Ethio 0066-2127 2007 Num 23 1 1510

Annales d'Ethiopie
The bol negero ensemble of the Berta of West Ethiopia

Timkehet Teffera
Abstract
The music of bol negero flute drum group discussed in this paper is to be considered as one of the most important musical
assets and cultural identities of the Berta who have been living in the boarder regions of Southern Sudan and Western Ethiopian
since the 19th Century. An ethnographic and musical analysis of this musical tradition.
Résumé
La musique de l'ensemble de flûtes et percussions bol negero traitée dans cet article est à considérer comme l'un des biens et
traits culturels musical les plus importants des Berta, une population vivant depuis le 19e siècle dans les régions frontalières du
Sud Soudan et de l'Éthiopie de l'Ouest. Analyse ethnographique et musicale de cette tradition.
Citer ce document / Cite this document :
Teffera Timkehet. The bol negero ensemble of the Berta of West Ethiopia. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 23, année 2007. pp.
281-306;
doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/ethio.2007.1510
https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2007_num_23_1_1510
Fichier pdf généré le 14/05/2018

Annales d'Ethiopie, 2007-2008, vol. XXIII, 281-306
the bol negero ensemble

of the Berta of West Ethiopia
TlMKEHET TEFFERA
Abstract
The music of bol negero flute drum group discussed in this paper is to be considered as
one of the most important musical assets and cultural identities of the Berta who have been
living in the boarder regions of Southern Sudan and Western Ethiopian since the 19th
Century. An ethnographic and musical analysis of this musical tradition.
Keywords : Ethiopia, Berta, music
L'ENSEMBLE BOL NEGERO DES BERTA

DANS L 'OUEST DE L 'ETHIOPIE
Résumé
Im musique de l'ensemble de flûtes et percussions bol negero traitée dans cet article est à
considérer comme l'un des biens et traits culturels musical les plus importants des Berta, une
population vivant depuis le 19e siècle dans les régions frontalières du Sud Soudan et de
l'Ethiopie de l'Ouest. Analyse ethnographique et musicale de cette tradition.
Mots-clefs : Ethiopie, Berta, musique
Introduction: The Berta1

The Berta population examined in this paper lives in the Benishangul-
Gumuz National Regional State (BGNRS) of west Ethiopia. The region
consists of three zones caUed Metekel, Assosa and Kamashi and about 20
weredas (smaUest unit of local government). It shares common boundaries in
the west with the Sudan, in the north and north-west with the Amhara region
and in the south and east with the States of GambeUa and Oromiya. Including
the Berta, this region represents five indigenous ethnic communities namely
the Gumuz, Shinasha, Mao and Komo. A mixture of migrant groups hke for
instance the Oromo, Amhara and Tigray also reside in the Benishangul-
Gumuz region. Other Berta groups also reside in Sudan South of the towns of
1 Also called Bertha, Bartha, Burta, Berta, Beni Shangul, Beta Shangul, Wetawit. According to my
informant Sheik Almahadin Hojele (2005), the term Benishangul derives from the words Ben
and Shangul that means "people of a quarry".
282 Timkehet Teffera
Ed Damazin and Roseires in the Blue NUe Province. The Berta of Ethiopia
and Sudan, who are just separated by the political border of the two countries,
share common historical, social, cultural and rehgious backgrounds and they
consider themselves as one ethnic unit (Simon, 2003: 49).
The Berta are divided in clans. It is interesting to note that most of the
clan names derive from surrounding mountains where their ancestors used to
hve. For instance, the mountains Undi, Hamosh, Shita, Koldi and Tsore are
used as clan names by adding the prefix "Fa-"; i.e. Faundis, Fahmosh, Fashita,
Fakoldi and Fatsore2. Other clans known as Aracabia, Alahangia, Asurakab
etc. from the Benishangul-Gumuz region are apparently of Arab origin (Gebre
Muluneh, 2004: 1). The Berta people speak the Berta language as their mother
tongue. It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the NUo-Saharan
Unguistic group. AdditionaUy, Arabic and Amharic are spoken (CeruUi, 1947:
157; Gebre MULUNEH, 2004). The usage of these two languages among the
Berta today is a result of the Islamic influence, slavery and oppression in the
19th century caused by various ahen forces such as the Funj Sultanate, the
Sudanese Arabs, the Mahdist as weU as the Ethiopian kingdoms from the
Central Highland (MoUer, 2004: 70-71; Simon, 2003: 49).
The Berta continuously suffered political, cultural and rehgious
dominations and influences by these groups. Among others, quite a large
number of the population was captured and brought to the capital Addis
Ababa as slaves during the reigns of Ethiopian Emperors Menelik II (1889-
1913) and HaUe Selassie I. (1930-1974). At this time, slave trade was a
flourishing business which Sheikh Khojele (the then leader of the Berta) and
his famUy conducted with traders in Sudan and Ethiopia.
Islam was introduced to the Berta in the 1 9th century. The main reason for
the peaceful penetration and expansion of the Muslim faith was above aU the
commercial potential of the Benishangul-Gumuz region. Despite the massive
conversion of the Berta to Islam, a graduaUy diminishing number still
practices traditional religion (Triulzi, 1975: 55). Elements of Arabic cultural
influences may be observed in the way the Berta are dressed as weU as in their
social behaviour (Gottlieb, 1996: 8sq). Despite of this strong Arabic-Islamic
influence, the Berta have always strived to maintain the identity of their
community and the uniqueness of their traditional music which plays a central
role in the everyday hfe still today. Therefore, unhke the much later
introduced Islamic ceremonial music, the Berta rather identify themselves with
their indigenous and secular music (Simon, 1983: 309).
Music genres and their cultural significance
2 According to my informant Hojele (2005) the prefix "Fd' indicates the people like for
example "the people from the mountain Undi".
The bol negero ensemble of the berta 283
The traditional music repertoire of the Berta is complex. Music is an

