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7
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
CHEMISTRY DIAGNOSTIC (Beginning)

1) Use the grid to graph the data on the left. Please plot age on the x-axis and foot
size on the y- axis. Please label your work.
Age Average
Foot Size
(inches)
2 3.4
4 6.0
5 7.2
14 10.3
26 11.1
39 11.0
55 10.8
66 10.8
107 10.5
2) On this graph, what is a dependent variable?

_____________________________________
3) What is the independent variable?

__________________________________________
4) Describe the relationship between foot size and age as demonstrated by the graph.
5) Give a reason for this relationship.
6) If we were to find the average foot size of a 130 year old, in inches, predict their
foot size.
8
Solve. Please show all work.
7) 20 x 3 = 8) Solve for x: 79 = 8x + 7
2
9) The formula for density is D = mass / volume. If a substance has a mass of 30g
and a density of 2g/mL, what is the volume of the substance?
10) How many centimeters (cm) are in a meter? ________________________
11) A meter is a measurement of what? _________________________
12) How many kiloliters are in a liter? ________________________
13) Please write 6,030,000,000 in scientific notation

________________________________
14) Would you use a ruler, meter stick, or a graduated cylinder to measure the
volume of a rock.
15) What are the 3 phases of matter?
16) Are the molecules moving faster in a glass of water, steam, or ice?
17) If I react ½ gram of baking soda with ½ gram of vinegar to produce water,
carbon dioxide, and salt, what will be the total mass in grams of all of the
products of the reaction?
18) What is an atom?
9
19) Draw the diagram of an atom and label all its parts. Use the box to the right.
20) What is different between an atom of gold and an atom of silver?
21) What is an isotope?
22) What is an ion?
23) How many hydrogen atoms are in the chemical formula of vinegar, CH3COOH?
24) What is the difference between an endothermic and an exothermic reaction?
10
25) Label each of the following as an element, a compound or a mixture.
a. Sugar: ________________________
b. Sodium: ________________________
c. Salad dressing: ________________________
d. Nitrogen: ________________________
e. Milk: ________________________
f. Water: ________________________
26) What is the pH of an acid? _______________ A base?

______________________
27) Draw an electron dot model of Chlorine.
28) Write the correct formula for Barium Phosphate when Ba2+ bonds to PO43-.
29) What is the difference between ionic and covalent bonds?
30) If you have 100g of ammonium dichromate, how many moles do you have?
31) If 45g of methane combusts in the presence of excess oxygen, how much water is
produced?
11
Lab Safety & Set up
Lab Equipment Matching
12
13
14
Equipment Names & Definitions
Equipment Discovery Sheet
Match the names and descriptions with the letters of the given sheet of pictures.
____Funnel – Used to transfer liquids into small mouthed containers
____Watchglass – Used as a cover to prevent heated materials from spattering out of the
container. Also used as a holding plate for hot or flammable materials.
____Beaker – Used to hold liquids (not used for measuring volume, except for rough
estimates)
____Forcepts – used carefully manipulate lab materials (without your fingers) like
tweezers.
____Graduated Cylinder – Used for measuring the volume of liquids
____Goggles – Used to protect eyes
____Wash Bottle – Used to dispense H2O for rinsing and washing.
____Mortar and Pestle – Used to grind solids into a fine powder.
____Pasteur Pipettes – Used to dispense small amounts of liquids, dropwise
____Bunsen Burner – Used to produce a flame for heating materials
____Wire Gauze – Used as support over a ring stand for materials being heated
____Test tube Clamp – Used for grabbing hot test tubes
____Ring stand Clamp – Attached to a ring stand to hold items
____Lab Apron – Worn to protect user from splashes and spills
____Safety Shower – Safety item used in case of an emergency to rinse student
____Burette – Used for dispensing measured amounts of a liquid, dropwise
____Volumetric Flask – Used to create known concentrations of a solution of a certain

volume
____Erlenmeyer Flask – Used to hold liquids, sloped sides allows for spill free mixing
and easy decanting (not used for measuring volume, except for rough estimates)
15
____Test tubes – Used for holding, mixing, heating, small amounts of liquids
____Scoopula – Used to transfer dry solids, particularly from original container to scale
____Crucible Tongs – Used to move items that have been heated
____Crucible – Used for heating solids to extreme temperatures
____Ring Stand – Used to hold items above a flame for heating
____Thermometer – Used to measure temperature.
____Pipette – Used to transfer exact volumes of a liquid.
Worst Case Scenario Project
Lab Safety Video Preparation (30 pts)
You are going to shoot the video of the script you have in front of you. You need to
prepare for the shoot though. Run through some preliminary preparation before you
begin rehearsing.
Assign the roles. You need to assign the parts in the script to the members of your group.
(5 pts.)
Actor # 1:
________________________________________________________________________
Actor # 2:
________________________________________________________________________
Actor # 3:
________________________________________________________________________
Actor # 4 (or cueman):

________________________________________________________________________
Extras:
_______________________________________________________________________
16
Read your dialogue. Read through the dialogue to answer the following questions
Extra Materials/Props Needed: You may need some props for your scripts. You should
provide most of them. Lab equipment and such will be provided by Mr. Boland. (10 pts)
We will provide: Mr. Boland Please Provide:
_____________________________________
___________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________
Special Effects. Some of the scenes in your lab safety video may need some special
effects (we can’t really break anything, soak someone in the shower, spill real chemicals
on someone, etc.) How are you going to get around these limitations using the simple
and available methods we have? (10 pts.)
Situation #1:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17
Situation #2:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Continue on back if necessary
The Moral. Know the moral to share at the end of the scene (the safety rule to
remember?) (5 pts)
________________________________________________________________________
18
Worst Case Scenario Violation Record
Watch the Worst Case Scenario Videos and fill in the table below for each lab safety
violation that occurred and whether or not it was addressed (corrected) in the scenario
Period Group Rule Violated Was it addressed in

the scenario?
(yes/no)
19
Worst-Case Scenario Survival Movie Script
Worst-Case Scenario:
__________________________________________________________
Choose the setting for your video:
Describe in detail – the laboratory, objects in it, time of day, position of characters, and
what they are doing when the scene begins. It may be helpful to make a sketch.
20
Choose the characters:
You should have at least two or three acting roles in your scene. You may also have
several “extra’s” who will be in the background of the scene. For each character, give
them a role (student, teacher, rat, etc.)
Actor # 1:
____________________________________________________________________
Actor # 2:
____________________________________________________________________
Actor # 3:
____________________________________________________________________
(Actor #4):
___________________________________________________________________
(Actor #5):
___________________________________________________________________
Extra’s:
______________________________________________________________________
Write your dialogue:
Create the dialogue of your script. The dialogue should help establish the conflict in your
scene (worst-case scenario), the climax of the conflict (what happens because of worst-
case scenario), and the resolution of the conflict (what is the proper response to the safety
issue). You should also make sure that the script concludes with the way that the scenario
could have been prevented in the first place.
ON A SEPARATE SHEET A PAPER, WRITE THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN YOUR

CHARACTERS. It should be between 1 and 2 pages long. Include stage directions (ex.
Student drinks liquid in beaker and begins to groan) to help your actors act out the action
in the scene.
21
Worst-Case Scenario Proposal Sheet
You are a director and you need to make a lab safety video to be viewed by your peers.
You are planning the script for a scene in your video. Decide the lab safety topic that you
want to cover, the setting, the characters, plan the script, how to escape the worst-case
scenario and how to have prevented it from happening in the first place. The best scenes
will be selected for taping.
1. Choose the Safety topic from a rule listed in the Flinn Safety Packet to be the topic of
your scene. (i.e. handling broken glass)
2. Briefly describe your Worst-Case Laboratory Scenario:
3. Consult your Flinn Safety packet. Which rule(s) was/were violated? List all that
apply.
4. What is at least 1 way to safely resolve the worst-case scenario?
22
5. How could the scenario have been prevented in the first place?
23
Worst Case Scenario Survival Movie Rubric
Student Name __________________________________________
CATEGORY 1 2 3 4
WCS Response Fails to articulate Articulates a Articulates a Clearly
a reasonable response to WCS response to WCS articulates a
response to WCS that requires that requires one reasonable
more than one revision. response to WCS
revision.
WCS Prevention Doesn't articulate Articulates an Articulates an Clearly
a way to prevent ineffective way effective way to articulates more
WCS to prevent WCS prevent WCS than one
effective way to
prevent the WCS
Lab Equipment Incorporates less Effectively Effectively Effectively
than 3 pieces of incorporate 3 incorporate 4 incorporate 5
lab equipment pieces of lab pieces of lab pieces of lab
into the script. equipment into equipment into equipment into
the script. the script. the script.
Participation Not an active Participates with Active member Active member
member of the group, but of the group, of the group,
group, may contributes less contributes what contributes more
refuse to than what is is required. than required.
contribute required
completely
Duration of Presentation was Length of Length of Length of
Presentation less than 2 presentation was presentation was presentation was
minutes long OR 2 minutes. 3 minutes. 4 minutes.
more than 4
minutes.
Creativity Like watching Presentation is Presentation is Presentation is
paint dry. slightly better entertaining to infused with
than the average watch, humor and a
safety video. containing creative flare.
humor or
creative design.
On–Task Student is off Was slow to set The student is on Student is on
task - slow to up and take task, but was task - set up and
setup and take down, but was slow to set up or take down for
down and a attentive the rest take down. Was presentation took
disruption during of the time. attentive the rest under 1 minute
other of the time. and was attentive
presentations the rest of the
time.
24
Materials, Special Effects, and Safety Clearance Form
You are going to shoot the video of the script you have in front of you. You need to
prepare for the shoot though. Run through some preliminary preparation before you begin
rehearsing.
Worst-Case Scenario:
__________________________________________________________
Read your dialogue: Read through the dialogue to answer the following questions.
Extra Materials/Props needed: You may need some props for your scripts. You should
provide most of them. Lab equipment and such will be provided by Mr. Boland.
We will provide: Mr. Boland Please Provide:
25
Special Effects: Some of the scenes in your lab safety video may need some special
effects (we can’t really break anything, soak someone in the shower, spill real chemicals
on someone, etc.) How are you going to get around these limitations using the simple
and available methods we have?
Event Special Effect Solution

Student cuts hand with glass Ketchup is brought in to simulate blood.
Please list any potential safety hazards that could become real worst-case scenarios
during filming: (i.e. actors must be cautions of the Bunsen burner’s open flame).
26
Laboratory Discovery Walk
Decanting/Wafting
Decanting – gradually pouring off liquid from a mixture.
Do This:
In front of you should have a mixture of water and sand. Your goal is to pour the
water into an empty beaker with out pouring out any sand. See how much water you can
pour off? What techniques did you find most effective in decanting the water?
Wafting – sampling a small amount of odor by pushing the air above the sample
in a waving motion towards your nose.
Do This:
Take a test tube filled with the odor and carefully remove the stopper. Bring the test tube
approximately 10 inches from your nose with one hand and with the other gently wave
your hand toward your nose. This action should bring a small amount of air from above
the test tube towards your nose.
Story: Jeff was a 250 lbs. lineman on my high school football team, needless to
say a big guy. One day in lab, Jeff was working with a sample of an ammonia solution.
Maybe it was because he thought he was so big and tough he decided to ignore the
teacher’s advice (to waft the ammonia odor in his sample). He put his nose right over his
beaker and inhaled. BOOM! All 250 lbs. hit the floor immediately. Jeff passed out from
the large dose of ammonia vapor.
Volumetric Flasks/Graduated Cylinder
(Liquid Measurements)
27
Meniscus – the lowest point of the surface of water as it sits in a container.
Water has something called surface tension. It is this surface tension that allows
water droplets to form on a surface. It also causes water to “stick” to the sides of glass.
To make accurate measurements of volume when dealing with water you must measure
from the meniscus.
Do This:
1) Pour some water into a graduated cylinder. Can you find the meniscus? Measure
the volume of water in the graduated cylinder from the meniscus.
2) Put a drop of water between two overhead slides. What happens?
3) Volumetric Flasks are used to make specific volumes of solution. Using the faucet
and an eyedropper try to get the meniscus to the exact volume line on the neck of the
glassware. What techniques were most effective?
Balances
The balance should be zeroed – with nothing on the tray the balance pointer
points to the centerline. If not turn the adjustment knob below the pan a little bit, then
check the balance pointer again. Adjust until the balance pointer rests at the centerline.
Mass an object by adjusting the counterweights until the balance pointer returns to the
centerline.
28
Test tubes (cleaning and drying)
Test tubes are tricky items to wash. We will need to wash all the glassware we
use in lab so that they will be ready for our next lab and we won’t contaminate our next
experiment. Practice washing some test tubes with the scrub brush.
1) Put water from the tap with a small amount of soap into the test tube.
2) Scrub with the brush.
3) Rinse THREE times with water.
4) Roll a paper towel into a tight cylinder and insert into the test tube to dry it
5) Place inverted on the test tube rack for more drying and storage.
Burette
A Burette is used to dispense a known volume of liquid one drop at time. You
turn the plastic knob or stopcock up and down to dispense the liquid and horizontal to
stop the flow of liquid.
Try it out.
How do you dispense a KNOWN amount of liquid from a burette?
29
Give the steps for determining the amount you dispense.
Powders
Scupula
The scupula is used to remove the powder from its storage container.
Never put material back into the storage containers. Always have a disposal beaker to
put excess material in if you take too much (it gets thrown away, so don’t use too much)
Mortar and Pestle
The mortar and pestle is used to grind substances into fine powders.
Rubber Policeman
The rubber policeman is used to aid in transferring powders from one container to
another.
Do This: Use the scupula to remove some NaCl (table salt) from the storage container
into the mortar and pestle. Grind up the salt into a fine powder (use a rotating motion as
opposed to a pounding motion – its too messy, just imagine that the powder is dangerous
and you don’t want to spill it). Transfer the fine powder to a beaker with a rubber
policeman.
30
LAB SAFETY QUIZ
Directions: Please read each question carefully before answering. Ask if you have any
questions. 1) Answer the following questions by writing out the entire word TRUE or
FALSE in the blank. If you just put T or F, it will be marked wrong.
a. ______ You should only wear safety glasses in lab when you feel like it.
b. ______ A good procedure for trying to identify a substance in lab is to take
a big whiff of it and see what it smells like.
c. --______ You should never horse around in lab.
d. ______ If we are outside and you see a wild animal, it’s okay to go up to it
and see what kind of animal it is.
e. ______ If there is a fire in the lab, you should notify the teacher
immediately and NOT try to put it out yourself.
f. ______ You, as a student, have a right to know every chemical we will be
working with in lab, in case you are allergic to it.
g. ______ It is okay to eat and drink in lab.
h. ______ If you get bored and feel like starting up your own little experiment
in lab, that’s okay, go right ahead!
i. ______ It’s okay to wear contacts in lab, even if you have eye glasses.
j. ______ You should never pick up broken glass with your bare hand.
k. ______ When heating up the contents of a test tube, you should never point
the open end at someone.
l. ______ When you have to put your hands on a chemical, you only need to
31
use protective gloves every third Tuesday after a full moon.
m. ______ If you show careless disregard for these lab safety procedures, and
endanger yourself or someone else in lab, Mr. Holloman will
remove you from the class, give you a zero on the lab, and call
parents as soon as lab is over.
Answer the following questions in complete sentences.
2) Why is it so important to wear safety glasses at all times in lab?
3) Why should you never work alone in the laboratory?
4) What should you do if you break a glass container in lab?
5) What is the proper technique to use if you need to smell something in lab?
32
Review of
Atomic Structure
from Physical
Science
33
Two major parts of an atom
Nucleus
(not to scale)
Electron
Cloud
34
Three Major
Sub-Atomic Particles
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
35
PROTON +
(p )
a single, relatively large
particle with a
positive charge that is
found in the nucleus
36
THE PROTON
• Fat
(heavy)
p+ • Positive !
(charge)
• Doesn’t move
(lazy)
37
NEUTRON (N°)
particle with a
neutral charge that is
38
THE NEUTRON
" • Fat
(heavy)
N° • Neutral "
(charge)
• Doesn’t move
(lazy)
39
ELECTRON -
(e )
a single, very small
particle with a
negative charge that is
found in a “cloud”
around the nucleus
40
THE ELECTRON
• Skinny
(very light)
e- • Negative #
(charge)
• Moves a lot
(runs around)
41
Review: Subatomic Particles
p + " e-
N°
42
ELEMENTS
a type of matter that
can not be broken
down by ordinary
chemical means
(everything on the PT)
43
Elements are the
simplest form of
matter. They can’t
be broken down
anymore. They are
the building blocks
of all matter!
44
If its on the PT, its an Element!
45
ION
Atoms of the same
element that differ in
charge.
(They have the same # of
+
p , but different # of e )
-
46
If an atom GAINS
electrons, its overall charge
becomes more negative.
If it LOSES electrons, its
charge becomes more
positive
47
Positive Ions Negative Ions
(cations) (anions)
• +
Na (lost 1 e-) • -
Cl (gain 1 e-)
2+
• Ca (lost 2 e-) 2-
• O (gain 2 e-)
3+
• Al (lost 3 e-) 3-
• P (gain 3 e-)
4+
• Pb (lost 4 e-) 2-
• S (gain 2 e-)
+
• H (lost 1 e-) -
• OH (gain 1 e-)
48
Monatomic Ion
An ion comprised of
a single atom
+ 2-
(Na , O )
49
Polyatomic Ion
An ion made up of
two or more atoms
2- 2-
(i.e. O2 or SO4 )
50
OXIDATION #
The charge on a
monatomic ion
2-
(O )
Oxidation #
51
CHARGE
The charge on a
polyatomic ion
2-
( SO4 )
Charge
52
Writing and
Naming Ionic
Compounds
53
How to Write
Ionic Formulas
54
LiBr Al2O3
AlF3 NaAt
CaI2
BaS MgCl2 KCl BI3
Na2O NaF
B2S3 K2Se MgTe
CaBr2
•Group the above compounds by similarities.
Make as many groups as you want. Put your
results on a piece of paper.
• Based on your patterns, write rules
concerning the ratio of elements in a
compound.
55
PRISMS pg.
142???
56
GOAL
When writing
ionic formulas the
sum of the charges
must equal zero
57
3+
Al with O2-
Al = + + +
Remember the O =- -
goal is to get the Al O
overall charge to
1 +++ = 3 --=2
2 +++
+++ = 6 ----=4
equal 0. 3 +++++
++++ = 9
---
---=6
Al2O3 58
HINT
Parentheses must
be used when
adding subscripts
to polyatomic ions
59
3+
Al with SO4 2-
Al = + + +
Remember the SO42- = - -
goal is to get the Al SO42-
overall charge to
1 +++ = 3 --=2
2 +++
+++ = 6 ----=4
equal 0. 3 +++++
++++ = 9
---
---=6
Al2(SO4)3 60
Kris Kross Method!
2+
Ca As3-
Ca3As2
61
Just kris kross the
positive and the
negative charges
1+
Na Cl 1- NaCl
1+
Li O 2- Li2O
4+
Pb NO31- Pb(NO3)4
62
HINTS
• If the charge is “1”, you don’t
need to kriss kross it down
• If the charges are the same, you
don’t need to kriss kross them
63
How to Name
Ionic Formulas
64
Binary Compound
Compound made up
of only two types of
elements
(NaCl; Fe2O3)
65
CATION
An ion with a
POSITIVE
charge
66
ANION
An ion with a
NEGATIVE
charge
67
Naming Binary
Formulas
1) Write the name of the
cation
anion, drop the
ending, and add -ide
68
CAUTION
Don’t forget to include the
Roman Numeral when you
are naming atoms with
multiple oxidation states
69
Naming Roman
Numerals
Name: Fe2O3
Iron (III) Oxide
70
Old way of Naming
Roman Numerals
Use endings –ous (smaller) or –ic
(bigger) on the root of the Latin
name to represent charges
Fe2+ = Ferrous Cu1+ = Cuprous

Fe3+ = Ferric Cu2+ = Cupric
71
Naming Other Ionic
Compounds
cation
anion (if it’s a polyatomic)
72
HINTS ON NAMING
-ites are oxyanions with
less oxygen than -ates
Sulfate = SO42- Sulfite = SO32-
Nitrate = NO31- Nitrite = NO21-
73
HINTS ON NAMING
Hypo- (less O) and Per- (more O) are
used to indicate relative Oxygen
Hypochlorite = ClO1-
Chlorite = ClO21-
Chlorate = ClO31-
Perchlorate = ClO41-
74
Ternary Compound
Compound made up
of more than two
elements
NaClO3; (Hg2)3 (PO4)2
75
Oxidation #s of
Ternary Compounds
*** Must get all the charges to equal 0 ***
In Na2SO4 what is the oxidation number on S?
Na = (1+) * (2) = 2+ O = (2-) * (4) = 8-

Without Sulfur, the charge is 6-.
Thus, to get to an overall charge of
0, Sulfur must be a 6+!
76
Oxidation #s of
Polyatomic Ions
*** Must get all the charges to equal
charge on polyatomic ion ***
In NO31- what is the oxidation number on N?
O = (2-) * (3) = 6-
Without Nitrogen, the charge is 6-. Thus,
to get to an overall charge of 1-, Nitrogen
must be a 5+!
77
Diatomic Atom
Atom that always
occurs naturally in
pairs
I2, H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2
78
Working with
Hydrocarbons
79
Naming
Hydrocarbons
1) Count the # of C and
pick the correct stem.
2) Add the suffix –ane
3) If ring, add prefix–cyclo
80
Finding the Formula
for Hydrocarbons
1) Linear =
(2 x (# of C)) + 2
2) Ring =
2 x (# of C)
81
MOLECULAR
FORMULA
The formula for a
substance as it exists
in its molecular state
Benzene: C6H6
82
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
The simplest formula
for a substance
Benzene: C6H6 $ CH
83
Molecular/Ionic Formula
vs. Empirical Formula
Molecular Formula
C6H12O6
Empirical Formula
CH2O
84
FORMULA UNIT
The coefficient before a
compound that
represents the amount of
substance present
7 C6H6
85
WORKSHEET: Covalent Names and Formulas
NOTES: Writing binary molecular compounds – compounds between 2 non-metals
· The _____________________________ element given first, almost always

leaving oxygen or a halogen (group 17) second
· – use prefix only if

__________________________________________________
· Second element – always use prefix, then the name of the element with the ending
“ _______”
· Covalent Prefixes:
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10
· If the prefix ends in “a” and is followed by “-oxide”, drop the “a” from the prefix
o (ex: _________________________ NOT pentaoxide)
· Examples
o N2O4 = ________________________________
o P3Cl6 = _______________________________
o SO3 = _______________________________
86
Name the following binary molecular compounds
Formula Name Formula Name
SO P2O5
NO2 PCl5
N2O ClF3
Write the formula for the following binary molecular compounds
Sulfur Trioxide Boron Trifluoride
Carbon Monoxide Tetraphosphorus

Hexasulfide
Carbon Dioxide Xenon Difluoride
WORKSHEET: Hydrocarbon Names and Formulas
Write the formula for each of the following hydrocarbons:
1) Nonane: ____________________________________________
2) Cyclopentane: ________________________________________
3) Ethane: ________________________________________
4) Cyclodecane: __________________________________________
87
5) Heptane: ___________________________________________________
Write the name for each of the following hydrocarbons:
6) C6H12: __________________________________________________
7) C3H8: __________________________________________________
8) C7H16: __________________________________________________
9) C8H16: __________________________________________________
10) CH4: ____________________________________________________
88
Please draw each of the following:
11) Pentane 12) Octane
13) Cyclopropane 14) C6H12
89
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
N O EXC US ES - Sec tio n 3
Ion Grid Sheet: Corrections
Complete the following grid with both the formula and name for each of the ionic
compounds formed.
Example
HINTS
Aluminum Ion Write very neatly
•
Al 3+ Write the positive ion first
•
Write the charge for each ion first, then do your kriss
•
Sulfite Al 2 (SO 3 ) 3 kross
SO 3 2- Aluminum Sulfite • When writing names, include Roman numerals if needed
• Don’t forget to use parentheses on polyatomics
Zinc Ion • Don’t forget
Ammonium you don’t
Mercury (I) need to kriss(IV)
Lead kross like charges or
“1’s”
Ion Ion Ion
Chloride
Oxide
Carbonate
Cyanide
Dichromate
Sulfate
90
Peroxide
Phosphate
91
Formulas
Determine the correct formula for the following combination of ions.
1. K+ and Cl- 2. Be2+ and O2-
3. Mg2+ and Br – 4. Li+ and S-2
5. Al3+ and S2- 6. K+ and PO4-
7. Cu2+ and NO3- 8. Fe+3 and SO4-2
Give the name for the ionic compounds above
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
92
Give the formula from the name below.
1. Mercury(I) Oxide 2. Mercury(II) Oxide
3. Zinc Chloride 4. Barium Perchlorate
5. Potassium Permanganate 6. Sodium Hydroxide
7. Copper(II) Sulfate 8. Nickel(II) Cyanide
Diatomic Elements
Diatomics are elements that exist naturally in pairs. They are gases and are found in the
p-block.
A quick story: When Mr. Maddin was in college, he dated a beautiful woman named
Nina. Nina was wonderful, but to make a long story short, Mr. Maddin didn’t give her
the attention that she deserved. Sadly, they broke up a few days after Valentine’s Day.
Mr. Maddin really wanted to win Nina back, so he decided to make her dinner.
Unfortunately, Mr. Maddin isn’t much of a cook, but he wanted to make Nina something
special, something she wouldn’t soon forget. So he said:
93
“I’ll Have Nina Over For Clam Brains!”
I know what you are thinking, “Mr. Maddin, this is no way to win Nina back!” But
actually, this isn’t a story at all. This is actually a great way for you to remember the
diatomic elements:
I2 H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2
Anytime you write one of these elements without having it bonded to another atom, make
sure you remember to make it a diatomic (add a subscript of 2)!
Questions:
1. When plants photosynthesize, they produce oxygen. Write the formula for oxygen.
__________
2. Under the right conditions it is possible to cause sodium chloride to break apart to
form sodium and chlorine. Please write the symbols that represent this reaction. Make
sure the reaction is balanced.
____________ → ____________ + ____________
3. A student answered the following when asked to write the formula for sodium
fluoride: NaF2 When the teacher asked why there was a subscript of 2 on the fluorine, the
student responded, “Well, fluorine is a diatomic element and diatomic elements always
have subscripts of 2.” Explain why this student’s answer is incorrect.
94
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Finding Oxidation Numbers for Any Indicated
Atom
In binary equations, it is very easy to tell what oxidation number each atom has.
For example:
Al2O3 suggest that Al is a 3+ and O is a 2-. It is more difficult to determine the
oxidation numbers when we are dealing with ternary compounds (compounds with
3 different elements) or with the atoms in a polyatomic ion. Consider each of the
following examples:
TERNARY COMPOUND POLYATOMIC IONS

In Na2SO4 what is the oxidation In NO31- what is the oxidation number
number on S? on N?
* Must get all the charges to equal 0 * Must get all charges to equal the
ion’s charge
Na = (1+) * (2) = 2+
O = (2-) * (4) = 8- O = (2-) * (3) = 6-
Without Sulfur, the charge is 6-. Thus,

to get to an overall charge of 0, Sulfur Without Nitrogen, the charge is 6-.
must be a 6+! Thus, to get to an overall charge of 1-,
Nitrogen must be a 5+!
(2+) + x + (8-) = 0
x + (6-) = 0  x = 6+ x + 3(2-) = 1-
x + (6-) = 1-  x = 5+
Please find the oxidation numbers of the indicated atom in each of the following:
1. Cr in K2CrO4 2. S in Na2S2O3
95
3. P in PO43- 4. N in NH41+
***NOTE: Don’t confuse finding the oxidation # with finding the formal charge on
an atom***
96
Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Ionic Formula Writing Discovery Sheet
• First, using your whiteboard, group the compounds
below by similarities. Make as many groups as you want.
• Based on your patterns, write rules concerning the ratio
of elements in your compounds.
LiBr Al2O3
AlF3 NaAt
CaI2
BaS MgCl2 KCl BI3
Na2O NaF
B2S3 K2Se MgTe
CaBr2
97
1-‘s and Hydrocarbon Stems
NAME FORMULA
1. Permanganate
2. Acetate
3. Perchlorate
4. Chlorite
5. Nitrite
6. NO31-
7. IO31-
8. ClO1-
9. OH1-
10. CN1-
11. Meth
12. Oct
13. Prop
14. Non
15. Prefix for hydrocarbons with 2

carbons
carbons
carbons
carbons
carbons
carbons
98
2-s, 1-s and Hydrocarbon Stems
NAME FORMULA
1. Cyanide
2. Hydroxide
3. Thiosulfate
4. Chromate
5. Tetraborate
6. Dichromate
7. Hydrocarbon prefix for 4
8. Tartrate
9. Oxalate
10. Sulfite
11. NO31-
12. O22-
13. SO42-
14. SiO32-
15. CO32-
16. Prop-
17. Hex-
18. ClO31-
19. SO32-
20. CrO42-
99
3-s, 2-s, 1-s and Hydrocarbon Stems
NAME FORMULA
1. Phosphate
2. Hydroxide
3. Sulfate
4. Ammonium
5. Perchlorate
6. Carbonate
7. Hydrocarbon prefix for 7
8. Peroxide
9. Silicate
10. Sulfate
11. NO21-
12. SO32-
13. Cr2O72-
14. Hg22+
15. CH3COO1-
16. Eth-
17. But-
18. CN1-
19. C4H4O62-
100
Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
CAR PE DIEM - Sec tio n 3
The Salmon Sheet
Monatomic Ions
1+ 2+ 1-
• Silver Ion, Ag1+ • Zinc Ion, Zn2+ • Hydride, H1-
• Cadmium Ion, Cd2+
These you must memorize, the rest you can get from the periodic table or from a Roman Numeral
Polyatomic Ions: Cations

1+ 2+
• Ammonium, NH41+ • Mercury (I), Hg22+
• Hydronium, H3O1+
Polyatomic Ions: Anions

1- 2- 3-
• Hydroxide, OH1- • Sulfate, SO42- • Phosphate, PO43-
• Nitrate, NO31- • Sulfite, SO32-
• Nitrite, NO21- • Peroxide, O22-
• Cyanide, CN1- • Carbonate, CO32-
• Acetate, C2H3O21- or CH3COO1- • Chromate, CrO42-
• Perchlorate, ClO41- • Dichromate, Cr2O72-
• Chlorate, ClO31- • Silicate, SiO32-
• Chlorite, ClO21- • Oxalate, C2O42-
• Hypochlorite, ClO1-
• Hydrogen Carbonate, HCO31-
• Iodate, IO31-
• Permanganate, MnO41-
Acids Hydrocarbon Stems Monatomics

from P.T.
Acid # of Prefix Monatomic Anions
Carbons
• Hydrochloric Acid, HCl 1 Meth- • Oxide, O2-
• Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4 2 Eth- • Sulfide, S2-
• Nitric Acid, HNO3 3 Prop- • Fluoride, F1-
• Carbonic Acid, H2CO3 4 But- • Chloride, Cl1-
• Acetic Acid, C2H3O2H or 5 Pent- • Bromide, Br1-
CH3COOH
6 Hex- • Iodide, I1-
101
• Phosphoric Acid, H3PO4 7 Hept-
• Oxalic Acid, (COOH)2 8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-
SALMON HINTS
H1+
Cr3+ Mn2+ Co2+ Ni2+
Sn2+
Hg2+ Pb2+
Pb4+
MONATOMIC IONS:
• You only need to memorize four of these. That is it. The rest you can figure out from
the periodic table or from roman numerals.
• If you skip the “d-block” it makes sense that aluminum should have an oxidation
number of 3+
• See the tables above for how the oxidation numbers work on the monatomics. 1A =
1+, 2A = 2+…
• If the ion has a roman numeral, the oxidation number is POSITIVE and is equal to the
value of the roman numeral: I = 1; II = 2; III = 3; IV = 4; V = 5; VI = 6; VII = 7; …
POLYATOMC IONS:
• Look for patterns in the names.
• -ates always have 1 more oxygen than an –ite
o Sulfate = SO42-
o Sulfite = SO32-
o Nitrate = NO31-
o Nitrite = NO21-
• The prefix per- means that there is one more oxygen; prefix hypo- means there is one
fewer oxygen
o Perchlorate = ClO41-
o Chlorate = ClO31-
o Chlorite = ClO21-
o Hypochlorite = ClO1-
• Make up stories to help you remember the ions.
102
o Cyanide is a poison. If there were a major poisoning, which news station
would cover the story? CN1- of course. They are just like CNN, but with 1-
(one less) N.
ACIDS:
• Think about your acids in terms of the associated ion.
o H2SO4 has sulfate in it. To get the acid formula, just do a kriss kross of
charges; H1+SO42-
H2SO4
HYDROCARBON STEMS:
• Associate items with your stems
o Oct- is like Octopus, which has 8 arms
o But- is like the 4-butted monkey from South Park
103
Element Riddles
1) A sheepish element
2) a male element
3) a type of bed (with a T)
4) an element you can blame
5) directional elements
6) an "a" in the middle is singular; "e" is plural
7) a sightless Sin
8) famous California city
9) a smelly element
10) afternoon
11) one of the three stooges
12) an inquisitive element
13) "We Bring Good Things To Life"
14) A little element (abbv)an exclamatory element
15) baseball position (abbv)
16) slang way to get someone's attention
17) go partially GaGa over someone
18) half a rich woman's farewell
19) nickname for dad
20) a pet (with a T)
21) with a T there is heat
22) another s and its related to Trigger
104
23) a color (with a D)
24) An element with a sting
25) an egotistical element
26) a cheerful element
27) slang abbreviation for angry
28) Einstein's nickname
29) something a giant might say
30) it knows where to go when it rains
31) part of Santa's laugh
32) father of a junior
33) a popular player of music
34) a happy cat can
35) a nurse
36) we all do it with an "e"
37) a bad grade
38) should be in Paris
39) sailed away with winking, blinking, and an "o"
40) add an "f' for a tree or an "s" for a man
41) radio elements
42) a doctor
43) a nice place to be if you replace the "s" with a "z"
44) unscramble the letters for a play on words
45) a negative element
105
46) wear it with an"e"
106
Name: _____________________________
Section: ____
Procedure:
1. This game is played as five card draw. The dealer will pass out five cards
to each player from the shuffled deck.
2. Each player may turn in as many as three cards but only ONCE. The
players will try to make a chemical formula that uses as many of their
cards as possible. If they cannot play, they must simply PASS. It is
possible to make 2 chemical formulas in one play. See the Sample Score
Card below.
3. The score is totaled by the number of cards that the player is able to use
to make the chemical formula. It is possible for a player to score as
many as 5 points per hand. See Sample Score Card below.
Sample Score Card:
Score Card
HAND Card #1 Card #2 Card #3 Card #4 Card #5 Total

