b.

2.
 𝐴, 𝐵 𝐶 𝐸

𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴
𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐴
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
𝐴∪∅ =∅∪𝐴 =𝐴
𝐴∩𝐸 =𝐸∩𝐴 =𝐴
𝐶𝐸 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐶𝐸 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐸 𝐵 𝐶𝐸 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐶𝐸 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶𝐸 𝐵
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)/𝑎 ∈
𝐴; 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 }

𝐸 𝐹 ℛ
𝐸 ×𝐹
𝑎ℛ𝑏 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ
𝐸=𝐹 ℛ 𝐸
𝐸 𝐹 𝑓 𝐸 𝐹
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥𝑓𝑦 𝑦 𝐹
𝑥 𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥𝑓𝑦
𝐸 𝐹 𝐸 𝐹
𝐷𝑓 = 𝐸
𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹
∀ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹
∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦

𝑓 𝑓
𝐸 𝐹 𝑓 𝐸 𝐹, 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐸 𝐵⊂𝐹
𝐴 𝑓 𝑓(𝐴) 𝐹
𝑓(𝐴) = { 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 }
𝑓(𝐸) = { 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 } 𝐼𝑚𝑓
𝐵 𝑓 𝑓 −1 (𝐵) 𝐸
−1
𝑓 (𝐵) = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸/𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐵 }
 𝑓 −1 (𝐹) = 𝐷𝑓
𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹 𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐹 ( 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑓( 𝑥′ ) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥′, ∀ 𝑥, 𝑥′ ∈ 𝐸)
ℛ 𝐹 𝐸 𝑦 ℛ 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑦 𝐹 𝑥 𝐸 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 𝑦ℛ𝑥
𝐷ℛ = 𝐹 𝑦ℛ𝑥 𝑦 ℛ 𝑥′ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑓( 𝑥′ ) 𝑓
𝑥 = 𝑥′
ℛ 𝑓
−1 −1
𝑓 (𝑓 (𝒚) = 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) )
𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹 𝐸 𝐹

𝑓 −1
𝑓(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∪ 𝑓(𝐵) , ∀ 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐸
𝑓(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ⊆ 𝑓(𝐴) ∩ 𝑓(𝐵 ) , ∀ 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐸
4. 𝑓 −1 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑓 −1 (𝐴) ∩ 𝑓 −1 (𝐵) , ∀ 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐸

(=) 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐼𝑑𝐸
𝐼𝑑𝐸 : 𝐸 → 𝐸
𝑥→ 𝑥

(⊂) 𝐸 (𝒫(𝐸))
(𝐴 ℛ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ) 𝐷ℛ = 𝒫(𝐸) , Ø ℛ Ø 𝑒𝑡 Ø ℛ 𝐸 )
ℝ ℛ 𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑦 = |𝑥| , 𝐷ℛ = ℝ

𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹 𝑔: 𝐺 → 𝐻 𝑓(𝐸) ⊂ 𝐺

ℎ :𝐸 → 𝐺
𝑥 → ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))
ℎ 𝒇 𝒈 𝑔𝑜𝑓

𝑓 𝑔 𝑔𝑜𝑓
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑔

𝐸 𝐼 𝐸
𝐼
𝑓: 𝐼 → 𝐸
𝑖 → 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑖
(𝑥𝑖 )𝑖 ∈ I
𝒫(𝐸)
⋃ 𝐴𝑖 = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸/ ∃ 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 }
𝑖∈ 𝐼
 ⋂ 𝐴𝑖 = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸/ ∀ 𝑖 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 }
𝑖∈ 𝐼

𝐸 𝐸, (𝐴𝑖 )𝑖∈𝐼

1. ∀ 𝑖 ∈ 𝐸, 𝐴𝑖 ≠ Ø
∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 ⇒ 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴𝑗 = Ø
3. ⋃𝑖∈ 𝐼 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐸

𝐸 𝐸
𝐸

ℛ
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥ℛ𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦ℛ𝑥,
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥ℛ𝑥
∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸, (𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑒𝑡 𝑦ℛ𝑧) ⇒ 𝑥ℛ𝑧.

ℤ 𝑥 ≡ 𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑(𝑛) 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑛
𝐸 = ℕ × ℕ, (𝑎, 𝑏)ℛ(𝑎′ , 𝑏′ ) ⇔ 𝑎 + 𝑏′ = 𝑎′ + 𝑏.
𝐸 = ℤ × ℤ, (𝑝, 𝑞 )ℛ(𝑝′ , 𝑞 ′ ) ⇔ 𝑝𝑞′ = 𝑝′𝑞

𝐸 ℛ
𝑥
[𝑥] = {𝑦 ∈ 𝐸/𝑥ℛ𝑦}

𝑥 [𝑥 ] 𝑥
𝑥

[𝑥 ] [𝑦] 𝑥 𝑦
 [x] ∩ [y] = ∅.

[x] ∩ [y] ≠ ∅. z ∈ [x] ∩ [y] zℛx zℛy xℛz ℛ

xℛy y x y ∈ [x]

y x t ∈ [y] yℛt xℛy

xℛt t ∈ [x] [y] ⊆ [x]

[x] ⊆ [y] [x] [y]

[𝑥 ] 𝑧 [𝑥 ] 𝑦 𝑧
𝑥 𝑥

𝐸 = ⋃[𝑥]
𝑥∈𝐸

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, [𝑥 ] = {𝑥}

(𝐴𝑖 )𝑖∈𝐼 𝐸
~ 𝐸
𝑥~𝑦 ⇔ ∃𝑖 ∈ 𝐼 𝑡𝑒𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑖
~

𝑓 :𝐸 → 𝐹 ~𝑓
𝑓̃: 𝐸/~𝑓 → 𝐹 𝑓̃𝑜𝑃~𝑓 = 𝑓
 𝑓̃: 𝐸/~𝑓 → 𝐹 𝑥̃ 𝑓 ∈ 𝐸/~𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐷𝑓̃ = 𝐸/~𝑓 𝑓̃
𝑥̃ 𝑓 = 𝑦̃ 𝑓 ⇔ 𝑥~𝑓 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇔ 𝑓̃(𝑥̃ 𝑓 ) = 𝑓̃(𝑦̃ 𝑓 )
𝑓̃𝑜𝑃~𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓̃(𝑥̃ 𝑓 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸
𝑓̃𝑜𝑃~𝑓 = 𝑓.