integral part of community hfe, whereas music-making belongs to one of the
social activities that encourage communal unity. Therefore, music is
performed on different occasions serving various purposes. Two categories of
musical activities may be distinguished.
The first type of music making refers to the traditional secular music that
is usually performed for communal recreation. Here, we may observe various
types of performances taking place at different times throughout the year as
weU as a variety of musical instruments primarUy used to accompany solo and
groups' songs. These are for instance songs accompanied by the lyre
abangarang and the flute and trumpet ensembles known as bol/ bal and wa^a that
are predominantly played for song accompaniments. This refers on the one
hand, to end-blown stopped bamboo flutes without finger holes. The stops
are usuaUy closed by the node of the bamboo (natural stops). On the other
hand, the end-blown wa%a calabash trumpets played in sets also belong to the
unique ensembles with which the traditional music of the Berta is primarUy
identified. AU these instruments found in nearly every Berta viUage are
usuaUy played in sets hke for instance in the so-caUed bol negero, bol tsitsim, abbi
birare, balu shuru, bulhu and wa%a ensembles.
The second category of music-making is dedicated to the rehgious sphere
(Islam) performed on various ceremonies at specific times of the year. As a
result of Muslim rehgious practises, the Berta play a few music instruments
related to this culture which they adopted in the past. The Islamic prohibition
against the use of "entertaining" music instruments (except for some basic
percussion) may also be observed in the rehgious music repertoire of the
Berta. Predominantly drums play a significant role in accompanying ritual
and/or rehgious performances. These are for instance the negero and the noba
(double-headed cylindrical drum) that are played to accompany the ritual
songs that are exclusively performed by men3. For such ceremonial occasions
an animal (e.g. sheep, goat or hen) wiU be slaughtered before the music
performance begins. AU these music cultural aspects represent one part of the
cultural identity of the Berta (Simon, 1983: 304-309; 2001: 656). Another
music instrument used in relation with rehgious music is the fiddle rebab (a
two-stringed fiddle) that is played after the harvest season during the week of
the "fire-throwing" festivities when the fields are burnt. In doing so, the
torches used for lightening the fires are thrown in the direction of Mecca
(Gottlieb, 1996: 8).
3 Observation and recording of a noba and alkashi (cymbals) group performance among the
Berta in the Benishangul-Gumuz region of West Ethiopia, February 2005. The antiphonal
religious songs were accompanied by these two instruments whereas the participants were
only men. It is taboo for women to participate on such religious music performances (see
also Simon, 1983: 304-309).
The bol negero ensemble