Points
1 Na+1 Cl-1 - - - 2
2 NH4+1 3 N-3 - - 3
3 Ca+2 Br-1 2 K+1 Cl-1 5
Data Table:
1. Create a data table, assembling the following information:
-what compound or compounds were created in each hand of poker
-the name of the compound or compounds created.
107
Analysis:
1. Are all the compounds you created ionic or molecular? Explain.
2. Is (NH4)3N an ionic or molecular compound? Explain.
Score Card
HAND Card #1 Card #2 Card #3 Card #4 Card #5 Total

Points
1
10
11
108
12
13
14
15
109
Chemical
Reactions
110
Chemical Reaction
the process by which
one or more substances
are changed into one or
more different
substances
111
REACTANTS
the starting substances in
a chemical reaction
(the stuff on the left)
112
PRODUCTS
the final substances in a
chemical reaction
(the stuff on the right)
113
General Formula
for Reactions
A+B!C
Reactants yields Products
114
Law of Conservation
of Mass/Matter
Mass/Matter can not be
created nor destroyed,
simply changed from 1
form to another
115
EQUATIONS
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
116
REPRESENTATION OF
PHYSICAL STATES IN
EQUATIONS
You may see these in book problems
• (g) = gas
• (l) = liquid
• (cr) = solid (stands for crystalline)
• (aq) = substance dissolved in water
117
WRITING BALANCED
EQUATIONS
• STEP 1: Write all of the atoms in the
reactants and the products (in the same order)
• STEP 2: Put * next to the atom in step 1, if
an element occurs more than once on one
side of a reaction
• STEP 3: Balance the equation (get the same #
of atoms of each element on each side). You
can only do this by changing coefficients!
118
WARNING!!!
Never
Ever
Ever
CHANGE THE SUBSCRIPT
119
Hints for Balancing
• Balance metals first
• Then balance polyatomics
• Then balance non-metals
• Last, balance hydrogens
120
Hints for Balancing
• If an element is by itself,
balance it last
• Watch for even or odds,
balance accordingly
• Don’t forget your diatomics
in transcribed problems
121
Hints for Balancing
• st
1 ,balance anything that is
found in 1 product/reactant
• Then, balance anything that
is found in 2 or more
products / reactants
122
Reaction of Zinc with HCl
Please balance the equation
__Zn + __HCl ! __ZnCl2 + __H2
Zn = 1 Zn = 1
H=1 H=2
Cl = 1 Cl = 2
123
Combustion of ethane C2H6
Please balance the equation
__C2H6 + __O2 ! __CO2 + __H2O
C=2 C=1
H=6 H=2
O=2 *O = 3
124
Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid
Please write the reaction
125
Writing Balanced Equations
When Given Words Only
• STEP 1: Write out the symbols
• STEP 2: Balance your charges
(if needed)
• STEP 3: Check for diatomics
• STEP 4: Balance Equation
126
Hints for Balancing
Don’t forget your diatomics
in transcribed problems
• Don’t forget to Kriss Kross
and use ( )
127
Combustion of Acetone
(CH3)2CO
Please write the reaction
(CH3)2CO(l) + O2(g) ! CO2(g) + H2O(g)
128
HOMEWORK
Pg. 228 #1-12
Pg. 243 #43, 45, 46, 58
Worksheet
129
SYNTHESIS
two or more
substances combine
to form one new
substance
130
SYNTHESIS
A + B ! AB
Na + Cl2 ! NaCl
Pb(IV) + O2 ! Pb2O4
131
Info on Synthesis Reactions
• Also known as “combination”
reactions
• Always form compounds
• Generally give off lots of energy
• Can be reversed (decomposition)
•
132
133
DECOMPOSITION
when a substance
breaks up into
simpler substances
134
Decomposition
AB ! A + B
NaCl ! Na + Cl2
Pb2O4 ! Pb + O2
135
Info on Decomp Reactions
• Energy is usually need to make
these reactions happen
• Often hard to predict products
unless the substance breaks into its
ionic components (or memorize
some basic types of reactions)
• Often are the cause of explosions
136
Types Decomp Reactions
Metallic Carbonates
• When heated, metallic carbonates
decompose into metallic oxides and
carbon dioxide
• BaCO3 --> BaO + CO2
• Cu2CO3 --> Cu2O + CO2
137
Metallic Chlorates
• When heated, metallic chlorates
decompose into metallic chlorides
and oxygen
• KClO3 --> KCl + O2
• Zn(ClO4)2 --> ZnO + O2
138
Metallic Hydroxides
• When heated, metallic hydroxides
decompose into metallic oxides and
water
• Ca(OH)2 --> CaO + H2O
• Mn(OH)4 --> Mn2O4 + H2O
139
Metallic Oxides
• When heated, metallic oxides
decompose into the metal and
oxygen
• K2O --> K + O2
• Pb2O4 --> Pb + O2
140
Decomp of Trinitrotoluene
2C7H5N3O6 (s) -->
3N2(g) + 7CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + 7C(s)
• 2 moles of TNT decompose to produce 15 moles of

hot, expanding gases…that is why it is so
powerful!
141
142
SINGLE
DISPLACEMENT
one element
displaces another
in a compound
143
Single Displacement Reaction
144
Single Displacement
AB + C ! AC + B
or CB + A
NaBr + Cl2 ! NaCl + Br2
(NH4)2S + O2 ! (NH4)2O + S
145
Info on Single Replacement
• Also known as single displacement
reactions
• Only elements with a higher activity
can replace other elements (use table
on pg. 217)
• Nonmetals can replace other non-
metals, but is usually limited to
halogens (active decreases down table)
146
Types Single Replacement
Metals
• More active metal atoms will
replace less active metal ions from
compounds
• Cu + AgNO3 --> Ag + Cu(NO3)2
• Ag + Cu(NO3) --> No Reaction
147
Halogens
• More active halogen atoms will
replace less active halogen ions
from compounds
• F2 + NaCl --> Cl2 + NaF
• Cl2 + FCl --> No Reaction
148
Halogens
• More active halogen atoms will
replace less active halogen ions
from compounds
• F2 + NaCl --> Cl2 + NaF
• Cl2 + FCl --> No Reaction
149
150
151
152
153
154
DOUBLE
DISPLACEMENT
the positive or
negative portions of
two compounds are
switched
155
Double Displacement
AB + CD ! AD + CB
NaBr + Pb2S3 ! Na2S + PbBr3
K2SO4 + Ba(OH)2! KOH + BaSO4

156
Info on Double Replacement
• Also known as double displacement
reactions
• Reactants must be two ionic compounds in
aqueous solution
• Cations switch positions
• Usually produces a precipitate (ppt)
157
For Double Replacement to
Occur one is Usually True
• Also known as double displacement
reactions
• Reactants must be two ionic compounds in
aqueous solution
• Cations switch positions
• Usually produces a precipitate (ppt)
158
COMBUSTION
(aka OXIDATION)
hydrocarbon reacts
with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and
water
159
Writing Out Equations
• STEP 1: Determine type of rxn
• STEP 2: Write out symbols
• STEP 3: Kriss-Kross where
necessary
• STEP 4: Diatomics
• STEP 5: Balance the equation
160
Common Words
• Decomposes = breaks apart
• Combusts = a combustion rxn
• Reacts with = A + B
• “To form” or “to get”= !
• Yields = !
• Displaces = have a single D. rxn
• And = plus (+)
161
Common Words
• Decomposes = breaks apart
• Combusts = a combustion rxn
• Reacts with = A + B
• “To form” or “to get”= !
• Yields = !
• Displaces = have a single D. rxn
• And = plus (+)
162
HOMEWORK
Pg. 231 #13-22
163
How to balance chemical
equations.
•When pieces of matter come together or break
apart, it is called a reaction.
•The law of conservation of matter states that
matter can not be created or destroyed.
•In any reaction, you must have the same
amount of each part before and after the
reaction happens.
•We show how reactions become balanced by
using chemical equations.
164
equations.
2Na + Cl2 !2NaCl
This is a balanced
chemical equation.
165
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
The arrow is called the yields sign.

It separates what you start with on
the left from what you end up with
on the right.
166
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
To the left of the yields sign are

the parts that react. They are
called the reactants.
167
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
To the right of the yields sign is

what you end up with after the
reaction. These are called the
products.
168
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
The little number next to and

below an element is called a
subscript. We have been using
them all along. We never change
subscripts in a chemical equation.
169
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
The big numbers next to the

elements or compounds are called
coefficients. These are the only
things we can change in a chemical
equation.
170
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
Coefficients tell us the amount of each

compound or element we have. You
multiply the subscript for each
element to the right of a coefficient
until you are stopped by a + or !
171
equations.
2Na + Cl2 ! 2NaCl
So in this equation you have 2 x 1

sodium atoms being added to 2
chlorine atoms yielding 2 x 1 sodium
chloride molecules.
172
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !___H2O
When we balance chemical equations,

we need to figure out what
coefficients to use.
173
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !___H2O
To do that, we list how many atoms of

each element we start with, then use
math to figure out the coefficients.
174
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !___H2O
In this equation, we start with:

Reactants Products
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=1
175
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !___H2O
Our hydrogen is balanced, but we don’t

have enough oxygen in the product.
Reactants Products
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=1
176
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !___H2O
We need to make our best mathematical

guess as to which coefficient will bring
balance to the equation.
Reactants Products
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=1
177
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !2___ H2O
We need two oxygen atoms, so lets try a

coefficient of 2 in front of the product.
Reactants Products
H=2 H=2
O=2 O=1
178
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !2___ H2O
Multiply that 2 by the subscripts for each

atom in the product.
Reactants Products
H=2 H= 4
O=2 O= 2
179
equations.
___H2 + ___O2 !2___ H2O
Now we have enough oxygen, but too much

hydrogen. How do we balance it?
Reactants Products
H=2 H= 4
O=2 O= 2
180
equations.
2 2 + ___O2 !2___ H2O
___H
If we put a coefficient of 2 in front of the

H2 on the reactants side, we can balance
the equation.
Reactants Products
H= 4 H= 4
O-2 O= 2
181
equations.
•Multiply the number of atoms you have by
coefficients to balance equations.
•Multiply coefficients by every subscript until
you hit a + or a !.
•Never, ever, EVER change a subscript.
•Make a list of how much of each atom you have
and change it as you add coefficients to your
equation.
•If there are poly-atomic ions on both sides of
your equation, don’t separate them!
182
Quick Check
___Al(OH)3 + ___H2SO4 !___Al2(SO4)3 + ___ H2O
183
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND BALANCING
REACTIONS
LAB: Types of Reactions, Activity Series, Precipitation Reactions, Net Ionic Equations
Record all observations in your lab notebooks. 1 notebook from each group will be
graded and their score will be the group’s score.
REACTION 1 (Teacher Demo)

Combust 5 mL of 91% isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH) (or 2-propanol)
a) What type of reaction is this? _____________________________________
b) Write the balanced equation for this reaction
c) Draw the structure of isopropyl alcohol
d) Explain why it would be impossible to keep doing this reaction in the same bottle.
REACTION 2 (On sheet protector)

React iron filings with 1.0M copper sulfate solution
a) What type of reaction is this: ___________________________________
b) Write the balanced equation for this reaction, make sure that include physical states
c) What element formed on the surface of the iron? ____________
d) Explain why this reaction was possible (use activity series in your explanation.
e) Write the balanced equation for the reaction between iron filings and silver nitrate.
184
React 1.0M lead nitrate solution with 1M potassium iodide solution
c) Write the complete ionic equation for this reaction.
d) What ions are spectator ions? _____________________________________
e) What substance is the precipitate? _________________________Explain how you

know.

React 0.2M silver nitrate with 0.5M sodium hydroxide
c) Write the net ionic equation for this reaction.
d) What ions are spectator ions? _____________________________________
e) What substance is the precipitate? _________________________
REACTION 5 (In test tube)

React 6.0M hydrochloric acid with magnesium metal
185
c) What gas is formed in this reaction? _______________ Explain how you could test
to see if you are right.
Reactions Lab
Often chemists are faced with identifying unknowns. Your challenge today will be to
identify an unknown based on qualitative observations.
Salt Solution Sodium Iodide Sodium Sulfate

Lead (II) Nitrate
Silver Nitrate
Nitric Acid
Problem:
Hypothesis:
186
Worksheet: Description of the 5 Types of reactions
SYNTHESIS
A + B -> AB
Ex.
DECOMPOSITION
AB -> A + B
Ex.
SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
AB + C -> AC + B or AB + C -> CB + A
(depends if C will gain or lose electrons)
Ex.
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT
AB + CD -> AD + CB
Ex.
COMBUSTION REACTION
Hydrocarbon + O2 -> CO2 + H2O (always these products)

Ex.
187
Worksheet: 5 Types of reactions
Section 1
Write correct formulas for the products in these reactions. Also identify which of the five
types of reactions is occurring and write that below the given reactants. Please make sure
that you balance your equations. Remember your polyatomics and watch out for
diatomics.
Example: HCl + Na ->

Completed and balanced: An2HCl + 2Na -> 2NaCl + H2
ID: Single Displacement Reaction
1) Ag2O ->
2) Al + CuCl2 ->
3) Al + Pb(NO3)2 ->
4) RaCl2 ->
5) Na + O2 ->
6) K2CO3 + BaCl2 ->
7) Cl2 + NaI ->
8) C4H10 + O2 ->
9) Fe (II) + AgC2H3O2 ->
10) C25H52 + O2 ->
188
Section 2
Without using any of the problems above, write and balance a problem for each of the
following reaction types:
COMBUSTION
DECOMPOSITION
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT
SINGLE DISPLACEMENT
SYNTHESIS
Worksheet: 5 Types of reactions (Part II)
1) Mr. Maddin reacts together Potassium and Chlorine. Write the balanced equation.
2) Lead (IV) is reacted with Silver Sulfate. Write the balanced equation.
3) Leo combusts cyclononane. Write the balanced equation.
4) The compound Mercury(II)Sulfide is broken apart. Write the balanced equation.
5) Ammonium Oxide reacts with Aluminum Carbonate. Write the balanced equation.
189
6) Salt is combined reacted with Calcium Phosphate. Write a balanced equation.
190
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Practice sheet for Balancing
BALANCE THE FOLLOWING:
1. C2H2 + O2  CO2 + H2O
2. Na2O + F2  NaF + O2
3. KIO3  KI + O2
Substitute symbols and formulas for names and write balanced equations for the
following reactions:
4. Chromium displaces hydrogen from HCl, with chromium (II) chloride as the other
product.
5. Hydrogen combines with sulfur to form hydrogen sulfide
191
6. Calcium carbide (CaC2) reacts with water to produce calcium hydroxide and ethyne
gas (C2H2).
192
Predict the products in the following reactions. Then write the balanced equations:
7. Decomposition of copper (II) oxide (Type of reaction:
___________________________)
8. Magnesium combines with oxygen (Type of reaction:

___________________________)
9. Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid (Type of reaction:

___________________________)
10. The combustion of octane (Type of reaction: ___________________________)
11. Calcium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid (Type of reaction:

___________________________)
BONUS:
193
K4Fe(CN)6 + KMnO4 + H2SO4  KHSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + MnSO4 + HNO3
+ CO2 +H2O
194
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Balancing Practice Problems
EXAMPLE:
2 1 2
2 H2 + O2 ---> 2H2O
H=24 H=24
NOTICE:
If you don’t write a coeffienct, it is
assumed to be one.
O=2 O=12
Please balance the following and write the final coefficients in the boxes.
1. HgO ---> Hg + O2
2. Zn + HCl ---> ZnCl2 + H2
3. Fe + O2 ---> Fe2O3
4. FeS2 + O2 ---> Fe2O3 + SO2
195
5. K + Br2 ---> KBr
6. Al + FeO ---> Al2O3 +

Fe
7. Al + O2 ---> Al2O3
Hint: On these last two problems, think about balancing the polyatomics as “package deals”
8. Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH ---> K2SO4 +
Fe(OH)3
9. Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 ---> Al(OH)3 +

CaSO4
196
Lots of Balancing Problems
1. H2 + O2 -> H2O
2. S8 + O2 -> SO3
3. HgO -> Hg + O2
4. Zn + HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2
5. Na + H2O -> NaOH + H2
6. C10H16 + Cl2 -> C + HCl
7. Si2H3 + O2 -> SiO2 + H2O
8. Fe + O2 -> Fe2O3
9. C7H6O2 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
10. FeS2 + O2 -> Fe2O3 + SO2
11. Fe2O3 + H2 -> Fe + H2O
12. K + Br2 -> KBr
13. C2H2 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
14. H2O2 -> H2O + O2
15. C7H16 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
16. SiO2 + HF -> SiF4 + H2O
17. KClO3 -> KCl + O2
18. KClO3 -> KClO4 + KCl
19. P4O10 + H2O -> H3PO4
20. Sb + O2 -> Sb4O6
21. C3H8 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
22. Fe2O3 + CO -> Fe + CO2
23. PCl5 + H2O -> HCl + H3PO4
24. H2S + Cl2 -> S8 + HCl
25. Fe + H2O -> Fe3O4 + H2
26. N2 + H2 -> NH3
27. N2 + O2 -> N2O
28. CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + O2
29. SiCl4 + H2O -> H4SiO4 + HCl
30. H3PO4 -> H4P2O7 + H2O
31. CO2 + NH3 -> OC(NH2)2 + H2O
32. Al(OH)3 + H2SO4 -> Al2(SO4)3 + H2O
33. Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH -> K2SO4 + Fe(OH)3
34. H2SO4 + HI -> H2S + I2 + H2O
35. Al + FeO -> Al2O3 + Fe
36. Na2CO3 + HCl -> NaCl + H2O + CO2
37. P4 + O2 -> P2O5
38. K2O + H2O -> KOH
39. Al + O2 -> Al2O3
40. Na2O2 + H2O -> NaOH + O2
41. C + H2O -> CO + H2
42. H3AsO4 -> As2O5 + H2O
43. Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 -> Al(OH)3 + CaSO4
44. FeCl3 + NH4OH -> Fe(OH)3 + NH4Cl
197
45. Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 -> P4O10 + CaSiO3
46. N2O5 + H2O -> HNO3
47. Al + HCl -> AlCl3 + H2
48. H3BO3 -> H4B6O11 + H2O
49. Mg + N2 -> Mg3N2
50. NaOH + Cl2 -> NaCl + NaClO + H2O
51. Li2O + H2O -> LiOH
52. CaC2 + H2O -> C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
53. Fe(OH)3 -> Fe2O3 + H2O
54. Pb(NO3)2 -> PbO + NO2 + O2
55. BaO + H2O -> Ba(OH)2
56. Ca + AlCl3 -> CaCl2 + Al
57. NH3 + NO -> N2 + H2O
58. H3PO3 -> H3PO4 + PH3
59. Fe2O3 + C -> CO + Fe
60. FeS + O2 -> Fe2O3 + SO2
61. NH3 + O2 -> NO + H2O
62. Si + S8 -> Si2S4
63. Hg2CO3 -> Hg + HgO + CO2
64. SiC + Cl2 -> SiCl4 + C
65. Al4C3 + H2O -> CH4 + Al(OH)3
66. V2O5 + HCl -> VOCl3 + H2O
67. Ag2S + KCN -> KAg(CN)2 + K2S
68. Au2S3 + H2 -> Au + H2S
69. ClO2 + H2O -> HClO2 + HClO3
70. KO2 + CO2 -> K2CO3 + O2
71. MgNH4PO4 -> Mg2P2O7 + NH3 + H2O
72. MnO2 + HCl -> MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
73. Pb + Na + C2H5Cl -> Pb(C2H5)4 + NaCl
74. Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 -> CaHPO4 + H2O
75. Zn + NaOH + H2O -> Na2Zn(OH)4 + H2
76. SrBr2 + (NH4)2CO3 -> SrCO3 + NH4Br
77. Hg(OH)2 + H3PO4 -> Hg3(PO4)2 + H2O
78. Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 + C -> CaSiO3 + P4 + CO
79. I4O9 -> I2O6 + I2 + O2 (this equation can be balanced with various sets of
coefficients)
80. C2H3Cl + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + HCl
81. (NH4)2Cr2O7 -> NH3 + H2O + Cr2O3 + O2
82. Al + NaOH + H2O -> NaAl(OH)4 + H2
83. NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 -> CaCl2 + NH3 + H2O
84. Al + NH4ClO4 -> Al2O3 + AlCl3 + NO + H2O
85. H2SO4 + NaHCO3 -> Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
86. Ca10F2(PO4)6 + H2SO4 -> Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + HF
87. Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 -> CaSO4 + Ca(H2PO4)2
88. H3PO4 + (NH4)2MoO4 + HNO3 -> (NH4)3PO4 . 12MoO3 + NH4NO3 + H2O
89. C4H10 + Cl2 + O2 -> CO2 + CCl4 + H2O
198
90. C7H10N + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + NO2
91. H3PO4 + HCl -> PCl5 + H2O
92. HCl + K2CO3 -> KCl + H2O + CO2
93. Ca(ClO3)2 -> CaCl2 + O2
94. C2H5OH + O2 -> CO + H2O
95. Xe + F2 -> XeF6
96. NH4NO3 -> N2O + H2O
97. Au2O3 -> Au + O2
98. C4H10 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
99. Fe3O4 + H2 -> Fe + H2O
100. O2 -> O3
101. I2 + HNO3 -> HIO3 + NO2 + H2
102. C6H6 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
103. C2H5OH + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
104. HClO4 + P4O10 -> H3PO4 + Cl2O7
105. BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 -> BaSO4 + AlCl3
106. (NH4)2Cr2O7 -> Cr2O3 + N2 + H2O
107. NaHCO3 -> Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
108. Fe2(C2O4)3 -> FeC2O4 + CO2
109. Ca3P2 + H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + PH3
110. As + NaOH -> Na3AsO3 + H2
199
LAB: PENNY REACTIVITY
LAB: Reactivity of Pre- and Post-1982 Pennies
All work should be recorded in your lab notebook.
Objectives: By the end of the lab, you should be able to…
* Measure mass and volume accurately to determine density using correct numbers of
significant digits
* Record detailed observations of a single replacement chemical reaction
* Write and name ionic compounds
* Predict the products of a chemical reaction
* Balance a chemical reaction
Safety:
* Goggles and a lab apron are mandatory during Part 2 of this lab.
* 6M, hydrochloric acid is extremely caustic (capable of burning, corroding,
dissolving)—don’t get it on your skin. If you do, rinse it immediately with lots of water.
Part 1: Density
Your challenge: Determine the density of a pre-1982 and post 1982 penny using any
method you would like. Be sure to record your data in an organized way.
Part 2: Reaction with 6M, Hydrochloric Acid
Methods:
1. Choose one pre-1982 and one post-1982 penny.

2. Using a file, score (to cut a groove) the penny in four places around the perimeter of
the penny. (get it…four score…Abe Lincoln..get it…)
3. Find the mass of each penny.
4. Pour about 10mL of 6M, hydrochloric acid into the two smallest beakers that you can
find.
5. Place the pre-1982 penny in one beaker and the post 1982 penny in the other. (Make
sure that you label each beaker). Double check to make sure that the penny is completely
submerged.
6. Take detailed observations about what you see.
7. Set your beakers in the fume hood and wait at least 24 hours.
8. Take detailed observations about what you see.
200
9. Turn on the tap and decant the liquid from the beaker into the sink being careful to
leave any remaining solid in the beaker. Rinse the acid down the sink with lots of water.
10. Gently rinse the pennies several times in the beaker with tap water. Carefully
remove the pennies from the beakers
11. Find the mass of both pennies.
PENNY ACTIVITY LAB SAMPLE RESULTS
Before Acid After Acid

Trial Mass of pre-82 Mass of post-82 Mass of pre-82 Mass of post-82
(g) (g) (g) (g)
1 3.10 2.52 3.03 0.58
2 3.15 2.50 3.06 0.08
3 3.10 2.48 3.11 0.11
4 3.03 2.44 3.00 2.03
5 3.00 2.40 2.98 0.37
6 2.99 2.80 1.09 0.02
AVG 3.06 2.52 2.71 0.53
Change in mass (g)
Pre-1982 0.35
Post-1982 1.99166667
PENNY REACTIVITY LAB CONCLUSIONS
Null Hypo:
There will be no difference in the mass of pre- and post-82 pennies when reacted with
hydrochloric acid.
Conclusion:
Based on the data, the null hypothesis should be rejected. The null hypothesis stated, that
there would be no difference in the mass of pre and post-82 pennies when reacted with
hydrochloric acid. An alternative hypothesis could be that the mass of the pre-1982 penny
would be more than the mass of the post-1982 penny. As the data shows, the pre-1982
penny lost very little mass when compared with the post-1982 penny. EXPLAIN THIS
SCIENTIFICALLY!!!
* Reaction between HCl and Cu vs. HCl and Zn.

* Chemical properties
201
Combustion Reaction Demonstration
Combustion:
These demonstrations are great attention getters. Kids love watching things blow up, or
burn brilliantly.(Caution: Don't let students sit too close. Just in case, have a fire
extinguisher nearby)
Combustion of a hydrocarbon:
For this demonstration you will need a five gallon water bottle, ethanol, a 10 ml
graduated cylinder, and a match. Using the graduated cylinder, measure out 20 ml of
ethanol and pour it into the water bottle. Don't tell students what you are about to do, but
you can ask them questions like "what am I pouring in here?", or "what do you think is
going to happen?" Roll the bottle around to coat the inside all over with the ethanol.
Make it flashy by tossing the bottle in the air a few times. Ask the students, "why am I
doing this?" When you are satisfied that the ethanol has coated the inside of the bottle
completely, set the bottle on an elevated surface where all students can see it. Light a
match, and tell the students to watch closely. Toss it in and stand back! There will be a lot
of flame and a whooshing sound as the air is forced out of the bottle. Depending on how
much vapor is in the bottle, the flame may flicker a few times before going out. To
demonstrate that oxygen is required for combustion, throw in another match. Since all the
oxygen was used in the first explosion, you will not get a second one. Walk around the
room with the bottle and let students verify for themselves that the bottle is warm.
What's going on?
In general, all combustion reactions require oxygen and a catalyst ( usually heat or
electricity). This demonstration involves the combustion of a hydrocarbon. The products
of these kinds of reactions are almost always carbon dioxide, water, heat and light. The
chemical equation looks like this:
C2H5OH(ethanol) + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + heat and light
If you want a real life application for this experiment, you could tell your students that
cherries flambe dessert is made this way in restaurants. The chef pours brandy over the
cherries, lights a match, and poof!
202
203
20 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
10 points
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
5 points
4 points
Eliminate 3 points
Ask the Ask 2 points
2
Teacher The Class 1 point
Answers
204
20 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
*10 points*
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
*5 points*
4 points
Eliminate 3 points
Ask the Ask 2 points
2
Answers
205
1 POINT Ask Ask Eliminate 2
Mouton Class
What is the test about?
!(A) Reactions !(B) Atoms
!(C) Periodic Table !(D) Trojans
The Correct Answer is:

Final Answer?
A
206
2 POINTS Ask Ask Eliminate 2
Mouton Class
Who sang, “Daddy Mac ‘ll make ya..”
!(A) Eminem !(B) P Diddy
!(C) 50 Cent !(D) Kris Kross

Final Answer?
D
207
Mouton Class
What is another name for a reaction?
!(A) Physical ! !(B) Chemical !
!(C) Phase Change !(D) Ion

Final Answer?
B
208
Mouton Class
The symbol (g) in a RXN means what?
!(A) Gasoline !(B) Gamma
!(C) Gas !(D) Glucose

Final Answer?
C
209
Mouton Class
What is the name of LiOH?
!(A) Lithium Oxide !(B) Lithium

Hydroxide
!(C) Lithium !(D) Litroxide

Oxhydrogen
Final Answer?
B
210
Mouton Class
Are atoms created in a RXN?
!(A) No, never !(B) Yes, always
!(C) Sometimes !(D) Only in

synthesis reactions
Final Answer?
A
211
Mouton Class
Which is Ammonium Phosphate?
!(A) NH4PO3 !(B) (NH4)3PO4
!(C) Am3P3 !(D) NH3PO4

Final Answer?
B
212
Mouton Class
Type of reaction?: AB + C " AC + B
!(A) Synthesis !(B) Double

Displacement
!(C) Decomposition !(D) Single

Displacement
Final Answer?
D
213
Mouton Class
Type of reaction?: A + B " AB
!(A) Decomposition !(B) Combustion
!(C) Synthesis !(D) Addition

Final Answer?
C
214
Mouton Class
Which is NOT a diatomic?
!(A) Cl !(B) H
!(C) N !(D) At

Final Answer?
D
215
Mouton Class
Which is Potassium Chlorite?
!(A) KClO2 !(B) KClO3
!(C) PClO2 !(D) KCl2

Final Answer?
A
216
Mouton Class
Which is Iron (III) Sulfate?
!(A) FeSO4 !(B) Ir3(SO4)3
!(C) Fe2(SO4)3 !(D) Ir2(SO4)3

Final Answer?
C
217
Mouton Class
Na + O2 " ?
!(A) NaO !(B) Na2O
!(C) NaO2 !(D) Na2O2

Final Answer?
B
218
Mouton Class
In the activity series, which is the most
reactive?
!(A) Hydrogen !(B) Element at

the bottom
!(C) Oxygen !(D) Element at

the top
Final Answer?
D
219
Mouton Class
What is present before the rxn occurs?
!(A) Reactants !(B) Products
!(C) Water !(D) All of the

above
Final Answer?
A
220
Mouton Class
What are the products of combustion?
!(A) Depends on the !(B) Hydrocarbon +

reactants O2
!(C) CO2 + O2 !(D) CO2 + H2O

Final Answer?
D
221
222
CHEMISTRY
the study of matter
223
MATTER
anything that has
mass and has
volume
224
2 Properties of Matter
1) Mass
A measure of how difficult it
is to change the object’s
motion (b.k.a. inertia)
Units on mass:
kilograms, grams, (pounds)
225
Massive objects are harder
to move. Thus they have
more matter and more
inertia
Which has more
inertia?
226
Weight vs. Mass
• Weight
Depends on gravity (changes
depending on where you are)
• Mass
Stays the same
EVERYWHERE!!!
227
2 Properties of Matter
2) Volume
The amount of space an
object occupies
Units on volume:
milliliters, liters, (cup, gallon)
228
An object’s volume can be
found in 4 basic ways:
1. Multiplying dimensions
together (lwh, !r2h,4/3 !r3)
• Volume displacement
• Using a liquid measure (mL)
• As a derived unit (D=m/v)
229
Density
The ratio of an
object’s mass to
its volume
230
m
D=
v
Units: g/mL, g/cm3
231
Anything with a density of
GREATER than 1g/mL
will sink in water.
Anything with a density

LESS than 1g/mL will float
in water.
232
A block of wood has a
mass of 28 grams. If
its volume is 14 cm ,
3
what is the density of

the wood?
2.0 g/cm3
233
The density of gold is
19.3 g/mL. What is the
mass of a piece of gold
with a volume of 34.5
mL?
666 grams
234
Air has a density of
0.0013 g/mL. How
much volume does
48,000 grams of air
take up?
3.7 x 10 7 mL
235
PROBLEM
What is the density
of sand?
236
PROBLEM
Are your 10
pennies made
before 1982 or after
1982?
237
Accuracy
How close a
measurement is the
correct or true
measurement
238
Precision
How close a set of
measurements are
to each other
(regardless of how correct they are)
239
% Error
A quantitative
comparison between
your value and an
accepted value
240
your value - accepted value
% Error = ! 100%
accepted value
Your value for water density = 0.88
Accepted value for water density = 1.0
Calculate the % error in your

measurement!
241
your value - accepted value
% Error = ! 100%
accepted value
0.88 - 1.00
% Error = =
1.00
.12
= 0.12 !100% = 12% error
1.00
242
METRIC SYSTEM AND CONVERSIONS
DENSITY
WORKSHEET: DENSITY
1. Calculate the density of a 30.0 gram substance with a volume of 245.0 ml.
2. Which has a greater density, a 100.0 gram substance with a volume of 2 000.0 mL or a
100.0 gram substance with a volume of 2.00 liters? Show your work.
3. If an object’s mass increased, what would you have to do to its volume to keep its
density the same?
4. If a substance has a density of 20.0 g/mL and a mass of 234 g, what is its volume?
5. If a substance has a mass of 0.003 22 kg and a density of 2.324 g/mL, what is its
volume? (Careful…watch your units)
6. A chemist, trying to identify the main component of a compact disc cleaning fluid,
finds that 25.00 cm3 of the substance has a mass of 19.625g at 20 C. The following are
the names and densities of the compounds that might be the main components. Which of
these compounds is the most likely to be the main component of the compact disc
cleaner?
243
Compounds and their densities (in g/cm3 @ 20 degrees C)
Chloroform- 1.492
Diethyl ether- 0.714
Ethanol- 0.789
Isopropyl alcohol- 0.785
Toluene- 0.867
CHEMISTRY BONUS OPPORTUNITY: Density Column
5-12pts (depending on # of layers)
You need to make a density column that has at least 5 different layers. Each layer must be
clearly visible and distinct from the layers around it. For each layer that you get above 5,
you will earn 1 more bonus point (12pts max). You must use a container that is smaller
than 1.0 L and the layers must be clearly seen through it. You must also label each layer
with the identity of the substance and its density in your drawing below (or on the back of
this sheet). Densities for many substances can be found in your book, other texts, and on
the web. If you are unable to determine the exact density through research or
experimentation, estimate it based on where it is in the column relative to other known
densities. Any estimated densities must be marked as estimated. You should have no
more than two solid layers in any liquid layer.
Consider your possibilities before you start mixing substances. Use small amounts of
material to determine what floats on what. Also, be aware that any flammable or
hazardous materials are not allowed, (for example, gasoline and mercury.) Use your book
and the Internet for help.
CREATE A LABELED DRAWING OF YOUR DENSITY COLUMN HERE
244
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Calculating Density of Blocks

Block #1 Block #2
Description: _______________________ Description: _______________________
Mass: _____________ Mass: _____________
Volume: _____________ Volume: _____________
Density: ________________ (show work) Density: ________________ (show work)
Will it float? / Why?: Will it float? / Why?:
Block #3 Block #4
Mass: _____________ Mass: _____________
Volume: _____________ Volume: _____________
Block #5 Block #6
Mass: _____________ Mass: _____________
Volume: _____________ Volume: _____________
245
246
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Spring 2003
Observations in the Tank
GREEN = Float and RED = Sink
TRIAL 1:
__________________________________________________
Hypothesis: Observations:
TRIAL 2:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 3:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 4:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 5:
247
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 6:
__________________________________________________
248
TRIAL 7:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 8:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 9:
__________________________________________________
TRIAL 10:
_________________________________________________
TRIAL 11:
_________________________________________________
TRIAL 12:
_________________________________________________
249
Having made all of these observations, use the space below to explain all
that you have seen.
250
Lab: Density of Solids Name:
Date:
Block:
____________
Objective: Student will be able to determine and compare objects with different densities as
well as use a triple-beam balance.
Problem: Which block is the most dense? Density =

__________
Pre-Lab information:
*Using a Triple-Beam Balance:

This balance measures the mass in grams. The procedure for using the balance is as
follows:
1) Move all of the _____________to zero. The _____________ should be in the

center.
2) Place object completely on the _______________.
3) Move the ___________________ to the ____________ mass (0, 100, 200,
etc.) to the slit for 100 ____. Use the pointer location the determine the next
move.
**Note: The slider must be in the ___________ (not between!) to be correct**
4) Move the _____________ to the ___________________ mass (0, 10, 20, etc)
to the slit for 10 _____. Use the pointer location to determine the next move.
5) Move the ____________ to the _________________ mass (0, 1, 2, etc.) and
adjust until the pointer is in the center. Read the mass by ___________ all 3
measurements.
Pointer Location:
**When the pointer is ___________ the center, the mass is _____________ than
the mass being measured. So you should
_____________________________________.
**When the pointer is ___________ the center, the mass is _____________ than
the mass being measured. So you should
______________________________________.
251
Example:
Hypothesis: The block that will be the most dense will be

_____________________.
Materials: - -
- -
- -
- -
Procedure:
1) Use the ruler to measure the length of the wooden rectangle and record to the nearest
tenth.
2) Use the ruler to measure the width of the wooden rectangle and record to the nearest
tenth.
3) Use the ruler to measure the height of the wooden rectangle and record to the nearest
tenth.
4) Calculate the volume by using the formula:
______________________________
5) Find the mass of the object using the triple-beam balance. Round to the nearest tenth.
6) Calculate the density using the formula: ______________________________
7) Repeat with the ________________, _______________, and _______________
cube.
Data:
Object Wooden Wooden Aluminum Iron Cube Brass
Cube Rectangle Cube Cube
Mass (g)
Length (cm)
Width (cm)
Height (cm)
Volume
(cm x cm x cm =
252
3
cm
Density
(g/cm3)
Conclusion: (Answer in complete sentences for #1 and #2!)