𝐸/~𝑓 → 𝐹 𝑔𝑜𝑃~𝑓 = 𝑓
𝑓
∀𝑥̃ ∈ 𝐸/~𝑓 𝑔(𝑥̃ 𝑓 ) = 𝑔𝑜𝑃~𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓̃(𝑥 )
𝑔 = 𝑓̃
∎

𝐸 ℛ 𝐸
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥ℛ𝑥,
∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸, (𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑒𝑡 𝑦ℛ𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦,
∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸, (𝑥ℛ𝑦 𝑒𝑡 𝑦ℛ𝑧) ⇒ 𝑥 = ℛ𝑧.
𝐸 ℛ
≼

⊂) 𝒫(𝐸)

≼
𝐴 𝐸 𝑀∈𝐸
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≼ M
𝑀∈𝐴 𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝐴) 𝐴

𝐴 𝐸 𝑚∈𝐸
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑚 ≼ x
 𝑚∈𝐴 𝐴 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝐴) 𝐴

ℳ 𝒩 𝐴

𝐴 𝑆𝑢𝑝 𝐴 𝐼𝑛𝑓 𝐴

(𝒫(𝐸), ⊆) 𝐴, 𝐵 𝒫(𝐸)

𝐶 ∈ ℳ ⇔ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶 𝑒𝑡 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶
⇔𝐴∪𝐵 ⊆𝐶
𝑆𝑢𝑝{𝐴, 𝐵} = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
𝑖𝑛𝑓{𝐴, 𝐵} = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

≼ ℕ 𝑚 ≼ 𝑛 ⇔ ∃𝑘 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 = 𝑘𝑚
≼
𝑎 𝑏 ℕ 𝑆𝑢𝑝{𝑎, 𝑏} 𝐼𝑛𝑓{𝑎, 𝑏}

𝑋 |𝑋| 𝑋
𝑋 𝒫(𝑋) 𝑋 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ |𝑋| 𝒫𝑘 (𝑋)
X k
𝑛!
|𝑋| = 𝑛, |𝒫 (𝑋)| = 2𝑛 |𝒫 (𝑋)𝑘 | = ∁𝑘𝑛 =
𝑘!(𝑛−𝑘)!

𝒫0 (𝑋) = {∅} 𝒫𝑛 (𝑋) = {𝑋} 𝒫1 (𝑋)

𝒫2 (𝑋)

𝐺 X
G A G
𝐴 ⊆ 𝒫2 (𝑋) 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)

a = {x, y} ⊆ A 𝑎 𝐺 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝐺 𝑎

|𝑋| 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺 |𝐺|

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑋 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤} 𝐴 = {{𝑥, 𝑦}, {𝑥, 𝑢}, {𝑧, 𝑣}, {𝑤, 𝑧}, {𝑤, 𝑣}}

𝑛 𝐷 𝑋 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑛} 𝐴=∅

𝐷6

𝑋 𝐷|𝑋| = (𝑋, ∅)

𝑛 𝐾𝑛 𝑋 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑛} 𝐴 = 𝓟𝟐 (𝑿)

𝐾4
 𝑋 𝐾|𝑋| = (𝑋, 𝓟𝟐 (𝑿))

𝐾𝑝,𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑝 , 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑞 } 𝐴=
{{𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 }/1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑝 𝑒𝑡 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑞}

𝑛≥1 𝑃𝑛
𝑋 = {1,2, … , 𝑛}
𝐴 = {{1,2}, {2,3}, … , {𝑛 − 1, 𝑛}}

𝑛≥3 𝐶𝑛
𝑋 = {1,2, … , 𝑛}
𝐴 = {{1,2}, {2,3}, … , {𝑛 − 1, 𝑛}} ∪ {{1, 𝑛}}
 𝑛≥1 𝐸𝑛
𝑋 = {0,1, … , 𝑛}
𝐴 = {{0,1}, {0,2}, … , {0, 𝑛}}

𝑛≥3 𝑅𝑛
𝑋 = {0,1, … , 𝑛}
𝐴 = {{0,1}, {0,2}, … , {0, 𝑛}} ∪ {{1,2}, {2,3}, … , {𝑛 − 1, 𝑛}, {𝑛, 1}}

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑥∈𝑋 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)

𝐺 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥) = |{𝑎 ∈ 𝐴/𝑥 ∈ 𝑎}| = |{𝑦 ∈ 𝑋/(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴}|
𝑑(𝑥) = 0 𝑥

𝐷𝑛
𝐾𝑛 , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑛 − 1
𝐾𝑝,𝑞 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑝, 𝑑 (𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑞 𝑒𝑡 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑞, 𝑑(𝑦𝑗 ) = 𝑝

𝐺 𝑟 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑟
3

𝐷𝑛 0
𝐾𝑛 𝑛−1
𝐾𝑛,𝑛 𝑛
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑 (𝑥 ) = 2. |𝐴|

𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑(𝑥)
𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑(𝑥)

𝑃 𝐼 𝑃∪𝐼=
𝑋 𝑃∩𝐼 =∅
2. |𝐴| = ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑(𝑥 ) = ∑𝑥∈𝐼 𝑑(𝑥 ) + ∑𝑥∈𝑃 𝑑 (𝑥 ) 𝑥 ∈ 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑑(𝑥)
2. |𝐴| ∑𝑥∈𝑃 𝑑(𝑥 ) ∑𝑥∈𝐼 𝑑(𝑥 )
|𝐼|

1
𝐺 𝑟 |𝐴| = 𝑟. |𝑋|
2

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) |𝑋| > 1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 𝑥≠𝑦

𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑦)

𝑛 = |𝐺| ∀𝑥, 0 ≤
𝑑(𝑥) ≤ 𝑛 − 1, 𝐺 𝑥𝑖 𝑖 𝑖=
0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 1 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑑(𝑥𝑛−1 ) = 𝑛 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑛−1
𝐺 ⇒ ∀𝑖, 𝑑(𝑥𝑖 ) > 0
𝑑(𝑥0 ) = 0
∎

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺’ = (𝑋’, 𝐴’) 𝐺 𝐺’

𝜓: 𝑋 → 𝑋’ ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋, {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ {𝜓(𝑥), 𝜓(𝑦)} ∈ 𝐴′
 𝜓 𝜓 −1 : 𝑋′ → 𝑋
𝜓 𝐺 𝐺’
𝐺 𝐺’ 𝜓: 𝑋 → 𝑋’ {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴
⇔ {𝜓(𝑥 ), 𝜓(𝑦)} ∈ 𝐴′ . 𝜓̅({𝑥, 𝑦}) = {𝜓(𝑥 ), 𝜓(𝑦)} 𝐴
𝐴′ 𝐺 𝐺’ 𝐺 𝐺’
𝐺 ≅ 𝐺’

