la fidélité, la confiance, le respect. L'amour devient une
source de bien-être. Il assure l'équilibre psychique puisque la présence
de la femme aimée accorde à son élu la béatitude et donne sens à sa
vie. Ce plaisir a été éprouvé par Louis Aragon dont la passion fervente
pour Elsa Triolet est devenue une source d'inspiration. 
-Le coup de foudre crée aussi un bonheur indescriptible. Les deux
amoureux se sentent en harmonie parfaite. Leurs yeux se répondent
et par suite leurs cœurs se font écho. 
-l'amour qui mène au mariage est aussi un amour heureux car les
deux amoureux réussissent à s' unir par un lien conjugal témoignant
de leur affection. ainsi, le conjoint partage avec sa partenaire ses
soucis, ses peines, ses joies...
l'amour source de souffrance: 
L’amour possède un aspect narcissique et possessif qui nous prive de
notre liberté. L’amoureux cherche à posséder l’être aimé.
L’amour peut être une source de souffrance et de mélancolie.
Lorsque l'amant apprend que l’être aimé l'a trahi, sa vie s'obscurcit.
citons à titre d'exemple le chevalier de Grieux à la découverte de la
trahison de sa bien-aimée Manon. Il était tellement désespéré qu'il a
perdu le goût de vivre.
-l'amour non partagé cause la souffrance de la personne aimée qui se
sent négligée. elle vit des troubles psychologiques qui peuvent la
conduire au suicide .
-l'amour peut être source de malheur quand il est basé sur l' intérêt
personnel car le côté matériel l'emporte sur les sentiments sincères et
surtout sur l'amour par exemple les immigrés cherchent souvent à
conclure un mariage d'intérêt avec les européennes pour avoir le visa
et pour régulariser sa situation d'immigré clandestin. 
une fois son but est atteint, l'homme demande à sa femme de se
divorcer ce qui cause le malheur de cette infortunée. (trouble
 psychologique, inconfiance, refus de se remarier à cause de
l'insincérité).
-L' échec passionnel provoque aussi une grande tristesse .les victimes
des séparations dues à la mort, à un malentendu, à une trahison
sentent une souffrance irréversible. Musset dans les nuits d' octobre
écrit apes avoir été trahi par sa maitresse" il faut aimer après avoir
aimé, il faut souffrir après avoir souffert".
- Après la mort de Virginie, Paul n'a pas pu vivre sans sa bien-aimée
d'où sa décision de se suicider et de rejoindre son élue même à la
mort.
2. La guerre et paix:
La guerre permet aussi de lever des budgets colossaux pour
des recherches sur les armes, la biologie, les transports,
budgets qui ne seraient pas admis en temps de paix.
la guerre a des conséquences graves sur la santé des individus
et l'environnement: -la santé: blessures, cicatrices, handicap,
déformation du corps, mutilation, parfois des problèmes
respiratoires à cause de la pollution de l'air.
-l'environnement: Désastres écologiques, catastrophes
humanitaire, pollution, mort des animaux, manque des espaces
du pâturage, la biodiversité décline....
* destruction de l'infrastructure, pauvreté, mort des innocents,
séparation des membres de la famille, handicap, corps mutilés,
l'effondrement économique , le terrorisme, la torture, les crimes,
vols, la pollution, les terres sont conquises ou perdues, des
tensions internationales naissent, des peuples souffrent. 