1) Which block was the most dense according to the results? Was your hypothesis
correct?
2) What are some possible sources of error in this experiment?
3) Assuming the same volume, put the following objects in order from LEAST to MOST
dense.
Objects: Brick, Sponge, Tissue Box, Wooden Block
253
PERCENT ERROR
Worksheet: Percent Error
1. You predicted Mr. Maddin to be 32 years old, but he was really 28. What is your
percent error?
2. In the lab you find that the atomic mass of oxygen in 18.0 amu. In all published
texts, the value is 15.99 amu. What is your % error?
3. The calculated length of the world’s largest nutria rat is 54.23 meters. The actual
length is 5 401 cm. What is the percent error?
4. The % error in your measurement was 34%. The actual value was .0345 meters.
What was the calculated value?
5. Write your own problem for percent error and solve it. You may use the backside if
you need to.
254
Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Calculating % Error
Percent error…simply put…is how far off your experimental value was from an accepted
value.
Consider these definitions:

• EXPERIMENTAL/GUESSED VALUE: This is the value (the answer) that you get
from doing a lab or a value that you guess (I guess my score is going to be 90).
• ACCEPTED/ACTUAL VALUE: This is the value that is the “right” answer. It might
be an accepted number from a book (i.e. acceleration due to gravity is -9.8m/s2) or a
value that you actually get, to which you compare your guess (Your test score ended
up being a 95).
To calculate percent error, use the following equation. Note that the numerator is an
absolute value. Absolute values mean that after you subtract, your answer will
automatically be positive, regardless of the sign.
experimental - accepted
Percent Error = ! 100%
accepted
Consider this sample problem. Mr. Maddin guessed he would get 5 hours of sleep, but he
actually got 8. What was the percent error in his guess?
5-8 -3 3
Percent Error = = = = 0.375 ! 100% = 37.5%
8 8 8
Mr. Maddin was 37.5% off in his guess. Please notice how we had to multiply by 100%
to convert our decimal to a percent.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Danny guessed that the velocity of the car was 20m/s. It turned out that the car
was actually moving at 30m/s. What is the percent error in Danny’s guess?
255
2. When doing a lab, the group called “Gravity Skaters” experimentally found that
that the density of water was 1.10g/mL. They looked up the accepted answer in a
book and discovered that their answer should have been 1.0g/mL. What was the
group’s percent error?
256
3. During the walking lab, the group “Teflon’s Goretex” got the following
information:
GROUP DISTANCE (m) TIME (s) VELOCITY (m/s)

MEMBER
Person 1 5 2.8
Person 2 5 3.0
Person 3 5 3.2
Person 4 5 3.7
Average Group
Velocity (m/s)
Calculate each person’s velocity and then find the Average Group Velocity.
Compare the group’s average to the National Average of 1.5m/s and find the
percent error in Teflon’s Goretex average group velocity to the National Average
velocity.
4. Uriel was doing an experiment where he was calculating the acceleration due to
gravity. He ended up with a 20% error in his measurement. He consulted the
book and found that the acceleration due to gravity was supposed to be -9.8m/s2.
What are the two possibilities for his answer?
HINT: You will need to think hard and work this problem backward. I would start
by writing down the formula for percent error and everything that I was given in
the problem.
257
UNIT CONVERSIONS
Lab: Unit Conversions
Unit Conversions Lab
STATION 1
Measure the length and width of this lab table in cm.
Length: ____________ Width: ____________
Convert those measurements to miles.
Length (miles): ____________
Width (miles): ____________
STATION 2
Measure the volume of the water in the beaker.
Volume:
Convert that measurement to Giga liters.
Volume (Gl): ____________
STATION 3
Given that 1cm3 = 1 mL, how much water (in liters) is in this aquarium?
Volume (L): ____________
STATION 4
What is the temperature of the substance? ______________
258
Convert the temperature to mega-degrees Celsius: ____________
STATION 5
What is the mass of the roll of tape?
Mass: _______________
Convert that measurement to micrograms. _________________
STATION 6
Find the average of your ages and then figure out how many seconds that is?
Average Age: _______________
Average Age in seconds. _________________
STATION 7
In the beaker is Tin metal. How many moles of Tin Metal are present? (Challenging
question!)
259
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Temperature Conversions
You are probably familiar with measuring temperature in °F (degrees Fahrenheit). Science,
however, uses two other measurements of temperature: Celsius and Kelvin. Please see
the picture below to understand how all three relate to one another.
Notice…
No degrees
SYMBOLS sign
K = Kelvin = K
C = Celsius = °C
F = Fahrenheit
=°F
Converting Between Temperature Scales

* To convert Celsius to Kelvin, simply take your Celsius temperature and add 273°
Example: 20°C = _______ K  20 + 273 = 293 K
* To convert Kelvin to Celsius, simply take you Kelvin temperature and subtract 273°
260
Example: 321 K = _______ °C  321 + 273 = 48 °C
* To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius use the following equation TC = (5/9)*(TF-
32)
Example: 80°F = _______°C  TC = (5/9)*(80-32) = (5/9)*(48) = 26.6°C
* To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius use the following equation TF =

((9/5)*TC)+32
Example: 20°C = _______°F  TF = ((9/5)*20) + 32 = (36)+32 = 68°F
QUESTIONS
1. When does water boiling in:

a. Fahrenheit: _______________
b. Celsius: _______________
c. Kelvin: _______________
2. When does water freezing in:

a. Fahrenheit: _______________
b. Celsius: _______________
c. Kelvin: _______________
3. What is room temperature in:

a. Fahrenheit: _______________
b. Celsius: _______________
c. Kelvin: _______________
Convert
4. It is a hot day in Franklin. The temperature is 104°F. How hot is it in

Celsius?
261
5. How hot is it in Kelvin?
6. A scientist has a sample of liquid nitrogen. It is 77K. What is its

temperature in °C?
7. What is its temperature in °F?
262
SI Conversions
Convert
1. How many liters are in 2580mL?
2. How many centimeters are in 2km?
3. How many grams are in 10dag?
4. How many hm are in 2300 cm?
5. How many milliseconds are in 0.00453 seconds?
6. How many kJ are in 8543 dJ?
7. How many cL are in 23L?
8. How many grams in 50dg
9. How many km are in 1000.0cm?
10. How many liters are in 1500kL?
11. How many cm are in 1 dam?
12. How many mg are in 1 kg?
263
MEASUREMENT
Mass Scavenger Hunt
Find a reference object and get its mass (this is the only one
you will know).
Reference Object: __________________ Reference Mass:

_________
OBJECT TARGET ACTUAL % ERROR

MASS MASS
2g
15g
50g
120g
215g
300g
Average % Error: ________________
264
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Mass and Volume Exploratory Measurements

Using a Triple Beam Balance, please find the mass of each of
the following objects:
Object Mass
250 mL beaker
Pipette
A 100mL graduated cylinder
A crucible
50 mL of water
Using a ruler, a graduated cylinder, beaker, or any other

reasonable device please find the following of each of the
following: (remember that volume = length x width x height) :
Object Volume
Pack of note cards
The block on your table
The marble on your table
DON’T FORGET YOUR UNITS!!!
265
METRIC OLYMPICS
Metric Olympic Events
BIG FOOT CONTEST
1. Put paper (1 large sheet) on the floor

2. Trace feet of all the people in your group
3. Using rulers, calculate the area of your foot by making the best rectangle around your
foot. Don’t forget that the area for a rectangle is length x width
4. Calculate % error in guess
RIGHT-HANDED MARBLE GRAB
1. Grab marbles
2. Put them in a beaker on a scale (make sure scale is reading zero with only the beaker
sitting on it)
3. Record mass of marbles
4. Calculate % error of hypothesis
LEFT-HANDED SPONGE SQUEEZE
1. Dip sponge in 1000mL beaker

2. Squeeze into 600 mL beaker
3. Pour into graduated cylinder (measure volume)
4. Pour back into 1000mL beaker
5. Calculate % Error
THERMODYNAMIC FINGER DIVING
1. Go into chemical room (only 1 person)

2. Let hot water run for about 20s
3. Fill up 600mL beaker with 500mL of hot water
4. Return hot water to lab station
5. Let everyone feel the temperature
6. Use temperature probe to get actual temperature
7. Calculate % Error
STRAW JAVELIN
1. Go outside and throw from tape toward our classroom

2. Measure distance to the middle of the straw
266
3. Return to lab table and calculate % error
4. Please leave straws on the table
COTTON-BALL SHOT-PUT
1. Get meter sticks and cotton-balls and go outside in the hallway

2. Throw cotton-balls toward Mr. Thompson’s room
3. Measure distance each throw goes
4. Return to table
5. Calculate % error
6. Please leave cotton balls
SYNCHRONIZED LUNG TESTING
1. Get a stopwatch
2. Everyone in the group should start holding breath at the same time.
3. Record time when you let go of your breath
4. Calculate % error
267
268
269
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Metric Olympics No Excuses
EVENT ESTIMATE ACTUAL % ERROR

Synchronized Lung
Testing
_____s _____s
Cotton Ball Shot-
put
_____cm _____cm
Right Handed
Marble Grab
_____g _____g
Left-Handed
Sponge Squeeze
_____mL _____mL
Big Foot Contest
_____cm2 _____cm2
Thermodynamic
Finger Diving
____oC _____oC
Straw Javelin _____m _____m
270
Total %
Error
271
THE
PERIODIC
TABLE
272
PERIODIC
When something
occurs at regular
intervals
(you can predict what
happens / comes next)
273
So what makes the
periodic table periodic?
ATOMIC
NUMBER!!!
(across the chart)
274
PERIODIC LAW
The properties of the
elements are a
periodic function of
their atomic numbers
275
.
276
PERIOD
All of the elements
in a horizontal
row
277
GROUP
All of the elements
in a vertical
column
(aka Family)
278
Dmitri Mendeleev
(1834-1907)
invented the periodic

table based on
increasing atomic mass
…and yes, he too, is your friend
279
Henry Moseley
(1913)
revised the periodic
table based on
properties and
atomic number
…and yes, he too, is your friend
280
ALKALI METALS
s 1 group
• Good Conductors
281
ALKALINE EARTH
METALS
s 2 group
• Harder, more dense,
stronger than alkali
282
TRANSITION
METALS
d sub energy level
• Columns 3-12
283
LANTHANOID
SERIES
4f sub energy level
• Z = 57-70
284
ACTINOID
SERIES
5f sub energy level
• Z = 89-102
• All have radioactive
+
forms (unstable p & N °)
285
Columns
13, 14, 15, 16 are
named by the first
element in the
column
(e.g. Boron Group)
286
HALOGENS
p 5 group
• Combine with metals
to form salts
• Very reactive
287
NOBLE GASES
p 6 group
• Inert gases
(not reactive)
• 8 valence electrons
288
Classifications by e- Configuration
• Noble Gases: p6
• Representative Elements: s or p
(not p6)
• Transition Metals: “d-block”
• Inner Transition Metals: “f-block”
289
Stability of e-
configurations
290
OCTET
The eight outer
electrons in an
atom
291
FACT:
Atoms with full outer
energy levels are very
stable (less reactive)
292
OCTET RULE
If an atom has 8
electrons in its outer
energy level, it is
unreactive (save He)
293
Pretend we had a sub-
energy level with 8
electrons. When
would it be most
stable?
(The egg carton example)
294
FACT #2:
Atoms with filled,
half filled, or empty
sub-energy levels are
slightly more stable
295
Check out PT on
pages 392-393.
Look at Cu. What is
-
the e configuration?
[Ar] 1 10
4s 3d …why???
296
The atom is more
stable if it has a full
“d” sub-energy level
and a ! full “s” sub-
energy level
297
Check out the PT on
page 392-393.
Look at Gd. What is
-
the e configuration?
[Xe] 2 7 1
6s 4f 5d …why???
298
To Review…How do we make
sub energy levels more stable?
Move electrons so SUB-

ENERGY levels are FULL,
HALF FULL, or
COMPLETELY EMPTY
299
Now…how do we
make ENERGY
LEVELS more
stable?
300
Ways to make full
outer energy levels:
•Add electrons to a partially
filled outer energy level
•Lose all electrons in the outer
energy level
•Share electrons with another
atom 301
Periodic
Trends
302
ATOMIC RADIUS
The distance from the
center of the nucleus
to the outermost
energy level
303
The atomic radius
INCREASES
within a family
(just adding energy levels)
304
The atomic radius
DECREASES
within a period
(more positive charge pulling e-)
305
306
307
SHIELDING
EFFECT
The positive pull is less
because the distance
between nucleus and
electrons is greater
308
IONIZATION
ENERGY
the energy required to
remove an electron
from an atom
309
The ionization energy
DECREASES as you
go down a family
(shielding effect)
310
The ionization
energy
INCREASES across
a period
(more +
p have more pull on -
e)
311
312
313
ELECTRON
AFFINITY
how much an atom
desires another
electron
314
The electron affinity
DECREASES as you
go down a family
(shielding effect)
315
The electron affinity
INCREASES across
a period
(except for the noble gases)
(more +
e)
316
317
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The tendency of an atom

to attract electrons to
itself when it is bonded
to another atom
318
The electronegativity
DECREASES as you
go down a family
(shielding effect)
319
The electronegativity
INCREASES across a
period
(more +
e)
320
321
322
WHITEBOARDING
Draw the electron
configurations (w/
shortcut) for:
Ca
I
Ag
323
WHY IS THE
CONFIGURATION
FOR SILVER
WRONG!?!
324
WHITEBOARDING
Write the electron
configuration for Copper
325
WHITEBOARDING
Identify all of the elements
with deviations in their
electron configurations
326
WHITEBOARDING
Write the old “normal”
electron configuration for
Mo, Au, La, Cm. Below
each of these write the
electron configuration
with deviation.
327
PERIODIC TABLE AND TRENDS
Lab: Activity Series of Metals
Objectives:
1. Observe the reactivity of common metals.

2. Be able to predict the products of a single replacement reaction between a metal and
an acid.
3. Be able to write and balance equations for these reactions.
Background:
An activity series is a list of metals arranged in order of decreasing strength as

reducing agents. Metals above hydrogen in the activity series replace hydrogen from
acids and are termed active metals; metals below hydrogen do not displace hydrogen
from acids and are termed inactive metals. In this experiment you will construct an
activity series based on your observations of replacement reactions.
Safety: Wear chemical splash goggles at all times! Be extremely cautious with the
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Acids are corrosive. Report eye or skin contact to your teacher
immediately. Contact with eyes should be immediately treated with a 15 minute
(minimum) eyewash. In case of skin contact, affected areas should be rinsed thoroughly
with water.
Materials:
* 1 sample of each metal (Aluminum, Copper, Lead, Magnesium, Tin, Zinc)

* 1 test tube rack
* 6 empty test tubes
* 1 dropper
* 1 test tube of hydrochloric acid (HCl) – BE EXTREMELY CAREFUL!
Procedure: (Read all steps before beginning!!)
328
1. Label each test tube with the symbol of the metal to be placed in it. Place the test
tubes in the test tube rack.
2. Add a piece of each metal to the appropriate test tube.
3. Fill the dropper with HCl by using ONE SQUEEZE. Add this amount (one squeeze)
to one of the test tubes. Repeat for each metal.
4. Observe and note the rate of gas production from each reaction and list each metal in
order from least reactive to most reactive. Look very carefully for at least 5-7 minutes. It
takes some reactions some time to get started. Note whether the reaction tubes are hot or
cold as the reaction occurs.
5. Dispose of all materials in the vent hood. Rinse and wash all test tubes at the back
sink and leave upside down to dry.
Data Table – Reactions of metals with hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Reaction Rank of Reaction Hot or cold?

Description / Notes (1 = low; 6 = high)
of Reactivity
(be detailed! Look
closely!)
Al
Cu
Pb
Mg
Sn
Zn
Questions:
Write and balance the equations for each of the reactions. Give the name of the metal
compound formed by combining each metal with HCl acid.
329
Construct an activity series for the metals. The most reactive should be on top.
Discuss what correlation there is between the order of the activity series and a metal’s
position on the periodic table.
330
  
Average atomic mass: 1.00 Average atomic mass: 16.00 Average atomic mass: 30.97
Properties: nonmetal,
Properties: colorless, Properties: nonmetal, flammable; does not react
odorless gas, burns in air colorless gas; fairly reactive with water
  
Properties: nonmetal, pale, Properties: nonmetal, stable
Properties: colorless, yellow gas; most reactive of in water and air, but burns if
odorless gas; inert all the elements heated
  
Properties: soft, white, Properties: nonmetal, Properties: nonmetal,
silvery metal; highly colorless, odorless gas; yellow-green, dense gas;
reactive chemically inert very reactive
  
Properties: silvery-white, Properties: soft, silvery
relatively soft metal; metal; reacts vigorously Properties: nonmetal,
somewhat reactive with H20 colorless, odorless gas; inert
  
Properties: metalloid, dark Properties: silvery-white, Properties: soft, silvery
powder, unreactive with relatively soft metal; reacts metal; reacts vigorously
water and acids with hot water with H20
  
Properties: hard, strong, Properties: silvery-white,
silvery-white metal, soft metal; reacts with
Properties: nonmetal combines well with oxygen oxygen and water
 
Average atomic mass: 14.01 Average atomic mass: 28.09
Properties: colorless, Properties: metalloid, semi-
odorless gas; unreactive at conductor, unreactive
room temperature towards oxygen and water
331
PERIODIC TRENDS
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________

Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Periodic Trends
Define each of the terms and answer the questions that follow.
1. ATOMIC RADIUS:
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________
Rank each set of atoms from biggest radius to smallest radius.

Set of Atoms Biggest Radius Least Ionization Energy
a. Li, C, F
b. Li, Na, K
c. Ge, P, O
As you go down the periodic table, the atomic radius ___________________. This
happens because
________________________________________________________________________
__________
____________________________________. As you go across the periodic table, the
atomic radius
___________________. This happens because
____________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.
2. IONIZATION ENERGY:
______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________
Rank each set of atoms from greatest ionization to least ionization.
Set of Atoms Most Ionization Least Ionization
Energy Energy
a. Mg, Si, S
332
b. Mg, Ca, Ba
c. F, Cl, Br
As you go down the periodic table, the ionization energy __________________. This
happens because
________________________________________________________________________
__________
ionization
energy ___________________. This happens because
______________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.
3. ELECTRON AFFINITY:
______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________
Rank each set of atoms from greatest electron affinity to least electron affinity.
Set of Atoms Most Electron Affinity Least Electron Affinity
a. Li, C, N
b. C, O, Ne
c. K, Mg, P
As you go down the periodic table, the electron affinity __________________. This
happens because
________________________________________________________________________
__________
electron affinity
______________________. This happens because
_________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.
333
4. Electronegativity:
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________
Rank each set of atoms from greatest electronegativity to least electronegativity.

Set of Atoms Most Electronegative Least Electronegative
a. F, Cl, I
b. Mg, Si, Cl
c. K, Cl, Ne
As you go down the periodic table, the electonegativity __________________. This

happens because
________________________________________________________________________
__________
electronegativity
______________________. This happens because
_________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.
334
Answers for Comparing Atomic Sizes
Here are answers for the questions above.
a. Li, C, F
All are in the same period and thus have the same number of energy levels. Therefore,
the important factor is the nuclear charge. Li is the largest because it has the smallest
nuclear charge and pulls the electrons toward the nucleus less than the others. F is the
smallest because it has the largest nuclear charge and pulls the electrons toward the
nucleus more than the others.
b. Li, Na, K
All are in the same group and thus have the same effective nuclear charge. Therefore,
the important factor is the number of energy levels. Li is the smallest because it uses the
smallest number of electron energy levels. K is the largest because it uses the largest
number of electron energy levels.
c. Ge, P, O
All are in different groups and periods, therefore both factors must be taken into
account. Fortunately both factors reinforce one another. Ge is the largest because it uses
the largest number of energy levels and has the smallest effective nuclear charge. O is the
smallest because it uses the smallest number of energy levels and has the largest effective
nuclear charge.
d. C, N, Si
Not all are in the same group and period, so, again, both factors must be taken into
account. C and N tie for using the smallest number of energy levels, but N has a higher
effective nuclear charge. Therefore, N is the smallest. C and Si tie for having the lowest
effective nuclear charge, but Si uses more energy levels. Therefore, Si is the largest.
e. Al, Cl, Br
Not all are in the same group and period, so, again, both factors must be taken into
account. Cl is the smallest because it has higher effective nuclear charge than Al and uses
fewer energy levels than Br. Which is largest is less straightforward. Al has a lower
effective nuclear charge (by four), but Br uses more energy levels (by one). Because the
difference in effective nuclear charge is larger, it should be the more important factor in
this case, making Al the largest.
Al and Br can also be compared to one another indirectly by comparing both to Cl. Both
Al and Br are larger than Cl. Al is larger than Cl because it has lower effective nuclear
charge (by four). Br is larger than Cl because it uses more energy levels (by one).
Because Al is larger than Cl by four "steps" and Br is larger than Cl by only one "step",
Al is likely the largest of the three.
Answers to Comparing Ionization Energies

Here are answers to the exercises above.
335
a. Mg, Si, S
All are in the same period and use the same number of energy levels. Mg has the
lowest I.E. because it has the lowest effective nuclear charge. S has the highest I.E.
because it has the highest effective nuclear charge.
b. Mg, Ca, Ba
All are in the same group and have the same effective nuclear charge. Mg has the highest I.E.
because it uses the smallest number of energy levels. Ba has the lowest I.E. because it uses the
largest number of energy levels.
c. F, Cl, Br
All are in the same group and have the same effective nuclear charge. F has the highest I.E.
because it uses the smallest number of energy levels. Br has the lowest I.E. because it uses the
largest number of energy levels.
d. Ba, Cu, Ne
All are in different groups and periods, so both factors must be considered. Fortunately both
factors reinforce one another. Ba has the lowest I.E. because it has the lowest effective nuclear
charge and uses the highest number of energy levels. Ne has the highest I.E. because it has the
highest effective nuclear charge and uses the lowest number of energy levels.
e. Si, P, N
Si has the lowest I.E. because it has the lowest effective nuclear charge and is tied (with P) for
using the most energy levels. N has the highest I.E. because it uses the fewest energy levels and is
tied (with P) for having the highest effective nuclear charge.
Answers for Comparing Tendencies to Gain Electrons

Here are answers to the exercises above.
a. Li, C, N
Li has the least tendency to gain electrons because it has the lowest effective nuclear charge
(and all use the same number of energy levels). N has the greatest tendency to gain electrons
because it has the highest effective nuclear charge (and all use the same number of energy levels).
b. C, O, Ne
Ne has the lowest tendency to gain electrons because its outer energy level is full and there is
no room for an additional electron. O has the greatest tendency to gain electrons because it has a
higher effective nuclear charge than C (and both use the same number of energy levels).
c. Si, P, O
O has the greatest tendency to gain electrons because it has the highest effective nuclear charge
and uses the smallest number of energy levels. Si has the lowest tendency to gain electrons
because it has the lowest effective nuclear charge and is tied (with P) for using the most energy
levels.
d. K, Mg, P
P has the greatest tendency to gain electrons because it has the highest effective nuclear charge
and is tied (with Mg) for using the smallest number of energy levels. Neither Mg nor K have
336
much attraction for electrons, but K has the lowest tendency to gain electrons because it has the
lowest effective nuclear charge and uses the most energy levels.
e. S, F, He
He has the lowest tendency to gain electrons because its outer energy level is full and there is
no room for an additional electron. F has the greatest tendency to gain electrons because it has a
higher effective nuclear charge and uses fewer energy levels than S.
337
Lab: Periodic Trends
By now you should have a fairly good idea of what happens to the atomic size, ionization
energy, and electron affinity as you move around the periodic table. Ultimately, you
should be able to use this knowledge to predict the relative reactivity of different
substances. The lab today will challenge your prediction skills.
We will be considering three substances today: Potassium, Calcium, and Zinc. We are
trying to determine which of these substances is most reactive when combined with
water. You will need to decide how you will determine what is most and what is least
reactive and take data and observations accordingly.
PLEASE HAVE YOUR GOGGLES ON AT ALL TIMES!!!
Begin the lab by washing all of the glassware. You should have 3 Erlenmeyer Flasks (at
least 500mL), a pair of forceps, 3 pieces of pH tape and a pair of flame resistant gloves.
Once your glassware is clean, fill each flask with 200mL of water.
Select a person to garner the chemicals. Make sure that you record the mass of each
substance. Get only 1 substance at a time. Obtain the substance, test the reactivity,
dispose of the waste, and obtain the next substance. Please wait for your teacher to give
you the OK before getting the potassium.
GARNERING THE SUBSTANCES
* Use a coffee filter to gather approximately 10 small pieces of zinc

* Use DRY tongs to get one piece of calcium, place it on a coffee filter on the scale
* Use DRY tongs to get one piece of potassium, place it on a coffee filter on the scale
SUBSTANCE MASS OF SUBSTANCE (g)

Zinc
Calcium
Potassium
TESTING THE REACTION
* During all reactions, gently place substance into the water and immediately stand
back
338
* Don’t forget to record qualitative and quantitative observations (i.e. time)
* QUICKLY STAND BACK TO WAIT FOR REACTION
* If no reaction happens after a minute, gently swirl the container. When doing this,
please make sure that you have the flame resistant glove on. If a reaction happens,
carefully but quickly, step back
* Never look directly over the top of the flask!
TESTING pH
* Don’t forget to test the pH. If the paper turns red, you have an acid…if it is blue you
have a base.
DISPOSAL
* Zinc Reaction—dump water down the drain (no solids!!!) and place any solids in the
beaker under the fume hood
* Calcium Reaction—dump all wastes into the disposal container under the fume hood
* Potassium Reaction—dump all wastes in the disposal container under the fume hood
You will be graded on both a lab write up (using the lab report rubric) and the following
questions.
PRE-LAB WORK:
1) What is the problem/question of this lab?
2) What is your hypothesis? Make sure that your hypothesis is testable (i.e. how will
you determine which is most reactive…time? …precipitate formed?…relative difference
in color?…heat produced?
3) Justify your hypothesis using all that you know about chemistry so far. Please be
thorough.
Questions to consider for the lab—Include as Appendix A in your Lab Report (4pts each)
1) How do you know when a chemical reaction has taken place?
339
2) Write the electron configuration for each of the following metals (you may use the
shortcut):
K:______________________________________________________________________
Ca:_____________________________________________________________________
Zn:_____________________________________________________________________
3. Why do you think that the Potassium must be stored under mineral oil?
340
3-D PERIODICITY PROJECT
3-D Periodicity Project (85 pts)
In pairs you are going to create a 3-D chart of a periodic property. Your final product will
demonstrate how the property you have charted is a function of periodicity. At each
stage you and your partner (A and B) will have a task.
Directions (if you want to use them)

I. Planning
A. Make the Outline of the PT (on a large sheet of paper – ex. 11” x 17”)
1. It is suggested that you take a sheet of 11” x 17” (23 cm x 43.5 cm) poster board and
make a grid of 2 cm x 2 cm squares (suggested in pencil)
2. Outline the periodic table in your grid (H should be about 3 squares from the top and
left corner of the paper)
3. Label all of the elements in your periodic table
B. Determine the Scale of the Element Bars
1. You will be given a Periodic Property (boiling point, melting point, density, atomic
radius, first ionization potential, electronegativity, thermal conductivity). The values for
these properties can be found on the periodic table I gave you.
2. Make a table of the elements (in order of atomic number,) and put the value of the
property in a column next to the element (eg. for density H – 0.0899 g/cm3)
3. Scan the list and find your maximum value – this will be your highest bar. We want the
highest bar to be 10 cm so divide your maximum value by 10 cm to get the value of your
scale (what each cm will be worth) (REMEMBER!). (eg. for density the max is Os –
22.6 g/cm3, divided by 10 cm = 2.26 (g/cm3) / cm)
4. Then use your scale to determine the height of the bar for each element and write it in
a third column in table you made in step 2 (with units) (eg. H – 0.0899 g/cm3, divided by
divided by 2.26 (g/cm3)/cm gives you a bar height rounded to the nearest tenth of 0.0 cm.
Os – 22.6 g/cm3, divided by 2.26 (g/cm3)/cm gives a bar height rounded to 10.0 cm)
Density (scale = 2.26 (g/cm3) / cm)
Element Density (in g/cm3) Bar Height (in cm)
341
H 0.0899 0.0
Os 22.6 10.0
II. Creating your Property Bars
A and B Using the Bar Height for each element, create your 3-D bars.
1. Create strips of paper 2 cm wide. (suggestion – measure one 2 cm strip and then
fold paper like an accordion or fan, and then cut along the folds to make several 2 cm
strips)
2. Use the strips and the Directions for Making a 3-D Bar for each element.
3. On top of each bar label the with the element symbol and the value of the periodic
property (eg. H and 0.0899) (be as artistic or creative as you want with this step)
4. Attach the bars to the table by their feet.
III. Finalizing your Table Graph
A. and B. 1. Give the Board a Title (eg. Periodic Trends – Density).
2. Add some color, or artistic flare to make it attractive.
3. Put your name on the lower right corner
342
Name:__________________
Date:________ Period:_____
Group:__________________
Periodic Trend Discovery
Take a look at each 3-D periodic graph and describe the trends in each.
Fill in the trend above each arrow (increasing,

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Melting Point ________________________________________
Describe some reasons why this trend might exist:
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Boiling Point ________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Density ________________________________________
343
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Atomic Radius ________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
First Ionization ________________________________________
Describe some reasonsPotential
why this trend might exist:
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Electronegativity ________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
344
________________________________________________________________________
_________

decreasing) or
Other
___________________________________
Thermal ________________________________________
Conductivity
________________________________________________________________________
_________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
345
3-D Periodicity Grade Sheet
Name Period Base Scaling Bars Neatness F block Color Total

(15) (20) (30) (20) (5) (5 ea.)
346
Democritus (400 B.C.)
• World is made of 2
things
empty space
“atoms”
347
Big Players in Atomic Theory
• The Greeks (staring Democritus)
• John Dalton (1808)
• J.J. Thompson (1898)
• Rutherford (1909)
• Milliken (1909)
348
More History
Ernie’s (Rutherford) Big Adventure
Thin Sheet of Gold