𝐸𝑛 𝐾1,𝑛
𝜓: {0,1,2, … , 𝑛} → {𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 } 𝜓(0) = 𝑥1 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛, 𝜓(𝑗) = 𝑦𝑗

𝜓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺’ = (𝑋’, 𝐴’) |𝑋| = |𝑋’| |𝐴| = |𝐴’| ∀𝑥 ∈

𝑋, 𝑑 (𝑥 ) = 𝑑 𝜓(𝑥))

𝜓: 𝑋 → 𝑋’ 𝜓̅: 𝐴 → 𝐴’
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝜓̅, {{𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴} {{𝜓(𝑥 ), 𝜓(𝑦)}}.
𝑑(𝑥 ) = |{{𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴}| 𝑑(𝜓(𝑥 )) = |{{𝜓(𝑥), 𝑧} ∈ 𝐴′ }| = |{{𝜓 (𝑥 ), 𝜓(𝑦)} / {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴}|.
∎

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺’ =
(𝑋’, 𝐴’) 𝜓: 𝑋 → 𝑋’ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑑(𝑥 ) = 𝑑 𝜓(𝑥))

𝐻 = (𝑌, 𝐵) 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑌⊆𝑋 𝐵⊆𝐴

𝑌 𝑋 𝐻 𝐺

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) ∅≠𝑌⊆𝑋 𝐺 𝑌 𝐺𝑌
𝐺𝑌 = (𝑌, 𝒫2 (𝑌) ∩ 𝐴) 𝑥∈𝑋 |𝐺 | > 1, 𝐺−𝑥
𝐺 − 𝑥 = 𝐺𝑌 𝑌 = 𝑋 − {𝑥}

𝐻 = (𝑌, 𝐵) 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐵⊆𝐴

𝑋 𝐻 𝐺 𝐺
𝐺 𝐺

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
𝐺𝐵 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝐺−𝑎 𝐺 − 𝑎 = {𝑋, 𝐴 −
{𝑎}}

𝐾𝑝,𝑞 𝐾𝑝+𝑟,𝑞+𝑠
𝐾𝑛 𝐷𝑛
𝐷𝑛 𝐾𝑚 𝑚≥𝑛

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺 ′ = (𝑋 ′ , 𝐴′ )
𝐺 ∪ 𝐺 ′ = ( 𝑋 ∪ 𝑋 ′ , 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ )

𝑅𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 ∪ 𝐶𝑛

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺′ = (𝑋′, 𝐴′) 𝑋 ∩ 𝑋′ = ∅ 𝐺 ⋁ 𝐺′

𝐺 ⋁ 𝐺 ′ = (𝑋 ∪ 𝑋 ′ , 𝐴") 𝐴" = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ∪ {{𝑥, 𝑥′}|𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑒𝑡 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑋′}

𝑋 = {𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑝 } 𝑌 = {𝑦1 , 𝑦2 … , 𝑦𝑞 } 𝐷𝑋 ⋁ 𝐷𝑌 = 𝐾𝑝,𝑞

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺̅ = (𝑋, 𝒫2 (𝑋) − 𝐴).

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑌 ⊆ 𝑋, 𝑍 ⊆ 𝑋, 𝑌 ∩ 𝑍 = ∅, 𝑌 ∪
𝑍 = 𝑋, 𝐴 ∩ 𝒫2 (𝑌) = ∅, 𝐴 ∩ 𝒫2 (𝑍) = ∅ 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍
𝐺 𝑌 𝑍 𝐺

𝐾𝑝,𝑞

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) |𝐴| ≠ ∅
𝐺 ∗ = (𝐴, 𝐵) {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 } ∈ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴, |𝑎1 ∩ 𝑎2 | = 1 𝐺∗
𝑎1 𝑎2
𝐺∗ 𝑎1 𝑎2
 𝐺 (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑋 𝐴 ⊆ 𝒫2 (X) ∪ 𝒫1 (X).

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)
𝑥∈𝑋

|{𝑎 ∈ 𝒫2 (X) ∩ 𝐴 / 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}| + 2 𝑠𝑖 {𝑥} ∈ 𝐴

𝑑 (𝑥 ) = {
|{𝑎 ∈ 𝒫2 (X) ∩ 𝐴 / 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}| 𝑠𝑖 {𝑥 } ∉ 𝐴

(𝑋, 𝐴, 𝑓) 𝑋 𝐴 𝑓:𝐴
→ 𝒫2 (X)

𝑋 = {1,2,3,4} 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} 𝑓 : 𝐴 → 𝒫2 (X)

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑐) = {1,2}
𝑓(𝑑) = 𝑓(𝑒) = {1,3}

(𝑋, 𝐴, 𝑓) 𝑓:𝐴
→ 𝒫2 (X) ∪ 𝒫1 (X)

𝑥∈𝑋

𝑑 (𝑥 ) = |{𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 / 𝑓 (𝑎) ∈ 𝒫2 (X) 𝑒𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝑓(𝑎)}| + 2|{𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 / 𝑓 (𝑎) = {𝑥 }}|

 𝑑(𝑥) = 4 𝑑(𝑦) = 7, …,
∑𝑧∈𝑋 𝑑 (𝑧) = 2. |𝐴|

𝐺 (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐴 ⊆ 𝓟∗ (𝑿) = 𝓟(𝑿) − {∅}

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥) = |{𝑎 ∈ 𝐴/𝑥 ∈ 𝑎}|

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐶 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑚
∀ 0 ≤ 𝑖 < 𝑚, {𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 } ∈ 𝐴 𝐶 = [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑚 ]
𝑚 = 𝑙(𝐶) 𝑥0 𝑥𝑚
𝐶

𝑥0 = 𝑥𝑚 𝑥0 .
𝑥 𝐶 = [𝑥] ≥1
 {𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 } 𝑥𝑖
𝑥0 𝑥𝑚

𝑅5

𝐶1 = {1,0,2,3,4,0}
𝐶2 = {5,0,2,1}
𝐶3 = {1,0,1,2,0,1}
𝐶4 = {1,2,0,3,4,0,1}
𝑖 [𝑖]

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 𝑦

𝐶 = [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑚 ] 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑗 0<𝑖<𝑗≤𝑚 𝐶′ =
[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗+1 , 𝑥𝑗+2 , … , 𝑥𝑚 ] 𝑥 𝑦 𝑚−𝑗+𝑖 <𝑚
𝐶

𝐺 ∀𝑥, 𝑦 𝐺 𝑥 𝑦

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)

𝑥~𝑦 ⇔ 𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑥 à 𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝐺.

