I.

The Property of Gases – Kinetic Molecular Theory and - is the result of billions of collisions of billions of gas
Pressure molecules with an object

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Atmospheric pressure (air pressure)

 The word kinetic refers to motion. - Results from the collisions of air molecules with
 Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of objects.
its motion. - The air pressure at higher altitudes is slightly lower
 Kinetic Molecular Theory makes assumptions about: than at sea level because the density of the Earth’s
▫ Size atmosphere decreases as elevation increases.
▫ Motion
Vacuum
▫ Energy of gas particles
- Empty space with no particles and no pressure
Kinetic Molecular Theory Part 1
Barometer
1. According to the KMT all matter consists of tiny particles
that are in constant, random motion - An instrument used to measure atmospheric
pressure
• Move in a straight line until they collide with other particles
or with the walls of the container Manometer
Kinetic Molecular Theory Part 2 - An instrument used to measure gas pressure in a
closed container
2. Gas particles are much smaller than the distances between
them. Most of a gas consists of empty space. Units of Pressure
Kinetic Molecular Theory Part 3 (1) Pascal (Pa): SI unit of pressure
3. No kinetic energy is lost when gas particles collide with • Derived unit from kilogram, meter, second
each other or with the walls of the container (elastic collision)
• One Pascal is equal to force of one newton per square
Kinetic Molecular Theory Part 4 meter: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
4. All gases have the same average kinetic energy at a given (2) Pounds per square inch (psi)
temperature
(3) Millimeter of mercury (mm Hg)
Absolute Zero
(4) Torr (1 torr = 1 mm Hg)
 The greater the atomic and molecular motion, the
greater the temperature is of a substance. (5) Atmosphere (atm): represents air pressure
 If all atomic and molecular motion would stop, the
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr
temperature would be at absolute zero (0 Kelvin or -
273 C)

Diffusion

- Describes the movement of one material through

another
- Particles diffuse from an area of high concentration
to low concentration

Effusion

- gas escapes through a tiny opening.