General overview and definition
In the 19th century the bol negero ensemble had a special position in the
royal courts of the Berta most of aU serving as a symbol of status and
authority. The music instruments were usuaUy stored in a special place within
the royal court and they were taken out only for special court ceremonies
(Simon, 2003: 12). Today, this ensemble is used for communal entertainment
and every community member may participate freely without any
differentiations in class, age or gender. The music instruments belonging to
one set are either stored in the house of the ensemble leader or in a sacred
place or in the farmstead of rehgious chief of the respective vUlage (Giinther,
1972: 59).
The word bol denotes the flutes, whereas negero refers to a kettle drum as
already mentioned above. Apart from the negero, 10 to more than 20 flutes of
various sizes may play together in one such ensemble.
Field Recording
The bol negero ensemble performance discussed in this paper was carried
out thanks to the kind cooperation of the administrative organ of the
Benishangul-Gumuz Region during my field research in West Ethiopia4. The
responsible district head Hussein Alfadir organized the short trip to several
Berta villages namely Inzi Shederia, GambeUa and Nifro Gebeya. The bol
negero performance was recorded in Inzi Shederia by a group who came from
a neighbouring viUage caUed Ateto. On such traditional music occasions a
large number of people (both female and male) usuaUy take part. Although the
Berta predominantly perform music after sunset (i.e. after finishing their
works in the fields) my audiovisual recording was made in the middle of the
day, a very unusual time. However, quite a large number of people were
mobilized to gather at one spot and perform music.
Ensembles {bol negero, bol noggara, balu nagaru, bul nagaro) of simUar
instrumental settings and performance styles are used by nearly aU Berta
groups both in Sudan and Ethiopia. However, in practical music making there
are some differences to be observed in terms of the number of instruments
used in a given ensemble, the individual functions and names within such an
ensemble and in the musical repertoires; i.e. in the content of song texts.
4 Film recording of the bol negero ensemble in the Ateto village, Benishangul-Gumuz Region,
West Ethiopia, 13.02.2005. Video 01: O'OO" - 13'39" and 21'46"- 26'51" (private collection).
During my short field trip (2005). I was also able to observe such differences
among the Ethiopian Berta even within and closely located villages.
Simon (2003: 12) describes the instrumental setting of a bol negero
ensemble (here written as bal naggaro) consisting of 10 to 21 closed bamboo
flutes caUed bal or balo. The flutes and the kettle drum naggaro were
according to Simon - constructed on the Ethiopian side of the boarder. As a
result of his field research among the Sudanese Berta from the Gani viUage,
Gottlieb (1996: 8) also mentions that in the bol negero ensemble (here written as
bul nagaro) 24 flute players participated in the ensemble.
From Simon's and Gottlieb's remarks which technicaUy refer to the
same closed bamboo flutes - we may ascertain that closed bamboo flutes
boll bal and the drum naggaro / negero are usuaUy played together in the above
mentioned bol negero or bal naggaro ensembles. However the ensemble I
recorded in West Ethiopia though does not precisely correspond to the above
given definition of a bol negero "flute-drum" ensemble, because apart from the
closed bamboo flutes and the drum two end-blown trumpets were added to
the ensemble. According to my informants Hojele and Alfadir (2005), it is
quite possible to play additional instruments in exceptional cases. I recorded
such a large ensemble consisting of 19 flutes, two trumpets and one kettle
drum {negero) during my fieldwork in the Ateto viUage located about 15 km
away from the region's capital Assosa in February 2005. These two end-blown
trumpets (given later) are not mentioned in Simon's and in Gottlieb's
examinations. Therefore, this circumstance shows that instrumental settings
may vary from one ensemble to the next within the various Berta localities
according to the desire of the musicians playing the instruments.
Instruments names
Each instrument belonging to an ensemble is usually distinguished by its
individual name correspondingly. From the shortest tube in ascending order
the flutes I examined and recorded are caUed 1. al meshir al awel, 2. al meshir
atani, 3. al meshir atalit, 4. tego bala, 5. tego dane, 6. aqidare, 7. amadine, 8. asholfa, 9.
bolmoshan, 10. bolmoshan dane, 11. and 12. amadine dane, 13. nine haro, 14. asholfa
dane, 15. bolmosha dane, 16. amadine dane, 17. asholfa dane, 18. dingil balla and 19.
adingil dane. The two end-blown trumpets are called bonder balla and bondoro
dane.
Gottlieb (1996: 7-9) says that the instruments are usuaUy named
according to their relative size in the ensemble. AdditionaUy, the sound they
produce and their specific musical functions during ensemble performances
also correspond to the name given to each instrument. Regarding the names
of instruments that I examined, similar principle was appUed, but not aU of
them have their own names. For example, the flutes number 11, 12 and 16
which are of various sizes (pitches f#, e and G) were introduced to me as

amadine dane. I asked the musicians why these instruments are named similarly,
but I did not get a satisfactory or a logical answer. This phenomenon should
therefore thoroughly be studied in supplementary and intensive field works on
the spot.
Manufacturing
Flute and trumpet sets belonging to one ensemble are usuaUy
manufactured by skilled professionals who have long lasting experiences. In
doing so, the instrument maker first cuts the smaUest pipe and continues with
the next larger successively. In the process of construction each pipe is tuned
by comparing it with adjacent pipes, in order to complete the respective scale.
WhUe fixing the pitches, those flutes that are not properly in tune wiU be
readjusted by applying appropriate techniques. The customary correction
made is the shortening of the tube length until the desired pitch is achieved.
However, if this method faUs, the pipe should be replaced by a new one. At
the end, the complete set wiU again be checked in a performance. In rare cases
musicians also produce their own flute individuaUy. Afterwards, aU flutes wUl
be brought to a speciahst who may advise the musicians and prove the pitch
of each instrument separately as weU as in sets (see Gunther 1972: 59).
The embouchures of the bol flutes possess a sharp edge that are carved
inwards to a conical shape as shown in Fig. 1. The end of the tubes are closed
with the natural nodes of the bamboo (Fig. 2-3). Some of the flutes, e.g. flutes
no. 11, 13 and 15 are partiaUy covered with hide that is usuaUy used to protect
the pipe from possible damages (Fig. 4).
Fig. 1 - Bol-flutes of the Berta,

Photo: T. Teffera 13.02.2005, Inzi-Shederia
Fig. 2 Natural node of the bamboo flute,

MfPt
rZ'ùtf&s
Fig. 3 Natural node of the bamboo flute,

T1h».
' , e*- *-.-:.