~ 𝑋 𝑥̃1 , 𝑥̃2 , … , 𝑥̃𝑘

~ 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘, 𝐺𝑖 = 𝐺𝑥̃𝑖 𝐺 𝑥̃𝑖

𝐺𝑖 𝐺
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺 𝐺

𝐺 [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥2𝑛+1 , 𝑥1 ]
{𝑌, 𝑍} 𝑌∩𝑍 =∅ 𝑌∪𝑍 =𝑋 𝐺 𝑥1 ∈ 𝑌
{𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 } ∈ 𝐴, 1 ≤ 𝑖 < 2𝑛 + 1 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥3 ∈ 𝑌, … , 𝑥2𝑛+1 ∈ 𝑌 𝑥1 ∈ 𝑍
𝑥1 ∈ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑍 = ∅
𝐺
𝐺 𝐺
𝐺 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐺
𝑌 = {𝑥 |∃𝐶, 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑥0 à 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑙(𝐶 ) 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒}

𝑍 = {𝑥 |∃𝐶, 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑥0 à 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑙(𝐶 ) 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒}

𝐺 𝑋 =𝑌∪𝑍 𝑌∩𝑍 =∅ 𝑥∈𝑌∩
𝑍 𝐶1 𝑥0 𝑥 𝐶2 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑙(𝐶1 ) 𝑙(𝐶2 )
𝐶1 + (−𝐶2 ) 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐺
{𝑌, 𝑍} 𝐺 𝑎 = {𝑥, 𝑥 ′ } ∈ 𝐴 𝑥∈𝑌
𝐶′ = [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥2𝑘−1 , 𝑥] 𝑥0 𝑥
𝑥′ ∈ 𝑍 [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥2𝑘−1 , 𝑥, 𝑥′] 𝑥0 𝑥′
𝑥∈𝑍 𝑥′ ∈ 𝑌 {𝑌, 𝑍}
𝐺
∎

𝐶𝑛 𝑛

𝐺
𝐺

𝐺
𝐺1

𝐺2 𝐶 = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑔, 𝑓, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑓, 𝑒, 𝑑, 𝑏, 𝑒, 𝑎]
 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑑(𝑥)

𝐶 𝐺 𝑥 𝐺 𝐶
𝑑(𝑥) 𝑥 𝐶 𝑥
𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)

𝐺 𝑥0 ∈ 𝑋
𝑥0
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝑥0 𝐶1
𝐴 − 𝐶1 = ∅ 𝐶1

𝐴 − 𝐶1 ≠ ∅ 𝑥1 𝐶1 𝐺 − 𝐶1
𝑑(𝑥1 ) > 0

𝐺 − 𝐶1
𝐺 − 𝐶1 𝑥1
𝐶′2 𝑥1 𝑥1 𝐶1 𝑥1 𝐶′2
𝐶2 𝑥0 𝑥0 𝐺 𝐴 − 𝐶2 = ∅ 𝐶2
𝐶2 𝐶3 𝑥0 𝑥0

|𝐴| 𝐶𝑘 𝑥0 𝐴 − 𝐶𝑘 = ∅
𝐶𝑘
 ∎

𝑥0 = 1, 𝐶1 = [1,2,3,4,1,5,6,7,8,1]

𝐴 − 𝐶1 ≠ ∅ 𝑥1 = 8, 𝐶′2 = [8,5,2,6,3,7,4,8]

𝐶2 = [1,2,3,4,1,5,6,7,8,5,2,6,3,7,4,8,1] = A.

|𝐼| = 0
|𝐼| = 2 𝐺

∎
" "

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝐺
𝐺

𝐺
 𝐶8

260

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑛≥3
𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑦) ≥ 𝑛 𝐺

𝐺
𝐺
𝐺 𝑥 𝑦
𝑛≥3 𝐺 𝐺 + {𝑥, 𝑦} 𝐺
[𝑥 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛−1 , 𝑣𝑛 =
𝑦]

𝑆 = {𝑖/{𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑖+1 } ∈ 𝐴} 𝑇 = {𝑖/{𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑛 } ∈ 𝐴} 1 ∈ 𝑆 𝑛−1 ∉ 𝑆 𝑛 ∉ 𝑆 1∉ 𝑇 𝑛−1 ∈ 𝑇

𝑛∉𝑇 𝑆∩𝑇=∅ 𝑖 ∈𝑆∩𝑇 {𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑖+1 } {𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑛 } 𝐴
[𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑖 , 𝑣𝑛−1 , … , , 𝑣𝑖+1 , 𝑣1 ] 𝐺 𝐺
𝑑 (𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑦) = |𝑆| + |𝑇| = |𝑆 ∪ 𝑇| ≤ {1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1} < 𝑛
 ∎

1
𝐺 𝑛≥3 ∀ 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥) ≥ 2 𝑛 𝐺

𝐺
1 1
𝑑 (𝑥 ) + 𝑑 (𝑦 ) ≥ 2 𝑛 + 2 𝑛 = 𝑛

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥) = 1

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) |𝑥| ≥ 2

𝐶 = [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑟 ]
𝑥0 ≠ 𝑥𝑟 𝑑 (𝑥 0 ) = 𝑑 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 1

|𝑥| ≥ 2 𝐺 𝑟≥1 𝑥0 ≠ 𝑥𝑟 𝐺
𝑑 (𝑥 𝑟 ) > 1 {𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥} 𝐺 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥𝑟−1 [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥]
𝑟+1 𝐶
𝑑 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 1 𝑑 (𝑥0 ) = 1

∎
 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 2

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)

𝐺
|𝐴| = |𝑋| − 1
∀𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

1) ⇒ 2) |𝑋 | = 𝑛

|𝑋 | = 1 |𝐴 | = 0 1) ⇒ 2)

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑘 |𝐴| = 𝑘 − 1 𝐻 = (𝑌, 𝐵)

𝑘+1 𝑦 𝐻 𝐻−𝑦
𝑘 𝐻−𝑦 𝑘−1 𝑦 𝐻
𝑘 = (𝑘 − 1) + 1 2) 𝐻

2) ⇒ 1) 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)
|𝐴| = |𝑋| − 1 𝐴
𝐺

𝐻 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴
𝐺 1) ⇒ 2)
|𝐵| = |𝑋| − 1 |𝐴| = |𝑋| − 1 = |𝐵| < |𝐴|

2) ⇒ 1)

3) ⇒ 1) 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐶=
[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥0 ] 𝐺

[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑖 ] [𝑥0 , 𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ] 0 < 𝑖 ≤ 𝑟