Atoms
349
Rutherford’s Conclusion
• Atoms are made of
mostly EMPTY SPACE!
– Actually, the ratio of the size
of the nucleus to the diameter
of the orbits of electrons can
be compared with placing a
marble in the middle of a
football stadium!
350
LAVOISIER
Found out that the
mass of the products
must equal the mass
of the reactants
(in a closed system)
351
PROUST
LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTIONS
Specific substances
always contain
elements in the same
ratio BY MASS
352
DALTON
LAW OF MULTIPLE
PROPORTIONS
The ratio of masses of 1
element that combine with a
constant mass of another
element can be expressed in
whole numbers
353
Two major parts of an atom
Nucleus
(not to scale)
Electron
Cloud
354
Three Major
Sub-Atomic Particles
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
355
PROTON +
(p )
particle with a
positive charge that is
356
THE PROTON
• Fat
(heavy)
p+ • Positive !
(charge)
• Doesn’t move
(lazy)
357
NEUTRON (N°)
particle with a
neutral charge that is
358
THE NEUTRON
" • Fat
(heavy)
N° • Neutral "
(charge)
• Doesn’t move
(lazy)
359
ELECTRON -
(e )
a single, very small
particle with a
negative charge that is
found in a “cloud”
around the nucleus
360
THE ELECTRON
• Skinny
(very light)
e- • Negative #
(charge)
• Moves a lot
(runs around)
361
Review: Subatomic Particles
p + " e-
N°
362
Please complete the following table
Protons Neutrons Electrons
Where are Electron

Nucleus Nucleus
they found? Cloud
Mass Heavy Heavy Very Light

Charge Negative #
Positive ! Neutral "
(attitude)
363
ATOMIC MASS #
(A)
The total mass of all of
the subatomic particles
in an atom
(but really # of protons and
neutrons)
364
ATOMIC NUMBER
(Z)
the number of protons
in an atom
(assuming the atom is
+ -
neutral, # of p = # of e )
365
Example: Sodium
Atomic Mass # = +
p & N °
22.99
Na
11
Atomic # = # of protons
366
Another Notation
Atomic Mass # = +
p & N °
Atomic # = # of protons
367
To calculate the number
of neutrons, subtract the
atomic number (smaller)
from the atomic mass
number (larger)
A – Z = # of neutrons
368
Ex: How many neutrons
does Sodium have?
Mass # - Atomic # = #N°
(You may need to round the atomic #)
22.99
Na 23 - 11 = 12 N°
11
369
ION
Atoms of the same
charge.
+
p , but different # of e )
-
370
Positive Ions Negative Ions
(cations) (anions)
• +
Na (lost 1 e-) • -
Cl (gain 1 e-)
2+
• Ca (lost 2 e-) 2-
• O (gain 2 e-)
3+
• Al (lost 3 e-) 3-
• P (gain 3 e-)
4+
• Pb (lost 4 e-) 2-
• S (gain 2 e-)
+
• H (lost 1 e-) -
• OH (gain 1 e-)
371
If an atom GAINS
electrons, its overall charge
becomes more negative.
If it LOSES electrons, its
charge becomes more
positive
372
ISOTOPE
Atoms of the same
mass.
+
p , but different # of N°)
373
Isotopes are
CHEMICALLY the
SAME as atoms, but
DIFFER PHYSICALLY
because they have
different masses.
374
A few examples of isotopes…
375
Complete the following table
Protons Neutrons Electrons
Na+
Br w/ mass
84
O2- with
mass 13
376
So, why do the elements
on the PT have masses
with decimals???
377
AVERAGE ATOMIC
MASS
The average mass of all
of the isotopes of a
substance
378
Example using
exam scores!
379
To calculate the average
atomic mass:
1. Mass each isotope and
multiply by # present
2. Add these products
3. Divide this sum by the
total # present
380
To calculate the
average atomic mass:
1. Multiply the mass of each
isotope by the % of the
isotope
2. Add the products
381
Carbon has two isotopes.
99% of carbon has a mass of
12 amu, and 1% has a mass of
13 amu. Calculate the
average atomic mass.
12.01 amu
382
76% of chlorine has a mass of
35 amu. The other 24% has a
mass of 37 amu. Calculate
the average atomic mass of
chlorine.
35.48 amu
383
Sulfur has three main
isotopes. 95% is Sulfur-32,
4% is Sulfur-34, and 1% is
Sulfur- 33. Calculate the
average atomic mass of
sulfur.
32.09 amu
384
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________

Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
CARPE DIEM - Section 5
EDIBLE ATOM PROJECT RUBRIC

Edible Mod el
1 2 3 4 TOTAL
Documentation Not complete. More Somewhat complete. Very complete. 1-2 No errors. x6= / 24
Sheet than 5 errors. 3-5 errors. errors.
Appearance of Does not look good. Looks ok. Somewhat Good looking. Pretty Very good looking. x6= / 24
Atom Not clear what the clear as to what the clear as to what the Obvious what the
parts are. Not enough parts are. Some time parts are. Clearly time parts are. Clearly
time spent. was spent on it. has been spent on it. time has been spent
on it.
Presentation 1 question answered 2 questions answered 3 questions answered All 4 questions x6= / 24
correctly correctly correctly answered correctly
TOTAL /72
Poem
Creativity Not interesting Holds attention, but not Interesting and Holds the x2= /8
as interesting entertaining audience’s attention,
amusing
Content Not informative Less informative Less informative but Informative: x5= / 20
discusses only history still discusses history discusses history
385
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Edible Atom Documentation Sheet
Name of Atom: ____________________________________________
Symbol of Atom: _________
Atomic Number: _________ Atomic Mass Number:

_________
Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons
Electron Configuration without shortcut:
_____________________________________________________________
____________
Electron Configuration with Nobel Gas Shortcut:
_____________________________________________________________
____________
Bohr Model Lewis Electron Dot

Structure
386
Arrow / Orbital Diagram (on back):
Remember the new links at the Prentice Hall site. Go to http://www.phschool.com/. Go

to the Science picture and link at the top and click on that. Then for State, select CA;
and for Program select Science Explorer: Life, Earth and Physical Science (the
bottom one). Then click on the button that reads Go. Above the bottom right book,
Focus on Physical Science, select STUDENT. Now, you’re on the SCIENCE
EXPLORER page. Go down to the Chapter Section and select Chapter 16 Elements
and the Periodic Table. Read and follow the directions through the Internet Activities.
1. Elements and the Periodic Table. Look at the drawing of the Carbon Atom.
How many protons does it have? _____ How many electrons does it have? _____What is
its atomic number? ____________
2. Elements Scavenger Hunt. Complete the chart below

Element (Name and Symbol) Description
This soft alkali metal, found in table salt, reacts vigorously
with water and tarnishes quickly in air.
This element is the lightest of all metals. Salts of this metal
are used in batteries and in treating one kind of mental
illness.
The most abundant metal is light, doesn't rust, and is easy to
recycle. It is used to make foil, cans, airplane parts, and
many other things.
A silvery-white metal once used in flash bulbs. Now, this
metal is used for lightweight frames for bicycles and car
seats.
387
A radioactive, silvery metal, which is used in nuclear power
and weapons.
This silvery-white, soft, and abundant metal is a component
of teeth and bones.
This colorless and odorless gas makes up 78% of Earth's
atmosphere.
Used in making steel, this element is the basis of the

compounds of life, such as DNA. In its pure form, it may be
either diamond or graphite.
This metal, which rusts easily, is used to make steel. It is
found in hemoglobin, a compound that carries oxygen in our
blood.
This nonmetal, the most reactive of all the elements, reacts
quickly with all metals. It is added to drinking water and
toothpaste to strengthen teeth.
3. Further Exploration. Now, complete a scavenger hunt in the computer lab for the elements
on the periodic table printed on the back of this sheet. Circle or highlight each one you find. Make a list of
the elements you find and a description of the object below & to the right of the periodic table on the back.
4. Go to http://chemlab.pc.maricopa.edu/periodic/foldedtable.html and view the many ways the

Periodic Table of Elements has been organized; including Stowe’s, Spiral, Triangle and Dmitri’s original.
5. Go to www.webelements.com and look at an excellent Periodic Table website. Choose and

element using the last two numbers of your student ID number to identify your element’s atomic number.
Complete the information for your element below the periodic table on the back of this lab sheet.
6. Last thing, go to Quia.com and play http://www.quia.com/mc/65539.html and then play

http://www.quia.com/cb/8133.html
7. Complete the Self Test. Place your score here. _____________. Turn in your lab sheet for credit.
388
Density _____________
Boiling Point _____________
Melting Point _____________
Interesting Facts (who discovered it, Uses, Isotopes, Electromagnetic Spectrum color, or other information)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
389
K W
Br Zr
H Y
Fe Pt
Hg Cu
Ne C
Rn N
U No
Ag Si
Au Ar
Fm I
Bk As
He S
Mg Na
390
Ca Pb
391
Average Atomic Mass Problems
1. What is average atomic mass?
2. Does average atomic mass have more to do with elements, ions, or isotopes? Please
explain your reasoning.
3. How does average atomic mass relate to the atomic masses on the periodic table?
4. Assume that 42% of the carbon isotopes have a mass of 12.5u, 18% of the carbon
isotopes have a mass of 14u and the remaining 40% of the carbon isotopes have a mass of
12.01u. What is the average atomic mass?
5. You find a sample of Calcium isotopes. 22% have a mass of 44u, 18% have a mass
of 39u and the remainder have a mass of 40u. What is the average atomic mass?
392
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
LAB: Rutherford Gold Foil Simulation
OBJECTIVES:
• Students will be able to indirectly observe and measure an object.
• Students will be able to compare and contrast Rutherford’s gold foil experiment and
this simulation.
PRE-LAB:
1) In your lab notebook, predict what will happen when a marble strikes each of these
shapes:
2) In your lab notebook, please describe any safety hazards in this lab and what we
should do to protect ourselves.
LAB:
Rules:
1. No peaking under the piece of plywood.
2. Control and contain all marbles.
Results:
1. Make a sketch of the shape of the object under the plywood.
2. Based on your indirect measurements, determine the dimensions of the object

under the plywood (measure the dimensions as if it is a rectangular solid). Then
flip the plywood over and directly measure the dimensions of the object. calculate
the % error in your measurements. Don’t forget about your significant figures!
393
Indirect Indirect Direct Direct % Error in % Error in
Length (cm) Width (cm) Length (cm) Width (cm) Width Length
Calculations for % error:

% Error in Width % error in Length
Questions:
3. What is the difference between direct and indirect observation?
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
4. Under what circumstances do you think that indirect observation would be useful?
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
5. If you had to do this experiment again, what would you do differently to improve
the results?
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
394
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
6. Please compare and contrast this experiment and the one that Rutherford did with
the gold foil. Attempt to find at least 3 similarities and 3 differences.
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________
395
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
Specific substances always contain elements in the same ratio by mass.
Look up the mass of Sodium = 23

Look up the mass of Chlorine = 35.5
What is the ratio of Na to Cl = 23 / 35.5 = .648
Now suppose we had 15 molecules of salt…
The mass of Sodium x 15 = 23 x 15 = 345

The mass of Chlorine x 15 = 35.5 x 15 = 532.5
What is the ratio of Na to Cl = 23 / 35.5 = .648
If the ratios are the same, then you likely have the same substance…however, this may not
always be true.
1. Attempt to find an example different from the one in class where two different substances
have the same mass ratio.
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

The ratio of masses of one element that combine with a constant mass of another
element can be expressed in small whole numbers.
EXAMPLE:
COMPOUND MASS OF Na IN MASS OF Cl IN RATIO OF Cl
SAMPLE SAMPLE MASSES
(new/35.5)
NaCl 23 g 35.5 g 1
NaCl2 23 g 71 g 2
NaCl3 23 g 106.5 g 3
NaCl7 23 g 248.5 g 7
COMPLETE FOLLOWING TABLE

COMPOUND MASS OF H IN MASS OF O IN RATIO OF O
396
SAMPLE SAMPLE MASSES
(new O / 16)
H2 O 2g 16 g 1
H2 O 2 2g
2g 13
2g 3840 g
2g 154 g
Practice Problems for Exam 3
1) Calculate the total number of atoms 2) Calculate the total number of atoms
(6pts) (6pts)
3 HF3 7CO2(C6H12O6) + 2H2O
3) Assume that you have 73 carbon isotopes with a mass of 12.5u, 33 carbon
isotopes with a mass of 14u and another 45 carbon isotopes with a mass of 12.01u.
What is the average atomic mass? (6pts)
4) You have Na3Cl7 and an unknown substance with a mass ratio of 0.278. Is your
unknown substance Na3Cl7? Please explain your answer thoroughly. (10
pts)
397
5) Explain why 453u could never be the total atomic mass of nickel in any given
substance. Please be detailed in your explanation. (10 pts)
398
Worksheet: Number of Atoms
Write the total number of each type of atom in each of the following elements,
compounds, or reactions. If any one element occurs more than once, please put an * next
to it in your totals.
Examples:
(Hg2)3(PO4)2
Hg = (2)(3) = 6
P = (1)(2) = 2
O = (4)(2) = 8
Total = 16
3NH4OH
N = (1) = 1x3 = 3
*H = (4)+(1) = 5x3 = 15
O = (1)= 1X3 = 3
Total = 21
Problems
1) H2O
2) C6H12
3) 2NaCl
4) 3H2O
5) Ag2(SO4)3
6) Pb(NO3)3 + PbCl2
7) 3Al2Br3 + Al(NO3)3
8) 2(NH4)2C2O4 + 6NO3
399
ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod: ____________________
Spring 2001
Electron Dots
3 6
Xy Bm
4 1
7 2
5 8
When placing dots in an electron dot diagram, always place them in the order
shown above.
To create electron dot diagrams!

1) Let the symbol of the element represent the nucleus and all non-valance
electrons.
2) a. Write the electron configuration (using the Nobel Gas Shortcut) for the
element.
b. Select the electrons in the outermost energy level (NOT SUB-ENERGY
LEVEL!)
3) Each side of the symbol represents an orbital. Draw dots to represent the
electrons in that orbital.
Questions to consider:
1) What sub-energy level do electron dots “1” and “2” represent?
________________________
2) What sub-energy level do electron dots “3-8” represent?

______________________________
3) Why do dots “3-8” fill in first by themselves and then pair up?
400
4) Explain why you will never have more than 8 dots in an electron dot diagram?
5) With which other elements would the mythical element “Bm” (from above) be
most closely related?
401
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Spring 2003
WORKSHEET: Bohr Models and Electron Dots
First draw the Bohr Model for each of the following elements. Please use the symbol
on the left.
1. 2.
Li Li Be Be
3. 4.
B B C C
5. 6.
N N O O
7. 8.
F F Ne Ne
Now, for every valence electron (electron in the outermost energy level), please put 1
dot around the symbol on the right. You can never have more than 2 dots on a side.
1) What do you notice about the number of dots are you go across the periodic
table?
2) Predict how many dots each would have Ba: ______ Br: ______ Xe: ______
Pt: ______
402
Worksheet: Bohr Models
Please calculate the total number of electrons that can be in each of the following energy
levels. To do so, use the equation 2n2, where n is the energy level.
ENERGY LEVEL TOTAL # OF ELECTRONS IT CAN

HOLD
1
Please draw Bohr Models for each of the first 18 elements. Don’t forget that each energy
level (ring) can only hold a certain number of electrons. Please use the back if necessary.
Exam #3 Problem Set (Chemistry)
Please answer the following problems on a separate sheet of paper. As part of the
solution, please identify what type of problem each on is (i.e. LODP, % error…)
1) You are working in the lab and are trying to produce salt. You calculate that you
should end up with 84g of product, but really you only get 76g. What is your percent
error? Brainstorm factors that could have caused you to get less than you expected.
2) If you did an experiment and got a 25% error and our experimental value was 37g,
what must have been the accepted value?
3) Assume that you have 43 carbon isotopes with a mass of 12.5u, 18 carbon isotopes
with a mass of 14u and another 96 carbon isotopes with a mass of 12.01u. What is the
average atomic mass?
4) You find a sample of Calcium isotopes. 22% have a mass of 44u, 18% have a mass of
39u and the remainder have a mass of 40u. What is the average atomic mass?
403
5) You have Na2Cl4 and an unknown substance with a mass ratio of 0.320. Is your
unknown substance Na2Cl4? Please explain your answer thoroughly. Also, please use a
% error calculation to justify your answer (how different is your calculated value from
the accepted value?)
6) Explain if 918u could be the total atomic mass of sodium in any given substance.
Please be detailed in your explanation.
7) You have discovered a compound containing Al and Cl atoms. The Al makes up

20.2% of the substance. The mass ratio of Al to Cl is 0.2535. Write the formula for the
substance (The formula should be in the form Al?Cl?). Please show all work and explain
your method for solving the problem. Please attempt this problem, as partial credit is
available.
8) Write a problem that is similar to the isotopic penny lab. Use your other problems as
examples. Please include the solution!
9) If you were in the 9 energy level (assume that it exists), how many electrons could fit
in it? If you discovered an energy level that could hold a maximum of 1849 electrons,
what mythical energy level would it be?
10) Please draw Bohr models for elements 1-21 (you’ve done most of these…I just want
to make sure that you’ve got it.)
404
The History of Atomic Theory
Greeks
Philosophers proposed the “atom”

- an indivisible unit of matter
John Dalton
(1808)
Sir J. J. Thompson
(1897) - Worked with gasses and
noted that elements
combine in small whole
number ratios (Law of
- Used the Cathode ray tube
Multiple Proportions).
* discovered electrons
*First recorded evidence
* discovered electrons had a
that atoms existed
negative charge
- He also noted that a
* electrons must be present in
given compound always
atoms
had the same ratio of
atoms (ex. H2 O) (Law of
Sir Earnest
Robert Definite Proportions)
Rutherford (1909)
Millikan (1909)
- Shot positively charged alpha

- Used Charged Drops of Oil (the Neils Bohr
particles at a thin sheet of gold foil.
Oil Drop Experiment) (1913) - Most passed right through, some
* Discovered the charge and mass deflected, and a few came straight
of an electron back
- Observed light emitted
from excited hydrogen * Discovered positively charged ,
* Electrons “orbit” nucleus small, dense nucleus
in definite orbitals
Louis de Broglie
(1927) Sir James
Chadwick (1932)
- confirmed that matter acts
like particles and waves
Erwin - Used masses of elements and
Schrödinger Rutherford’s data to predict the
presence of a neutral particle in the
nucleus.
- Brought Bohr’s theory of the * Discovered neutrons
electron together with de
Broglie’s Wave/Particle duality
- Wrote equations to describe the
electron around the nucleus as a
“wavefunction”
* Discoverd electron clouds
405
Nuclear Chemistry
• Decay Particles
• Decay Reactions
• Real-Life Examples
406
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Particles)
Particle Symbol What is it? Penetration
Alpha Helium nucleus 0.2 mm
4 2+
(#) 2 He (2 p+)
(paper)
Beta (") 0 - High Speed 100 mm
-1 e e- (wood)
Gamma High Energy 500 mm
0
(!) 0 ! Electromagnetic
Wave (concrete)
407
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Particles)
408
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
Ex.
241 237 4 2+
95 Am ! 93 Np + He
2
409
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
Ex.
40 40 0 -
19 K! 20 Ca + e-1
410
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
Ex. 60
27 Co " 60
28
0 -
Np + e + !
-1
0
0
411
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
Nuclear
Instability
• Predicted by
the deviation
from the Z/N
ratio
• (T! is a
measure of
decay rate)
412
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
• Decay
Series
413
Nuclear Chemistry
(Decay Reactions)
Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay, what is
the product?
14
C!?
6
•We know it is Beta decay, so …
14 0 -
6 C ! -1 e + ?
•Balance the mass and atomic #s.
14 0 - 14
•Answer: 6 C! e + N
-1 7
414
Nuclear Chemistry
(Real Life Examples)
Nuclear Fission
• Carbon-14 Dating
• Atomic Fission (the bomb, nuclear
power)
• Radon
• Chain Reactions
415
Nuclear Chemistry
(Real Life Examples)
Nuclear Fusion
• The Sun!
• Cold-Fusion
416
Nuclear Chemistry
(Summary)
• Decay Particles
– Alpha, Beta, Gamma
• Decay Reactions
– Alpha decay, Beta decay, Gamma Decay,
Decay Series
• Real-Life Examples
– Fission, Fusion
417
Nuclear Chemistry
(Challenges/Misconceptions)
• Students have preconceived negative
connotations of “nuclear” chemistry.
• Students have had little exposure to the
facts (textbooks tend to put it at the
end).
418
Nuclear Chemistry
(Teaching Hints)
• Make use of the vast opinion articles and
documentary videos on the subject.
• Students should get plenty of practice on
balancing nuclear reactions (i.e., carbon-
14 undergoes beta decay, what is the
product?).
419
Average Atomic Mass
To Determine Average Atomic Mass:
• Step #1: Mass each isotope and multiply
by # present
• Step #2: Add these products
• Step #3: Divide this sum by the total #
present
420
Average Atomic Mass
(Challenges/Misconceptions)
• Basically a math exercise, can hang up
students.
• Students often forget what the total #
present really is.
421
Average Atomic Mass
(Teaching Hints)
• Introduce with a weighted average
example from exam scores.
• Mix up with numbers and % of isotopes.
422
RADIATION
423
Radioisotopes
unstable isotopes
that emit radiation
to become more
stable
424
Radiation
rays and particles
emitted from a
radioactive source
425
Three Types of radiation:
• Alpha (!)
• Beta (")
• Gamma (#)
426
Alpha Particle
2 protons and 2
neutrons
4 4
He or !
2 2
427
Beta Particle
a stream of high
speed electrons
0 0
e
! or !
!1 "1
428
Gamma Ray
very energetic form of
light (a ray, not a particle)
!
429
Level of Penetration
430
Symbol Charge Penetration
Power
4 Low, paper
!
2
He 2+ stops it
0 Medium,
"
!1
e !
1- clothes stop it
None High, only

# ! thick metal
slows it
431
When an atom emits
radiation (!, ", #)
it is undergoing
radioactive decay.
432
Half-Life
the time it takes for
! of a radioisotope
to decay
433
The half-life of cesium-137
is 30 years. If you start with
a 20g sample, how much is
left after 30 years?
10g !!!
434
After 60 years?
5g !!!
After 90 years?
2.5g !!!
435
Carbon-14
Dating
436
Other Uses of Radiation:
cancer treatment
smoke detectors
imaging
437
Fission
A large nucleus
is split into two
smaller nuclei
(A-Bombs;
Nuclear Reactors)
438
439
Fusion
Two small nuclei
Join to form one
large nucleus
(H-Bombs;
The sun)
440
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Atomic Nucleus & Radioactivity
1) State whether or not each of the following isotopes would be radioactive:
1. carbon-12 e. europium
b. uranium f. curium
c. iridium g. carbon-14
d. bismuth h. polonium
2) What is the particle emitted when plutonium-244 decays into americium-244?
3) What is the particle emitted when proactinium-231decays into actinium-227?
4) What is the particle emitted when neodymium-144 decays into promethium-144?
5) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of californium-251 with the emission of
alpha particles.
6) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of tin-122 with the emission of beta
particles.
7) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of radium-228 with the emission of alpha
particles.
8) Write the nuclear equation for the decay of astatine-210 with the emission of beta
particles.
441
9) Write the nuclear equation for the fissioning of uranium-235 via neutrons, producing
barium–141 & krypton–92.
10) On the back of this sheet, briefly summarize (in table form) the pros & cons of each
type of energy source.
442
ACIDS
y
BASES
443
Characteristics of Acids
• Taste Sour
• Affect indicators (red=acid)
• Neutralize Bases
• Often produce hydrogen gas
• pH between 0 and <7
444
Characteristics of Bases
• Taste Bitter
• Feel Slippery
• Neutralize Acids (Antacids)
• Affect indicators (base=blue)
• pH between >7 and 14
• Dissolve grease (Drano, Windex)
445
Examples of Acids
• HCl
• H2SO4
• HNO3
• HF
• Juices 446
Examples of Bases
• NaOH
• Ca(OH)2
• KOH
• Soap, Ammonia,
Lye, Baking Soda
447
There are 3 definitions for
acids and bases
•Arrhenius Theory
•Brønsted-Lowry
Theory
•Lewis Theory
448
pH Scale
449
pH Scale
450
pH Scale
451
pH Scale
452
Arrehenius Theory
ON ACIDS…
An acid is a substance
that ionizes in water to
give hydrogen ions (H )+
453
Arrehenius Theory
ON BASES…
A base is a substance
that ionizes in water to
give hydroxide ions
(OH )-
454
An example of the reaction of
Hydrochloric Acid:
HCl + H2O !" H3O+ + Cl-
When the HCl breaks apart the free

H+ is attracted to the H2O and forms
a HYDRONIUM ION
455
So who is the
Arrhenius Acid given:
HCl + H2O !" H3 O + + Cl -
HCl
Why?
Because it produces H +
456
An example of the reaction of
Potassium Hydroxide:
KOH + H2O !" K+ + 2OH-
When the KOH breaks apart it

forms the HYDROXIDE ION
-
(OH )
457
So who is the
Arrhenius Base given:
KOH + H2O !" K+ + 2OH-
KOH
Why?
Because it produces OH-
458
The world was cool with the
Arrehenius definition until
NH3 (Ammonia) came along.
When combined with water it
increased the number of OH -
ions…looks like we need a

new definition
459
Brønsted-Lowry Theory
ON ACIDS…
Acids are substances
that are capable of
donating a proton
460
Brønsted-Lowry Theory
ON BASES…
Bases are substances
capable of accepting a
proton
461
Example Brønsted
Acids and Bases:
NH3 + H2O !" NH4 + + OH -
Here, H2O acts as a Brønsted

acid by donating a proton to
NH3 which acts as a Brønsted
base.
462
Example Brønsted
Acids and Bases:
NH4+ + OH !"NH
-
3 + H 2 O
+
In this case, NH4 acts as an
acid which donates a proton
- -
to OH . OH acts as a base.
463
Lewis Theory
ON ACIDS…
Acids are substances
that are electron-pair
receptors
464
Lewis Theory
ON BASES…
Bases are substances
capable of donating
electron-pairs
465
Conjugate Base
The substance that
remains after an
acid has donated a
+
H ion
466
Conjugate Acid
The substance
formed when a base
+
accepts a H ion
467
Conjugate Acids and Base
NH3 + H2O !"NH4 + OH
+ -
NH4+ + OH !"NH
-
3 + H 2 O
For example, NH4 is the +
conjugate acid of NH3 (1st equation),

and NH3 is the conjugate base
+
of NH4 (2nd equation).
468
Interesting fact…
Water can
act as an
acid or a
base!!!
469
Amphoteric
A substance that can act
as either an acid or a
base.
470
For any reaction:
HA + H2O !" H3 O + + A -
If HA is a strong acid because it

gives up its proton readily, then
-
A is a weak base because it has
little affinity for the proton.
471
For any reaction:
HA + H2O !" H3 O + + A -
If HA is a weak acid because it

donates very few protons to the
water, then A- has a high affinity for
a proton, and A is a stronger base
-
than water.
472
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________

Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Acids and Bases Station Walk
Station #1: Testing for pH
Please complete the following table:
Prediction:
Substance pH using litmus paper pH using probe
Acid or Base?
Station #2: Conductivity as a function of concentration of acid
Make a prediction. As the concentration of that acid decreases, the conductivity will:
________________
Using the conductivity probe, determine the conductivity of each acid and then create a
graph of Conductivity vs. Molarity.
473
Molarity
Conductivity
of Acid ( )
(Moles/Liter)
Station #3: Neutralization Reactions (Chapter 21)
1) When you react acids and bases together what is usually produced?
2) All neutralization reactions are what type of reactions?

__________________________________
3) Define “titration”:
4) Define “endpoint”:
5) Put on safety goggles!

6) Start by adding 10 drops of NaOH into a reaction well. Add 1 drop of
phenolphthalein. Describe what happens.
7) Now add HCl to the same reaction well one drop at a time. What happens?
8) Describe how what you have just observed might be useful in chemistry.
474
Station #4: Acid Rain (Pg. 607 in Chem book and Pg. 712-713 in Brown
and LeMay)
1) What is the pH of normal rain? ___________ What is the pH of acid rain?

____________
2) How does sulfur dioxide eventually become “acid rain”? Explain this using a
combination of words and chemical equations.
3) What are some of the effects of acid rain?
4) What are the some of the ways that acid rain can be prevented?
475
Identifying Acids and Bases
In each of the following identify the, Arrhenius acid, Arrhenius base, B-L acid, B-L base,
the conjugate acid (CA), and the conjugate (CB). A reaction may not have every one of
these present.
1. F- + H3O+ ←→ HF + H2O
2. H2-O ←→ H+ + OH-
3. H3PO4 + NO2- ←→ HNO2 + H3PO4-
4. HCl + H2O ←→ H3O+ + Cl-
5. HCl + NH3 ←→ NH4+ + Cl-
6. KOH ←→ K+ + OH-
7. NH3 + H2O ←→NH4+ + OH-
8. NH3 + OH- ←→ NH2- + H2O
ACID / BASE QUIZ
NAME FORMULA
1 Magnesium hydroxide
2 Hydrochloric acid
3 Nitric Acid
4 Hydrobromic acid
476
5 Sodium hydroxide
6 Hydroiodic acid
7 Carbonic acid
8 NH3
9 HC2H3O2
10 KOH
11 CaOH
12 H2SO4
13 H3PO4
14 Ba(OH)2
Acids and Bases
1) For each reaction listed, identify the proton donor (acid), the proton acceptor (base),
the conjugate acid and the conjugate base:
a. HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
b. HCl(aq) + NH3(g) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
c. NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
477
d. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
e. HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
f. HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)
g. HCN(aq) + SO42-(aq) → HSO4-(aq) + CN-(aq)
2) A buffer solution is formed from carbonic acid (H2CO3) and the bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-).
a. Write the equation for the reaction that occurs when an acid is added to this solution:
b. Write the equation for the reaction that occurs when a base is added to this solution:
478
3) A buffer solution is formed from hypochlorous acid (HClO) and the hypochlorite ion
(ClO-).
a. Write the equation for the reaction that occurs when an acid is added to this solution:
Acids and Bases – Problem Set #2
Directions: Do all work on a separate sheet of paper. You do not need to recopy any of
the questions. Show ALL WORK to receive full credit – do not simply write down the
answers.
1) Find the pH for each of the following solutions:
1. 1.54 x 10-2 M HI
2. 4.67 x 10-5 M HNO3
3. 8.76 x 10-4 M KOH
4. 6.44 x 10-3 M LiOH
2) For each of the following pH values, calculate the [H3O+] and the [OH-].
1. 2
2. 12
3. 7
4. 4
5. 9
3) For the following solutions, calculate the [H3O+] and the [OH-] using Kw.
5. 5.67 x 10-3 M HCl

6. 6.32 x 10-6 M HClO4
7. 8.76 x 10-5 M Ba(OH)2
8. 1.56 x 10-2 M NaOH
4) 21.0 mL of an unknown solution of H2SO4 was titrated to the end point with 37.0
mL of 0.426 M KOH. What is the concentration of the sulfuric acid?
479
5) In a titration, 23.5 mL of a .340 M solution of H2CO3 was used to neutralize 27.6
mL of LiOH. What is the molarity of LiOH?
6) In the titration of 42.0 mL of an NH3 solution, the end point was reached when 35.4
mL of 0.143 M HCl was added. What is the concentration of the ammonia solution?
7) 34.0 mL of HC2H3O2 was neutralized by 11.2 mL of 0.0527 M Ca(OH)2. Calculate

the concentration of the acetic acid.
8) What volume of 0.320 M H3PO4 neutralizes 35.0 mL of 0.420 M Ba(OH)2?
Acids & Bases – Problem Set #3
a. H2PO4-(aq) + H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + H3O+(aq)
b. H2O(l) + Cl-(aq) → OH-(aq) + HCl(aq)
480
c. NH3(aq) + H2PO4-(aq) → NH4+(aq) + HPO42-(aq)
2) For each of the following salts, predict whether an aqueous solution would be acidic,
basic, or neutral.
a. AgI b. KNO3 c. Cu(NO3)2
d. CaSO4 e. BaCO3 f. NaCl
3) A solution of Al(OH)3 is found to have a [OH-] of 3.72 x 10-5 M. What is the

[H3O+] of this solution? What is the pH of this solution? What is the pOH of this
solution? Is this solution acidic or basic?
4) You have made a solution of 5.00 x 10-4 M HNO3. What is the [H3O+] of this
solution? What is the [OH-] of this solution? What is the pH of this solution? What is
the pOH of this solution? Is this solution acidic or basic?
5) You have made a solution of 3.25 x 10-6 M H2SO4. What is the [H3O+] of this
6) You have made a solution of 1.99 x 10-2 M NaOH. What is the [H3O+] of this
7) You have made a solution of 4.50 x 10-8 M LiOH. What is the [H3O+] of this
481
8) In lab, you discover the pH of your solution to be 3.45. What is the [H3O+] of this
solution? What is the [OH-]? Is this solution acidic or basic? What is its pOH?
10) In lab, you discover the pOH of your solution to be 3.45. What is the [H3O+] of this
solution?
11) What is the pOH of a 3.34 x 10-3 M solution of H2SO4?
LAB: IDENTIFYING ACIDS AND BASES
Lab Handout: Identifying Acids and Bases

Prelab:
Acids → a substance that donates _______ when dissolved in water
Examples and Uses of Acids:
* Sulfuric Acid – car batteries

* Hydrochloric Acid – adjusting swimming pools
* Citric Acid – candies (sour taste)
Bases → a substance that donates _________ when dissolved in water
Examples and Uses of Bases:
* Potassium Hydroxide – making soap