Wr ?»
'?
¦' .i\.': "":!
JP^
t f
V. j 5Éfe
Fig. 4 - Bol flute partly covered with hide;
The bolnegero ensemble of the berta 289
The trumpets bonder balla (Fig. 5) and bondoro dam (Fig. 6) are constructed
of several segments of calabash that are fitted together and glued with a
special gum called adegela. For the long tube (i.e. the middle part) a suitable
botde gourd is usually applied. This tube will be extended by a conical and a
semi-globular gourd bell that is quite large in diameter. A funnel-shaped
mouth piece is inserted in the top opening of the tube (Fig. 7). The trumpets
are of various sizes and hence different pitches.
Fig. 5 — Trumpet bonder balla;

i1 :. '
I*
Fig. 6 — Trumpet bondoro dafie;

Fig. 7 - Mouth piece of trumpets;

The bol necero ensemble of the berta 29 1
The kettle drum negero (Fig. 8a) is made of a hollowed-out tree trunk and
covered with hide. It is approximately 50cm in diameter with a height of about
30 cm. Four supporting legs (height = 3-4cm) are hollowed out of the same
piece of wood at the bottom of the drum (Fig. 8b).
Fig. 8a — Kettle drum negero;

Fig. 8b - Kettle drum negero;

292 TlMKEHET TEFFERA
Instrument playing technique/s

During a bol negero performance, the drum negero is placed in the centre of
the provided area. In a bent position the drummer beats the negero with two
sticks (Fig. 8a) various metro-rhythmic patterns according to the given
musical piece (Fig. 9). Simon (2003: 12) explains a performance of a bol negero
ensemble which he observed among the Berta in South Sudan during his
various fieldworks. The flutes are held in a vertical or upright position close to
his mouth of the musician who blows air against the sharp edges of the pipe
in order to produce sound (Fig. 10). Now and then, he holds the edges of the
pipe between his thumb and forefinger and partly covers the blowing hole.
This method enables him to produce the respective pitch more easily.
■.:-, * 1 . .
■
Fig. 9 — Negero playing with two sticks;

The bol necero ensemble of the berta 293
Fig. 10 - Bol player;

Movement patterns
In the bol negero performance, the musicians form either a large circle (Fig.
lia) or they move in a row according to the sizes of their flutes; i.e. starling
from the shortest flute with the highest pitch to the longest flute with the
lowest pitch, whereas the two trumpet players either stay in the centre of the
circle or move along with the group of the flutist. The leader of the whole
ensemble is the flutist playing the 1st and/or the highest pitched flute al meshir
al awel. Two dance versions may be distinguished during a bol negero
performance. These are a) dancing in a circle and b) dancing in rows.
In a circle all instrumentalists start performing various synchronized
movement patterns (clockwise) that are particularly concentrated on uniform
foot steps. At a certain point, they start moving anti-clockwise — directed by
the leader — without interrupting the movement patterns (Giinther, 1972: 54).
When dancing in rows, the musicians mostly stand either opposite to each
other or one behind the other moving rhythmically. In particular moments,
they respectively put their left arms on the shoulder of the person in front,
creating a kind of a chain (Fig. lib).
■•■
- \
Fig. lia - Bol negero ensemble performance; Photo:

T. Teffera 13.02.2005, Inzi-Shederia
: \.;\
Fig. lib - Bol negero ensemble performance;

The commonly used set-up that involves all the participants, i.e
instrument players, singers and accompanying choir, is roughly given as
foUows (Fig. 12):
I' '. Hi .îfirkr /\ Tri m*w **-is\ i* H Bonder F! aw Ui-J P n.«H r -J

i
** ïdi~ ma*
Fig. 12 — Sketch of a bol negero ensemble

performance; Version I: Circle Dance
As shown in Fig. 12 each instrument player is indicated by the

corresponding number of his flute or trumpet (here 19 flutist and 2
trumpeters). It may also be assumed, that a passive audience can be present to
follow up the performance from a certain distance. However, in the
elaborated and large music festivals of the Berta, this may most probably not
happen. This means that every person present during the performance would
definitely participate in one way or another.
The second version of traditional dance set-up namely the dancing in
rows and/or lines is demonstrated in Fig. 13. The body movements including
the usual synchronized foot steps of the participants are carried out in the
same manner like in the circlular dance.
#*<•»«•••« •##.# ##«# *##« #»####•• ♦
2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1
4- 4-
Tramp etenspieler: Bondoro-Dane nod Bonder» Bafia
essetorûflomél Negero J • Tam- aid Chwgreppe mi VorsSnger
Fig. 13 - Sketch of a bol negero ensemble

performance; Version I: Dancing in rows
Gender role, musical function and repertoire