𝑥0 𝑥𝑖

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴)
𝐶1 = [𝑥, 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑦] 𝐶2 = [𝑥, 𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑠−1 , 𝑦]
𝐶1 + 𝐶2−1 = [𝑥, 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑦, 𝑦𝑠−1 , … , 𝑦1 , 𝑥]
𝐺

1) ⇒ 3)

∎
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) |𝑋| > 2
|{𝑥/𝑑(𝑥) = 1}| ≤ 1
𝑛 = |𝑋| ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑(𝑥 ) ≥ 2(𝑛 − 1) + 1 = 2𝑛 − 1 > 2(𝑛 − 1) = 2|𝐴| = ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑(𝑥 ),

𝐺 𝐺

𝐾𝑛
𝐾4 16

𝐾𝑛
 𝐾𝑛 𝑛𝑛−2

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝐺
𝐺

𝑇 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝐺(𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑋(𝐺) = |𝐴| − |𝐵|

𝐺

𝐺 𝐺

𝐺 𝑘 𝑇 𝐺 𝑛−𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑(𝐺)

𝐺𝑖 = (𝑋𝑖 , 𝐴𝑖 ), 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 𝑘 𝐺

𝑇 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝐺 𝐵 = 𝐵1 ∪ 𝐵2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐵𝑘 (𝑋𝑖 , 𝐵𝑖 )
𝐺𝑖 |𝐵| = |𝐵1 | + |𝐵2 | + ⋯ + |𝐵𝑘 | = (|𝑋1 | − 1) + (|𝑋2 | − 1) + ⋯ + (|𝑋𝑘 | − 1) = 𝑛 − 𝑘

𝑋(𝐺) = 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑(𝐺 ), 𝑚 = |𝐴| 𝑘

𝐺

𝑋(𝐺) = |𝐴| − |𝐵| 𝑇 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝐺(𝑋, 𝐴)

𝑋 (𝐺 ) = 𝑚 − (𝑛 − 𝑘 ) = 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑘

𝑇 = (𝑋, 𝐵) 𝐺(𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑇 𝑚−𝑛+𝑘

𝑚−𝑛+𝑘
𝑇

𝐺 12
𝑇 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑋
𝑈⊆𝑋×𝑋

𝑢 = (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑥 𝑈 𝑦
𝑢 𝑢 𝑥 𝑦

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑋 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤} 𝑈=
{(𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑦, 𝑥), (𝑥, 𝑧), (𝑢, 𝑢), (𝑢, 𝑣), (𝑥, 𝑤)}
 𝑋 𝑈 𝑋
𝐺 𝑈

𝛤 𝑋 𝑋 𝒫(𝑋) 𝑈 ⊆𝑋×𝑋
𝛤 𝑋 𝛤(𝑥) = {𝑦 ∈ 𝑋/(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈}

𝛤: 𝑋 → 𝒫(𝑋) 𝑈 𝑋

𝑈 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑦 ∈ 𝛤(𝑥)} = ⋃𝑥∈𝑋({𝑥} × 𝛤(𝑥))

𝑋 𝛤 𝑋 𝐺(𝑋, 𝑈) 𝐺(𝑋, 𝛤)
𝛤(𝑥) = {𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤}, 𝛤(𝑦) = {𝑥}, 𝛤(𝑢) = {𝑢, 𝑣}, 𝛤(𝑧) = 𝛤(𝑣) = 𝛤(𝑤) = ∅

𝑋 = {𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠}, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑖 𝑥 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑢 𝑦.

𝑋 = 𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑖 𝑥 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝è𝑟𝑒 (𝑜𝑢 𝑚è𝑟𝑒) 𝑑𝑒 𝑦

𝑋 (𝑘, 𝑙) ∈ 𝑈 𝑘 𝑙

𝑋 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴), 𝐴 ⊆ 𝒫2 (𝑋) (𝑋, 𝑈)
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑖 {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴 {𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑦, 𝑥)
𝑈

∀𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑥) ∉ 𝑈

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) (𝑋, 𝐴)

{𝑥, 𝑦} ∈ 𝐴 ⇔ 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 ((𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑜𝑢 (𝑦, 𝑥 ) ∈ 𝑈).

 2.
𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) = (𝑋, 𝛤)

|𝑋| 𝐺
𝑥 𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑈

∀𝑥, 𝑦, (𝑥 ≠ 𝑦) ⇒ ((𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑈)

(𝑋, ∆) 𝐺 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, ∆(𝑥) ⊆ 𝛤(𝑥)

𝐺 (𝑌, 𝜆) 𝑌⊆𝑋 𝜆(𝑦) ⊆ 𝛤(𝑦), ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝑌

𝐺 𝐶 = [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … 𝑥𝑛 ] 𝐺 𝑖 = 0,1,2, … 𝑛 −
1 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈ 𝑈 𝑥0 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝐶 𝐶 𝑥0 = 𝑥𝑛 𝐶
𝑥𝑖 𝑥0 𝑥𝑛 𝐶 𝑢𝑖 =
(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑥 𝐶 = ⌊𝑥⌋
𝑥 𝑥

𝑮 ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 𝑥 𝑦
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑘
[𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑦] ∀ 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘, (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈ 𝑈 𝑜𝑢 (𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑥𝑖 ) ∈ 𝑈.

𝐺 ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥∈𝑋 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) = (𝑋, 𝛤)

𝑑+ (𝑥) = |{𝑦/(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈}| = |𝛤(𝑥)| 𝑥 𝑑− (𝑥) =

|{𝑦/(𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑈}| 𝑥

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑+ (𝑥) = ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑑 − (𝑥) = |𝑈|

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝐺
1 𝑛

𝐺 𝑛×𝑛

1 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑈
𝑀(𝐺 ) = (𝑚𝑖,𝑗 ) 𝑜ù 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = {
0 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∉ 𝑈

𝑀 (𝐺 ) 𝐺

1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1

M (G )  0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0

∀𝑖, 𝑑 + (𝑥𝑖 ) = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑙𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑎 𝑖 è𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒

𝑛
−(
𝑑 𝑥𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑚𝑗,𝑖 = 𝑙𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑎 𝑖 è𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒.
𝑗=1
∑𝑖,𝑗 𝑚𝑗,𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑 + (𝑥𝑖 ) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑 − (𝑥𝑖 ) = |𝑈|
𝐺
𝐺 𝑀(𝐺)
 𝑀(𝐺 −1 ) = 𝑀(𝐺)𝑇
𝑀 (𝐺̅ ) = 𝐸 − 𝑀(𝐺 ) 𝑜ù 𝐸 = (𝜀𝑖,𝑗 ), 𝜀𝑖,𝑗 = 1 ∀𝑖, 𝑗.