* Calcium Hydroxide – making cement
* Pyridine – Vitamins and Medicines
Data:
Record your data and observations in the table below.
482
SUBSTANCE DESCRIPTION pH pH Neutral
Acidic Basic (pH = 7)
Lemon Juice
Acetic Acid
(CH3COOH)
Astringent
Italian Salad
Dressing
Sodium
Hydroxide
(NaOH)
Baking Soda
Orange Juice
Distilled Water
Listerine
Mouthwash
Baking Powder
Soft Drink
(Diet Coke)
Tap Water
White Vinegar
Hand Soap
Dishwashing
Liquid
Laundry
Detergent
Aspirin
(Tylenol)
Ibuprofen
(Advil)
Table Salt
Table Sugar
Alka-seltzer
(tablet antacid)
Milk of
Magnesia
(liquid antacid)
Hydrochloric
Acid (HCl)
Soft Drink
(Sprite)
pH Scale: Indicate the color indicated by the cabbage paper below the pH scale.
483
← More Acidic Neutral More Basic →
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
<------------------------------------------------------------------------>
The pH of an acid ranges from _________________
The pH of a base ranges from __________________
Post Lab:
Use your results and prelab to answer the following questions.
1) What substances are acids? How did you determine this?
2) What substances are bases? How did you determine this?
3) Rank the following in order of increasing basicity: Drain Cleaner (pH = 14),
Antacid (pH = 8), Baking soda (pH = 9)
484
4) Rank the following in order of increasing acidity: Battery Acid (pH = 0), Black
coffee (pH = 5), Stomach Acid (pH = 3)
485
Rubric Identifying Acids and Bases
Name: ____________________ Period: _____
Lab Report: Identifying Acids and Bases
Section 1 3 5
Introduction Not present; No purpose Missing either Includes
uses “I” or purpose, char., purpose,
“we” or examples characteristics,
and examples
of acids and
bases
Materials Missing more Missing 1-2 Lists all the
than 4 materials or materials used
materials the amount or
number
Procedure Incorrect or Missing 2-3 Lists the steps
not detailed steps in the taken to
procedure procedure complete the
lab
Observations/Results Missing table Table present Includes a
and but does not table listing
description of comment on the acids and
how the acid, how acids, bases and
base, and bases, and comments on
neutral neutral how it was
substances substances determined (ie.
were were classified what color
distinguished change
indicated an
acid? base?
neutral?)
Conclusion Does not Missing 1-2 Comments or
relate lab comments on generalizes
results back generalizations what was
to examples or comparison learned (ie.
or to expectation more acids or
characteristics or sources of bases? Did
and no error. they match
sources of examples or
error expectations?);
sources of
error
Total: ______ / 25 =
486
Procedure for Acid & Base Lab
1) Dip the cabbage juice indicator about _______________ into the jar
2) Hold for a count of _________.
3) Lay the indicator on a white sheet and record any __________ change.
If it is red, pink → _________
If it is blue, green, yellow → _________
If there is NO change → _________
4) Use the ________ paper to verify the classification
If you think it is an acid, use the ________ litmus paper b/c it turns ________
(red litmus paper stays red)
If you think it is a base, use the ________ litmus paper b/c it turns ________
(blue litmus paper stays blue)
5) Record classification. Place used strips in the empty bag and move to the next station.
Name: ____________________ Block: _____
Benchmark – Identifying Acids & Bases
Instructions: Classify each substance as either an acid or base. Write the appropriate label
in the blank.
1) ____________________ Lemon Juice (pH = 3)
2) ____________________ KOH
3) ____________________ Baking Soda (pH = 9)
4) ____________________ Tylenol: Litmus and indicator paper turned blue.
5) ____________________ Pickle Juice: Litmus and indicator paper turned red.
6) ____________________ HCl
487
7) ____________________ MgOH
8) ____________________ Dr. Pepper Soda (pH = 4)
9) ____________________ Drain Cleaner (pH = 13)
10) ___________________ Liquid Antacid: Litmus and indicator paper turned

blue.
11) ___________________ Battery Fluid (pH = 1)
12) ___________________ Laundry Detergent: Litmus and indicator paper turned

blue.
Name: ____________________ Block: _____
Benchmark – Identifying Acids & Bases
Instructions: Classify each substance as either an acid or base. Write the appropriate label
in the blank.
1) ____________________ Pickle Juice: Litmus and indicator paper turned red.
2) ____________________ MgOH
3) ____________________ Diet Coke Soda (pH = 4)
4) ____________________ Baking Soda: Litmus and indicator paper turned blue.
5) ____________________ Sour Candy (pH = 4)
6) ____________________ HBr
7) ____________________ NaOH
8) ____________________ Tylenol (pH = 9)
9) ____________________ Glass Cleaner (pH = 11)
10) ___________________ Liquid Antacid: Litmus and indicator paper turned

blue.
11) ___________________ Laundry Detergent (pH = 10)
488
12) ___________________ Battery Fluid: Litmus and indicator paper turned red.
LAB: Acid-Base Titration of Vinegar

Procedure:
1) Check the set-up of your lab station. Make sure you have two burets labeled acid
and NaOH. Make sure the burets have a minimum of 40 mL of either acid or base in
them to start with. You should have a beaker for waste, a wash bottle of distilled water
and an Erlenmeyer flask in which to perform the titration. You will also need
phenolphthalein indicator solution in a dropper bottle.
2) Record exact initial volume of acid buret. Dispense about 10 mL HC2H3O2 into
Erlenmeyer flask (the exact amount is not critical – just make sure you record the exact
amount you dispense). Record the exact final volume of the buret.
3) Add approximately 10 mL of distilled water to the Erlenmeyer flask (measure out 10

mL in a graduated cylinder, then pour into the flask) and 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein.
4) Record the exact initial volume of the NaOH buret. Carefully add NaOH with
constant swirling of the flask until a very pale, persistent pink color is reached. This is
your equivalence point (endpoint). Record the exact final volume of the buret.
4b. If you go past the equivalence point (very dark pink) add HC2H3O2 into the flask
until the
color clears (no more pink), then carefully add NaOH drop by drop until you reach the
endpoint (pale, persistent pink). Record your new final volumes of HC2H3O2 and
NaOH.
5) Solutions may be emptied down the drain. Rinse flask several times with distilled
water. It is not necessary to dry the flask.
489
6) Repeat steps 2-5 two more times. Add more vinegar and NaOH as necessary, using
the correct funnel.
Data Collection
Molarity of standard NaOH solution: ___________
Trial Initial Final Δ Volume Initial Final Δ Volume

Volume Volume Volume Volume
HC2H3O2 HC2H3O2 HC2H3O2 NaOH NaOH NaOH
(ml) (ml) (ml) (ml) (ml) (ml)
(Vf - Vi) (Vf - Vi)
1
2
3
Data Analysis
1. Write and balance the neutralization equation for acetic acid and sodium hydroxide.
2. Calculate the molarity of acetic acid for each trial.
3. Using the concentration from each trial, calculate the average molarity of HC2H3O2.
4. The label for vinegar says that the acid has been diluted to 5% by mass, which
translates into roughly 0.830 M. Were your results accurate? Were they precise?
Explain your answers to both. (Remember the difference? If you don’t remember, you
better look it up!)
5. Quantitatively express accuracy by calculating % difference for EACH trial and the
average concentration of vinegar you found.
490
LAB: ANTACIDS
Antacid Lab
BACKGROUND
Indigestion and heartburn are the symptoms resulting when the amount of hydrogen ions
exceeds a certain concentration (i.e.: you have too much acid in your stomach). One
method to relieve these symptoms is to neutralize the excess acid with a non-toxic
chemical reagent that maintains the contents of the stomach at an appropriate
concentration of acid.
Rolaids, a commercial antacid tablet, claims to neutralize 47 times its weight in excess
acid (i.e. if you ate 1.0 grams of Rolaids, you would neutralize 47 grams of stomach
acid). In this experiment you will attempt to determine the validity of this claim, as well
as to determine which is the best antacid. You will add an excess of 0.14 M HCl acid
(approximately the concentration of stomach acid) to a known amount of antacid tablet.
The antacid tablet should neutralize some of this acid. You will then titrate the whole
solution with a base of known concentration (0.14M NaOH) to determine the amount of
HCl not neutralized by the antacid. This process is called “back titration”. From this
information you can calculate the weight of the acid neutralized by the antacid tablet.
Before beginning to collect data, read through the procedure below and decide what data
you need to collect.
PROCEDURES
1) Grind one antacid tablet with a mortar and pestle. After grinding, place about 1.00g
of the powder into a 250mL Erlenmeyer flask. Be sure to record the exact mass of the
ground tablets. Although you should have around 1.00g, having exactly that amount is
not important.
2) Using a graduated cylinder, add approximately 75.0mL of the 0.14M HCl into the
flask containing the antacid. This acid has about the same molarity as the acid in your
stomach. Accurately record the volume of HCl used. You should have 3 significant
figures in your measurement.
3) Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the acid / tablet mixture. Gently swirl
the solution until the contents are well mixed and most of the tablet has dissolved.
4) At this point in the experiment, most of the stomach acid has been neutralized by the
tablet; however, the pH of the solution is still acidic as seen by the phenolphthalein
indicator not having turned the solution bright pink. To find out how much acid remains,
we will titrate the solution with 0.14M NaOH using a burette. Record the starting
volume of the NaOH in the burette so that you can determine how much total base you
had to add to the solution.
491
5) Place the stomach acid solution under the burette and open the stopcock so that
NaOH is added drop-wise. Swirl occasionally. You will want to continue adding drops of
NaOH until you reach the endpoint of the titration. You reach this point when the
solution turns pink for a sustained period of about 10 seconds and then shifts back to
clear. Record the final volume of base used in the data table. The amount of base used
equals the amount of acid that was not neutralized by the antacid tablet.
DATA TABLE (if you do more than 2 tablets, record data in your lab notebook)
Antacid Name: Antacid Name:

Mass of Antacid (g)
Starting Volume of 0.14M
HCl in Erlenmeyer Flask
(mL)
Starting Volume of NaOH
in Burette (mL)
Ending Volume of NaOH in
Burette (mL)
D Volume of NaOH in
Burette (mL)
Volume of Acid
Neutralized by Antacid
(mL). Subtract DVolume
from starting volume of
HCl.
Mass of HCl neutralized by
antacid (1mL HCl = 1g
HCl). Put the number from
above, but switch the units
from mL to g.
Effectiveness of Antacid
(grams of acid neutralized /
grams of antacid) This ratio
allows us to compare all the
antacids regardless of how
much tablet we started with.
492
IDEAS TO CONSIDER IN THE DISCUSSION SECTION
· Is this a neutralization reaction? How do you know?
· Assuming the calcium carbonate is the only substance in the antacid tablets to react
with hydrochloric acid (HCl), write a balanced equation for this reaction.
· Which is the best antacid? How do you know?
· Do you think that this activity really demonstrates which brand of antacid works
best? How confident are you in this?
· How might the results of this experiment influence your decision to purchase
antacids in the future?
· IMPRESS MADDIN: Go to HEB and find the price and mass for each of the brands
of antacid. (For example, TUMS might cost $3.50 for 20oz of antacid). Using this
information, figure out which antacid is actually the best buy in terms of number of
grams of acid neutralized per dollar.
Antacid Lab Data Table
Data Table for Antacid Lab
Antacid = Antacid = Antacid =

Mass of Antacid
Volume of HCl
Volume of NaOH
Volume of Acid
Neutralized by
NaOH
Volume of Acid
Neutralized by
Antacid
Mass of HCl
neutralized by
antacid (1mL=1g)
Ratio= (mass of HCl
neutralized by
antacid) / (mass of
the tablet)
493
Antacid = Antacid = Antacid =
Mass of Antacid
Volume of HCl
Volume of NaOH
Volume of Acid
Neutralized by
NaOH
Volume of Acid
Neutralized by
Antacid
Mass of HCl
neutralized by
antacid (1mL=1g)
Ratio= (mass of HCl
neutralized by
antacid) / (mass of
the tablet)
Antacid Lab Results
Effectiveness of Antacid (How much Stomach Acid each brand neutralized)

Trial # Rollaids Extra Rollaids TUMS Regular HEB Brand
Strength Regular Strength
Strength
1 61.3 46.8 45.7 38.3
2 52.5 54.2 53.0 45.5
3 55.7 39.8 54.0 48.9
4 46.2 50.1 24.7 54.1
5 45.3 46.3 53.2 42.8
6 58.4 41.1 46.0
Averages
494
Acids & Bases – Review
a. H2PO4-(aq) + OH-(aq) → HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
b. H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → H2O(l) + HCl(aq)
c. NH4+(aq) + H2PO4-(aq) → NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq)
2) For each of the following salts, predict whether an aqueous solution would be acidic,
basic, or neutral.
a. CaI2 b. K2CO3 c. Au(NO3)2
d. Ca(C2H3O2)2 e. CuSO4 f. LiCl
3) A solution of Ca(OH)2 is found to have a [OH-] of 2.73 x 10-5 M. What is the

[H3O+] of this solution? What is the pH of this solution? What is the pOH of this
solution? Is this solution acidic or basic?
4) You have made a solution of 4.50 x 10-3 M HNO3. What is the [H3O+] of this
solution? What is the [OH-] of this solution? What is the pH of this solution? Is this
solution acidic or basic?
495
5) You have made a solution of 9.12 x 10-4 M NaOH. What is the [H3O+] of this
solution? What is the [OH-] of this solution? What is the pH of this solution? Is this
solution acidic or basic?
8) In the titration of 45.0 mL of an NH3 solution, the end point was reached when 18.9
mL of 0.250 M HCl was added. What is the concentration of the ammonia solution?
9) 25.0 mL of an unknown solution of H2SO4 was titrated to the end point with 38.4
mL of 0.512 M KOH. What is the concentration of the sulfuric acid?
496
BONDING
Covalent Bonding Lewis Structures
Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding
Name and draw the Lewis Structure for each of the following compounds or ions. If they
are ions, please put the structure in brackets with the charge on the outside.
1) CH3Cl
2) H2S
3) CS-2
4) SiF4
5) PH3
6) Phosphate
7) Sulfite
8) Chlorate
9) Carbonate
10) Nitrate
11) Cyclohexane (C6H12)
12) Benzene = C6H6
497
Bonding
♦ atoms form bonds with one another because they want to become stable!
 being stable means having a full octet of eight valence electrons
 atoms can achieve this full octet by either sharing electrons or gaining and losing
electrons – whether electrons are shared or transferred determines which type of bond is
formed
♦ there are 3 types of bonds between atoms: covalent, ionic, & metallic
I. Ionic Bonds
♦ an ionic bond results from the attraction between positive and negative ions
 ions are charged particles formed when an atom gains or loses electrons
• cations = positively (+) charged ions
• anions = negatively (–) charged ions
 ionic bonds such as NaCl do not consist of just one Na+ ion bonded to one Cl- ion; rather,
ionic bonds represent the relative ratios of these ions in a huge lattice of thousands or
millions of ions (i.e. – if there are 5,000 Na+ ions, there are 5,000 Cl- ions)
 again, elements form ions in such a way that they achieve a full octet of eight valence
electrons as a result (thus they have a noble gas configuration)
• group 1 elements want to lose one electron to look like a noble gas, thus forming +1
ions (Na+)
• group 2 elements lose 2 electrons in forming ions, thus producing +2 ions (Ca2+)
• group 3 elements lose 3 electrons, producing +3 ions (Al3+)
• halogens want to gain one electron to achieve a noble gas configuration, thus forming
–1 ions (Cl-)
• oxygen & sulfur both need to gain 2 electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration,
so they have a –2 charge (O2-, S2-)
• the transition metals can form more than one ion: iron forms Fe+2 and Fe+3 ions,
copper forms Cu+ and Cu2+ ions, etc.
 in an ionic bond, one atom completely loses one or more electrons and another atom
gains them
• cations are formed when an atom loses electrons
• anions are formed when an atom gains electrons
 the ionic bond results from the electrostatic charge between oppositely charged particles
 ionic bonds usually occur between a metal and a non-metal, or between a metal and a
polyatomic ion
• note the location of the “staircase” on the periodic table to help you remember where
the metals, metalloids, and non-metals are
• the metal (being less electronegative) loses its valence electrons, and the non-metal
(being more electronegative) gains these electrons
• in the process, both atoms achieve a noble gas configuration, and are held together by
their opposite charges
498
 the greater the difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms, the more ionic
the bond
• consider NaCl and HCl as examples: the electronegativity of chlorine is 3.0,
hydrogen is 2.1, and sodium is 0.9
• NaCl has a greater electronegativity difference between the atoms, and therefore has
the greatest ionic character (in fact, HCl is a polar covalent bond)
II. Covalent Bonds

♦ covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons
 similar to ionic bonds, atoms share electrons so that they can both achieve noble gas
electron configurations
• consider the covalent bonding of hydrogen and oxygen in water, for example:
H has 1 valence electron, while O has 6 valence electrons
H O H → H O H → H–O–H
• consider carbon dioxide (CO2) as a second example:

C has 4 valence electrons, while O has 2 valence electrons, necessitating double
bonding
O C O → O C O → O C O → O=C=O
• as the previous example of CO2 illustrates, it is sometimes necessary to form multiple

covalent bonds (double or triple bonds) to satisfy the octets of bonded atoms
• double bond – covalent bond where atoms share two pairs of e-
triple bond – covalent bond where atoms share three pairs of e-
(only C & N can form triple bonds)
 there are seven elements which exist in nature as covalently bonded diatomic molecules:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2 , Br2, I2
• several of these exist as single bonds (H2, and the halogens), but N2 and O2 exist as
triple and double bonds, respectively:
 as another example of multiple bonds, consider two organic molecules: ethene & ethyne
499
 there is a definite relationship between the # of bonds, bond length, and bond strength:
• in general, the greater the # of bonds holding two atoms together, the shorter the bond
length, and the greater the bond strength
• consider the single, double, & triple bonds between carbon atoms as the 1st example
from the data table below: multiple bonds are shorter and stronger
• however, multiple bonds (while being stronger) are also more reactive – this is very
important, so keep this in mind!
• consider also both carbon-oxygen bonds in a carboxylic acid (such as ethanoic acid
[a.k.a. acetic acid, or vinegar] ):
bond bond length bond enthalpy

(nm) (ΔH / kJ mol-1)
C–C 0.154 348
C=C 0.134 612
C≡C 0.120 837
C–O 0.143 360
C=O 0.122 743
• refer to your data booklet for additional examples
 covalent bonds tend to form between non-metals

• again, refer to the “stairstep” on the periodic table, and keep in mind that hydrogen is
also a non-metal
• however, the true criterion for determining the nature of a bond (as mentioned
earlier) is the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms:
difference in
electronegativity 4.0 1.7 0.3 0.0
Ionic Polar Non-Polar
 if the difference in electronegativity is:

• between 0.0 – 0.3  non-polar covalent bond – bonding electrons are shared equally
(this includes those 7 special diatomic molecules which are completely covalent
(H2, N2, O2 , F2, Cl2 , Br2, I2) – they form a “7” on the periodic table)
• between 0.3 – 1.7  polar covalent bond – the more electronegative atom attracts
the shared electrons more strongly than the less electronegative atom (ex: HCl)
• between 1.7 – 4.0  ionic bond – one atom completely loses its valence electrons
and the other atom gains them (ex: NaCl)
500
 keep in mind that bonds are rarely completely covalent or ionic; usually, it’s somewhere
in between, depending on the electronegativity difference
 the closer together two elements are on the periodic table, the smaller the difference in
electronegativity between them
• this would make the bond between them more likely to be covalent
• two elements farther apart would have a greater difference in electronegativity and
greater ionic character
 in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical

• electrons spend more time next to the atom that attracts them most strongly (the most
electronegative atom)
Non-Polar Covalent Bond

(symmetrical electron distribution; equal sharing of electron pair)
δ+ δ-
Polar Covalent Bond

(asymmetrical electron distribution; unequal sharing of electron pair)
501
III. Metallic Bonds
♦ metals readily give up electrons, but don’t attract electrons as strongly as non-metals
 in a pure chunk of metal, the electrons are delocalized – they do not belong to any one
single atom, but are free to move around  metal cations (+ ions) and free electrons
 all these delocalized valence electrons are shared by all the atoms  “electron sea”
♦ metallic bond – results from the attraction between positive metal ions and the surrounding
mobile electrons
 in other words, a metallic bond is a lattice of positive ions surrounded a sea of
delocalized valence electrons
 the higher the + charge of the metal cation, the stronger the metallic bond formed (ex:
Al atoms forms stronger bonds than Na atoms, b/c Al has a +3 charge, while Na has a +1
charge)
♦ consider the properties of metals, and how their “electron sea” helps explain some of them:
 high electrical conductivity – if the delocalized electrons are free to move around, that
allows a current of electricity to flow easily
 malleability – metals can be shaped or hammered into a flat sheet
• again, because of the delocalized electrons, metallic bonding is not directional, but
uniform throughout the solid
• one plane of metal ions can slide past one another without encountering any
resistance or breaking any bonds
 thermal conductivity – metals conduct heat well
• when a metal bar is heated at one end, the electrons at that end increase in kinetic
energy and rapidly flow through the metal, transporting heat energy with them
• (in contrast, molecular or ionic compounds can only pass along heat slowly, from one
neighboring atom to the next)
 ductility – metals can be drawn out into a fine wire
• this property is explained by the same uniform bonding of metal ions mentioned
under malleability
IV. Nomenclature
Determining Charges & Formulas
♦ monatomic ions – ions formed from a single atom (ex: Na+, O2-)
♦ polyatomic ions – charged group of covalently bonded atoms (ex: SO42-, NH4+)
♦ in ionic compounds:
positive & negative ions combine so that the charges are equal and cancel each other out
 CROSS OVER charges!
 ex #1: +2 –1
Mg Cl  MgCl2
 ex #2: +1 –2
Li S  Li2S
 ex #3: +3 –2
Al O  Al2O3
 ex #4: +2 –2
Ca O  CaO
502
Naming Ionic Compounds
♦ nomenclature – a specific way of naming chemical compounds
♦ positive ion = cation; negative ion = anion
♦ put cation first (name remains same)
♦ put anion last & change the ending to “-ide”
previous examples: #1 = magnesium chloride
#2 = lithium sulfide
#3 = aluminum oxide
#4 = calcium oxide
♦ do not change the ending for polyatomic ions

 ex: Mg3(PO4)2 = magnesium phosphate
NaOH = sodium hydroxide
MgSO4 = magnesium sulfate
Al2(CO3)3 = aluminum carbonate
♦ binary compounds – compounds composed of just two different elements
♦ Stock System of nomenclature:

 metals that can form more than one type of ion must be named by including a Roman
numeral
 the Roman numeral = the charge of that metal
 metals that form only one ion do not need a Roman numeral
 ex: Cu + = copper (I) ion; Cu2+ = copper (II) ion
 ex: lead forms Pb2+ and Pb3+ ions: lead (II) oxide = PbO and lead (III) oxide = Pb2O3
Naming Covalent Compounds

♦ binary molecular compounds – compounds between 2 non-metals
 least electronegative element given first, almost always leaving oxygen or a halogen
(group 17) second
 first element – use a prefix only if more than one of those atoms are present
 second element – always use a prefix, then name the element with the ending “-ide”
 prefixes:
½ - hemi- 6 - hexa-
1 - mono- 7 - hepta-
2 - di- 8 - octa-
3 - tri- 9 - nona-
4 - tetra- 10 - deca-
5 - penta
 if the prefix ends in “a” and is followed by “-oxide”, drop the “a” from the prefix
(ex: pentoxide, NOT pentaoxide)
♦ ex: N2 O4 = dinitrogen tetroxide

P3Cl6 = triphosphorus hexachloride
SO3 = sulfur trioxide
503
V. Lewis Structures & Structural Formulae
♦ octet rule – chemical compounds form so that each atom can have a full 8 electrons in its
highest energy level, which leads to stability (there are a few exceptions, though)
 this is illustrated in the way we draw molecules and ions
 there are both shared and unshared pairs of electrons which play a role in bonding and the
shape of molecules
♦ unshared pair – electrons not involved in bonding, but belonging to exclusively one atom
 ex:
♦ Lewis structures use dots or dashes or Xs to represent shared and unshared electrons
 you can use dots or dashes for bonds
 ex:
♦ structural formula – indicates only shared electrons, using dashes for bonds
 ex:
504
VI. VSEPR Geometry & Molecular Polarity
♦ the geometry of a molecule – its shape – influences the polarity and bonding of that molecule
♦ VSEPR – Valence Shell, Electron-Pair Repulsion
 VSEPR theory states that repulsion between valence electron pairs (b/c they have the
same negative charge) causes bonds to be oriented as far apart as possible
 molecules want the widest bond angle possible
VSEPR Geometry Bond Angle central atom Sample Molecule Shape

in group…
linear 180° 2 Cl2, BeF2

(or diatomic)
triangular planar 120° 13 BF3
tetrahedral 109.5° 14 CH4
triangular pyramidal 107° 15 NH3
bent 105° 16 H2 O
♦ When determining VSEPR molecular geometry:

 How do you determine which atom is in the middle? – whichever atom has most
available sites for bonding
 whichever group the central atom is in determines what shape the molecule will take
 if there are more than four valence e-, then there must be unshared electron pairs  bent
or triangular pyramidal geometry
♦ Draw the following molecules, giving their VSEPR molecular geometries and bond angles:
PI3, CO2, SO2, C2 H2, C2H4, CO32-, NO2-
505
Molecular Polarity
♦ Dipoles exist between individual atoms if there is a difference in electronegativity between
the two atoms
♦ How do I know when a molecule is polar or non-polar?
non-polar molecules polar molecules

• central atom has NO unshared e- pairs • central atom has an unshared e-pair
• central atom is surrounded by identical • central atom has at least 2 different
atoms, which all have the same elements surrounding it (atoms which
electronegativity (ex: CCl4) have different electronegativities)
(ex: CCl3F)
♦ H2 O and NH3 are very polar; but the shape (geometry) of CCl4 and CO2 means that the
individual dipoles oppose one another and cancel each other out  no molecular dipole
♦ Consider the molecules you drew on the previous page, & state whether or not they are polar
VII. Intermolecular Forces

♦ the forces of attraction between molecules are known as intermolecular forces
♦ these forces are weaker than covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds
1) Dipole-Dipole forces
♦ the strongest intermolecular forces are dipole-dipole forces – forces of attraction between
polar molecules
 equal but opposite charges separated by a short distance create a dipole
 + arrow points toward negative pole (more electronegative atom), + tail points to
positive pole
ex: +
H-Cl
♦ If you have a solution of polar molecules, the molecules will arrange themselves such that the
positive and negative poles are attracted to each other
 ex: look at a solution of iodine monobromide…
♦ dipole-dipole forces will increase the melting & boiling points of a substance, because they
cause the polar molecules to “stick together” (like opposite poles of a magnet), meaning that
these attractions have to be broken before the substance can go from a solid to a liquid (melt)
or go from a liquid to a gas (boil)
2) Hydrogen bonding
506
♦ hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole attraction
 it is the strongest of all the intermolecular forces
♦ hydrogen bonding is the attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly e-neg
atom (N, O, F) and the unshared pair of electrons on another strongly e-neg atom (N, O, F)
 the attraction is usually represented by dashed line (--)
 ex: water
♦ being a strong type of dipole-dipole attraction, hydrogen bonding causes the melting and
boiling points of hydrogen-containing compounds to be unusually high – the molecules hold
on tight to each other and don’t want to let go
 this is a function of the large difference in electronegativity between H and N, O, or F,
which makes the bonds between them highly polar
 compare the melting and boiling points of molecules which exhibit hydrogen-bonding
and those which do not as examples of the difference it makes
3) London dispersion forces (van der Waals’ forces)

♦ electrons are constantly in motion in an atom; so, at some given instant, all the electrons
could be on one side of the atom, creating a momentary (instantaneous) dipole
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+
instantaneous dipole instantaneous dipole induced dipole
♦ London dispersion forces are intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of
electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles and induced dipoles
♦ the more electrons  the stronger the L.D.F. (i.e. – L.D.F. increase as the mass of the atom
or molecule increases)
♦ these forces are very weak
♦ L.D.F. act between all molecules, but they are the only intermolecular forces acting on noble
gases and non-polar molecular compounds
♦ consider how hydrogen bonding affects the boiling points of the following pairs of
compounds:
507
state at room T boiling point (C)
H2 O liquid 100
H2S gas -61
CH3–O–CH3 gas -24
CH3–CH2OH liquid 78
NH3 gas -28
PH3 gas -90
HF gas 21
HCl gas -79
CH3COOH liquid 118
C2H6 gas -89
♦ comparison of boiling points of alkanes vs. alkanols, with similar molecular mass:
alkane boiling point (° C) boiling point (° C) alkanol

CH4 -162 65 CH3OH
C2H6 -88 78 C2H5 OH
C3H8 -42 97 C3H7 OH
C4H10 0 117 C4H9 OH
C5H12 36 138 C5H11OH
C6H14 69 157 C6H13OH
C7H16 98 176 C7H15OH
C8H18 126 194 C8H17OH
VIII. Physical Properties
508
♦ The type of bonding in a compound can significantly effect the physical properties of that
compound. In general…
covalent compounds ionic compounds

melting & boiling points low high
volatility high low
conductivity low high
solubility non-polar solvents polar solvents
♦ melting & boiling points

 the stronger the forces (including both the types of bonds and intermolecular forces)
holding a compound together, the higher the melting & boiling points
 ionic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds, thus making their melting points higher
 covalent molecules which have strong intermolecular forces (such as water, with its
strong hydrogen bonding) are more difficult to pull apart from each other, which makes
their melting points higher than compounds without hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole
forces (such as F2)
 even in covalent molecules which experience only London Dispersion Forces, recall that
larger molecules have stronger London Dispersion Forces; consider the halogens:
halogen melting point ( C) boiling point ( C)

F2 -220 -188
Cl2 -101 -34
Br2 -7 58
I2 114 183
♦ volatility
 volatility is the tendency of a liquid at room temperature to evaporate into a gas
 in order to evaporate, the liquid molecules must possess enough KE to overcome the
forces holding the molecules together
 volatility is much like melting & boiling point – the stronger the forces holding the
compounds together, the lower the volatility (and thus, you get less evaporation at room
T)
 among the halogens, volatility decreases as you go down the group, for exactly the same
reasons that melting & boiling points increase
♦ conductivity
509
 recall that metallic solids have delocalized valence electrons, which enables them to
readily conduct electricity
 by contrast, most covalent and ionic solids are non-conductors, because the valence
electrons are not delocalized
• in covalent molecules, the electrons are shared between just a few atoms
• in ionic compounds, the valence electrons are completely lost or gained to other
atoms, to satisfy each atoms octet rule
 ionic substances become conducting in the liquid state, however, because the ions can
move (in an ionic liquid, the ions carry the electric current)
 likewise, many ionic solutions will conduct electricity, when the ionic solid is dissolved
in water, producing an aqueous solution
♦ solubility
 recall that “like dissolves like”
• in other words, solvents tend to dissolve solutes with similar polarities
• polar solvents tend to dissolve polar solutes
• ex #1: NH3 dissolves in water to make household cleaners – ammonia and water are
both polar, having unshared e- on the central atom of the molecule)
• ex #2: water dissolves NaCl, because the ions are attracted to the very polar water
molecules, which play “tug-of-war” with the ionic bonds holding the Na+ and
Cl- ions together; the NaCl dissolves in water because the pull of hundreds
of H2O molecules is stronger than ionic NaCl bond
Cl- Na+
Cl-
Na+
• non-polar solvents tend to dissolve non-polar solutes

• ex: I2(s) dissolves in CCl4(l)
 consider also the solubilities of the following alcohols in water:
510
Alcohol Solubility in Water
(mol / 100g H2 O)
name alcohol solubility
methanol CH3OH infinite
ethanol C2H5 OH infinite
propanol C3H7 OH infinite
butanol C4H9 OH 0.11
pentanol C5H11OH 0.03
hexanol C6H13OH 0.0058
heptanol C7H15OH 0.0008
• Alcohols dissolve in water as –OH group is able to hydrogen with H2O molecules
and be pulled into solution. The rest of the alcohol molecule is all C – C and C – H
bonds, which are non-polar, and not attracted to water molecules (this is why all
hydrocarbons, such as gasoline and vegetable oil do not mix with water).
• Thus, as the length of the alcohol molecule increases, water molecules have less of a
chance of hydrogen bonding with the water (more of the interactions with water are
with non-polar groups, rather than the polar –OH group). This is why larger alcohol
molecules do not dissolve as readily.
511
Worksheet: More Lewis Structures
1) Diatomic Fluorine
2) N2O
3) Water
4) Potassium Chloride
5) Methane
6) Hydrochloric Acid
7) PCl3
8) Hydrogen Fluoride
9) Beryllium Fluoride
10) CO2
11) Sulfite Ion
12) Diatomic Hydrogen
13) Diatomic Nitrogen
14) Ozone (O3)
15) Sulfur Hexafluoride
16) Phosphorus Pentachloride
17) Cylcloctane
18) Butane
19) Nitrate
20) Nonane
21) Peroxide
22) Benzene (C6H6)
23) BF3
24) CO
25) Diatomic Bromine
26) Tartrate
Molecular Bonding Hints and Rules
General Hints for Making the “Skeleton” of Molecules

1) Carbon is usually central.
2) Hydrogen is NEVER central.
3) Halogens are seldom central.
4) Oxygen is seldom central, but may link carbons.
5) An atom that appears only once is usually central.
6) If you can’t decide which atom should be central, pick the one with the lowest
electronegativity.
7) Balance out the atoms around the central atom (make it symmetrical).
Steps for Placing the Valence Electrons