Avantages: 
La guerre devient nécessaire et vitale quand les économies
intérieures sont saturées, ainsi par la guerre un pays peut
compter sur la conquête de nouveaux marchés en exportant
son capital financier par la force des armes et trouver ainsi de
nouveaux débouchés.
La guerre permet aussi de freiner la surcroissance de la
population, et après une guerre, il faut tout reconstruire: donc
elle permet aussi une fois finie une relance de l'économie. 
Les causes de la guerre: 
la guerre qui s'explique par un conflit armé opposant au moins
deux parties ne date pas d'aujourd'hui .en effet elle est aussi
vieille que l'humanité et elle peut se déclencher pour plusieurs
raisons: *En premier lieu , maintes guerres se sont déclenchées
pour des causes religieuses. Et de nos jours , la défense de
l'islam continue à intéresser les mouvements de " Fath" et
 "Hamas" en Palestine et en Liban et à allumer des guerres.
*En deuxième lieu , certaines guerres s'allument dans le monde
vu que les richesses sont mal partagées dans l'univers. En fait,
plusieurs pays se noient dans les puits de pétrole, d'autres
marchent sur des terres qui fourmillent d'or, diamants..
*En troisième lieu , certaines pays déclarent la guerre contre
leurs ennemis pour des raisons militaires.
*Finalement; plusieurs guerres ont commencé pour des raisons
géopolitiques . EN d'autres termes, ce sont des stratégies
dictées par les grandes puissances qui cherchent à subdiviser
le monde selon leurs intérêts économiques consistant à
contrôler les richesses mondiales.

Les conséquences de la guerre:

* D'abord les guerres ravagent des pays , détruisent des villes
de fond en comble réduisent des villages en cendre , des
sociétés ,des ateliers, des écoles. Par ailleurs , la destruction
des richesses privées et nationales tels que les banques, les
centres de recherches tue toute une nation.
*Ensuite, la plupart des victimes de la guerre sont des enfants ,
des vieux, et des femmes faibles et innocents . En plus, la
guerre est source de famine , de pauvreté , de maladies . En
effet , les enfants privés très tôt des établissement scolaires ,
de la nourriture , des soins médicaux sombreront dans la
misère et le malheur .
*En outre , plusieurs gens qui ont vécus des moments de
guerre sont touchés par la mort de leurs proches.
*Enfin , les troubles psychologiques à savoir la phobie ; les
dépressions , les complexes des gens qui ont assisté à la
guerre sont irréversibles.
3. Liberté:
introduction:
il existe sans doute plusieurs façons de définir la liberté: la
liberté de penser, de parler et surtout d'exister car nous savons
bien que la liberté est un pouvoir, pouvoir d'agir sans être
nuisible pour la liberté Emme même dans quelle condition la
liberté peut-elle devenir dangereux? peut-on alors vivre sans
liberté dans ces cas? La liberté est l'une des valeurs suprêmes
que l'homme recherche depuis longtemps Notre meilleure
liberté consiste á faire autant que possible prévaloir les bons
penchants sur les mauvais. a liberté est un état une situation
d'une personne qui n'est pas soumis à quelqu'un. 

-la liberté signifie la possibilité d'agir selon sa propre volonté

sans contrainte , elle est un principe fondamentale de la
démocratie . 

-en politique la liberté signifie le pouvoir d'agir au sein d'une

société selon sa volonté On ne doit pas limiter la liberté qui
garntit a l'homme le respect de son droit et son humanité la
liberté est une valeur noble et à la fois chère, pour cela la
chercher signifie, sans aucun doute payer une rançon assez
grande pour l'avoir effectivement, la liberté est la plus souvent
payer par le sang et les hommes la liberté est la seul valeur qui
nous donne l'opportunité de s'affirmer et de reconnaître soi
même: c'est une satisfaction à la fois intellectuelle et affective . 

la liberté est un état une situation d'une personne qui n'est pas
soumis à quelqu'un -la liberté signifie la possibilité d'agir selon
sa propre volonté sans contrainte , elle est un principe
fondamentale de la démocratie . 
 -en politique la liberté signifie le pouvoir d'agir au sein d'une
société selon sa volonté On ne doit pas limiter la liberté qui
garntit a l'homme le respect de son droit et son humanité La
liberté est un droit fondamentale ,elle est un besoin vitale est
consiste a ce libérer de tt les lois qui sont anormale
,immorale. . 

-la liberté est la droit de faire tous ce q les lois permettent

(Montesquieu) -la liberté doit être limitée par éviter les excès
,elle organise la vie sociale e partage les plus faibles.les dérives
de la liberté excessive sont nombreux :l'anarchies, l’insécurités
et le désordre et listabilité C'est vrai que la liberté ne peut pas
être absolue mais plutôt réglementée par des lois pour éviter
l'anarchie et le chaos. La liberté en fait plusieurs philosophes et
écrivains ont essayé de définir ce concept. "Lalande" par
exemple ,la conçoit comme étant " l'absence ou la suppression
de toute contrainte considérée comme anormale ,illégitime ,
immorale". La liberté est un droit fondamentale ,elle est un
besoin vitale est consiste a ce libérer de tt les lois qui sont
anormale ,immorale. . 