Among the Berta, nearly all music instruments are played by men. This
includes the flutes and trumpets used in the bol negero ensemble discussed here.
Berta women are predominantly responsible for the singing and dancing as
well as for the occasional ululations (onomapoetic shouts) taking place in
certain moments of the performance. In such performances, many of the
women hold sword-shaped wooden sticks, with an approximate length of
80cm. During the performance, they move back and forth in groups along
with their male counterparts holding their dancing sticks in the air (Fig. 14).
The bolnecero ensemble of the berta 297
*.?'
Fig. 14 — Women participants in the bol negero ensemble;

Photo: T. Teffera 13.02.2005
.
_
Fig. 15 - Asese rattle;

The only music instrument played by female participants is the gourd

rattle called asese (Fig. 15). During the bol negero performance which I observed
about six women shook asese rattles dancing and singing simultaneously.
Among the Berta, music performances take place at certain times of the
year particularly following the harvest seasons. Such special festive nights are
signalled by drum beats for calling the community to gather at a central
meeting place (see Simon 2003: 13; Gunther 1972: 53). Furthermore, special
and more extended music events are organized in form of competitions
between various ensembles representing different villages. These extensive
community celebrations — that are usually carried out in the region's capital
Assosa once or twice a year — may last for many hours and even for days
(Hojele, Alfadir: 2005).
Song texts used in the bol negero ensemble refer to various topics that
predominantly reflect the socio-cultural life of the community. Beyond that,
song texts may also be created spontaneously during a performance by the
song leader. Such text or verse lines should nevertheless fit to the already
existing melodic and rhythmic structures (Simon ebd: 13-14 into Simon 2003:
13-14; and change Guenther ebd.: 62 into Guenther 1972: 62). In most cases
the verse lines are quite short. There are various songs performed in different
ways and/or structure. Some of the songs may be performed in unison with
cyclic repetitions and other may use antiphonal structures; i.e. between a song
leader and a group accompanying him/her.
Musical analysis
The precise frequencies and intervals of the music instruments used in the
bol negero ensemble have been examined with the help of a spectrum analysis
shown in Fig. 16:
9 30 U 12 il U m it » it i 2
B«l-fKte«
Fig. 16 Spectrum analysis of the bol negero ensemble instruments
The above given spectral diagram shows the basic frequencies of all
instruments up to a maximum frequency domain of 3 kHz. Thus, each vertical
Une represents the frequency of individual pitches played one after the other
on the flutes and trumpets successively. The frequency ranges 159.75 Hz of
the lowest to 1.480,4 Hz of the highest pitch produced. Clearly visible are
especiaUy the frequencies of the flutes 1 to 1 5 as well as the two trumpets.
As a result, the approximate intervals wiU be m3-M2 M2-m3 M2-m3-M2-
M2-m3...etc. The longer the flute, the more difficult it is for the player to
produce the fundamental pitch without complication. Therefore, particularly
in the case of the flutes 17 and 19, the overtones (harmonics) are
predominantly sounded. The fundamental frequency of the flute 19 could not
be ascertained, because when playing, the breath of the player was rather
audible than an obviously identifiable pitch5. Nevertheless, it could possibly
be the pitch G or its harmonics. The intervaUic relationship between the two
trumpets on the other hand, is a Major third g-e-flat (in descending order).
For a better overview, the frequencies of the fundamental pitches of each
instrument are listed in detail (Hertz) in the following (Fig. 17):
5 Not clearly identifiable pitches have been put in brackets and the notes heads are indicated by
an 'x'.
fundamental
pitches + cents
No. flutes 1 - 19 pitches in
(Hz)
1 al meshir al awel f#'" -6 cent 1480,4
2 al meshir atani d#'" +12 cent 1240,8
3 al meshir atalit c#'" +6 cent 1109,7
4 tego bala H" -46 cent 960,97
5 tego dane g#» 833,84
6 aqidare f#" 742,07
7 amadine d#" +22 cent 631,03
8 asholfa c#" 550,66
9 bolmoshan h' -18 cent 489,84
10 bolmoshan dane g# +13 cent 420,59
11 amadine dane f#' +9 cent 371,18
12 amadine dane e' -11 cent 326,69
13 nine haro d' -20 cent 275,43
14 asholfa dane h +16 cent 251,04
15 bolmosha dane A +45 cent 221,19
16 amadine ddne G 207,07
17 asholfa dane D +17 cent 152,01
18 dingil balla d# -39 cent 160,75
between
19 adingil dane F# +24 cent 146,01 (?)
und G
trumpets 1/ 2
1 bonder balla G +5 cent 196,06
2 bondoro dane D# -35 cent 159,75
Fig. 17 - Extract of a bol negero performance (transcription)