1) First, calculate the total number of valence electrons for the entire molecule (i.e. H2O
has 8 total valence electrons)
512
2) Remember if the substance is an ion it has gained or lost electrons. Add or subtract
electrons as needed. DO NOT forget your brackets with the charge of the ion on the
outside…
3) Place pairs of electrons between every 2 atoms in the skeleton (Bonding Pairs).
4) Use the remaining electrons to complete the octets of all outer atoms (Non-Bonding
Pairs). CAUTION: H and He are complete with only 2 valence electrons.
5) Any left over electrons are added in pairs to the central atom.
6) When all electrons have been placed, the outer atoms will all have octets (8 electrons
around it…unless it is H or He then they will only have 2). The central atom may or may
not have an octet.
a) If the central atom has an octet it is complete.
b) It is OK if the central atom has fewer than 8 electrons if it is BORON. If it isn’t, make
multiple bonds to get an octet.
c) A central atom may have more than an octet if the central atom is in Periods 3-7. If it
is in Period 2, it cannot have more than 8.
7) Draw the line structure. To do so, replace any bonding pair with a single line.
Represent all lone pairs or free radicals by leaving the dots. Do not include non-bonding
pairs. Double check to make sure you have included your brackets and charge if you
drawing an ion.
513
In the time that it takes
the music to play…write
as much as you know
about bonds…
Compound with the most

correct wins!
514
What determines
the type of bond
that forms?
515
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The tendency of an atom

to attract electrons to
itself when it is bonded
to another atom
516
BOND STRENGTH
the energy needed to
break the bonds
between atoms in a
compound
517
Bond Strength
The greater the difference
in electronegativities, the
greater the bond
strength
518
Misconception Alert!
It does not require
energy to make bonds. It
requires energy to break
bonds.
“Breaking up is hard to do”
519
2 Main Bonding Options
• By transferring electrons
(producing ions)
(big difference in EN)
• By sharing electrons
(small difference in EN)
520
IONIC BOND
bond formed between
two ions by the
transfer of electrons
(difference in EN > 1.67)
521
IONIC COMPOUND
substance formed
when electrons are
transferred between 2
or more substances
(making ions)
522
Example of an Ionic Bond
Chlorine steals one of

sodium’s electrons
523
Characteristics of
Ionic Substances
• Electrons are transferred
• Bonds between metals and
non-metals
• Formulas are in simple
ratios (NaCl)
524
More Characteristics of
Ionic Substances
• Crystalline structure at room
temperature
• High melting points
• Good conductors of electricity
when molten or dissolved
525
COVALENT BOND
bond formed by the
sharing of electrons
(difference in EN < 1.67)
526
MOLECULE
a neutral group of
atoms held together by
covalent bonds
(ex: H2O)
527
Example of a Covalent Bond
Each of Hydrogen’s electrons

are shared to make H2
528
Characteristics of
Covalent Substances
• Electrons are shared
• Bonds between non-metals and
other non-metals
• Formulas are in true ratio of
atoms (C6H12O6)
529
More Characteristics of
Ionic Substances
• Substances may exist in any
state of matter at room
temperature
• Low melting points
• Nonconductors of electricity
530
Bonds in all the
polyatomic ions
and diatomics
are all covalent
bonds
531
CONDUCTIVITY
The ability to conduct
an electrical current
532
Can we use
conductivity to
determine if a
substance is ionic or
covalent?
533
WHICH IS
STRONGER?
Ionic bonds are
stronger than
covalent
534
POLAR COVALENT
BONDS
when electrons are
shared but shared
unequally
H2O
535
Example of a Polar Covalent Bond
A dipole caused by the polar covalent bond

of the water molecule.
An unequal sharing of
hydrogen’s electrons
536
Unequal sharing creates
areas of positive and
negative charge on a
polar compound.
537
!-2
••
H • O•
!+ x ••
x
H! +
Dipole
Moment
538
Structure of Soap
539
The slight
differences
in charge
bond water
molecules
together
(H-Bonding)
540
HOMEWORK
Do problems 3-4 on page
306 of the text.
Pg. 304 #1,2
541
Covalent Lewis Structure: Methane
Write Formula: CH4

MAKE THE SKELETON!
H
H C H
H
542
Write Formula: CH4

1) Calculate # of Valence e-:
Element = (# of Atoms)(# of Valence e-s)
C = (1)(4) = 4
H = (4)(1) = 4
8 valence e-s
2) Not an ion 543
CH4 8 v. e-s
-8=0
3) Place Bonding Pairs
4) Complete Ligand Octets
5) Add left overs H
6) Check for stability H C H
a. Central Octet?
b. <8 (B?) Multiple Bonds
c. >8, OK for Periods 3-7
H
544
CH4
7) Draw the Lewis LINE Structure
H
H C H
H
545
Covalent Lewis Structure:
Boron Trifluoride
Write Formula: BF3
MAKE THE SKELETON!
F
F B F
546
Covalent Lewis Structure: Boron Trifluoride
Write Formula: BF3

1) Calculate # of Valence e-:
Element = (# of Atoms)(# of Valence e-s)
B = (1)(3) = 3
F = (3)(7) = 21
24 valence e-s
2) Not an ion 547
Covalent Lewis Structure: Boron Trifluoride
BF3 24 v. e-s
-6=18 -18=0
3) Place Bonding Pairs
4) Complete Ligand Octets
5) Add left overs F
6) Check for stability F B F
a. Central Octet?
b. <8 (B?) Multiple Bonds
c. >8, OK for Periods 3-7
548
CARBON BONDS
Carbon makes LOTS
of bonds…but never
more than 4
549
550
Tartrate
551
552
Trigonal Planar
Bent
553
Tetrahedral
554
Tetrahedral
Trigonal Pyramidal
Bent (2 lone pairs)

555
IONIC COMPOUND
substance formed
when electrons are
transferred between 2
or more substances
(making ions)
556
How do you
name ionic
compounds?
557
How do you
write ionic
compounds?
558
Kris Kross Method!
2+
Ca As3-
Ca3As2
559
Just kris kross the
positive and the
negative charges
1+
Na Cl 1- NaCl
4+
Pb O 2- Pb2O4
560
Which charge
ALWAYS
comes first?
POSITIVE!!!
561
Are you
sure?
562
For Polyatomics it gets
a bit more complex
4+
Pb SO4 3- Pb3(SO4)4
1+
NH4 PO4 3- (NH4)3 PO4
563
564
20 points
15 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
10 points
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
5 points
4 points
3 points
Ask the Ask Eliminate 2 points
Teacher The Class 2 Answers 1 point
565
20 points
15 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
*10 points*
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
*5 points*
4 points
3 points
Ask the Ask Eliminate 2 points
Teacher The Class 2 Answers 1 point
566
1 POINT
Ask the Ask Class Eliminate 2
Teacher
What school do you attend?
!(A) North Hampton !(B) Southeast

Halifax
!(C) Trojan Academy !(D) Enfield Middle
Final Answer? The Correct Answer is:
B 567
2 POINTS
Teacher
Who sang, “Daddy Mac ‘ll make ya..”
!(A) Eminem !(B) P. Diddy
!(C) 50 Cent !(D) Kriss Kross
D 568
3 POINTS
Teacher
Electrons are __?__ in ionic bonds.
!(A) Shared !(B) Transferred
!(C) Equal !(D) Opposite
B 569
4 POINTS
Teacher
Which represents a decomposition rxn?
!(A) A + B " AB !(B) AB + C "

AC + B
!(C) AB " A + B !(D) AB + CD "

AD + CB
Final Answer?The Correct Answer is:
C 570
5 POINTS
Teacher
Are atoms created in a reaction?
!(A) No, never !(B) Yes, always
!(C) Sometimes !(D) Only in

synthesis reactions
A 571
6 POINTS
Teacher
What is the name of LiOH?
!(A) Lithium Oxide !(B) Lithium

Hydroxide
!(C) Lithium !(D) Lithoxide

Oxhydrogen
B 572
7 POINTS
Teacher
What geometry do H2 molecules have?
!(A) Linear !(B) Bent
!(C) Trigonal Planar !(D) Tetrahedral
A 573
8 POINTS
Teacher
Type of reaction?: AB + C " AC + B?
!(A) Synthesis !(B) Double

Replacement
!(C) Decomposition !(D) Single

Replacement
D 574
9 POINTS
Teacher
Type of reaction?: A + B " AB
!(A) Decomposition !(B) Combustion
!(C) Synthesis !(D) Addition
C 575
10 POINTS
Teacher
What type of bond is found in an iron
nail?
!(A) Ionic !(B) Metallic
!(C) Covalent !(D) Polar
B 576
11 POINTS
Teacher
How many electrons are shared in a
covalent bond?
!(A) 0 !(B) 1
!(C) 2 !(D) 4
C 577
12 POINTS
Teacher
What is present before the rxn occurs?
!(A) Reactants !(B) Products
!(C) Water !(D) None of the

above
A 578
13 POINTS
Teacher
How many valence electrons does
Aluminum have?
!(A) 2 !(B) 13
!(C) 14 !(D) 3
D 579
14 POINTS
Teacher
What molecular geometry does CH4
have?
!(A) Trigonal !(B) Trigonal Planar

Pyramidal
!(C) Tetrahedral !(D) Bent
C 580
15 POINTS
Teacher
How many bonds are in a trigonal
pyramidal molecule?
!(A) 1 !(B) 2
!(C) 3 !(D) 4
C 581
20 POINTS
Teacher
What are the products of combustion?
!(A) Depends on the !(B) Hydrocarbon +

reactants O2
!(C) CO2 + O2 !(D) CO2 + H2O
D 582
583
Ionic vs. Covalent Lab Name: __________________________
Per #: ________ Date: ____________
NO EXCUSES
Spring 2003
Station 1: Solubility test:
Using the test tubes which are half-filled with vegetable oil, place a pinch of one
substance into the test tube. Shake gently and observe below. Rinse out your test
tube. Repeat for the other substances.
Sugar
Salt
Mystery compound
Station 2: Microscopic observations

Place a small pinch of one substance onto a microscope slide, and observe under the
microscope. Clean off, and repeat with the other substances. Record pictures of
what you see, and observations below.
Sugar
Salt
Mystery compound
SUGAR SALT
MYSTERY
Station 3: Melting Point test
Place a small pinch of one substance onto a watch glass. Place watch glass on heated
hot plate. Observe for approximately ten seconds, and record below. CAUTION:
Do not touch glass with hands! Use the heat mitts and allow watch glass to cool.
Remove watch glass immediately once one substance starts to change phase.
Sugar
584
Salt
Mystery compound
Station 4: Conductivity in water
Follow the instructions posted at the apparatus. Record any observations below
No Substance
Sugar
Salt
Mystery compound
Lab Questions:
1.) How do the properties of each type of compound relate to their bonding
2.) Explain why one solution is a better conductor of electricity than the other
3.) Suppose you were to accidently mix sugar and salt together. Can you think
of a way to separate them.
4.) Draw Lewis structures for each below:
5.) Is the mystery compound covalently or ionicly bonded?
6.) Thinking about bond strength, why does salt melt at a higher temperature
than sugar?
585
VSEPR: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Basic steps for predicting molecular geometries:
1) Add up the total number of valence electrons.
2) Write down the central atom, and connect all peripheral atoms to it with a pair of
electrons.
3) Distribute enough electrons to all the peripheral atoms so that they all have a full octet.
4) Distribute the remaining electrons as pairs to the central atom.
Let’s use ICl3 as an example:
1) one I + three Cl = 7 + 21 valence e- = 28 valence e-
2)
3)
4)
Try a couple of molecules for practice:

1) SOCl2
2) PBr3
3) ClO2F
4) XeF4
5) BrF5
6) ClF3
7) SCl3F3
8) XeF2
9) SF4
10) ICl5
11) ICl4-
12) SCl2
586
13) ICl2-
14) I3-
VSEPR, Chirality, & Optical Activity
Directions: For all questions on this review WS, do your work on a separate sheet of
paper.
For each of the following compounds:

(1) Draw the structural formula
(2) Name the specific molecular geometry of the molecule
(3) Name the molecular geometry upon which the shape of the molecule is based
1) SeCl2
2) BeF2
3) CCl3F
4) SBrCl3F2
5) BrI4–
6) SF2
7) H2Se
8) ICl3
9) PI3
10) BrCl3F2
11) Refer to the diagram on page 48 of your organic chem. notes:
1. Concisely explain how you know that a solute is “optically active”.
b. Assume a solute has two enantiomers. You make equimolar solutions of both. Using
the diagram to guide you again, explain how you would be able to tell them apart.
c. Cite two example illustrating the specificity of living systems to particular

enantiomers.
12) For each of the following molecules:
1. Redraw the molecule, showing its structural formula.
b. If the molecule is NOT chiral, write ACHIRAL, & draw the plane of symmetry.
c. If the molecule is chiral, write CHIRAL, & circle the chiral center.
587
PERCENT COMPOSITION
Problem Set: Percent Composition
Calculate the % composition OF EACH ELEMENT in the following:

1) CoF3
2) 2Fe2O3
3) Al(C2H3O2)3
4) 2Na2Al2(SO4)4
5) Which one of the following has a lower percentage of mercury? Mercury (I) Sulfate
or Mercury (II) Hydride?
6) You are the CEO of a fertilizer company. You have to decide if you want to use
NH4 or NH3 in your fertilizers. Both fertilizers work equally well. You are only
concerned about the price of purchasing nitrogen. Which type of fertilizer should you
make and why?
Lab: Percent Composition
This resource is a lab in which students test percent composition. From the introduction:
"In this lab you will be given a mixture of either sodium or potassium chlorate and an
inert material like sodium chloride. Your task will be to determine the percentage of the
chlorate compound in the mixture."
This resource is part of the Chemistry course which contains units on Lab Setup and
Safety; Nomenclature; Chemical Reactions and Balancing; Metric Systems &
Conversions; Periodic Table and Trends; Atomic Structure; Nuclear Chemistry; Acids,
Bases, & Salts; Bonding; Percent Composition; Solutions, Molarity, and Concentrations;
Stoichiometry; Energy; Gas Laws; Reaction Rates and Equilibrium; Electron
Configuration; and Redox Reactions.
Navigate to This External Web Link:
http://chem.lapeer.org/Chem1Docs/CompOfMix.html
Lab: Percent Composition of KClO3
In this lab, students will test the percent composition of KClO3. "Potassium chlorate is
one of several compounds of oxygen that are easily decomposed by heating. Potassium
chlorate will decompose into oxygen and potassium chloride. In this laboratory exercise
588
you will decompose this compound by heating, and from the data obtained determine the
percentage of oxygen by weight in the compound."
http://chem.lapeer.org/Chem1Docs/PercentComp.html
Problem Set: Percent Composition, Empirical/Molecular Formulas
1) Find the percent composition of copper (II) phosphate: Cu3(PO4)2
2) Find the percent composition of sodium sulfate: Na2SO4
3) Find the simplest (empirical) formula of a compound found to consist of 26.56% K,

35.41% Cr, and
38.03% O.
4) Find the molecular formula of a compound having a simplest formula of CH2O and
a formula mass of 180.16u.
5) Determine the molecular formula of a compound consisting of 40.00% C, 6.71% H,

and 53.29%O, with a formula mass of 180.1854 u.
589
Law of Definite Proportions
Duties Procedure
1. Recorder • Mass dry evaporating
2. Materials Getter dish, and watch glass.*
3. Principle Investigator • Add a small amount of
4. Task Master hydrated CuSO4 to
evaporating dish.*
Remember! • Heat under burner until
Don’t leave your lab group. white (may need to stir
Be careful with the open with stirring rod.
flame.
Heat with watch glass to • Mass dried CuSO4 and
prevent splattering. evaporating dish.*
590
Calculations
• Calculate FW of CuSO4 Questions
and H2O.
• Explain how the class
• Calculate the weight of
hydrated CuSO4 and data supports the Law
dehydrated CuSO4. of Definite
• Calculate % weight Proportions
reduction in hydrated
CuSO4 after heating.
• What is the formula
• Record the % on the class for hydrated CuSO4
data sheet. (w/ coefficients)?
( x)18.02
!100 = % H 2O
(159.61 + ( x)18.02)
Use the equation above to
• find the coefficient for the
# of H2O molecules in
each hydrated CuSO4.
591
Class Data Sheet
Weight of
Weight of % H2O by
Group Name Dehydrated
Hydrated CuSO4 Weight
CuSO4
592
Lab: Percentage of Water in a Hydrate / Formula of a Hydrate
Purpose:
a. To find the % of water in crystallized copper (II) sulfate.
b. To determine the formula of the hydrate
Introduction:
Many salts when crystallized from water solution take up definite proportions of water as
an integral part of their crystal structures. This water of hydration may be driven off by
the application of heat. The number of moles of water driven off per mole of the
anhydrous salt is some simple number. If the formula of the anhydrous salt is known you
can determine the formula of the hydrate.
Procedure:
1) Support a evaporating dish and cover with a watch glass on a wire gauze. Heat for
~3 minutes to dry, and mass to the nearest 0.01 grams
2) Add aprox. 5 grams of crystallized copper (II) sulfate to the dish and weigh to the
nearest 0.01 grams
3) Heat the dish and contents gently for 2 minutes. Then increase heat gradually for 2
more minutes.
4) Cool and weigh the dish and contents to the nearest 0.01 grams.
5) Heat the dish and contents for another 2 minutes and reweigh. Make sure weights
are constant, if not reheat again until they are.
6) Before discarding the product add a small amount of water and note the result to the
product in the dish.
Data: (show all calculations in lab book)
1) Weight of empty evaporating dish and watch glass ____________
2) Weight of empty dish, glass, and crystallized copper (II) sulfate

_______________
593
3) Weight of crystallized copper (II) sulfate _______________
4) Weight of dish, glass, and anhydrous copper (II) sulfate _______________
5) Weight of anhydrous copper sulfate _______________
6) Weight of water lost by heating _______________
7) % of water in crystallized copper (II) sulfate (exp) _______________
8) Moles of anhydrous copper sulfate _______________
9) Moles of water lost by heating _______________
10) Ratio of moles anhydrous copper (II) sulfate to water lost _______________
11) Formula of crystallized copper (II) sulfate _______________
12) % of water by mass in your formula for copper (II) sulfate (theo)
_______________
13) % error _______________
Lab: The Mass Percentage of Carbon in Sodium Bicarbonate
Louis Proust (1755-1826) was one of the first to observe that elements combine with one
another in a definite mass ratio. Proust's experimental work helped form the Law of
Definite Proportions, sometimes called the Law of Definite Composition. In other
words, there is a precise quantity of each component required in the formation of a
specific compound; the percent composition is constant. This, in turn,implies that in the
decomposition of a specific compound, there is a precise quantity of each component
produced. In this experiment, you will indirectly determine the mass percent composition
of carbon in sodium bicarbonate by determining the amount of carbon found in the
carbon dioxide produced from the following chemical equation:
2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 ---> Na2SO4 + 2 H2O + 2 CO2
Reacting sodium bicarbonate with sulfuric acid will produce a salt, water, and carbon
dioxide gas. In this experiment you will determine the mass of carbon produced in the
carbon dioxide. This in turn wil1 allow you to determine indirectly the mass of carbon
found in the specific amount of sodium bicarbonate used, and thus calculate the mass
percentage of carbon found in the bicarbonate. According to the Law of Definite
594
Composition, the mass percentage of carbon in the bicarbonate should be constant no
matter how much sodium bicarbonate is being decomposed.
The experiment should be performed twice and the results averaged. Final1y, your
average result is compared to the theoretical mass percentage of carbon in sodium
bicarbonate.
________________________________________________
Safety:
Wear safety goggles and aprons in the lab at all times. Chemicals, particularly 2 M
H2SO4 , may pose unexpected hazards, so use caution in dealing with them. Add the
sulfuric acid Slowly to the sodium bicarbonate. Release 1 drop of the acid then swirl the
contents until effervescence ceases. Continue this process until a drop of acid added to
the sodium bicarbonate does not produce an effervescent effect. Wash your hands
immediately upon contact with chemicals.
______________________________________________________
Pre-lab Questions:
1. Which type of scientist makes use of the reaction of carbonates with acids?
(Hint: the study of this subject can be rocky at best!)
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. What is the percentage of phosphorus in the compound sodium hydrogen phosphate,

Na2HPO4 ? (Show your work)
Procedure:
1. Preparation and Massing of the Pipet
Obtain a beral pipet full of 2M sulfuric acid. Next, place a known amount (to the
nearest 0.01 gram) of sodium bicarbonate into a clean and dry modified jumbo pipet as
shown in Fig. 1. The amount of sodium bicarbonate can be any mass between 0.2Og to
O.4Og. Using a beral pipet full of 2 M sulfuric acid, insert it into the jumbo pipet as
shown in Fig. 2. Now mass this unit to the nearest 0.01 gram.
2. Generating the Carbon Dioxide Gas

Begin to generate tho carbon dioxide by SLOWLY releasing, dropwise, the sulfuric
acid. Continue releasing the acid drop wise in this manner until effervescence ceases.
Now mass the unit once again and calculate the mass of carbon dioxide released in the
reaction. RECORD your result. Use your "partner's" data for the second trial and
RECORD your results.
Data
595
Trial 1 Trial 2
mass of jumbo pipet ______ g ______ g
mass of jumbo pipet with NaHCO3 ______ g ______ g
initial mass of unit ______ g ______ g
final mass of unit ______ g ______ g

______________________________________________________
Calculations:
1. Theoretical msss percentage of carbon in sodium bicarbonate: (show work)
2. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced for each trial. (show work)
3. Calculate the mass percentage of carbon present in the specific amount of sodium
hydrogen carbonate used for each trial. (Hint: you need to use the mass of CO2 and the
percent of C in the CO2. show work)
4. Average these mass percentages and compare (percent difference) the result to that of
the theoretical value. (show work)
Questions:
1. What effects would there be in your results if you did not decompose all of the sodium
hydrogen carbonate in each of your trials?
________________________________________________________________________
______
________________________________________________________________________
______
________________________________________________________________________
______
2. A similar reaction occurs between limestone, known as calcium carbonate, and

hydrochloric acid, HCl. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
________________________________________________________________________
______
596
3. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH) with
baking soda.
________________________________________________________________________
______
597
MOLARITY
598
MOLARITY
A unit on concentration
that is the ratio between
moles of DISSOLVED
substance and liters of
solution
599
Molarity (M)
=
moles of solute (mol)
volume of solution (L)
600
There are many ways
to represent molarity:
• Molarity
•M
• Molar
• mol / L
601
MAKE SURE
YOUR UNITS ARE
CORRECT!!!
ALWAYS
mol/L
602
!
Homogeneous
Mixtures are also
known as
SOLUTIONS!
603
Solutions are made
up of two parts
• Solute
• Solvent
604
SOLUTE
the part of a solution
present in the LEAST
amount
(what is dissolved)
605
SOLVENT
the part of a solution
present in the greatest
amount
(what does the
dissolving)
606
Solvent Solute
=
SOLUTION!!!
607
Solubility
amount of solute that
will dissolve in an
amount of solvent at a
given temperature
608
Saturated Solution
contains the maximum
amount of solute for an
amount of solvent at a
given temperature
609
Unsaturated Solution
contains less solute than
a saturated solution
610
Supersaturated Solution
contains more solute
than it should
theoretically be able to
hold at a certain temp
611
MOLARITY
A measurement of
concentration of a
solution
612
MOLARITY
moles of solute
divided by liters of
solution
613
MOLARITY
mol
M=
L
614
Colligative Property
property of a solution
that depends only on
the concentration of
the solution
615
Two Main Colligative
Properties:
• Boiling Point Elevation
(Ex: Antifreeze in cars)
•Freezing Point Depression

(Ex: Salt on icy roads)
616
SOLUTIONS, MOLARITY, AND CONCENTRATIONS
Lab: Molarity
Please show all work!

PART 1
Create a 1 liter, 0.05 M Sulfuric Acid and Water solution
Mass of Solute needed? _______________
Volume of Solution needed? ____________
Tape/describe pH tape here:
PART 2
Create a 1 liter, 0.5 M solution of Sulfuric Acid and Water
Tape/describe pH tape here:
PART 3
Create a 1 liter, 2.0 M solution of Sulfuric Acid and Water
Tape/describe pH tape here
617
QUESTIONS
1. What remained constant throughout the experiment?
2. To get a solution with a higher molarity, what could one do?
3. Explain how the solute is distributed throughout the solution?
4. Explain how the color of the pH tape changed from Part 1 to Part 2 to Part 3. What
does this say about the pH of the solution?
5. How many mL of each of the 3 concentrations would one need to have 10g of
sulfuric acid?
Problems: Molarity
1. What is the molarity of a potassium chloride solution that has a volume of 400.0 mL
and contains 85.0 g of KCl?
618
2. How many grams of Na2S2O3 are needed to make 100.0 ml of a 0.250 M solution?
3. What is the molarity of a sodium hypochlorite bleach that contains 125 g NaOCl in
2.00 L of solution?
4. How many milliliters of 0.375 M solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)

are needed to provide 15.3 g of NaHCO3?
5. How many liters of a 2.50 M solution of acetic acid, CH3COOH, are needed to
provide 256 g of acetic acid?
619
Worksheet: Molarity - Quick
1) What is molarity?
2) What are the possible units on molarity?
3) How many grams of sodium chloride would you need to make a 5.0M salt solution?
4) Assume that 1g of HCl = 1 mL of HCl, how many mL would you need to make a
0.14M solution of HCl?
5) How many grams of Na2S2O3 are needed to make 100.0 ml of a 0.250 M solution?
620
LAB: MAKING ICE CREAM
Lab: Making Ice Cream
This resource is a link to a lab on making ice cream in a plastic bag.
http://chemistry.about.com/cs/howtos/a/aa020404a.htm
Name_____________________ Block _________

_______________
Kinetic Molecular Theory Lab: Making Ice Cream
Pre-Lab / Before Mixing:

Fill in formulas and states. Check all classifications that apply:
BEFORE State Pure Element Compound Mixture Homo Hetero Miscible Immiscible
MIXING substance Mix Mix
Milk
Sugar
[C12H22O11]
Vanilla
Extract
Salt [
]
Ice [
]
Milk +
Vanilla
Milk +
Sugar
Ice + Salt
Draw and label particle views for the (1) sugar milk and (2) ice before mixing occurs:
621
Sugar Milk: Ice:
List three physical properties for each of the following:

Milk Sugar Ice Vanilla
Procedure:
1. Add 1/4 cup sugar, 1/2 cup milk, and 1/4 teaspoon vanilla to the quart ziplocTM
bag. Seal the bag securely.
2. Put 2 cups of ice into the gallon ziplocTM bag.
3. Add 1/2 to 3/4 cup salt (sodium chloride) to the bag of ice.
4. Place the sealed quart bag inside the gallon bag of ice and salt. Seal the gallon bag
securely.
5. Gently rock the gallon bag from side to side.
6. Continue to rock the bag for 10-15 minutes or until the contents of the quart bag
have solidified into ice cream.
7. Remove the quart bag, open it, serve the contents into cups with spoons and
ENJOY!
During mixing: (answer in complete sentences)

What is happening to the ice (at the particle level) in terms of energy, motion, and
arrangement?
622
What is happening to the sugar milk (at the particle level) in terms of energy, motion, and
arrangement?
Post-Lab / After Mixing:

Sugar milk changed state from a ___________ to a ___________, a process called
____________________.
Ice _______________ because it changed state from a _____________ to a
______________. Changes of state are considered __________________ changes.
Changes of state require the addition or removal of heat, a form of energy. In the space
below, draw and label a picture to describe how energy (heat) was transferred between
the substances to cause the changes of state you observe.
623
Name: ____________________ Block: _____
________________
Lab Report: Kinetic Molecular Theory
Section 1 3 5
Introduction Not present; uses Missing purpose or Discusses the three main
“I” or “we” description of KMT points of the KMT and the
No purpose purpose of the lab
Materials Missing more than Missing 1-2 materials Lists all the materials and
4 materials or the amount or amounts used
number
Procedure Incorrect or not Missing 2-3 steps in Lists the steps taken to
detailed procedure the procedure complete the lab
Observations Missing Missing either Describes what state changes
/Results descriptions of the descriptions of the occurred in the lab and how
state changes and state changes or the materials physically
phys. prop of the physical properties of changed from before and
materials the materials after; comments if table.
Conclusion Does not discuss Missing description of Discusses how KMT was
how KMT was how KMT applied in observed in changes in
observed in energy, energy, motion, or energy, motion, and
motion, and org. arrangement for one arrangement for state
each state change. of state changes. changes.
Total: ________ / 25 =
Name: ____________________ Block: _____

________________
Lab Report: Kinetic Molecular Theory
Section 1 3 5
Introduction Not present; uses Missing purpose or Discusses the three main
“I” or “we” description of KMT points of the KMT and the
No purpose purpose of the lab
Materials Missing more than Missing 1-2 materials Lists all the materials and
4 materials or the amount or amounts used
number
Procedure Incorrect or not Missing 2-3 steps in Lists the steps taken to
detailed procedure the procedure complete the lab
Observations Missing Missing either Describes what state changes
/Results descriptions of the descriptions of the occurred in the lab and how
state changes and state changes or the materials physically
phys. prop of the physical properties of changed from before and
materials the materials after; comments if table.
Conclusion Does not discuss Missing description of Discusses how KMT was
how KMT was how KMT applied in observed in changes in
observed in energy, energy, motion, or energy, motion, and
motion, and org. arrangement for one arrangement for state
each state change. of state changes. changes.
624
Total: ________ / 25 =
625
Name: __________________________________ Lab Report Grade
Lab Report: Kinetic Molecular Theory – Making Ice Cream
Section Below (1) Average (2) Proficient (3) Mastery (4)

Overall
Introduction
Materials
Procedure
Observations
Conclusion
Comments: Total Grade: ________ /

24 =


Overall
Introduction
Materials
Procedure
Observations
Conclusion

24 =


Overall
Introduction
Materials
Procedure
Observations
Conclusion

24 =
626
Problems: Solutions
1) What is the percent by mass of a solution prepared by dissolving 68.2g of glucose

(C6H12O6) in 122.8g of water?
2) What is the molarity of a solution composed of 34.4g KI dissolved in enough water

to make 215.0 mL of solution?
3) How many grams of methanol (CH3OH) are needed to make a 0.750 M solution in
0.725 L of H2O?
4) How much will a 0.825 m solution of glucose (C6H12O6) elevate the boiling point
of its solvent (water)?
5) How much will 415g of Ba(NO3)2 dissolved in 795.5g of water depress the freezing
point of its solvent (water)?
627
6) Consider the following balanced equation:
Fe2(CO3)3aq) + 6LiNO3(aq) -> 3Li2CO3(s) + 2Fe(NO3)3(aq)
(1) Write the overall ionic equation; (2) write the net ionic equation; and (3) identify the
spectator ions.
Problems: Solutions, Solids, Liquids
1) Name the three types of mixtures and give one example of each. Which one has the
smallest particle size?
mixture example
2) What are the differences between endothermic and exothermic reactions?
3) What are the two general types of solids? Give one example of each.
4) How would you make a supersaturated solution of lemonade?
5) Name 3 ways I could get rock salt to dissolve faster in a container of water.
6) You leave a sealed glass beaker filled about half full with water sitting on your kitchen
table this morning. Describe in detail (in terms of (1) equilibrium & (2) vapor pressure)
what is happening inside this beaker over the next hour or so.
628
When you come home this afternoon, you decide to put this same beaker in a sunny
window.
Describe how the equilibrium and vapor pressure are affected.
7) What is an electrolyte? Which compounds are always electrolytes? Give an example.

8) change of state name
solid → liquid
solid → gas
liquid → solid
liquid → gas
gas → liquid
gas → solid
9) Give an example of dissociation.
10) Give an example of ionization. How is this different from dissociation?
Part II – Problems
11) What is the molarity of a solution composed of 21.0 g CaSO4 dissolved in enough
water to make 439 mL of solution?
12) How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) are needed to make a 0.375 M solution in
543 mL H2O?
13) What is the molarity of a solution of 44.0 g of Na3PO4 dissolved in 512 mL of

water?
629
14) How many mL of water are needed to produce a 1.540 M solution from 39.08g of
Cu(NO3)2?
15) What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 68.2g of glucose

(C6H12O6) in 122.8 mL of water?
16) What is the molarity of a solution composed of 34.4g KI dissolved in enough water
to make 215.0 mL of solution?
17) How many grams of methanol (CH3OH) are needed to make a 0.750 M solution in
0.725 L of H2O?
18) What volume of solution is needed to make a 1.25 M solution from 415g of
Ba(NO3)2?
630
6AgNO3(aq) + Al2(CO3)3(aq) → 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3Ag2CO3(s)
spectator ions.