-la liberté est la droit de faire tous ce q les lois permettent

(Montesquieu) . 

-la liberté doit être limitée par éviter les excès ,elle organise la
vie sociale e partage les plus faibles.les dérives de la liberté
excessive sont nbreux :l'anarchies, l’insécurités et le désordre
et listabilité
4. l'homme et la science:
les avantages et les inconvénients
D'un point de vue historique, on constate que les grandes
étapes de l'humanité ont toutes été marquées par des
découvertes scientifiques qui améliore la vie de l’humain et qui
enlève de grande contrainte et des travaux difficiles ! Ce qui
permet bien des avantages et du gain de temps dans le
domaine pratique. Les progrès servent à tous les humains
même ceux qui le refusent : par exemple la médecine, le savoir
intellectuel, l’espace, l’histoire des monuments et des
personnes …
On voit les avantages du progrès : Les bibliothèques
accessibles sur le net, les livres expliquées en détail, les
monuments du monde entier vue sur un écran et tout cela,
n'importent ou, à n'importe quel moment.. Tout cela en grande
partis grâce a l’ordinateur. Maintenant plus petit que les livres
très anciens ses ordinateurs peuvent contenir des siècles de
recherches, de manuscrits, d’invention ! Les magnétophones,
MP3, téléphones et autres nouvelles inventions permette aussi
d'écouter un livre-cassette ou CD en se promenant dans la rue,
un outil précieux pour les aveugles et mal voyants.
Les inventions qui servent pour la vie de tous les jours : avec le
lave-linge, le lave-vaisselle, les nouveaux ustensiles de cuisine,
font gagner un temps précieux qui permet d’avoir un travail qui
n’est pas a temps partiel et donc un meilleur salaire. Les
moyens de transport servent à se déplacer sur des petites ou
grandes distances qui avant prenaient plusieurs heures ou
plusieurs jours. Le temps gagné est un temps précieux pour
avancer sur d’autre recherche! On peut donc dire que les
recherches ne s’arrêteront pas car qui dit recherche dit gain de
temps, gain de temps => travail sur la technologie, travail sur la
technologie => recherche … !
Le progrès permet un gain de temps à l’homme mais aussi une
 amélioration de la vie. L'évolution permet aussi à beaucoup de
personnes d’avoir un confort « matériel ». La découverte des
robots supprime le travail à la chaîne, les engins agricoles
suppriment les plantations et récoltes qui étaient faites à la
main et qui prenait un temps fou ! En libérant l'homme d'un
travail très dur, la découverte offre plus de loisirs et la possibilité
d’enrichir ses connaissances.
Cependant, le progrès commence à dépasser l'homme et finira
par le soumettre. Des exemples flagrants montrent ainsi que le
progrès est aussi dangereux pour notre société : Les
médicaments, trois conséquences : la première qui ne peut pas
être renier est l'allongement de la vie. Cet allongement de la vie
qui n’était apparemment pas prévu entraîne une surpopulation
ainsi que des famines, des problèmes économiques dans
beaucoup de pays. La troisième conséquence est la résistance
des bactéries aux médicaments, car ces dernières s’habituent
aux médicaments ce qui oblige de nouvelle recherche donc le
pris de ces dernières !