The tonal range of the bol negero ensemble extends over three octaves.
Simon (2003: 12) notes that the flute tuning of a bol negero ensemble he
examined (here 14 flutes played together) show a pentatonic progression, but
not equi-pentatonic. In the instrumental tuning, I examined if I could partly
ascertain the pentatonic character (Fig. 16).
The detaUed analysis of the recorded musical pieces made possible to
discover minor pitch deviations of some of the instruments. At first, the
musicians demonstrated the respected pitches successively on the instruments
with sufficient energy standing at one spot. In the second case, however,
intensive body movements as part of the musical performance resulted that
the musicians had to put up more energy than earher to play on their
instruments.
In this regard, the spatial aspect of musical performance that reveals two
absolutely different circumstances is to be mentioned. In the music example
discussed here, particularly the flutes 4 and 9 were taken into a closer
consideration which at first produced the pitches b (a little bit lower than b)
and b-flat showed slight deviations of nearly half a pitch when played during
the ensemble performance at a later time. However, these slight pitch
deviations are acousticaUy not definitely recognized during the ensemble
performance. Furthermore, it is imaginable that particularly the flutists who
play the relatively long flutes wiU hardly be able to produce the fundamental
pitches during the ensemble performance in the second phase. It is also
conceivable that the musicians may even have aimed to produce only the
harmonics in this moment rather than the fundamentals.
Due to these two different spatial aspects of music-making, individual
pitches may certainly be perceived wrongly. This refers primarUy to the flutes
18 and 19. The pitches played on these two flutes were almost impossible to
identify, although the musicians demonstrated each pitch separately. During
the group performance, it then became even more difficult to identify these
pitches, because they were covered up by those of the other instruments. This
means that flutes 18 and 19 must have played the harmonics (overtones)
which in the course of the performance melted with the other
instruments playing in different octaves. Therefore, it wiU be clear that the
producing of pitches under various circumstances and with different
intensities (energy) may definitely cause deviations in pitch and timbre as weU
whUe playing the instruments.
As already mentioned above, in a bol negero ensemble, the instrument
players simultaneously perform synchronized body movements and foot steps
with the other participants involved in the singing and dancing parts. The
rhythmic body movement is automaticaUy created at the beginning of the
performance. Therefore, every musician and every participant wiU not only
have his melodic part under control, but through the rhythmic body
movement, he may also be able to control the entire course of music.
The hocket style/Interlocking patterns

The hocket fashion plays a significant role in the bol negero ensemble
performance: since the use of each instrument in the ensemble usuaUy
produces a single pitch, the contribution of aU instrument players who are
expected to insert their melodic-rhythmic note(s) and/or fragment(s) at the
appropriate time is essential. For that matter, the musicians should orient
themselves to specific reference points within the melodic and rhythmic
course of the music (Kubik 1988: 91).
The melodies played in the bol negero ensemble mostly derive from weU-
known traditional songs. In some cases though, counter-melodies consisting
of polyphonic structures are played (Simon 2003: 13). However, it is
apparently difficult to find out and/ or imagine definite beats or certain metric
patterns in such normaUy complex rhythmic course/ s of the performed music.
Even an experienced ethnomusicologist would probably not be able to
transcribe a recorded ensemble performance just by hstening to it. He wiU
definitely need to rather make intensive and practical observations and share
musical experiences on the spot that wiU enable him/her to understand the
music and to trace out the corresponding time-line pattern (Kubik 1988: 90-
92).
A transcribed extract of the music piece performed by the bol negero
ensemble proves this observation (Fig. 16). This musical notation shows the
main melodic phrase and its variation played by aU flutes and trumpets of the
bol negero ensemble (the kettle-drum negero is not used in this piece). Each
phrase (= passage, course, etc.) is divided into 18 pulses of which the smaUest
note value is a sixteenth beat.
Since the individual pitches have already been investigated (Fig. 16 and
17), it is now much easier to find out the time -Une patterns that are mostly
divided in duple- (2 + 2 + 2) and triple-metres (3 + 3 + 3) or in a mixture of
these two (2 + 3 + 2 + 3). In the course of the performance, they may
occasionaUy overlap or complement one another.
At the beginning of the staff hnes the numbers of the flutes and trumpets
are given with an exception of the flutes 15-17 that have been put together in
one staff Une.
Fig. 19 shows another method of analysing the elementary pulses and
their structure, taking the same example represented in Fig. 18. The notation
system used here with some shght changes derives from Arthur Simon (2003:
41-48) and Gerhard Kubik (1988: 79-81, 90-99, 287-288; 1983: 378). For the
optical demonstration of these melodic and metro-rhythmic Unes, it is
important to find out the exact elementary pulse first, because the use of bar
Unes would possibly be misleading.
At the beginning of the hnes, the pitches and/or the frequencies (Hertz)
of the flutes and trumpets are shown, whereas the vertical Unes represent the
elementary pulses. In comparison to the music example shown in figure 18,
the pitches in figure 19 here do not show an absolute duration, but rather the
starting points of the instruments. Pitches with a longer duration than one
elementary pulse, hke for instance an eighth or quarter notes, etc., are
expressed with a horizontal expansion of the Unes, whereas pitches with just
one elementary pulse is illustrated with dot/s. Under this picture, the possible
melodic-rhythmic phrase and its variations are given as a result of the
perception when hstening to the musical piece. Due to the fact that the
perception of every Ustener could differ from one another, it is also
imaginable that totally different melodic-rhythmic lines could result.
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Fig. 18 Extract of a bol negero ensemble performance (18 pulses M.M);