• The heavier the molecule, the slower it will effuse or diffuse

Pressure

- is the force per unit area

Gas Pressure

- is the force exerted by a gas per unit surface area of

an object.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
• Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total
pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
pressures of all the gases in the mixture.
• Ptotal = P1 + P2 +P3 + . . . Pn
Example 1: A mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
has a total pressure of 0.97 atm. What is the partial pressure
of O2, if the partial pressure of CO2 is 0.70 atm and the
partial pressure of N2 is 0.12 atm?
Answers in Notebook:
Example 2: What is the partial pressure of hydrogen gas in
atm, in a mixture of hydrogen and helium if the total pressure
is 600 mm Hg and the partial pressure of helium is 439 mm
Hg?
Example 3: Oxygen and chlorine gas are mixed in a container
with partial pressures of 401 mmHg and 0.639 atm,
respectively. What is the total pressure inside the container
(in atm)?
Example 4: A mixture of 2.00 moles of H2, 3.00 moles of NH3,
4.00 moles of CO2 and 5.00 moles of N2 exerts a total
pressure of 800 torr. What is the partial pressure of each gas?
II. Intermolecular Forces of Solids and Liquids
Why do solids and liquids behave differently?
Particles behave differently in each state because the amount
of energy a substance gains changes the rate of movement of
the particles. The pace of movement and the space needed
for the particles increases as it changes between solid and
liquid.
How is intermolecular forces defined by the nature of
particle?
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion
which act between neighboring particles (atoms, molecules,
or ions). These forces are weak compared to the
intramolecular forces, such as the covalent or ionic bonds
between atoms in a molecule.
How do intermolecular forces influence the properties of
liquids?
Intermolecular forces affect the properties such as surface
tension, capillary action, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling
point and heat of vaporization.
When does equilibrium exist between the phases of a
substance?
The solid lines identify the temperatures and pressures at
which an equilibrium exist between phases. The point at
which the lines intersect represents the triple point. At the
pressure and temperature of the triple point, all three phases
exist in equilibrium.
Kinetic Molecular Model
- Explains the properties of solids and liquids in terms
of intermolecular forces of attraction and the kinetic
energy of the individual particles.
- Intermolecular forces (attractive forces between
neighboring particles of one or more substance) pull
the particles together while kinetic energy keeps the
particles at a distance and/or moving around.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- The intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure
substance are collectively known as van der Waals
forces
Dipole-Dipole Forces
- Are attractive forces between the positive end of
one polar molecule and the negative end of another
polar molecule.
- They are much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds
and have a significant effect only when the
molecules involved are close together (touching or
almost touching).
Hydrogen Bond
- Is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that
exists only in molecules that contain hydrogen atom
bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom such
as N, O or F (polar)
- A dipole-dipole bond will be formed between the
two molecules.
 - Water in the liquid and solid states exists as groups
in which the water molecules are linked together by
hydrogen bonds.
Ion-Dipole Forces
- Acts between an ion (either positive or negative) and
a polar molecule.
London Dispersion Forces or Dispersion Forces
- Are intermolecular forces of attraction that exist
between all atoms and molecules.
- Occur between neutral non-polar molecules. (noble
gases and nonpolar compounds)
- Occurs in all molecules, including nonpolar ones.
- Are weak
- The greater the number of electrons, the greater the
LD force.
*Ion-Dipole Forces > Hydrogen Bond > Dipole-Dipole Forces >
London Dispersion Forces
*Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between
molecules. (ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, h bond, ld forces)
*Intramolecular forces are the forces that exist within a
molecule. (ionic, covalent, metallic)
*Ionic bonds form between a metal and a nonmetal
(transfer). Covalent bonds form between two nonmetals
(share). There are two types of covalent bonds: polar and
nonpolar. Polar are between two atoms that have a
difference in electronegativity. Nonpolar are between two
atoms that have equal electronegativity. Metallic bonding
occurs between metals.
*Intramolecular forces are stronger than intermolecular
forces, because the attractions that hold compounds together
are stronger than the attractions between molecules.
III. Properties of Liquids
What are the properties of water and how do they relate to
its structure and intermolecular forces?
Water molecules are polar, so they form hydrogen bonds.
This gives water unique properties, such as surface tension,
capillary action, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point and
heat of vaporization.
Fluid - A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
1. Surface tension
- The measure of the elastic force in the surface of a
liquid. It is the amount of energy required to stretch
or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area
2. Capillary action
- The tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to
be drawn into small openings.
- Also known as capillarity, is a result of
intermolecular attraction between the liquid and
solid materials.
Two types of forces involved in capillary action:
• Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like
molecules (the liquid molecules).
• Cohesive Forces – intermolecular forces that bind similar
molecules
• Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such
as those in water and in the particles that make up the glass
tube).
• Adhesive Forces – intermolecular forces that bind a
substance to a surface.
*These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid
in a cylindrical container (the meniscus!)
*When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are
greater than the adhesive forces between the liquid and the
walls of the container, the surface of the liquid is convex.
*When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are
lesser than the adhesive forces between the liquid and the
walls of the container, the surface of the liquid is concave.
3. Viscosity
- It is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The
greater the viscosity, the slower the liquid flows.
Poise or Stoke is a metric system unit.
The SI unit is Pascal-second (Pa-s) or Newton
second/meter^2: N-s/m^2
1 centipoise = 0.001 Pa-s
Vapor - A gaseous substance that exist naturally as a liquid or
solid at normal temperature
Vaporization - The change of phase from liquid to vapor
(gaseous phase).
4. Vapor pressure
- The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid;
that is, the pressure exerted by the vapor above the
surface of the liquid in a closed container.
- Gas molecules move in random directions, collide
with other gas particles and the walls of the
container.
 - Some will strike the liquid surface and condense
back into it. In the closed flask, none of the gas
particles are able to get out of the container, and
eventually, the number of molecules that go into the
gaseous state would equal the number of molecules
that condense back.
- When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes
equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid, the gas
in the container is said to be in equilibrium with the
liquid. (liquid ⇋ vapor (gas))
- The molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid
create a pressure. The greater the number of
gaseous particles, the greater the pressure exerted
by the gas. The pressure exerted by the gas in
equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container at a
given temperature is called the equilibrium vapor
pressure or simply vapor pressure of the liquid.
- The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum
vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature
and that it is constant at a constant temperature. It
increases with temperature.
- Vapor pressure is independent of the amount of
liquid as well as the surface area of the liquid in
contact with the gas.
5. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)
- The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature.
- H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat
content at a given standard condition.
6. Boiling point
- The temperature at which a liquid boils. The boiling
point of a liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm
is called the normal boiling point.
- Is the temperature at which the liquid converts into
a gas
- A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the
pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. The
boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
- The normal boiling point is the temperature at which
the liquid converts to a gas when the external
pressure is 1 atm. The normal boiling point of water
is 100C.
- The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external
pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100C,
but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils
at only 82C.

• The relationship between vapor pressure and strength of

intermolecular forces is consistent with the trends in two
other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or molar heat of
vaporization, and the boiling point of the liquid.