Les inventions se retournent contre l'homme, entraînent des

fraudes : piratages d’Internet, vols d’objets de valeurs
inestimables grâce au invention technologiques … Ces progrès
échappent au contrôle de l’homme, suppriment des postes de
travail et provoquent le chômage. Les ordinateurs deviennent
comme une drogue pour certaines personnes et crée une
dépendance. L'utilisation du Web permet au monde entier de
partager des connaissances; Pourtant, la communication
virtuelle est souvent superficielle et quand elle a bien lieu elle
supprime les moyens d’expressions par la parole et engendre
une mauvaise élocution, un non-respect des règles
d’orthographes et de grammaire... . Les jeux vidéo empêche les
loisirs et les gens n’ont plus de vie privée. Les jouets et jeux
vidéo créent un monde barbare et imaginaire que les futurs
 jeunes croiront peut être vrai ! On parle du progrès de la
technologie mais peu du progrès de l'homme? Peu être car il
n’y en a guère !
Il semble que l'homme soit à la merci de la technologie. Le
nucléaire est une source d'énergie nouvelle mais une arme
redoutable. Même si toutes ses inventions paraissent bonnes
elles ont toutes un mauvais côtés ! On ne peut pas nier que le
progrès a beaucoup servis pour l’homme et lui a rendu
beaucoup de service mais s’il n’y a pas de limite peut être qu’un
jour se sera la technologie qui régnera sur l’homme.
5. souvenirs et nostalgie:
Les souvenirs (les réminiscences) peuvent être déclenchés
(suscité) dans des situations de douleurs (faiblesse , malheur )
ou de bonheurs (satisfactions ) et les moments remémorés
(souvenues) ne sont pas toujours agréables à revivre. Vous
exprimerez votre point de vue en vous référant, dans le choix
de vos arguments, à des exemples empruntés à votre
expérience personnelle ou à vos lectures. Les souvenirs
n’apparaissent pas fortuitement, ils sont le résultat d’une
situation au présent qui nous fait remonter le temps aussi loin
que nous le permet notre mémoire. Mais ils sont aussi à la
merci de la situation vécue car si la situation est heureuse, le
souvenir sera de même sinon ce sera le contraire et on ne peut
échapper ni à l’un ni à l’autre. Chacun de nous a son passé qu’il
garde au fond de lui-même parfois même un passé qu’on
essaie d’oublier car il est honteux, blessant et peut-être trop
malheureux comme la perte de personnes chères à notre cœur,
c’est le cas d’Alphonse Lamartine dans son poème Le Lac où il
implore le temps de s’arrêter afin qu’il éternise sa rencontre
passée avec Elvire qui hélas n’est plus de ce monde. C’est la
nature qui lui inspire ces vers et immortalise sa rencontre. Dans
L’Education sentimentale de Gustave Flaubert, les souvenirs de
Frédéric sont ravivés avec l’amertume de n’avoir pas pu profiter
de son amour et de le partager avec Madame Arnoux plus tôt
mais avec la satisfaction de l’avoir révélé même tardivement.
Dans d’autres cas, on n’a pas le choix, la vie nous impose des
blessures, « Nul ne guérit de son enfance », affirme Christian
Signol.
On est contraint de partir et de laisser derrière nous le meilleur.
René Chateaubriand a vécu la même situation en quittant le
château de Combourg au moment de la Révolution.
Citons à ce propos Lord Byron, qui déclare « le souvenir du
bonheur n’est plus du bonheur ; le souvenir de la douleur est de
la douleur encore ». « Rien n'est éternel sauf peut-être le
souvenir qu'on laisse. » Sacha Guitry.
 Smoking:
.

Smoking is a very hazardous habit, the problem is that this behaviour

became very commun specially amoung kids and teenagers. Nowadays,
a lot of msurments are taken to limit this habit and for exemple : smoking
is banned in a lot of public places.
Smoking is the main reason of lung cancer according to ”Action on
Smoking and Health (ASH)”.
Smoking is one of the leading causes of preventable death globally.
Devastating health and economic impact on people and communities
around the globe.
Male and female smokers lose an average of 13.2 and 14.5 years of life,
respectively.
Among the diseases that can be caused by smoking are vascular
stenosis, lung cancer, heart attacks etc …
Tobacco costs heavy smokers a lot of money.
With a good spirit, smokers could stop this practice once and for all.
Follwing a good diet and practicing a lot of exercices is the ideal solution
for quitting this bad habit.
Discovering the nature and spending times in open air is also good for a
healthy body without tobacco.
Enjoying good times with friends can make you forget about cigaretts.
Smoking is one of the most common forms of recreational drug use. And
this kind of addiction is so easy to quit. Determination is the essential
factor of quitting Smoking.
 Brain drain:

Brain drain is defined as the migration of skilled human resources for

trade, education, etc. Young, well-educated, healthy individuals are most
likely to migrate, especially in pursuit of higher education and economic
improvement. The phenomenon of brain drain appeard in the 1960s.
Nowadays, this type of migration became very commun and sometimes it
is considered as a global issue.
The brain drain is a gain for the developing nations: both developed and
developing countries can mutually profit: due to the aging population in
developed countries. These countries suffer from labour in developing
countrie. As for developing countries. They will benefit from the money
that the immigrants send home.
The brain drain is a loss for the dveloping countries: the future of many
poor countries is built upon the talents of their educated children. If a
large number of these highly educated people leave the country, the
investment in education in these countries may be futile.
 Benefits of brain:
– Improve financial conditions. 
– Aquire more skills.
– Send money to their poor families.
– Bring home: expertise, skills a hopes.
– Filling key positions in their countries of origin.
 Drawbacks of brain drain:
– More poverty in the native countries.
– Skill shortages.
– Loss of hopes and expertise.
– To impede the economic growth.
– Less opportunities for development.
If a large number of highly-educated people in developing countries
immigrate, investment in education may be fruitless and such an
immigration may result in a slow economic growth. Improving educational
opportunities aims at reducing specific skill shortages, if measures are
not taken to encourage people to stay in their countries, the shortage of
skills will be much more important and the efforts made to avoid such
shortages may be useless.
 Prize Winners:
Since the begining of time humans have been developing, inventing and
progressing on so many levels in pursuit of improving their lives! 
Great men and women are quite creative in severl field: science,
technology, inventions etc…
Worldwide famous prizes are awarded to the most creative people every
year.
The most known prize is the Noble prize and it is considered the most
prestigious one.
It has been honoring outstanding people from all around the world since
1901. Alfred Nobel was the man behind it.
He was a scientist, inventor and author. He left much of his wealth to the
establishment of the Noble prize.
Najib Mahfoudh the egyptian author won this prize in literature in 1988
and The Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet in peace in 2015.
There are a lot of other prizes that honor people who do best in their
fields.
We can mention The World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE) is
an international initiative aimed at transforming education through
innovation.
WISE was established by Qatar Foundation in 2009 under the patronage
of its chairperson, Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser. With an annual Summit
held in Doha, and a range of year-round initiatives, WISE’s mission
revolves around promoting new approaches to education and
investigating ways to manage education challenges.
In the pursuit of innovation , men challenge themselves to reach their
goals and aim to help humanity and these kind of prizes are an other
motivation for them.
 Video games:
Nowadays, we are living in a world that it’s technological development is
so fast. It is normal that a lot of cool gadgets are invented every single
day.
One of the most known invention are video games. They are so commun
all around the world. More students in my school spend many hours a
day playing video games.
No one can deny how creative and fun those games are, and so adictive.
Some people consider them as a way to enhance immagination for kids.
But in the other way , it is also considered as a huge harm, it takes
practically all the time. The time teenagers spend on palying games
should’ve been used in a more beneficial way. Also others neglect their
homework for these games witch is not acceptable. Children spend a lot
of money buying play stations and x-box and games, that amount of
money could’ve been spent with more efficiency.
Video games are also harmful for health, focusing for long periode of
time on the screen is bad for the child’s eys. 
Addicting this kind of games has another bad effect, it destroys our social
relations. It forces children to quit enjoying time with family and friends,
he only find the joy in that virtual univers.
Children should avoid this kind of distruction. They should know how to
devide their time a part for homework, other for physical exercices and
spending time with friends and family. Participating in groups like sports
groups or art ones is also very intresting, it keeps you away from the
habit of video games and it is good for bulding a strong charecter and
showing the best version of you Playing video games is fun , but it’s
addictive. It is good to play sometimes but is bad to play it all day long.
 Against space exploration:
Space exploration is the investigation of physical conditions in space and
on stars, planets, and other celestial bodies through the solar system. 
While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with
telescopes, the physical exploration of space is mainly made both by
robotic probes and human spaceflights.
Although the scientific reason behind this exploration is marvelous with
all the benifits it can provide us with, Space exploration can have a
negative impact on the environment.
When rockets launch into space, their engines let out gases and debris
such as aluminum oxide and soot. These substances can damage the
ozone layer and contribute to global warming.As space exploration
becomes more commonplace, scientists must tackle environmental
issues associated with rocket launches.
In addition to gases and particles, man-made objects often get left
behind in the earth’s orbit. There are over 500,000 pieces of orbital
debris in orbit, according to NASA. Orbital debris includes broken
spacecraft, pieces of launch vehicles, pieces of spacecraft and satellites
that break off during explosions, pieces of paint and used batteries.
Orbital debris does not significantly affect the earth itself, but it does pose
a small risk to astronauts working in space. The U.S. and other countries
such as Russia and China have guidelines in place to reduce orbital
debris.
Space exploration can have negative health consequences to
astronauts. Zero gravity conditions can cause bones to release less
calcium, causing them to become brittle. Radiation can also impact
bones. Floating also causes back and lower body muscles to become
weaker, as they are not used in the same way.
In addition, space exploration can cause changes to the body’s balance
system and inner clock. Astronauts must undergo a period of adjustment
after returning to Earth.
 For space exploration:
Space exploration is the ongoing discovery and exploration of celestial
structures in outer space by means of continuously evolving and growing
space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by
astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is
conducted both by unmanned robotic probes and human spaceflight. 
something good about space travel is that it increases our knowledge
about outer space and our own planet. Also, If we find a habitable world
it might slow down global worming. Moreover, Through the exploration of
space, we have the potential of discovering new resources such as
minerals that can have a major impact on improving quality of life on
Earth. Space travel increases and drives the need for better technology
such as smaller computers, digital equipment and new forms of fuels. 