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Fig. 19 Extract of a bol negero performance

(transcription)
Conclusion
Desirable and undesirable, beneficial and non-beneficial cultural
transformations have taken place in the process of the Berta history that may
subjectively and objectively be viewed from different perspectives. For the
music cultural area, the historical evolution has in one way or another
paved a way to the introduction of new music instruments as weU as
performance styles, especiaUy from the Arabic-Islamic world along with the
introduction of Islam. In the course of history, the Berta integrated, developed
and modified these new music instruments and performance styles into their
existing music repertoires. With regard to the allien attempts to influence the
Berta and their traditional music, we may definitely state that it has proved to
be very durable until today.
Besides the numerous aerophone ensembles, the music of bol negero flute-
drum group discussed in this paper is to be considered as one of the most
important musical assets and cultural identities of the Berta who have been
hving in the border regions of Southern Sudan and Western Ethiopia since the
19th century. The traditional music of this community has not been
researched thoroughly until today. Musical performances among the Berta
mostly possess a functional character that is closely linked with the
community's everyday hfe. In other words, music making is a social activity
that brings people together. Therefore, music events mirroring the everyday
hfe hke birth, death, marriage, initiation ceremonies, communal activities, etc.,
are carried out throughout the year and the bol negero ensemble performances
are part of this vast musical landscape. Most important is also the active
participation of the community with clearly defined gender roles. Thus, men
are exclusively responsible for playing blowing instruments (here flutes and
trumpets), whereas women overtake the singing and dancing part including
the shaking of asese gourd rattles.
Since each instrument played in the bol negero ensemble usuaUy produces a
single pitch, the participation of the required number of instrumentalists is
inevitable in order to create a fuU melodic and metro-rhythmic Une.
Striking differences and simUarities have been observed in the different bol
negero ensembles of the various Berta viUages. The differences refer among
other things to the names and numbers of instruments used in a given
ensemble, whereas the simUarities predominandy correspond to the
performance style; i.e. the interlocking technique used by the aerophone
players based on the hocket style, the role and function of each instrument
during such a music performance, the division of role between the male and
female participants as weU as the dance patterns focussing on synchronized
footsteps. These are essential components of the bol negero performance, but
also of nearly aU other flute and trumpet ensemble performances of the Berta
that have been partly mentioned in this paper.
Despite acceptance, integration, reformation and modification of new
cultural elements, the music instruments of the Berta and related musical
practices have always maintained their peculiarity. The bol negero ensemble
presented in this paper therefore, belongs to one of these pecuhar phenomena
due to its unquestionably unique features.
References
CERULLI E., 1947, "Three Berta Dialects in Western Ethiopia", Africa: Journal
of the International African Institute, 17 (3), p. 157-169
GEBRE MULUNEH, 2004, Traditional Practices Among the Berta Nationality,

http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/ 2004/1 1 /26-1 1-
04/Traditional.htm.
GÛNTHER Robert, 1972, Die Sozialstruktur im Spiegel musikahscher

Konvention bei den Vôlkern Westàthiopiens", Jahrbuch fur musikalische
Yolks- und Volkerkunde 6, p. 51-64.
KUBIK Gerhard, 1998, Zum Verstehen afrikanischer Musik, Keclamm Verlag,