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝑀 = 𝑀 (𝐺 )
(𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑀𝑘 = 𝑀 × 𝑀 × … × 𝑀 = (𝑚𝑖,𝑗 ), 𝑘 ≥ 1 𝑚𝑖,𝑗
𝑘 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗

(1)
𝑘 𝑘 = 1, 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑗

𝑘−1

𝑀𝑘 = 𝑀𝑘−1 × 𝑀
𝑛
(𝑘) (𝑘−1)
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖,𝑙 . 𝑚𝑙,𝑗 .
𝑙=1

(𝑘−1)
𝑚𝑖,𝑙 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑙

1 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑙 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑈
𝑚𝑙,𝑗 = {
0 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑙 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∉ 𝑈

𝑛
(𝑘)
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = ∑(𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑟 𝑘 𝑑𝑒 𝑥𝑖 à 𝑥𝑗 𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟 (𝑥𝑙 , 𝑥𝑗 )).
𝑙=1

(𝑘)
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑟 𝑘 𝑑𝑒 𝑥𝑖 à 𝑥𝑗 .

∎
 1 1 1 0 2 2 1 0 4 3 2 0
1 0 0 
0 1 1 1 
0 2 2 1 0
M  M 
2
M 
3
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
     
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

3
𝑚1,2 =3 3 3 𝑥1 𝑥2
[𝑥1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] [𝑥1 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥2 ]

0 1

(𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑈 𝑋×𝑋

𝐺 ℕ
(𝑘)
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 𝑘 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗

2 1 3 0 20 7 21 12
0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 
M  M 
3
1 0 0 2 7 2 6 6
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

21 3 𝑥1 𝑥3

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝐴) 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
𝐺 𝐺
𝑀 𝑀𝑘
𝑘
𝐺 𝐺′

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈)
 ∞ 𝑠 ′ 𝑖𝑙 𝑛′ 𝑦 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑥 à 𝑦
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = {
min{𝑙(𝐶) | 𝐶 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑥 à 𝑦}

1 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑈
𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝑀 = (𝑚𝑖,𝑗 ) 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = {
0 𝑠𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∉ 𝑈

𝐷 = (𝑑𝑖,𝑗 ) 𝑑𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑑(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ).

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 
0 0 1 0  0 1  
M  D
0 0 0 0  0 0 
   
0 0 1 0   1 0

1 1 1 0 1 1 
M  1 0 0 D  1 0 2
0 1 0 2 1 0

𝐷 𝑀

(𝑘)
𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝑖≠𝑗 {𝑘|0 < 𝑘 < 𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 > 0} = ∅
(𝑘)
𝑑𝑖,𝑗 = ∞ 𝑑𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛{𝑘|0 < 𝑘 < 𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 > 0} 𝑑𝑖,𝑖 =
0, 𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑛.

𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗
(𝑘)
𝑘 0<𝑘<𝑛 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 > 0
 1 1 1 2 2 1
M  1 0 0 M  1 1 1
2

0 1 0 1 0 0

 4 3 2 0 1 1 
M  2 2 1
3
D  1 0 2
1 1 1 2 1 0

{0,1} ⊕ ∗ 0 ⊕ 0 = 0, 0 ⊕ 1 = 1, 1 ⊕ 1 =
1 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = max(𝑎, 𝑏) 0 ∗ 0 = 0 ∗ 1 = 1 ∗ 0 = 0, 1 ∗ 1 = 1 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎. 𝑏

𝑀[𝑘] 𝑀⦁𝑀⦁ … ⦁𝑀
⏟ ⊕ ∗ + . 𝑀[𝑘] =
𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑖𝑠
[𝑘]
(𝑚𝑖,𝑗 )

𝑀 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝑑𝑖,𝑖 =

[𝑘]
0 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑑𝑖,𝑗 = ∞ {𝑘|0 < 𝑘 < 𝑛 𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 1} = ∅ 𝑑𝑖,𝑗 =
[𝑘]
𝑚𝑖𝑛 {𝑘|0 < 𝑘 < 𝑛 , 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 1}

[𝑘] (𝑘)
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = 1 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 𝑚𝑖,𝑗 > 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 1
0 0 0 0 0  0    
 
𝑀 = 0 0 0 1 0 𝐷 =  2 0 1 
   
0 1 1 0 0  1 1 0 
0 0 0 1 0  2 2 1 0 

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
  
𝑀 [2] = 0 1 1 0 0 𝑀[3] = 0 0 0 1 0 𝑀[4] = 0 1 1 0 0
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

𝑢 𝑣 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣)
 𝑋

𝑈 0
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑥 𝑘≥0 𝑦 𝑦 𝑘+1
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑥 𝑘≥0 𝑦 𝑙 𝑦
𝑘+1 𝑘+1 <𝑙 𝑦

𝑣 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = ∞ 𝑣 𝑘 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑘

é𝑡𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖 𝑥 𝑒𝑠𝑡 é𝑡𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑡é.

∀𝑥, 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑥 ) = {
∞ 𝑠𝑖 𝑥 𝑛′ 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑎𝑠 é𝑡𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑡é.

𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 4 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑦) = ∞.

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝛤) 𝑢∈𝑋

𝑋(0) = {𝑢}
𝑚>0 𝑋(𝑚) = 𝛤(𝑋(𝑚 − 1)) − ⋃𝑘<𝑚 𝑋(𝑘)
𝑋(𝑚) = ∅

𝑑(𝑢, 𝑥 ) = 𝑘 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋(𝑘).

𝑑 (𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑙 𝑙 𝑢 𝑣
𝑤 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑤) = 𝑙 − 1 (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝑈
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝛾: 𝑈 → ℝ∗+ 𝛾

𝛾(𝑢) 𝑢

𝛼 = [𝑥0, 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 ]
𝑘

𝛾 (𝛼 ) = ∑ 𝛾(𝑢𝑖 ) 𝑜ù 𝑢𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ).
𝑖=1

𝑥∈𝑋 𝐶 = ⌊𝑥⌋ 𝑥 𝛾 (𝐶 ) = 0

𝑥 𝑦 𝛼 𝑥 𝑦 𝛾 (𝛼 )

𝛾 (𝛼 ) = min{𝛾 (𝛽 )| 𝛽 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑥 à 𝑦}.