More reasons to push it forward, The use of space equipment like
satellites help us to predict weather patterns and by doing this, it can
help warn people before dangerous weather like tornadoes, tsunamis,
earthquakes and hurricanes happen.
It is a very outrageous advance in human history to discover all the
environments around us.
 Rubbish:
Disposing of the rubbish we produce every day is a major problem in
cities around the world. In Britain, 85% of waste is disposed by landfill, a
system which is supposed to prevent pollution, since waste is buried in
the ground. This method is far from perfect; however, finding new areas
is becoming difficult. Recycling is an increasingly popular way of getting
rid of waste, and in Britain a target of recycling half of all domestic
recyclable waste has been set for the coming years. A city that has
solved its waste disposal problem in an unusual way is Machida, in
Japan. They have developed a totally new approach to waste disposal.
The key to the operation is public co-operation. Families must divide their
rubbish into six categories. 
rubbish that can be easily burnt (combustible), such as kitchen and
garden waste.
non-combustible rubbish such as small electric appliances, plastic tools
and plastic toys.
products that are toxic or that cause pollution, such as batteries.bottles
and glass containers that can be recycled. large items such as furniture
and bicycles.
The items in categories 1-5 are collected on different days; (large items
are only collected on request.) Then the rubbish is taken to a centre that
looks like a clean new office building or hospital. Inside, special
equipment is used to sort and process the waste. Almost everything can
be reused. Kitchen or garden waste becomes fertilizer; combustible
items are burnt to produce electricity; containers and bottles are recycled
and old furniture, clothing and other useful items are cleaned, repaired
and resold cheaply or given away. The work provides employment for
disabled people and gives them a chance to learn new skills. Nowadays,
officials from cities around the world visit Machida to see whether they
can use some of these ideas and techniques to solve their own waste
disposal problems.
 Pollusion:
Many cities around the world today are heavily polluted. Careless
manufacturing methods employed by some industries and absence of
consumer demand for environmentally safe products have been behind
the pollution problem. One result is that millions of tons of glass, paper,
plastic and ****l containers are produced, and these are difficult to
dispose of. 
However, today more and more consumers are choosing ‘green’ and
demanding that the products they buy are safe for the environment.
Before they buy a product, they ask questions like these, Will this product
damage the ozone layer?, Is this package of any danger to the
environment? Or Can this ****l container be used once?
A recent study showed that two out of five adults now consider the
Environmental safety of a product before they buy it. This means that
companies must now change the way they make and sell their products
to make sure that they are ‘green’, that is, friendly to the environment.
Only a few years ago, it was impossible to find green products in
supermarkets, but now there are hundreds. Some supermarket products
have tickets on them to show that the product is green. Some companies
have made the manufacturing of clean and safe products their main
selling point and insist on it in their advertising.
The concern of a safer and cleaner environment is making companies
rethink how they do business. The public will no longer accept the old
attitude of Buy it, Use it and then Throw it away.
 Internet:
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of
interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching
using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a “network of networks”
that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and
government networks, which together carry various information and
services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked web pages and other of the world wide web. The USSR’s
launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced
Research Projects Agency, known as ARPA, in February 1958 to regain
a technological lead.[1][2] ARPA created the Information Processing
Technology Office (IPTO) to further the research of the Semi Automatic
Ground Environment (SAGE) program, which had networked country-
wide radar systems together for the first time. J. C. R. Licklider was
selected to head the IPTO, and saw universal networking as a potential
unifying human revolution. 
Licklider had moved from the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory at Harvard
University to MIT in 1950, after becoming interested in information
technology. At MIT, he served on a committee that established Lincoln
Laboratory and worked on the SAGE project. In 1957 he became a Vice
President at BBN, where he bought the first production PDP-1 computer
and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.
At the IPTO, Licklider recruited Lawrence Roberts to head a project to
implement a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of
Paul Baran who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force
that recommended packet switching (as opposed to circuit switching) to
make a network highly robust and survivable. After much work, the first
node went live at UCLA on October 29, 1969 on what would be called
the ARPANET, one of the “eve” networks of today’s Internet. Following
on from this, the British Post Office, Western Union International and
Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched
network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS),
in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada,
Hong Kong and Australia by 1981.
The first TCP/IP-wide area network was operational by January 1, 1983,
when the United States’ National Science Foundation (NSF) constructed
a university network backbone that would later become the NSFNet.
It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial
interests in 1985. Important, separate networks that offered gateways
into, then later merged with, the NSFNet include Usenet, BITNET and
the various commercial and educational networks, such as X.25,
Compuserve and JANET. Telenet (later called Sprintnet) was a large
privately-funded national computer network with free dial-up access in
cities throughout the U.S. that had been in operation since the 1970s.
This network eventually merged with the others in the 1990s as the
TCP/IP protocol became increasingly popular. The ability of TCP/IP to
work over these pre-existing communication networks, especially the
international X.25 IPSS network, allowed for a great ease of growth. Use
of the term “Internet” to describe a single global TCP/IP network
originated around this time.
 Natural disaster:
Is the consequence of when a potential natural hazard becomes a
physical event (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide) and this
interacts with human activities. Human vulnerability, caused by the lack
of planning, lack of appropriate emergency management or the event
being unexpected, leads to financial, structural, and human losses. The
resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or
resist the disaster, their resilience.This understanding is concentrated in
the formulation: “disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability”. A
natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas
without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The
term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply
are not hazards or disasters without human involvement