Leipzig.
M0LLER Bjorn, 2004, "Regional Security in the Horn of Africa", Paper for the
9th International Congress of the Somali Studie (Aalborg University, 3-5
September 2004).
SIMON Arthur, 1983a, Islam und Musik in Afrika", Musik in Afrika. 20
Beitrdge %ur Kenntnis traditioneller Afrikanischer Musik, A. Simon (ed.),
Veroffentlichungen des Vôlkerkundemuseums BerUn, Neue Folge 40,
Abteilung Musikethnologie IV, Berhn, p. 297-309.
SIMON Arthur, 1983b, Musik in afrikanischen Besessenheitsriten", Musik in
Afrika. 20 Beitrdge %ur Kenntnis traditioneller Afrikanischer Musik, A.
SIMON (ed.), Veroffentlichungen des Vôlkerkundemuseums Berhn,
Neue Folge 40, Abteilung Musikethnologie IV, Berhn, p. 284-296.
SIMON Arthur, 1989, "Trumpet and Flute Ensembles of the Berta People in
the Sudan" J.C. DjEDJE, W.G. CARTER (ed.), African Musicology:
Current Trends Vol. 1 (A Festschrift presented to J.N.K. Nketia), Los
Angeles, Crossroad Press, p. 183-217.
SIMON Arthur, 1999, Zur Musik der Berta - Feldforschungen im Sudan -"
50 Jahre Musikwissenschaftliches Institut in Hamburg (Sonderdruck), Peter
PETERSEN & Helmut ROSING (eds.), Peter Lang Verlag, p. 151-168.
SIMON Arthur, 2001, "Sudan", in New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Bd. 25, Stanely SADIE (ed.), MacmiUan Pubhshers, London, p. 653-
659
TRIULZI Alessandro, 1975, "Trade, Islam, and the Mahdia in Northwestern
WaUagga", Ethiopia Journal of African History, 16 (1), p. 55-71.
DlSCOGRAPHY
GOTTLIEB Robert (Musikaufnahme und Kommentar), 1996, Sudan II-Music

of the Blue NUe Province: The Ingesana and Berta Tribes, An
Anthology ofAfrican Music, UNESCO CoUection, D 8073, France.
SIMON Arthur, 2003, Die Musik der Berta am Blauen Nil/ Music of the Berta
from the Blue Nile - Sudan, Museum CoUection BerUn, SM 17082,
WERGO GmbH (Aufnahmen 1982/83 und 76 Seiten Kommentar).

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The bol negero ensemble of the Berta of West Ethiopia

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the bol negero ensemble

Keywords : Ethiopia, Berta, music

L'ENSEMBLE BOL NEGERO DES BERTA

Mots-clefs : Ethiopie, Berta, musique

Introduction: The Berta1

Music genres and their cultural significance

The traditional music repertoire of the Berta is complex. Music is an

The bol negero ensemble

which are of various sizes (pitches f#, e and G) were introduced to me as

Fig. 1 - Bol-flutes of the Berta,

Fig. 2 Natural node of the bamboo flute,

Fig. 3 Natural node of the bamboo flute,

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¦' .i\.': "":!

Fig. 5 — Trumpet bonder balla;

Fig. 6 — Trumpet bondoro dafie;

Fig. 7 - Mouth piece of trumpets;

Fig. 8a — Kettle drum negero;

Fig. 8b - Kettle drum negero;

Instrument playing technique/s

Fig. 9 — Negero playing with two sticks;

Fig. 10 - Bol player;

Fig. lia - Bol negero ensemble performance; Photo:

Fig. lib - Bol negero ensemble performance;

I' '. Hi .îfirkr /\ Tri m*w **-is\ i* H Bonder F! aw Ui-J P n.«H r -J

Fig. 12 — Sketch of a bol negero ensemble

As shown in Fig. 12 each instrument player is indicated by the

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Tramp etenspieler: Bondoro-Dane nod Bonder» Bafia

essetorûflomél Negero J • Tam- aid Chwgreppe mi VorsSnger

Fig. 13 - Sketch of a bol negero ensemble

Gender role, musical function and repertoire

Fig. 14 — Women participants in the bol negero ensemble;

Fig. 15 - Asese rattle;

The only music instrument played by female participants is the gourd

Fig. 16 Spectrum analysis of the bol negero ensemble instruments

Fig. 17 - Extract of a bol negero performance (transcription)

The hocket style/Interlocking patterns

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Fig. 18 Extract of a bol negero ensemble performance (18 pulses M.M);

Fig. 19 Extract of a bol negero performance

GEBRE MULUNEH, 2004, Traditional Practices Among the Berta Nationality,

GÛNTHER Robert, 1972, Die Sozialstruktur im Spiegel musikahscher

KUBIK Gerhard, 1998, Zum Verstehen afrikanischer Musik, Keclamm Verlag,

GOTTLIEB Robert (Musikaufnahme und Kommentar), 1996, Sudan II-Music

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