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑋 = {𝑥1, 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
𝐶 = (𝑐𝑖,𝑗 )

0 𝑠𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑐𝑖,𝑗 = { ∞ 𝑠𝑖 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 𝑒𝑡 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∉ 𝑈
𝛾(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) 𝑠𝑖 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 𝑒𝑡 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑈

𝑀 = (𝑚𝑖,𝑗 )

0 𝑠𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑚𝑖,𝑗 = {∞ 𝑠𝑖 {𝑐|𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑥𝑖 à 𝑥𝑗 } = ∅
𝑚𝑖𝑛{𝛾(𝑐)|𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑥𝑖 à 𝑥𝑗 } 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) 𝛾 (𝑢) = 1, ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑈.

𝑀
𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑋 = {𝑥1, 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝐶
⊕ ⊗ 𝑅+∗ ∪ {0, +∞} = [0, +∞]
𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = min{𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑎⊗𝑏 = 𝑎+𝑏

𝐶 = (𝑐𝑖,𝑗 )
⊕ ⊗

(𝐶 2 )𝑖,𝑗 =⊕𝑛𝑘=1 (𝑐𝑖,𝑘 ⊗ 𝑐𝑘,𝑗 ) = min{𝑐𝑖,𝑘 + 𝑐𝑘,𝑗 }

𝑘

𝑘 𝐶 𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘+1 𝐶𝑘

𝑘 (𝐶 𝑘 )𝑖,𝑗
≤𝑘 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗

𝑘−1
(𝐶 𝑘 )𝑖,𝑗 = (𝐶 𝑘−1 × 𝐶)𝑖,𝑗 = min{𝑐𝑖,𝑙 + 𝑐𝑙,𝑗 }
𝑙

𝐶 𝑘 = 𝐶 𝑘+1 ∀𝑖, 𝑗, (𝐶 𝑘 )𝑖,𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗

𝑘
(𝐶 )𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑚𝑖,𝑗

< 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑(𝐺) 𝐶 𝑛−1 = 𝐶 𝑛

 0  3 2 4
 6 0 3 9 
 
C   2  0 6 
 
   0 3 
 6   0 

 0 10 3 2 4
 0 10 3 2 4  5 0 3 7  0 10 3 2 4
 5 0 3 8 10 9  5 0 3 7
 

 9
C 3   2 12 0 4 6
C2   2  0 4 6    C 4   2 12 0 4 6  C 5
  15 9 12 0 3  
 9  0 3  11 6 9 14 0 14 9 12 0 3
12 6 9 15 0  11 6 9 13 0

𝑥5 𝑥4 13 4
(𝐶 4 )5,4 = 13 (𝐶 3 )5,4 = 14 𝑥5 𝑥4

3
𝐶5,𝑖 + 𝐶𝑖,4 = 13 𝑖=1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥4 )

3 2
𝐶5,1 = 11 = 𝐶5,3 + 𝐶3,1 (𝑥3 , 𝑥1 ) (𝑥1 , 𝑥4 )

2
𝐶5,3 = 9 = 𝐶5,2 + 𝐶2,3

[(𝑥5 , 𝑥2 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑥1 ), (𝑥1 , 𝑥4 )] 13

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑋 = {𝑥1, 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
𝑥1 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑖 𝜆𝑖 ∈
[0, ∞[∪ {∞} 𝜆1 = 0 𝜆𝑖 = ∞ 𝑖>1
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 𝐺 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑈 𝜆𝑗 − 𝜆𝑖 > 𝛾(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 )
𝜆𝑗 𝜆𝑖 + 𝛾(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑗 )

𝜆𝑛 = ∞ 𝑥1 𝑥𝑛 𝜆𝑛 < ∞ 𝜆𝑛
𝑥1 𝑥𝑛

𝑛1 𝜆𝑛 − 𝜆𝑛1 = 𝛾(𝑥𝑛1 , 𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑛2
𝜆𝑛1 − 𝜆𝑛2 = 𝛾(𝑥𝑛2 , 𝑥𝑛1 ) 𝑛𝑘 𝜆𝑛𝑘−1 − 𝜆𝑛𝑘 = 𝛾(𝑥𝑛𝑘 , 𝑥𝑛𝑘−1 ) 𝜆𝑛𝑘 = 𝛾(𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑛𝑘 )

[𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑛𝑘 , 𝑥𝑛𝑘−1 , … , 𝑥𝑛1 , 𝑥𝑛 ] 𝜆𝑛

 𝜆𝑖

𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3 𝜆4 𝜆5 𝜆6 𝜆7 𝜆8 𝜆9
0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
7 8 9 15 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
11 14 25 22 ∞
19 20 22
18 19 21
20
𝐶 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 , 𝑥8 , 𝑥9 ]

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈) = (𝑋, 𝛤), 𝑋 = {𝑥1, 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }, 𝛾: 𝑈 →]0, +∞[

𝜆: 𝑋 →]0, +∞[∪ {∞}.

𝜆(𝑥1 ) = 0 𝑖 = 2,3, … , 𝑛 𝑝 = 𝑥1 𝐴 = {𝑥1 }

𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝛤(𝑝) 𝜆 (𝑥 𝑖 ) min{𝜆(𝑥𝑖 ), 𝜆(𝑝) + 𝛾(𝑝, 𝑥𝑖 )}

𝑝 𝑥𝑗 𝑋−𝐴 𝜆(𝑥𝑗 )
𝐴 𝐴 ∪ {𝑝}
𝑝 = 𝑥𝑛 . 𝑆𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜆(𝑝) 𝑥1 𝑥𝑛
𝑝 ≠ 𝑥𝑛 ,

𝛾(𝑢) = 1, ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑈
 𝐶

0 10     3 6 12 
10 0 18    2  13

 18 0 25  20   7
 
  25 0 5 16 4  
C     5 0 10   
 
  20  10 0  15 9 
 2  4   0  24
 
6    23 15  0 5
12 13    9 24 5 0 


𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3 𝜆4 𝜆5 𝜆6 𝜆7 𝜆8 𝜆9
0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ; 𝑝 = 𝑥1 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 }
0 10 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 3 6 12 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥7 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥7 }
0 5 ∞ 7 ∞ ∞ 3 6 12 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥2 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥7 }
0 5 23 7 ∞ ∞ 3 6 12 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥8 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥7 , 𝑥8 }
0 5 23 7 29 21 3 6 11 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥4 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥7 , 𝑥8 }
0 5 23 7 12 21 3 6 11 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥9 ; 𝑆𝑇𝑂𝑃; 𝜆9 = 11
𝐶 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥8 , 𝑥9 ]