War:
WAR is one of the wost crime that pople have ever made to the
humanity. that’s why we should know why some ediot poeple can’t stand
leaving in peace becuase the best thing that can draw the smile on every
one’s face is the peace. but in reality we have a deferent image to the
world, we see that no one want to respect the right of other or want’s to
enslave poeple or take there weals, and they make some silly reasons to
get what they want exactly like what happend to our brothers in iraq. 
war also creat a very bad destarction and ruin in everywhere.
and from the main point we can say that poepl in stean of burning world
they have to to learn how to leave in peace and creat the happiness
instead of hate and killing.
 Tv:
Television has became part of our every day life .what are its advantages
and disadvantages On the one hand, TV has became the most influential
means of the mass media because it has both sound and picture .it’s
also the most popular source of information education and international ,
in brief TV brings the whole word to us.
One the other hand TV develops passive and lazy viewers .it also
prevents communication between the members of the family besides
students don’t their homwork and may became aggressive when they
watch films of violence humour. 
I think that the best things to relief from stress is to watch some sitcoms
or hear something funny like jokes …person should develop his sense of
humor and he should be cool , Comic and optimistic, because some
expert of mental .health have noted that we can’t imagine going through
a day without laughter.Humor will make every part of your life better.It will
help you trough difficult times and it will help you make the good times
even letter, also i twill attract good people and good situations to you
 Human rights:
The concept of human rights has existed under several names in
European thought for many centuries, at least since the time of King
John of England. After the king violated a number of ancient laws and
customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him
to sign the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, which enumerates a number
of what later came to be thought of as human rights. Among them were
the right of the church to be free from governmental interference, the
rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from
excessive taxes. It established the right of widows who owned property
to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due process and
equality before the law. It also contained provisions forbidding bribery
and official misconduct.
The political and religious traditions in other parts of the world also
proclaimed what have come to be called human rights, calling on rulers
to rule justly and compassionately, and delineating limits on their power
over the lives, property, and activities of their citizens.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe several
philosophers proposed the concept of “natural rights,” rights belonging to
a person by nature and because he was a human being, not by virtue of
his citizenship in a particular country or membership in a particular
religious or ethnic group. This concept was vigorously debated and
rejected by some philosophers as baseless. Others saw it as a
formulation of the underlying principle on which all ideas of citizens’
rights and political and religious liberty were based. 
In the late 1700s two revolutions occurred which drew heavily on this
concept. In 1776 most of the British colonies in North America
proclaimed their independence from the British Empire in a ******** which
still stirs feelings, and debate, the U.S. Declaration of Independence.
 Glovalisation:
Globalization refers to increasing global connectivity, integration and
interdependence in the economic, social, technological, cultural, political,
and ecological spheres. Globalization is an umbrella term and is perhaps
best understood as a unitary process inclusive of many sub-processes
(such as enhanced economic interdependence, increased cultural
influence, rapid advances of information technology, and novel
governance and geopolitical challenges) that are increasingly binding
people and the biosphere more tightly into one global system. 
There are several definitions and all usually mention the increasing
connectivity of economies and ways of life across the world. The
Encyclopedia Britannica says that globalization is the “process by which
the experience of everyday life … is becoming standardized around the
world.” While some scholars and observers of globalization stress
convergence of patterns of production and consumption and a resulting
homogenization of culture, others stress that globalization has the
potential to take many diverse forms.

Racism:
Racism or racialism is a form of race, especially the belief that one race
is superior to another. Racism may be expressed individually and
consciously, through explicit thoughts, feelings, or acts, or socially and
unconsciously, through institutions that promote inequality between
races. 
In the 19th century many legitimized racist beliefs and practices through
scientific theories about biological differences among races. Today, most
scientists have rejected the biological basis of race or the validity of
“race” as a scientific concept. Racism, then, becomes discrimination
based on alleged race. Racists themselves usually do believe that
humans are divided into different races.
There are two main definitions of racism today. One of them states that
racism is dicrimination based on alleged race, the other – newer – one
states that racism has started to include also discrimination based on
religion or culture right of women 
Nowadays we take it for granted that women have the same rights as
men before the first world war few people believed this. As far as work
was concerned there were jobs wich were regarded as women`s jobs
and other wiche were regarded as men`s jobs. Women`s jobs were
generally lower paid as men`s. Men did almost all the heavy jobs in
industry or in transport. Women had jobs like dress-making,cleanning or
worked as servants.
Women`s main role was as being to raise childeren and look for their
home. Women were not expected to take position of leaderschip.
Women were not even allowed to vote in elections.
Before the war some women had been struggling to achieve greater
equality with men. The most famous of these had been the suffragettes
who stagged a violent campaign against the govervment from 1905 to
1914 trying to achieve the right to vote.however, at the outbreak of war,
the were still no near to success. Many men argued that women were
unsuited to such responsibility that women could not be trusted to vote
sensibly that women should not concern themselves with such male
activities and voting.