Poids 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 𝑥8 𝑥9 sélectionné
0 0. 𝑥1 10. 𝑥1 3. 𝑥1 6. 𝑥1 12. 𝑥1 𝑥1
3 5. 𝑥7 7. 𝑥7 3. 𝑥1 𝑥7
5 5. 𝑥7 23. 𝑥2 𝑥2
6 29. 𝑥8 21. 𝑥8 6. 𝑥1 11. 𝑥8 𝑥8
7 7. 𝑥7 12. 𝑥8 𝑥4
11 11. 𝑥8 𝑥9

𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3 𝜆4 𝜆5 𝜆6 𝜆7 𝜆8 𝜆9
0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ; 𝑝 = 𝑥1 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 }
0 7 8 9 15 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ; 𝑝 = 𝑥2 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 }
0 7 8 9 11 ∞ ∞ 22 ∞ ; 𝑝 = 𝑥3 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 25 22 ∞ ; 𝑝 = 𝑥4 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 19 22 25 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥5 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 19 22 25 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥6 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 18 22 24 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥7 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 18 19 21 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥8 , 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥6 , 𝑥7 , 𝑥8 }
0 7 8 9 11 14 18 19 20 ; 𝑝 = 𝑥9 ; 𝑆𝑇𝑂𝑃; 𝜆9 = 20
Poids 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6 𝑥7 𝑥8 𝑥9 sélectionné
0 0. 𝑥1 7. 𝑥1 8. 𝑥1 9. 𝑥1 15. 𝑥1 𝑥1
7 7. 𝑥1 13. 𝑥2 11. 𝑥2 22. 𝑥2 𝑥2
8 8. 𝑥1 11. 𝑥3 14. 𝑥3 𝑥3
9 9. 𝑥1 15. 𝑥4 14. 𝑥4 25. 𝑥4 𝑥4
11 11. 𝑥2 19. 𝑥5 25. 𝑥5 𝑥5
14 14. 𝑥3 18. 𝑥6 22. 𝑥6 24. 𝑥6 𝑥6
18 18. 𝑥6 19. 𝑥7 21. 𝑥7 𝑥7
19 19. 𝑥7 20. 𝑥8 𝑥8
20 20. 𝑥8 𝑥9

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑠
𝑑 − (𝑠 ) = 0 𝑝 𝑑 + (𝑝 ) = 0 𝑢∈
𝑈 𝛾 (𝑢 ) 𝑢

(𝑋, 𝑈) 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 𝛾 (𝑢 )
𝑢
(𝑋, 𝑈)
𝑠 𝑝 𝛾 (𝑢 )
𝑢

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑥∈𝑋
 𝛾 + (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝛾(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑒𝑡 𝛾 − (𝑥) = ∑ 𝛾 (𝑦, 𝑥 )
(𝑥,𝑦)∈𝑈 (𝑦,𝑥)∈𝑈

∑ 𝛾 + (𝑥) = ∑ 𝛾 − (𝑥 ).
𝑥∈𝑋 𝑥∈𝑋

𝑢 = (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝛾 (𝑢 ) 𝛾 + (𝑥 )
𝛾 (𝑢 ) 𝛾 − (𝑦 )

𝑓 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑓: 𝑈 → ℝ

∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑈, 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑢) ≤ 𝛾(𝑢)
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓 + (𝑥) = 𝑓 − (𝑥 ), 𝑠𝑖 𝑥 ≠ 𝑠 𝑒𝑡 𝑥 ≠ 𝑝.

∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑓 + (𝑥 ) = ∑𝑥∈𝑋 𝑓 − (𝑥 ) 𝑓 + ( 𝑠 ) = 𝑓 − (𝑝 )
𝑓 𝑢 = (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑓 𝑓 (𝑢 ) = 𝛾 (𝑢 ) 𝑓 (𝑢 ) <
𝛾 (𝑢 ) 𝑠 𝑝

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑆⊆𝑈
𝐺 𝑠 𝑝 𝑆
𝑆 𝛾(𝑆) = ∑𝑣∈𝑆 𝛾 (𝑣)

𝑓 𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑆⊆𝑈 𝐺
𝑓 𝑆 𝑓 𝛾 (𝑆 )
𝑆 𝑓

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑓 𝑣 𝑆
𝑐 𝑣=𝑐

𝑣≠𝑐 𝑣<𝑐 𝑉⊆𝑋

𝑥 𝐶 = [𝑠, 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑥] 𝑠 𝑥
(𝑋, 𝑈)

𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈ 𝑈 ⇒ (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑓

𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈ 𝑈 −1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) > 0 𝑊 =𝑋−𝑉

𝑝∈𝑊 𝜀>0 𝜀 ≤ 𝛾(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈

𝑈 𝑓′: 𝑈 → ℝ

𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑠𝑖 𝑢 𝑛′ 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝐶

′(
𝑓 𝑢) = { 𝑓 (𝑢) + 𝜀 𝑠𝑖 𝑢 = (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝐶 "𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠"
𝑓 (𝑢) − 𝜀 𝑠𝑖 𝑢 = (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎î𝑛𝑒 𝐶 "𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑢𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠"

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾) 𝑓
′
𝑝∈𝑊≠∅ 𝑆 ⊆𝑈

𝑆 ′ = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 𝑒𝑡 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊} ≠ ∅ 𝑆′
𝑣 𝛾(𝑆′) < 𝛾 (𝑆) 𝑆 𝑆′
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆′ 𝑓 𝑦∈𝑉

𝐺 = (𝑋, 𝑈, 𝛾)

𝑓 𝑓(𝑢) = 0, ∀𝑢 ∈
𝑈

𝐶 = [𝑠 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑝]
𝜀=
𝑚𝑖𝑛0≤𝑖≤𝑘 {𝛾(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 )} ∀0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 )
 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) + 𝜀 𝐶

𝐺 + −

𝑠 +
𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑈 𝑓 𝑦
𝑦 +
𝑥 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑈 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑥 ) > 0 𝑦
𝑦 −

𝑝
𝑓 𝑝
+ 𝐶 = [𝑠 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑝]
𝑖, 𝑥𝑖+1 + (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) ∈ 𝑈 𝜀𝑖 = 𝛾 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) 𝑖, 𝑥𝑖+1
− (𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑥𝑖 ) ∈ 𝑈 𝜀𝑖 = 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑥𝑖 ) > 0 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 )
𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1 ) + 𝜀 𝑥𝑖+1 + 𝑓(𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑓(𝑥𝑖+1 , 𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜀 𝑥𝑖+1
− 𝜀 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛0≤𝑖≤𝑘 𝜀𝑖 𝑓
𝜀 𝑝
𝑓

10

𝑓1 𝑓2 11
𝑓2 𝑝 + 𝑠 𝑝
𝜀=2 𝑓3

𝑓3