Fe2(SO3)3aq) + 6LiCl(aq) → 3Li2SO3(s) + 2FeCl3(aq)
spectator ions.
631
LAB: SOLUTIONS
Solutions Discovery Lab

Recall
Definitions
* Solute – (n) the part of a solution present in the LEAST amount

(what is dissolved)
* Solvent – (n) the part of a solution present in the greatest amount
(what does the dissolving)
* Solution – (n) a homogeneous mixture containing a solute and a solvent mixed

together
Introduction
Look at the two beakers (A and B) of pennies and macaroni as an analogy of a solution
(the pennies are the solute and the macaroni are the solvent.)
1) What type of mixture are these, really?
2) Are they solutions (consisting of a solute and a solvent)?
3) What is the ratio of pennies to macaroni (write as a fraction # of pennies / # of

macaroni) of each?
4) If you reach in to beaker A and take out what you grab, are you likely to grab a
penny? What about beaker B?
5) Which beaker has a greater “concentration” of pennies?
6) Which beaker has a more “dilute” “concentration” of pennies?
Definitions
* Concentration – (n) the measurement of how much solute there is in a solution (or
generally – the amount of substance found in a certain area or volume)
* Dilute – (adj) a solution is said to be dilute if it has less solute.
* Concentrated – (adj) a solution is said to be concentrated if it has more solute.
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Exploration
In front of you there is a beaker of macaroni and pennies with some extra pennies and
macaronis in a bag.
1) Find two ways to concentrate (increase the concentration) the pennies in the beaker.
2) Find two ways to dilute (decrease the concentration) the pennies in the beaker.
Definitions
* Diluting– (v) the process of adding more solvent to a solution or removing some of
the solute
* Concentrating – (v) The process of adding more solute or removing some of the
solvent.
Calculation
633
In Chemistry the concentration of a solution is most often reported in Molar (M) units or
moles of solute per liter of solvent (mol / L).
For example: We dissolve 58.44 g of NaCl (salt) in a liter (L) of water in a bottle.
58.44 g NaCl x 1 mol NaCl = 1 mol NaCl or a 1.000 M NaCl solution

1 L of H2O 58.44 g NaCl 1 L H2O
We have created a 1.000 Molar solution of NaCl or in other words a solution that
contains 1 mole of NaCl per liter of water.
In front of you there is a flask that has a solution of 0.250 L of water with 14.61 g of
NaCl dissolved in it.
1) What is the molar concentration of the solution?
Application
Chemists have special containers called volumetric flasks for making solutions. The
flasks have one precisely measured volume mark on a skinny neck for accurate
measurements and a large bottom so that the solute can be swirled to dissolve.
Here are the steps Chemists take to make a solution:
A. Add your solvent (often water) until 2/3 of the large bottom is filled with water.
B. Accurately mass the appropriate amount of solute.
C. Carefully transfer ALL of the solute into the flask.
D. Swirl flask until all of the solute is dissolved (Be Careful not to spill any of your
solution or it will be inaccurate)
634
E. Carefully add solvent, swirling occasionally, until the meniscus of the solution
reaches the volume line. If you go over you must start all over again.
1) If one wanted to make a 2.00 molar solution of baking soda (NaHCO3) in a 0.500 L
volumetric flask, how many grams of baking soda would be needed?
2) Make this solution using the materials available to you.
*Synthesis (Critical Thinking)
Some salts when dissolved in water make the level of the solvent decrease when they are
added because of the way the particles interact with each other in solution. You are
making up a 1 molar solution of one of these salts.
If you follow the procedure above, will your solution be more concentrated than, more
dilute than, or exactly 1 molar? Explain why?
Worksheet: Solutions Lab
Description:This resource is a version of the solutions lab with blanks, for students to fill
in.
Solutions Discovery Lab

Recall
Definitions
* Solute –
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
* Solvent –
______________________________________________________________
635
_____________________________________________________________________
* Solution –
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Introduction
1) Type of Mixture:
2) Solutions?
3) Ratio?
4) Likely to grab in Beaker A? Beaker B?
5) Greater “concentration”?
6) More “dilute” “concentration”?
Definitions
* Concentration –
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
* Dilute –
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
* Concentrated –
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
Exploration
1) Two ways to concentrate
636
2) Two ways to dilute
Definitions
* Diluting –
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
* Concentrating –
__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Calculation
In front of you there is a flask that has a solution of 0.250 L of water with 14.61 g of
NaCl dissolved in it.
1) What is the molar concentration of the solution?
Application
637
1) If one wanted to make a 2.00 molar solution of baking soda (NaHCO3) in a 0.500 L
volumetric flask, how many grams of baking soda would be needed?
2) Make this solution
*Synthesis (Critical Thinking)
Some salts when dissolved in water make the level of the solvent decrease when they are
added because of the way the particles interact with each other in solution. You are
making up a 1 molar solution of one of these salts.
If you follow the procedure above, will your solution be more concentrated than, more
dilute than, or exactly 1 molar? Explain why?
638
Problems: Molarity 2
1) Determine the molarity of each of the following solutions:

a. 2.50 mol NaOH in 1.50 L solution
b. 412g BaCl2 in 3.75 L solution
c. 75.1g Ca(NO3)2 in 500.0mL of solution
2) You wish to make a 2.50 L of a 1.75 M Li3PO4 solution. How many grams of
Li3PO4 should be added to this volume of water?
3) How many grams of NaOH are present in 65.0 mL of a 2.20 M NaOH solution?

a. 4.50 mol MgCO3 in 2.50 L of solution
b. 90.2g K2SO4 in 850.0 mL of solution
c. 10.5g NaF in 275 mL solution
5) How many milliliters of H2O must be added to 75.5g of NaHCO3 to form a 0.500 M
solution?
6) How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) must be added to make 750.0 mL of a 1.25
M solution?

a. 2.50 mol NaOH in 1.50 L solution
b. 412g BaCl2 in 3.75 L solution
c. 75.1g Ca(NO3)2 in 500.0mL of solution
8) You wish to make a 2.50 L of a 1.75 M Li3PO4 solution. How many grams of
Li3PO4 should be added to this volume of water?
9) How many grams of NaOH are present in 65.0 mL of a 2.20 M NaOH solution?

a. 4.50 mol MgCO3 in 2.50 L of solution
b. 90.2g K2SO4 in 850.0 mL of solution
c. 10.5g NaF in 275 mL solution
11) How many milliliters of H2O must be added to 75.5g of NaHCO3 to form a 0.500
M solution?
12) How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) must be added to make 750.0 mL of a
1.25 M solution?
639
Solubility / Phase Diagrams
For questions 1-10, refer to Fig. A & B (the phase diagrams)
1) What is the normal boiling point of this substance? (Fig. A)
2) At what temperature will all 3 phases coexist at equilibrium? (Fig. A)
3) What is the critical temperature for this substance? (Fig. A)
4) What is the normal freezing point of this substance? (Fig. A)
5) What state will this substance be at 17°C and 1.2 atm? (Fig. A)
(solid, liquid, or gas)
6) What state will this substance be at 42°C and 0.9 atm? (Fig. A)
(solid, liquid, or gas)
7) According to Fig. B, what is the substance’s normal boiling point? (in °C)
8) What is this substance’s normal melting point? (in °C, Fig. B)
9) Which letter represents freezing? (Fig. B)
10) Which letter(s) represent a change in KINETIC energy? (Fig. B)
For questions 11-13, refer to Fig. 1, 2, & 3
11) Using Fig. 3, state whether or not the following compounds are soluble:
a. Na2SO4 e. KNO3
b. Ba3(PO4)2 f. NH4 C2H3 O2
c. CaF2 g. Zn2S3
d. Al2(CO3)3 h. Cu(OH)2
12) Using Fig. 2, state whether or not the following compounds are soluble:
a. MgCl2
b. Fe(ClO3)2
c. K2 O
d. Ni(CrO4)2
640
13) Use Figure 1 for the following questions:
a. What is the solubility of NaNO3 at 50°C?
b. What is the solubility of KCl at 90°C?
c. What is the solubility of KNO3 at 25°C?
d. At what temperature is the solubility of NH3 ~ 57g/100g H2 O?
e. At what temperature is the solubility of NH4Cl ~ 50g/100g H2 O?
641
Name: _______________________________
Group: ____________________ Block: ____
Date: ________________________________
Exceed to Succeed
After Spring Break Refocus Problems
1. How many grams of
KCl are needed to 2. At what temperature
will 79 grams of NaNO3 3. A solution of Na2SO4
saturate 100 grams of contains 50 g of solute at 20°C.
water at 80°C? _______ saturate 100 grams of
water? _______ Is it saturated, unsaturated, or
supersaturated? _____________
4. How many grams of
NaCl are needed to 5. Which of the following is 6. At what temperature
saturate 200 grams of most soluble at 90°C? will 50 grams of HCl
water at 50°C? _______ saturate 100 grams of
NaCl KClO3 NH4Cl SO2
water? _______
7. A solution of KI contains 125 9. How many

grams of solute at 0.0°C. Is it 8. Which of the following is grams of NH3
saturated, unsaturated, or least soluble at 60°C? are needed to
supersaturated? _____________ NaCl KClO3 NH4Cl SO2 saturate 200
grams of water at
10°C? _______
A. An electron moves
from the 4th energy level 10. A solution of KClO3
to the 2nd energy level. contains 38 g of solute at 70°C.
Is this absorption or Is it saturated, unsaturated, or
emission? ___________ supersaturated? _____________
B. What wavelength of
light is emitted? ______
E. An electron moves G. Light with a

C. Light with a from the 1st energy level wavelength of 1282
wavelength of 97 to the 4th energy level. nanometers is absorbed
nanometers is emitted Is this absorption or by an electron. The
from an atom. The emission? ___________ electron has moved from
electron has moved from F. What wavelength of the ____ energy level to
the ____ energy level to light is necessary to do the ____ energy level.
the ____ energy level. this? ______ H. Does the energy of
D. Is this absorption or the electron increase or
emission? ___________ decrease?? __________
642
Stoichiometry
643
STOICHIOMETRY
the study of the
quantitative
relationships that exist
in chemical formulas
and reactions
644
The key to understanding…
The coefficients in a
balanced equation give the
relative amounts (in moles)
of reactants and products.
645
The coefficients represent
moles…
2NaCl ! 2Na + Cl2
There are ____ moles of salt.
There are ____ moles of sodium.
There is ____ mole of diatomic Cl.
646
Sample Problem
If you start with 50g
of salt, how many
grams of chlorine
are produced when the
salt is decomposed?
647
STEPS TO
STOICHIOMETRY
PROBLEMS
648
STEP 1
Write the balanced
equation!
649
STEP 2
Find the number of
moles of the given
substance
650
STEP 3
Use the balanced equation
to find the ratio of moles
of given substance to
moles of needed substance
651
STEP 4
Convert moles of
needed substance
to whatever quantity
is desired
652
653
Do you think that in the
chemistry lab that we
always get the amount of
product that we
calculate?
No way!!
654
% Yield
actual amount of a
product expressed as
a % of the
theoretical amount
of that substance
655
Percent Yield
Actual amount
of product from
the lab
% Yield = Calculated
amount from
stoichiometry
656
STOICHIOMETRY
Guided Practice: Stoichiometry
Description:This resource is a set of guided practice problems on stoichiometry, limiting

reactant, and percent yield.
Subject(s):
* Science
* Chemistry
Educational Level(s):
* Grades 9-10 / Ages 14-16

* Grades 11-12 / Ages 16-18
Instructional Component Type(s):
* Activity: Problem Set
Stoichiometry
mole-mole calculations
6H2O(l) + 6CO2(g) → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
If 8.00 moles of water react with carbon dioxide, how many moles of glucose are
produced?
If 6.00 moles of oxygen were produced, how many moles of carbon dioxide were
needed to react?
Always use mole-mole ratio somewhere in these problems!!
657
mole-mass / mass-mole calculations
6H2O(l) + 6CO2(g) → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
What mass, in grams, of carbon dioxide is needed to react with 3.00 mol of water in
this reaction?
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
What mass (g) of magnesium oxide is produced from 2.00 mol of magnesium?
C(s) + SO2(g) → CS2(l) + CO(g) (unbalanced)

5C(s) + 2SO2(g) → CS2(l) + 4CO(g) (balanced)
If 8.00g of SO2 reacts, how many moles of each product are formed?
mass/mass calculations
5C(s) + 2SO2(g) → CS2(l) + 4CO(g)
How many grams of carbon monoxide are produced from the reaction of 16.0 g of SO2
with carbon?
658
Problems: Stoichiometry
1. If you decompose 500.0 g of sodium chloride, how many grams of sodium are
produced?
2. If you combust 250.0 g of nonane, how many liters of oxygen are consumed to make
the reaction go to completion? Assume STP.
3. If you react 450.0 g of copper (II) nitrate with excess calcium, how much copper (II)
is produced.
4. If you react 400.0 g of ammonium dichromate with excess mercury (I) phosphate,
many grams of the mercury containing compound will be formed?
5. The equation for photosynthesis is: carbon dioxide + water (with light) = oxygen and
glucose (C6H12O6). If 100.0 g of water reacts with excess carbon dioxide, how many
liters of oxygen will be produced? Assume STP.
6. Using the equation above, what is the minimum number of grams of carbon dioxide
that you would need to start with in order to get 1000.0 g of glucose?
Problems: Stoichiometry 2
1. If you start with 5.0 x 1043 molecules of cyclopentane, how many grams of carbon
dioxide are produced in this combustion reaction?
2. If you start with 3.32 moles of potassium dichromate and you react it with excess
lead (IV) iodide, how many moles of the lead compound are produced?
3. If you react 37.0 g of calcium chloride with magnesium chromate, how many grams
of each product are produced?
4. Consider the following question: If you have 47.0 atoms of aluminum sulfate, how
many grams of aluminum sulfate do you have? Explain why this is not a stoichiometry
problem. Which produces more sodium, the decomposition of 1000.0 grams of sodium
chloride or the single displacement reaction of 1000.0 grams of sodium sulfate with
excess lead (IV)?
5. You begin with 45.76 g of sodium chloride and an unlimited supply of lead (III)
oxide. If a reaction does occur, how many grams of the lead (III) chloride are produced?
Oh yeah, lead (III) oxide and salt don't react with one another. This is a challenging
problem; keep at it!
659
Name: ____________________________
Group: _________________ Block #: ____
Date: _____________________________
Exceed to Succeed
Stoichiometry Lab – Acetic Acid and Sodium Bicarbonate
You will perform a reaction to analyze stoichiometry and percent yield. The procedure is as
follows:
1. Rinse and dry one 150mL beaker and 1 graduated cylinder (50 or 100mL).
2. Take the mass of the empty beaker and graduated cylinder and record the data
in the chart below.
3. Place 1-2g NaHCO3 (baking soda) in the 150mL beaker and record exact mass
below.
4. Measure out 100mL HC2H3O3 (vinegar) in the graduated cylinder.
5. Slowly pour all of the vinegar into the beaker with the baking soda. You must
do this slowly because if any of it fizzes over you have to start over. Be very
careful!
6. Stir the reaction solution for at least 5 minutes to make sure it has reacted
completely.
7. Take the mass of the final products in the beaker: _________. Since you
don’t want to include the mass of the beaker, subtract that and record the true
mass of the products of the reaction: __________________.
This chart will help you organize your data:
Mass of 150mL beaker Mass of graduated cylinder

Mass of beaker + NaHCO3 Mass of grad. cylinder +
HC2 H3 O2
Mass of NaHCO3 Mass of HC2 H3 O2
The equation for the reaction is as follows. Is it balanced? _________ If not, balance it.
NaHCO3 + HC2H3O2  NaC2H3O2 + H2O + CO2
Calculate the mass of CO2 that was actually formed: _________________________

Although you can’t measure the CO2 directly because it was released as a gas and became
part of the air in this room, you can calculate it by using the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Remember that this law says that mass is neither created nor destroyed in any chemical
reaction. Therefore, the mass of reactants before the reaction will equal the mass of the
products after the reaction. In other words, the total mass of the sodium bicarbonate and
acetic acid (baking soda and vinegar) that you started with will equal the total weight of
the sodium acetate, water and carbon dioxide that is formed in the reaction.
660
(mass of NaHCO3) + (mass of HC2H3O2) = (mass of NaC2H3O2 + H2O) + (mass of
CO2)
____________ + _____________ = __________________ + mass of CO2
Calculate the expected yield of CO2 from the initial amount of sodium bicarbonate. (HINT:
Stoichiometry!)
Calculate the percent yield of your reaction.
Lab Critique:
Write a few sentences describing the possible sources of error in this experiment.
Discuss how calculated values (stoichiometry) differ from what is actually measured in the
lab and the significance of this difference in practical chemistry applications.
661
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
CONVERTING GRAMS   MOLES   ATOMS  

LITERS
1. Convert 3.55 x 1024 formula units of sodium chloride to moles.
2. Convert 453 grams aluminum sulfate to moles.
3. If you have 234 grams of NaOH, how many forumula units do you have?
4. If you have 5.0 grams of helium gas, how many liters do you have?
662
Problems: Grams, Moles, Atoms
1. Convert 3.55 x 1024 formula units of sodium chloride to moles.

2. Convert 453 grams aluminum sulfate to moles.
3. If you have 234 grams of NaOH, how many formula units do you have?
4. If you have 5.0 grams of helium gas, how many liters do you have?
663
Limiting
Reactants
“Stoichiometry with a twist”
664
Remember
the Stools?
665
1 Top + 3 Legs ! 1 Stool
!
666
1 Top and 6 Legs ! ?
667
! 1 Stool
668
1 Top and 30 Legs ! ?
669
! 1 Stool!
670
A Chemistry
Example
671
1 NaHCO3 + 1 HC2H3O2 !
1 NaC2H3O2 + 1 CO2 + 1 H2O
1 +1 !
1 +1 +1
672
How many moles CO2
produced?
2 + 1 ! ?
673
Don’t forget our equation!
1 NaHCO3 + 1 HC2H3O2 !
1 NaC2H3O2 + 1 CO2 + 1 H2O
1 +1 !1
1 Left over
674
What was our limiting
reactant?
1 +1 !1
1 We ran out of vinegar before
baking soda – vinegar is our
limiting reagent!
675
WHITEBOARDING
Identify the limiting
reactant and determine the
moles of salt produced in a
reaction between 3 moles
of sodium metal and 70.9 g
of Cl2 gas.
676
LIMITING REACTANTS
Notes: Limiting Reactants
Limiting Reactant
* limiting reactant controls the amount of product that is formed in a chemical reaction
* How do you calculate limiting reactant?
1) If necessary, convert reactants A & B to moles

2) Using the # of moles given for A, calculate how many moles of B would be needed
to react.
3) Using the # of moles given for B, calculate how many moles of A would be needed
to react.
4) Which reactant will you run out of first (the one where your NEED
exceeds what you are GIVEN)? This is your limiting reactant.
SiO2(s) + 4HF(g) → SiF4(g) + 2H2O(l)
If 2.0 mol of HF is combined with 4.5 mol SiO2, which is the limiting reactant?
N2H4(l) + 2H2O2(l) → N2(g) + 4H2O(g) (propellants used in some rockets)
What is the limiting reactant when 24.0 g of N2H4 reacts with 17.0 g of H2O2?
How many grams of excess reactant remain?
How many grams of water vapor are produced?
Problems: Limiting Reagents
1. You synthesize 50.0 g of sodium with 60.0 g chlorine gas to produce table salt.
Please identify your limiting reactant and your excess reactant.
677
2. In a single replacement reaction between 50.0 g of zinc and 30.0 g of hydrochloric
acid. What is your limiting reactant? How many grams of zinc chloride is produced?
3. 40.0 g of sodium iodide are combined with 50.0 g of silver nitrate. What is the
limiting reactant? How many formula units of sodium nitrate are produced?
678
Name: ____________________
Period: _______ Date: _________
Group:_____________________
Vinegar and Baking Soda
ADD 30 mL of Vinegar (HC2H3O3 – acetic acid) to each bag, CLOSE, SHAKE until
reaction has finished, and RECORD ALL observations!
Mass of Baking
Soda (NaHCO3 –
Observations of Ziploc® Bag after adding Vinegar
Sodium
Bicarbonate)
1g
2g
3g
4g
5g
Questions to be answered
1) Write a balanced reaction (HINT: the reaction is similar to the reaction between
NaHCO3 and HCl)
2) Which bag(s) inflated the most?
3) Did each of the reactions go to completion (did everything react completely)? __

Yes __ No
4) If some didn’t react completely, which ones didn’t react completely and why?
679
5) If the vinegar (HC2H3O2) has a concentration of 0.83 mol/L, how many moles are
in each 30 mL that you added to the bags? (write a sample calculation and fill in
Chart)
6) Calculate the moles of NaHCO3 (baking soda) (write a sample calculation and fill
in Chart)
7) What is the mole-to-mole ratio of NaHCO3 over HC2H3O2?
8) Remembering that this ratio is always the same for each reaction, determine
amount of each reactant used. (Fill in Chart)
9) Calculate the moles of CO2 produced in each bag. (Careful! Do you calculate
from vinegar or baking soda?) (write a sample calculation and fill in Chart)
Mass of Moles of Moles of Moles of Moles of Moles of

NaHCO3 NaHCO3 HC2H3O2 NaHCO3 HC2H3O2 CO2
Available Available Used Used produced
1g
2g
3g
4g
680
5g
681
PERCENT YIELD
Problems: Percent Yield
1. You calculate that you will get 300.0 g of sodium chloride using stoichiometry, but
you actually get 213.0 g of sodium chloride. What is the percent yield?
2. When synthesizing excess sodium and 100.0 g of chlorine gas in the lab you produce
40.0 g of sodium chloride. What is the percent yield?
3. Given the equation: NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 Assume that you start
with 2.00 g of sodium bicarbonate and excess hydrochloric acid and you end up with 10.0
g of sodium chloride, what is your percent yield in this reaction?
Notes: Percent Yield
Percent Yield
% yield = actual yield / theoretical yield x 100
C6H6(l) + Cl2(g) → C6H5Cl(s) + HCl(g)
When 36.8 g of C6H6 react with excess Cl2, 38.8g of C6H5Cl(s) are produced (the
actual yield). What is the percent yield of C6H5Cl(s)?
CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH(l)
If 75.0g of carbon monoxide reacts with excess hydrogen gas to produce 68.4g of
methanol, what is the percent yield of methanol?
682
Name: __________________________
Block #: ________ Date: ____________
Pod Name: ____________________
No Excuses
Gas Stoichiometry
The great thing about gas stoichiometry is that it is almost like regular stoichiometry. We
can still use the islands, we just need to add a new one!
Liters Molar Volume Bridge

of (22.4 L /1 mol) Energy
Gas
grams of gas moles of gas molecules or

atoms of gas
grams moles molecules, fus,

atoms
As you can see, the new island is called “Liters of Gas” and to get there, you have to take
the “Molar Volume Bridge”. The molar volume bridge is a lot like the “Mole Bridge” in
the sense that it will always be the same conversion factor (as long as you are at standard
temperature and pressure). That conversion factor is 22.4L = 1 mole. This is just like 6.02
x 1023 atoms = 1 mole. Thus, it is now possible to switch between moles of a gas and
liters of a gas!
Note #1: STP means standard temperature and pressure. STP is defined as 1 atmosphere
of pressure and 0° Celsius (273.15 Kelvin). If these values are changed, gases behave
differently and therefore will not necessarily occupy 22.4 liters of space.
Note #2: The “Liters of Gas” and “Energy” islands also come off of the bottom “Moles”
island just like they do on the top “Moles” island. I just left them off to save space. 
Example Problem: If 2.0g of potassium metal is reacted with water at STP

(standard temperature and pressure), how many liters of hydrogen gas will be
produced? 4000.0 kJ will also be produced.
First, the balanced equation: 2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2 + 4000.0 kJ
683
& 2.0 g K #& 1 mole K #& 1 mole H 2 #& 22.4 L H 2 # & 44.8 L H 2 #
$ !$$ !!$ !$$ !! = $ ! = 0.57 L of H 2 gas will be produced
% 1 "% 39 g K "% 2 mole K "% 1 mole H 2 " % 78 "
684
5. What volume of nitrogen at STP would be required to react with 50.0 g of
hydrogen to produce ammonia? N2(g) +3H2 (g)→ 2NH3(g)
6. If 2.3 L of dry NO(g), at STP, could be produced by reacting Cu (III) with an

excess of HNO3, how many grams of water could be produced? The equation is
as follows:
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 → 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO(g) + 4 H2O(l)
7. 10.0 g of calcium carbonate was produced when carbon dioxide was added to
lime water (calcium hydroxide). What volume of carbon dioxide, at STP, was
needed?
685
Worksheet: Stoichiometry Exam Review
Description:This resource is a review worksheet on Stoichiometry.
Subject(s):
* Science
* Chemistry
* Grades 9-10 / Ages 14-16

* Grades 11-12 / Ages 16-18
* Activity: Graphic Organizer/Worksheet
Finishing writing, balance and identify the type of reaction each of the following is: (6pts
each):
1. Type of RXN: ______________________
Pb2O3 + Al →
2. Type of RXN: ______________________
NH4Cl → 3. Type of RXN: ________________________
C2H6 + O2 →
686
PROBLEMS (10pts each!)
4. Mr. Maddin and Donald Williams are working in the lab. They find that the mass of
their product was 45g, however, using “stoich” they thought it should be 123g. What was
their % yield?
5. Jeremy and Rudy are in the lab (look out!) and they react 500g Iron (III) Sulfide with
excess Iodine gas, how many grams of Sulfur do they produce?
6. Ingrid is trying to impress a boy (a boy who shall remain nameless) with her Chemistry
knowledge. She combusts 500g of cyclooctane. How many molecules of water did she
produce?
7. You begin with 45.76 g of salt and an unlimited supply of Lead (III) Oxide. How many
grams of Lead (III) Chloride are produced? Oh yeah, Lead (III) Oxide and salt don’t react
with one another.
687
Chemistry Exam
Description:This resource is an exam covering some material from past units, including
gram-mole-atom conversions, stoichiometry, limiting reactants, and percent yield.
Subject(s):
* Science
* Chemistry
* Grades 9-10 / Ages 14-16

* Grades 11-12 / Ages 16-18
* Curriculum: Assessment/Test
CHEMISTRY EXAM #6:
15% OLD STUFF
1. Explain how you balance equations? (2pt)
2. Please write the formula for each of the following: (2pts each)
Calcium Nitrate:
Heptane:
3. Please calculate the total number of atoms in: 3Pb2(SO4)4: (4pts)

_____________________
4. Please balance the following equation (5pts)
688
C6H12 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
NEW STUFF
Multiple Choice: Please select the single best answer in each of the following (3pts each)
5. Which of the following is not a mole of the substance?:

a) 32.000g oxygen gas
b) 12.011 g carbon gas
c) 28.014 g nitrogen gas
d) 4.003 g helium gas
e) All of the above are moles of the substance
6. Fewer steps are required to solve stoichiometry problems when the reactant is given in
:
a) grams and the product is sought in grams
b) atoms and the product is sought in moles
c) grams and the product is sought in fu
d) atoms and the product is sought in grams
e) All of the above require the same number of steps
7. When doing chemical reactions in industry, the ............ chemical is often chosen as the
excess reagent.
a) Least expensive and most common
b) Most expensive and least common
c) Least expensive and least common
d) Most expensive and most common
e) All are equally likely to be used
8. In the reaction P4 + 5O2 → P4O10, if 2 moles of phosphorus react with 10 moles of

oxygen, the theoretical yield of the product will be:
a) 1 mol
b) 2 mol
c) 3 mol
d) 10 mol
e) None of the above
Please convert to scientific notation (2pts each):
9. 343, 930 Please convert to standard notation (2pts):
689
10. 8.45 x 10-5 __________________________________________________________
1.
1. How many seconds are in a decade? (5pts)
PROBLEMS
12. If you have 500g of Potassium Nitrate, how many formula units of it do you have?
(8pts)
13. If you begin with 150g of Barium Sulfide and react it with excess Sodium Chloride,
how much Barium Chloride will you produce? (10pts)
14. Given the balanced equation: NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2, Assume that
you start with 10.0g of sodium bicarbonate and you end up with 20.0g of salt, what was
your percent yield for this reaction? (10pts)
15. In the balanced reaction: 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2, prove which is the limiting
reactant if 100.0 g of Na and 50.0 g of H2O are available? (10pts)
690
16. Please list the steps that you would need to do in order to calculate a % yield? (6pts)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Please answer 2 of the following 3 questions.
17. Explain the importance of coefficients in balanced equations. Please explain what
they represent and how they are useful in chemistry. (10pts)
18. You begin with 45.76 g of salt and an unlimited supply of Lead (III) Oxide. How
many grams of Lead (III) Chloride are produced? Oh yeah, Lead (III) Oxide and salt
don’t react with one another. Explain in words, how you would solve this problem.
(10pts)
19. Lurpy is about to receive his PhD in Chemistry from Nutria University (NU). He has
but one problem left to work before he gets his degree, but he needs your help. The
problem is as such: Lurpy’s new girlfriend Nina synthesized some salt in the lab. She
started with 50 grams of chlorine and ended up with 100 grams of salt. Explain why this
is a problem and offer reasons (at least 3) for why this may have happened. Don’t let
Lurpy down! (10pts)
INSURANCE POINTS
To be added onto your exam total…they can’t hurt you! (2pts each)
What is the definition of penultimate?

______________________________________________
What do you have to do to form a salt? ______________________
691
THERMO-
CHEMISTRY
692
Thermochemistry
Study of the heat
changes that occur
during a chemical
reaction
693
Energy
The capacity to do
work or generate
heat
694
In chemistry,
energy is stored
in chemical bonds
695
When bonds are
made, energy is
released. When
bonds are broken,
energy is absorbed.
696
The main form of
energy in
chemistry is
HEAT!
697
Heat (q)
Energy that is
transferred between
objects that have a
temperature difference
698
Heat always
moves from a
higher temp to a
lower temp
699
Terms to know:
universe
system
surroundings
700
Law of Conservation of
Energy
In any process,
energy is neither
created nor
destroyed
701
Some reactions
absorb energy
(heat) and some
give off energy
(heat).
702
Exothermic Reaction
A reaction that
releases heat into
the surroundings
(heat exits)
703
Endothermic
Reaction
A reaction that
absorbs heat from
the surroundings
(heat goes en)
704
Enthalpy Change (!H)
Amount of heat lost
or gained in a
reaction
(unit = kJ)
705
Sign of Process Heat
!H
Positive Endo- Absorbed
thermic
Negative Exo- Released
thermic
706
707
Temperature (T)
A measure of the
average kinetic energy
of the particles in a
substance
708
Heat (Q)
Energy that is
transferred between
objects that have a
temperature difference
709
Heat (Q)
Is measured in Joules (J)
(or kJ)
1 kJ = 1000 J
710
So…how do we
measure heat?
We can only measure
changes in heat
(absolute heat
doesn’t exist)
711
Specific Heat
Amount of heat needed to
raise the temp of 1g of a
substance 1°C
J
Unit = o
C!g
712
The Heat Equation
Q = mCp!T
Q = heat (joules-J)
m = mass (grams)
Cp = specific heat (J/g °C)
!T = change in temp (°C)
713
How much heat is
needed to raise the
temperature of 350
grams of water from
0.0°C to 25°C?
37000 Joules
714
A 450 gram sample
of water cools from
55°C to 10.0°C.
How much heat is
lost?
85000 Joules
715
A 15.8-gram piece of zinc
increases in temperature
from 5.5°C to 6.9°C
when 8.5 Joules of heat
are added. What is the
specific heat of zinc?
0.38 J/g°C
716
calorie (cal)
Quantity of heat
needed to raise the
temp of 1g of pure
water 1°C
717
How much heat is
needed to increase the
temperature of 10g
H2O from 35°C to 45°
C?
100 cal
718
1000 calories = 1 Calorie
(Calorie is the kind on

food labels, etc)
719
1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
720
Calorimeter
An insulated chamber
used to measure the
amount of heat
absorbed or released
during a reaction
721
722
723
What happens when the phase is not changing:
When heat energy is added,

the molecules move faster and faster,
increasing the temperature
724
What happens during a phase change:
When heat energy is added,
instead of increasing the
temperature (increasing
the kinetic energy of the
molecules), the
intermolecular bonds are broken,
changing the phase
of the substance.
725
PHASES OF WATER
726
Heat of Fusion (Hf)
Amount of heat necessary
to convert a given
amount of a solid into a
liquid
Q = mHf
727
Heat of Vaporization
(Hv)
Amount of heat necessary
to vaporize a given
amount of liquid at its
boiling point
Q = mHv
728
729
ENERGY
Oh Nuts! – Calories Count
Energy comes in a variety of forms: light, heat, motion, electricity, and so forth. The
energy stored in food is measured in units of Calories. A Calorie is defined as the
quantity of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1°C. (Don’t confuse
Calories with calories: 1Calorie = 1000 calories – Tricky!) The energy in food is seen as
heat because the energy is released as heat when food is combusted (or burned).
Complete combustion results in the production of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Look for evidence of these products during the lab.
In this lab, you will measure the amount of energy in calories in two types of nuts:
peanuts and almonds. The accepted values for these nuts are 5180 calories/gram for
peanuts and 5470 calories/gram for almonds. When you eat nuts, the energy in the nuts is
converted to a useful form, giving your body the energy it needs.
Precautions
Throughout this lab, we will have open flames in the lab. Make sure that your hair and
any loose clothing that you are wearing do not come into contact with the flames. Wear
your safety goggles at all times during the lab. Make sure that all flames are extinguished
properly when you are finished and are completely cool before you place them in the
trash.
Procedure
Measure the mass (in grams) of a nut. Record data in chart.
CAREFULLY place the nut on the tip of the needle (you don’t need to push it on very
far).
Measure the mass of an EMPTY soda can. Add water to the can until it is half full. Take
the mass again. Record the two masses in the data chart. You can now determine the
mass of the water by taking the difference of the two masses.
Set up the apparatus as in the diagram below. When you are sure that everything is set up
properly, record the temperature of the water very carefully and accurately. Record data
in chart. Notify the teacher when you are ready and he or she will light your nut to be
burned. BE VERY CAREFUL WITH THE THERMOMETER; IT IS VERY
DELICATE!!!
Immediately after the nut is lit, position the exterior can and soda can so that the bottom
of the soda can is about 1 inch above the top of the nut.
730
Record the highest temperature reached after the flames go out. Make sure you stir the
water gently to be sure you have an accurate temperature. Record temperature in data
table. You can now calculate DT from the two temperatures (before and after burning).
Use the heat equation to solve for the amount of heat given off by the nut (in Joules).
Convert Joules to calories by dividing by 4.184.
Divide this number by the mass of the nut to get the calories/gram for the nut. Compare
this value to the accepted value listed in the 2nd paragraph.
Repeat the procedure two more times with peanuts and three times with almonds.
Data Table:
Peanuts Almonds
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of nut
Mass of
empty can
Mass of can +
H2O
Mass of H2O
Initial Temp
(°C)
Final Temp
(°C)
DT (°C)
Energy in Nut
(J)
Energy in Nut
(calories)
Calories/gram
Average of 3
Trials
Problems: Calorimetry
1) How much heat evolves when 10.0 g of hydrazine (N2H4) react according to the
following reaction?
731
2N2H4(l) + N2O4(l) → 3N2(g) + 4H2O(g) Change in H = -1049 kJ
2) White phosphorus, P4, burns in an excess of oxygen to form tetraphosphorus

decoxide:
P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s) Change in H = -2942 kJ
What is the heat evolved per gram of phosphorus burned?
3) Ammonia burns in the presence of a copper catalyst to form nitrogen gas:

4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) → 2N2(g) + 6H2O(g) Change in H = -1267 kJ
What is the enthalpy change to burn 25.6 g of ammonia?
4) Nitric oxide, NO, is formed whenever a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases is
heated:
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) Change in H = +90.3 kJ
Calculate the heat absorbed per gram of nitrogen reacted.
5) Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is a foul-smelling gas. It burns to form sulfur dioxide:

2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) → 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g) Change in H = -1037 kJ
Calculate the enthalpy change to burn 36.9 g hydrogen sulfide.
732
6) You wish to heat water to make coffee. How much heat (in J) must be used to raise
the temperature of 0.180 kg of tap water (enough for one cup of coffee) from 15°C to
96°C (near the ideal brewing temperature)? Assume the specific heat is that of pure
water, 4.18 J/g•C .
7) When a 6.50 g sample of solid sodium hydroxide dissolves in 100.0 g of water in a

coffee-cup calorimeter, the temperature rises from 21.6°C to 37.8°C. Calculate Change
in H (in kJ/mol NaOH) for the solution process
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Assume that the specific heat of the solution is the same as that of pure water.
8) When a 4.25 g sample of solid ammonium nitrate dissolves in 60.0 g of water in a

coffee-cup calorimeter, the temperature drops from 22.0°C to 16.9°C. Calculate Change
in H (in kJ/mol of NH4NO3) for the solution process
NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
9) The specific heat of toluene, C7H8, is 1.13 J/g•C . How many joules of heat are
needed to raise the temperature of 40.0 g of toluene from 10.4°C to 28.0°C?
10) When steam condenses to liquid water (a physical change of state), 2.26 kJ of heat
is released per gram. The heat from 124 g of steam is used to heat a room containing
6.44 x 104 g of air (20ft. x 12ft. x 8ft.). The specific heat of air at normal pressure is
1.015 J/g•C . What is the change in air temperature, assuming the heat from the steam
is all absorbed by the air?
733
11) An iron skillet weighing 1.51 kg is heated on a stove to 178°C. Suppose the skillet
is cooled to room temperature, 21°C. How much heat energy (in kJ) is must be removed
to effect this cooling? The specific heat of iron is 0.450 J/g•C .
Notes: Energy
Energy changes occur between a system and its surroundings.
SYSTEM—the part of the universe under consideration. Ex. Atom, or a lab set up
ENERGY TRANSFER
Most common form of energy transfer involves heat
Ex. A = 25ºC , B =20ºC

What happens when we put them together?
Energy transfers from A to B. (High to low).
HEAT (q)—energy transferred as a result of a temperature difference. Represented by

the letter q.
If left undisturbed, energy will transfer until A and B are the same temperature.
JOULE (J)—SI unit for energy = 1 kg m2 / s2
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

Chemical changes are always accompanied by changes in energy.
TWO TYPES:
ENDOTHERMIC—if energy is absorbed. Since energy is taken in, the products of the
reaction have higher energy levels than the substances that reacted.
EXOTHERMIC—if energy is given off (usually in the form of heat). Products have less
energy than the reactants. Rule of thumb, exothermic reactions usually occur
spontaneously (without outside help). Lighting a match (friction is the activation
energy).
Both reactions take a certain amount of energy to get started (rolling a rock). This is
called
ACTIVATION ENERGY—THE MINIMUM AMOUNT OF ENERGY TO GET A
REACTION STARTED.
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MEASURING ENERGY CHANGES
Calorimeter—a device used to measure energy given off or absorbed during chemical
changes.
SPECIFIC HEAT (Cp)—the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of
substance by one Celcius degree. Every substance has its own specific heat.
Heat required to raise the temp. of one gram of water, one Celcius degree is 4.184 Joules.
The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/gCº
735
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
Thermochemsitry
Endothermic
Reaction______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
Exothermic Reaction
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
So to summarize…
Where the energy is
Type of
ΔH in the balanced System feels…
Reaction
equation
Endothermic
Exothermic
Practice Problems
Information Given Endothermic vs. Exothermic
A) N2 + O2 + 178.4kJ ➔ 2NO
B) CH4 + 2O2 ➔ CO2 + 2H2O + 891 kJ
C) The temperature drops during the

reaction
D) The change in enthalpy is negative
E) The heat value is in the reactants
Note: Joules (J) are units on energy. You may also see kilojoules (kJ) or calories. For
your reference, 1.0 kcal = 4184 J or 1.0 cal = 4.184 J
736
Mass-Energy Stochiometry
Mass-energy stoichiometry problems are very similar to mass-mass stoichiometry problems. The
only difference is you end up predicting how much energy is going to be lost or gained, instead of
many grams of substance is going to be needed or produced.
When solving mass-energy problems, treat the energy exactly like you would a coefficient. For
example, using the 2nd equation from above, if 1 mole of methane is combusted in the presence of
2 moles of oxygen gas, 891 kJ of energy will be given off.
Mole Ratio-Equation energy

Energy Bridge
grams moles molecules, fus,

atoms
Example: If 100.0 g of oxygen are combusted with excess methane, how many kilojoules of
energy are produced? Use balanced equation from practice problem B on the other side.
8. When methane is combusted with excess oxygen, 891 kJ of energy are produced. Assume
that you start with 100.0g of methane, how much energy will be produced? Is this reaction
exothermic or endothermic? Also, please give the enthalpy change (ΔH) for this reaction.
9. When potassium and water are combined, they produce 4000.0 kJ of heat along with
potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. How much energy would be produced if you
dumped a 1.00 kg chunk of potassium to a swimming pool? (Watch your units) Is the
reaction endothermic or exothermic? What is the enthalpy change?
10. Calculate the amount of heat consumed, in kJ, by a plant when creates 1.000 g glucose during
photosynthesis. The equation is: 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 2816 kJ ➔ C6H12 O6 + 6O2.
Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic? What is the enthalpy change?
737
HOT WASHER LAB
BACKGROUND
If you throw a hot rock into a pail of cool water, you know that the temperature of the
rock will go down. You also know that the temperature of the water will go up—but will
its rise be more than, less than, or the same as the temperature drop of the rock? Will the
temperature of the water go up as much as the temperature of the rock goes down? Will
the changes of temperature instead depend on how much rock and how much water are
present and how much energy is needed to change the temperature of water and rock by
the same amount?
You are going to study what happens to the temperature of water when hot or cold
washers are added to it. Before doing this activity, think about the following questions.
(1) Suppose that equal masses of water and iron are at the same temperature. Suppose
you then add the same amount of heat to each of them. Would one change temperature
more than the other?
YES NO
(2) If you circled “yes,” which one would warm more?
WATER IRON
(3) Again, suppose that equal masses of water and iron are the same temperature.
Suppose you then take the same amount of heat away from each of them. Would one cool
YES NO
738
(4) If you circled “yes,” which one would cool more?
WATER IRON
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Find the mass of 30 washers using the digital scale. Knowing what you know
about density, figure out how much cold water you will need to equal the mass of the
washers (hint, density of water is 1g/mL).
STEP 2: Pour the appropriate amount of ice-cold water into a 150mL beaker.
STEP 3: Place your washers into the “washer heating water” that the teacher has set up
for you. Leave the washers in the water for at least 2 minutes to allow them to reach an
equilibrium temperature.
(5) Is the temperature of the hot water equal to the temperature of the washers? Why
do you think it is or is not? Can you think of a better way to heat the washers to a known
temperature?
STEP 4: Just before you are ready to mix the washers with the ice-cold water, measure
and record the temperature of the hot water around the washers.
Temperature of cold water = ________________°C
739
Temperature of hot water = ________________°C
STEP 5: Predict what the temperature of the mixture will be when the hot washers are
added to the cold water.
Predicted temperature of mixture = ____________________°C
STEP 6: Lift the washers from the hot water and put them quickly into the cold water.
Just before putting the washers in, start collecting data using Logger Pro.
STEP 7: When it is clear that the temperature on the graph has leveled off, record the
value of that final temperature.
Actual temperature of mixture = ______________________°C
(6) How close is your prediction to the observed value?
STEP 8: Now you will repeat steps 1 through 7 for hot water and cold washers.
STEP 9: Put the washers in the ice-cold water and leave them in the hot water for at least
2 minutes (why?), and record the temperature of the water around the washers.
740
Temperature of cold water = _______________________ °C
STEP 10: Fill up the 150mL beaker with enough hot water to equal the mass of the
washers (how do you know this mass?).
Temperature of hot water = _______________________ °C
STEP 11: Predict what the temperature of the mixture will be when the cold washers are
added to the hot water.
Predicted temperature of the mixture = ______________________°C
STEP 12: Lift the washers from the cold water and put them quickly into the hot water.
Just before putting the washers in, start collecting data using Logger Pro.
STEP 13: When it is clear that the temperature on the graph has leveled off, record the
value of that final temperature.
Actual temperature of mixture = ______________________°C
(7) How close is your prediction to the observed value?
ANAYLSIS
741
(8) Discuss your observations with the rest of your team, and write an explanation for
what happened.
(9) Suppose that you have equal masses of water and washers at the same temperature.
Suppose you then light similar candles and place a candle under each of the masses,
letting the candles burn for equal times. Would one of the materials change temperature
YES NO
(10) If you circled “yes,” which one would reach a higher temperature?
WATER WASHERS
(11) Suppose you have cold feet when you go to bed, and you want something to warm
your feet. Would you prefer to have a hot-water bottle filled with hot water, or one filled
with an equal mass of washers at the same temperature as the water? Explain.
742
(12) Why does the climate of a mid-ocean island stay nearly constant, getting neither
very hot nor very cold?
Lab: Hand Warmers
Hand warmers work because of a rusting process. The rusting is a redox reaction and the
equation is as follows: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2Fe2O3(s) In today’s lab we will explore how
the rusting process is used in hand warmers.
Lab Protocol:
1) Place an opened Ziploc bag into a beaker and fold the edges over the side of the beaker
so that you will be able to pour reactants into it without it falling over.
2) Add the following reactants to the Ziploc bag:
12-13g Iron Powder

0.5g NaCl
2.5g vermiculite
Note: Be careful about spills. To save time, use three different beakers as your measuring
containers (or better yet, 2 beakers and one piece of weigh paper for the NaCl). Make
sure you measure the mass of the empty beakers and weigh paper.
3) Close the bag and shake GENTLY to mix the reactants thoroughly.
4) Add 3mL of water to the bag, quickly squeeze out all air, and seal it. There should be a
minimal amount of air in the bag. Your heat warmer is now ready to be activated.
5) To activate, open the bag and let some air come in. Gently knead the mix together and
feel for any heat transfer.
Questions:
1) Is this an endothermic or exothermic reaction? How do you know?
2) Why is it necessary to open the hand-warmer bag to start the reaction? (Hint: Look at
the reaction equation!)
3) Try removing all of the air and closing the bag again. Wait a few minutes. What effect
does this have on the temperature of the bag? Why?
743
4) In this reaction, electrons are transferred from the Fe to the O. Keeping this in mind,
why do you think you added salt to the mixture even though it is not a part of the
reaction?
Worksheet: Gibb's Free Energy
Gibb’s Free Energy Problems
(1) Based on the following values, compute ΔG values for each reaction, and predict
whether the reaction will occur spontaneously:
a. ΔH = +125 kJ/mol b. ΔH = -85.2 kJ/mol
T = 293K T = 127°C
ΔS = 0.0350 kJ/mol×K ΔS = 0.125 kJ/mol×K
c. ΔH = -275 kJ/mol
T = 500°C
ΔS = 0.450 kJ/mol×K
(2) C(s) + O2(g) Ô CO2(g) + 393.51 kJ
Calculate ΔG, if ΔS for this reaction (at 25°C) is
0.0175 kj/mol×K. Will this reaction be spontaneous at
25°C?
(3) CaCO3(s) + 176kJ Ô CaO(s) + CO2(g)
744
Calculate ΔG, if ΔS for this reaction (at 25°C) is 0.250
kj/mol×K. Will this reaction be spontaneous at 25°C?
(4) H2O(g) Ô H2O(l) + 44.02kJ
Calculate ΔG, if ΔS for this reaction (at 35°C) is 0.0845
kj/mol×K. Will this reaction be spontaneous at 35°C?
Energy Review
(1) (10 marks)

((a) Two important thermodynamic functions are enthalpy and entropy. Discuss how
each of these functions is related to a chemical reaction. Explain how they may be
combined to give a third function that will predict the spontaneity of a chemical reaction.
(5 marks)
((b) For the reaction
MgCO3(s) --> MgO(s) + CO2(g)
make a reasoned prediction of the sign of ΔSQ and explain your answer. (2
marks)
745
((c) The decomposition of calcium carbonate is represented by the equation
CaCO3(s) --> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The process is known to be non spontaneous at room temperature but spontaneous at

high temperature.
(i. Make a reasoned prediction of the sign of ΔHQ assuming its value does not change
greatly with temperature. Explain your answer.
(ii. Would the value of the equilibrium constant for the process at room temperature be
greater than or less than or equal to zero? Explain your answer. (3 marks)
(2) (a) Discuss with a relevant example the meaning of ΔHQ the standard enthalpy
change of a
reaction. What is the significance of ΔHQ when considering the feasibility of a

reaction?
(2 marks)
((b) Describe in some detail an experiment to measure the enthalpy change associated
with the reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. Include
descriptions or labelled sketches of any relevant experimental set ups and indicate the
type of experimental data to be collected. Show how a numerical value of ΔHQ may be
calculated from the experimental data. (10 marks)
746
((c) For the reaction between aqueous sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid the
value of ΔHQ is 55.9 kJ mol-1. When the experiment is repeated using ethanoic acid in
place of hydrochloric acid the value of ΔHQ is found to be 54.6 kJ mol-1. Explain the
difference in ΔHQ values for the two experiments. (2 marks)
(d) For the reaction H+(aq) + OH-(aq) Ô H2O(l) ΔSQ is known to be 80.5 J×mol-
1×K-1. Comment on the value of ΔSQ. Predict the sign expected for ΔGQ for this
reaction and explain your reasoning. Would you predict the value of the equilibrium
constant for this reaction to be greater than less than or equal to one? Explain your
reasoning. (6 marks)
747
(4) Hydrogen is produced commercially by the reaction of a hydrocarbon with steam
at high temperatures in the presence of a catalyst to produce carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. Some heats of formation are presented below.
-----------------------------------------------------
COMPOUND ΔHf (kJ mol-1)
-----------------------------------------------------
H2O(g) -242
CO2(g) -395
C3H8(g) -104
-----------------------------------------------------
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of propane (C3H8) with steam. (2
marks)
(b) i. Why is it NOT necessary to give a ΔHf value for H2(g)?
(ii. What is the enthalpy change for the reaction in which one mole of propane
combines completely with steam?
748
(iii. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic? Explain your answer. (5 marks)
(c) The ΔHf value for H2O(l) is -286 kJ mol-1. Account for this difference. (1
mark)
(d) Why is the catalyst added in this commercial process? How does it achieve its
effect?
(2 marks)
749
(5) Given the following thermodynamic information:
heat of combustion of C(s) - 392.9 kJ mol-1
heat of combustion of H2(g) - 285.5 kJ mol-1
heat of formation of methanol(l) - 249.5 kJ mol-1
heat of crystallization of H2O(l) - 334.4 J g -1
heat capacity of H2O(l) - 4.18 J g-1 K-1
(a) i. Write a balanced thermochemical equation for the combustion of methanol.
(ii. Calculate the heat of formation of methanol (in kJ mol-1) (4 marks)
750
(b) 8.0 g of methanol was burned in excess oxygen. Calculate the enthalpy change
which accompanied this process. (2 marks)
(c) i. To what temperature would 500g of liquid water at 10oC be raised by the
combustion of 8.0g of methanol assuming complete thermal transfer?
(ii. What mass of ice at a temperature of 0oC could be completely melted by the
combustion of 8.0g of methanol assuming complete thermal transfer?
(4 marks)
751
(6) (a) Explain the following observations.
i. The reaction Cl2(g) Ô 2Cl(g) is endothermic but occurs spontaneously at very high
temperatures.
ii. The process Na(g) Ô Na+(g) is endothermic but the process Cl(g) + e- à Cl-(g) is
exothermic.
iii. The reaction H2(g) + I2(s) Ô 2HI(g) is endothermic but the reaction H2(g) + I2(g)
à 2HI(g) is exothermic. (7 marks)
((b) It has been stated that 'reversible reactions tend to proceed spontaneously in the
direction which is accompanied by the evolution of heat'. Discuss this statement critically
using relevant examples to support your answer. (3 marks)
752
(7) Hydrazine (N2H4) will react vigorously with oxygen gas to produce nitrogen gas
and liquid water according to the equation:
N2H4(l) + O2(g) --> N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(a) The reaction of 0.210g of hydrazine with a stoichiometric amount of oxygen is

found to release 4.10 kJ of heat energy. (4 marks)
i. What is the sign associated with the enthalpy change of this process?
ii. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of hydrazine in kJ×mol-1.
(b) The enthalpy of formation of hydrazine (ΔHf°) is represented by 2H2(g) + N2(g)

--> N2H4(l) (6 marks)
i. Write an equation to represent the enthalpy of formation of H2O(l)
753
ii. Using the equation from (b) i. and the original equation for the combustion of
hydrazine show how they may be combined to give a third equation which represents the
enthalpy of formation of hydrazine.
iii. If the enthalpy of formation of water is known to be –286 kJ×mol-1 calculate a

numerical value for the enthalpy of formation of hydrazine.
(c) If hydrazine were oxidised according to the equation
N2H4(l) + 3O2(g) --> 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
would the enthalpy change for this reaction be greater than or less than the enthalpy
change for the reaction which produces nitrogen gas as a product? Explain your
reasoning . (hint: ΔHf° (NO2) = +33 kJ×mol-1)
754
(8) (a) (6 marks)
(i. Using water as an example explain the differences between the three states of
matter. Your answer should refer to the forces between the particles their energies and the
distances which separate them in each phase.
(ii. Each change of phase is accompanied by an enthalpy change. Give the names by
which these enthalpy changes are known and state whether or not they are endothermic or
exothermic. Remember that for each phase change there are two possible enthalpy
changes – one in each direction.
755
(9)
(a) As a chemical reaction proceeds energy is often absorbed or released. (10

marks)
(i. The terms endothermic and exothermic are frequently applied to such reactions.
Explain what each of these terms means and give a chemical reaction as an example of
each.
(ii. Sketch and label a potential energy diagram to represent each situation in (a) (i).
756
(iii. Explain where the energy goes in the first case and where it comes from in the
second case in terms of the chemical bonds involved.
((b) The bond enthalpies of F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 are 154, 243, 193 and 151 kJ·mol-1
respectively. (6 marks)
(i. Account on the molecular level the trend observe for Cl2, Br2 and I2.
(ii. Offer an explanation for the unexpectedly low value for F2.
(iii. The bond enthalpy for the ICl bond is 208kJ mol-1. Calculate the enthalpy change
for the reaction:
757
Cl2 + I2 --> 2ICl
and sketch a potential energy diagram to represent this enthalpy change.
((b) Give a verbal statement of Hess's Law and write an equation to summarize your
statement. Choose a relevant example to demonstrate your understanding of this law and
explain its chemical significance.
758
Name: ____________________________
Group: __________________ Block: ____
Date: _____________________________
Exceed to Succeed
Chem EOC Review Sheet #4 (Thursday)
759
Identify the following reactions as exothermic or endothermic:
a. C + O2  CO2 + heat
________________________
b. CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O + 890.31 kJ
________________________
c. CaCO3 + 176 kJ  CaO + CO2
________________________
d. 2 C + H2 + heat  C2H2
________________________
Draw a reaction pathway diagram for reactions (b) and (d) above. Label the products,
reactants, activation energy, and ΔH.
On one graph, draw a line that represents what the reaction would look like if a
catalyst was added.
A chemist wants to raise the temperature of 45 g of water from 23°C to 48°C. How
much heat should he/she add?
Describe the difference between temperature and heat. (Use book if necessary.)
760
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________
The following diagram is the heating curve of water:
D
C
A B
Describe what is happening between points A and B:

___________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________
Between points B and C?
_________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________
The following phase diagram is for H2O.
Describe what would happen to a

sample of water that was heated from –10°C to
Pressure
(atm) 150°C if the pressure was held constant.
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
Temperature (°C)
761
m
D=
v
Units: g/mL, g/cm3
762
Energy
763
SYSTEM
the part of the
universe under
consideration
(ex. An atom or a beaker with chemicals)
764
EXOTHERMIC
Energy in a reaction is
released (gets hot)
765
766
ENDOTHERMIC
Energy in a reaction is
absorbed (gets cold)
767
768
HEAT
Energy transferred as a
result of a temperature
difference
(Symbol = q)
769
JOULE
SI unit on energy
(Symbol = J)
770
Specific Heat (Cp)
The heat required to
raise the temperature of
1 gram of substance by
1°C.
Unit = J / (g)(°C)
771
Every material has
its own specific heat
(see Appendix Table A-3)
772
q = (m)(!T)(Cp)
Heat lost or gained =
mass * change in temp *
specific heat of a
substance
773
SPECIFIC HEAT
Problems: Heat Transfer
1) How many joules of heat are released by a 400.0 g drinking glass that is cooled from
25ºC to 3.0ºC by iced tea placed in it? The specific heat of the glass is 0.664 J/gºC.
2) How much heat is required to raise the temp of 464 g of lead from –20.0ºC to
219ºC?
3) A 25.0 g sample of silver initially at 26.5ºC absorbs 38.4 J of heat. What will be the
final temperature, given that Cp for silver is 0.235 J/gºC?
4) If 13.34 g of an unknown substance loses 40.8 J of heat in cooling from 50ºC to

43ºC, what is the specific heat of the unknown?
774
5) Suppose a piece of gold with mass of 21.5 g at a temperature of 95.00ºC is dropped
into an insulated calorimeter containing 125.0 g of water at 22.0ºC. What will be the
final temperature of the water? (Hint: The heat lost must equal the heat gained.)
6) If a piece of iron with mass 7.86 g and a temperature of –25.0ºC is dropped in 35.0 g
of water at 21.0ºC, what will be the final temperature? rvw.content.section.icon.text Lab:
775
SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific Heat Capacity
Specific Heat Capacity

Or, What Does It Take To Heat Up or Cool Down??
Caution: HOT SURFACES AND HOT MATERIALS – BE CAREFUL!
Apparatus:
hot plate
thermometer
600mL beaker
metal cylinder
styrofoam calorimeter
electronic scale
stopwatch
tongs
Conservation of energy is an extremely important aspect of physics and it may be

demonstrated in many different ways. This laboratory uses the concept of Conservation
of Heat Energy along with that of Specific Heat Capacity in order to determine the type
of metal of which the cylinder is composed.
Fill the 600 mL beaker with approximately 300 mL of water. Adjust the hotplate
temperature so that the water in the beaker will reach a temperature of 850 – 900 C.
Carefully mass the cylinder at your station and record this in a data table as mcyl.
Measure 100 mL of distilled water into a flask and transfer this water to the styrofoam
calorimeter. Since 1mL of pure water has a mass of 1 gram, you now have 100 grams of
water in the calorimeter. Record the initial temperature To (cal) of the calorimeter
water.
Using the tongs, carefully immerse the cylinder into the water bath on the hot plate.
After the cylinder has been immersed for approximately 5 – 6 minutes, record the
temperature of the water bath. This temperature will also be the temperature of the metal
cylinder T0 (cyl). Again using the tongs, carefully remove the cylinder from the water
bath and quickly place it into the calorimeter.
After several minutes, you will observe that the temperature has risen. Record in your
data table the highest temperature attained by the calorimeter water. It is very important
that the temperature of the calorimeter water is not taken until it has reached the highest
point. This final calorimeter temperature Tf (cal) is also the final temperature of the
metal cylinder Tf (cyl). Also record the difference between the final temperature and the
initial temperature of both the metal cylinder and the calorimeter water.
776
Assuming that all of the heat acquired by the metal cylinder while in the water bath was
effectively transferred to the calorimeter, it is now possible to calculate the specific heat
of the metal cylinder.
Δ H of the calorimeter water = Δ H of the metal cylinder or
Heat gained by the calorimeter water is equal to the heat lost by the cylinder.
Since H = (m) (cp) (ΔT),
(cp water) (mass water) (ΔT water) = (cp cyl) (mass cyl) (ΔT cyl)
Simply manipulate the above equation to solve for the Specific Heat Capacity
of the cylinder:
cp cyl = (Cp water) (mass water) (ΔT water)
(mass cyl) (ΔT cyl)
Questions:
1) Explain why / how the temperature of the calorimeter water increases and the
temperature of the metal cylinder decreases.
2) Calculate the amount of heat that was transferred from the metal cylinder to the
calorimeter water.
3) Of what metal is your cylinder composed and on what do you base your answer?
4) What percent error is associated with your answer to number 3 above?
This lab write-up shall consist of the following:
Title Page
Theory
Data Table
Answers to Questions
Analysis & Conclusion
Chart: Specific Heat
777
Specific Heat of Water
o
Temperature ( C) Specific Heat (cal/g oC)
20 0.99883
21 0.99869
22 0.99857
23 0.99847
24 0.99383
25 0.99828
26 .99821
27 .99814
28 0.99809
Metal Specific Heat (cal/g oC)

Aluminum 0.215
Barium 0.046
Brass 0.0902
Copper 0.094
Gold 0.0308
Iron 0.106
Magnesium 0.243
Silver 0.045
Steel 0.110
Tin 0.039
Zinc 0.063
Notes: Specific Heat
MEASURING ENERGY CHANGES

Calorimeter—a device used to measure energy given off or absorbed during chemical
changes.
Reinforce the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
EXAMPLE AND DRAWING OF AN EXO REACTION

Will temperature of the water go up or down?
EXAMPLE AND DRAWING OF AN ENDO REACTION

Will temperature of the water go up or down?
SPECIFIC HEAT
778
SPECIFIC HEAT (Cp)—the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of
substance by one Celcius degree. Every substance has its own specific heat. (specific
value)
1 g Water = 4.148 J/gCº

1 g Al = .902 J/gCº
A-3 A-5 HAVE ALL THE SPECIFIC HEATS

Heat required to raise the temp. of one gram of water, one Celcius degree is 4.184 Joules.
The specific heat of water is 4.148 J/gCº
HOW CAN ONE MEASURE HEAT LOST OR HEAT GAINED
q = (m) * ( T) * (Cp)
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT

Q heat gained or lost by the (J)
water
M mass in grams (g )
DT change in temperature (Ti– (ºC)
Tf) Ti = temperature initial
Tf = temperature final
Cp specific heat (J / g * Cº)
How much heat is lost when a solid aluminum ingot with a mass of 4000 g cools from
500ºC to 100ºC?
CAl = .903 J / g * Cº
q = (4000 g) * (500-100ºC) * (.903 J / g * Cº)
779
BEHAVIOR
OF GASES
780
PRESSURE
The amount of
force exerted
per unit area
781
F
P=
A
Pressure = force / area
782
F
P=
A
Unit on pressure is PASCAL (Pa)
PASCAL = Newton / meter2
783
The atmosphere on Earth
exerts pressure on
everything.
How much pressure?
About 100,000 Pa!!!
(~100kPa)
784
This means that in every square
meter, 100,000N of pressure is
exerted.
100,000N = weight of a large truck
785
As you move farther from the earth,
the pressure becomes MUCH less.
Which
layer would
have the
least
pressure?
Why?
786
Pressure depends
on how often the
particles hit the
surface
More times = more pressure
787
Characteristics of Gases
• Negligible Volume (very
compressible)
• Gases are in constant motion
• Collisions are completely elastic
• No forces off attraction or repulsion
• Kinetic energy of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature
788
BOYLE’S LAW
For a given amount of gas
at a constant temperature
the volume of the gas
varies inversely with
pressure.
789
CHARLES’S LAW
Volume of a gas
increases if the
temperature increases
(pressure staying constant)
790
How could Charles’s
Law be used to
explain why hot air
balloons fill up.
791
If temperature is constant
when
V decreases
then
P _________
INCREASES
792
If pressure is constant
when
T increases
then
V _________
INCREASES
793
What happens
when you relax in
a swimming pool?
You float!!!
Duh…but why?
794
BUOYANCY
The ability of a liquid
or gas to push up on
an object placed in it
(you in a swimming pool)
795
If the buoyant force
is greater than the
weight, then object
FLOATS!
If not…it sinks.
796
DENSITY
The relationship of the
mass (weight) to how
much space it takes up
(volume)
797
mass
Density =
volume
m
D=
v
798
ARCHIMEDE’S
PRINCIPLE
The buoyant force on
an object in a fluid is
equal the weight of the
fluid displaced
799
GAS LAWS
Gas Laws 1
1) A sample of gas occupies 8.00 liters at STP. What will be its volume at 273 K and
1200.0 mm Hg?
2) What volume will 200.0 mL of gas at 327ºC occupy if it is cooled to 27.0ºC under
constant pressure?
3) A sample of gas occupies 275 mL at 52.0ºC and 720.0 mm Hg. What will be its
volume at 77.0ºC and 788 mm Hg?
4) What volume is occupied by 0.250 g of O2 at 25.0ºC and 155.500 kPa?
5) What is the molecular mass of a gas if 1.55g of the gas occupies 560. mL at 27.0ºC
and 2.25 atm?
6) A 250. mL sample of oxygen is collected over water at 25.0ºC and 760.0 mm Hg

pressure. What is the pressure of the dry gas alone?
7) A 32.0 mL sample of hydrogen is collected over water at 20.0ºC and 750.0 mm Hg.
What is the volume of the dry gas at STP?
Bonus Problems:
8) Given the reaction: KClO3(s) -> KCl(s) + O2(g)

How many grams of KClO3 are required to produce 30.0 liters of O2 at 27.0ºC and 745
mm Hg?
9) Given the reaction: Al(s) + HCl(aq) -> AlCl3(aq) + H2(g)

If 0.755g of Al react with an excess of HCl, how many liters of H2 will be produced at
22.0ºC and 0.988 atm?
10) How many grams of copper are required to produce 225 mL of NO collected by
displacement of water at 29.0ºC and 748 mm Hg?
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) -> 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
11) A liquid was analyzed to be 54.5%C, 9.10%H, and 36.4%O. An empty flask,
whose mass was 45.32g, when filled with the vapor of the liquid at 735 mm Hg and
99.2ºC had a mass of 46.05g. The volume of the flask was found to be 263.2 mL. What
is the empirical and molecular formula of the compound?
12) The density of an unknown gas at 20.0ºC and 749 mm Hg is 1.31 g/liter. Calculate
its molecular mass.
800
Gas Laws 2
1) A sample of air has a volume of 140.0 mL at 67.0ºC. To what temperature must the
gas be lowered to reduce its volume to 50.0 mL at constant pressure?
2) To what temperature must a sample of nitrogen at 27ºC and 0.625 atm be heated so
that its pressure becomes 1.125 atm at constant volume?
3) A 350 mL air sample collected at 35ºC has a pressure of 550 mm Hg. What presure
will the air exert if it is allowed to expand to 425 mL at 57ºC
4) A sample of oxygen at 40.0ºC occupies 820. mL. If this sample occupies 1250 mL at
60.0ºC and 1.40 atm, what was its original pressure?
5) Three of the primary components of oxygen are carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen.
In a sample containing a mixture of these gases at 1.00 atm pressure, the partial pressures
of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are given as: PCO2 = 0.285 mm Hg and PN2 = 593.525
mm Hg. What is the partial pressure of oxygen?
6) Determine the partial pressure of oxygen collected by water displacement if the water
temperature is 20.0ºC and the total pressure of the gases in the collection bottle is 730.0
mm Hg.
801
7) A sample of gas is collected over water at a temperature of 35.0ºC when the
barometric pressure reading is 742.0 mm Hg. What is the partial pressure of the dry gas?
Gas Laws 3
1) Express 89.7 kPa of pressure into: (a) mm Hg & (b) atm
2) To what temperature must a sample of helium be cooled so that its new volume is
375 mL, if its original temperature and volume was 57ºC and 522 mL?
3) A mixture of 3 noble gases (Xe, Kr, Ar) is held in a container under a pressure of
112 kPa. If the partial pressure of xenon is 425 mm Hg and the partial pressure of
krypton is 0.275 atm, what is the partial pressure of argon, in kPa?
4) A sample of nitrogen gas is collected by water displacement at a temperature of

25.0ºC, when the barometric pressure reading is 755 mm Hg. What is the partial pressure
of the nitrogen gas?
5) How many grams of F2 are contained in a 3.84 L sample of F2 at STP?
802
6) C5H12(g) + 8O2(g) -> 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
If 3.99 L of O2 react, what volume of CO2 is produced? How many moles of H2O are
produced? What mass of pentane (C5H12) is required to react?
Gas Laws 4
1) What volume will 150.0 mL of gas at 55.0ºC occupy if it is cooled to 23.0ºC under
constant pressure?
2) What volume is occupied by 23.7 g of HCl gas at 35.0ºC and 750.0mm Hg?
3) A 250. mL sample of argon is collected over water at 23.0ºC and 99.80 kPa pressure.
What is the pressure of the dry gas alone?
4) A mixture of 3 gases (N2, O2, F2) is held in a container under a pressure of 766mm
Hg. If the partial pressure of nitrogen is 54.9 kPa and the partial pressure of oxygen is
282mm Hg, what is the partial pressure of fluorine, in atm?
5) A sample of gas is collected over water at a temperature of 27.0ºC when the

barometric pressure reading is 750.0 mm Hg. What is the partial pressure of the dry gas?
803
6) How many grams of F2 are contained in a 2.75 L sample of xenon at STP?
7) 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) -> 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

If 1.85 L of O2 react, what volume of H2O is produced? How many moles of CO2 are
produced? What mass of butane (C4H10) is required to react?
804
Investigating Graham’s Law
Background:
In this experiment, we will be investigating Graham’s Law, using solutions of aqueous
hydrochloric acid, and aqueous ammonia. Graham’s Law is a gas law equation which compares
the rates of effusion of two gases (relative to each other) to the molar masses of these gases,
according to the following equation:
rate of effusion of gas A √molar mass of gas B

rate of effusion of gas B √molar mass of gas A
For the sake of uniformity, we will assume that gas A is the lighter of the two gases.
Materials:
• 6 M HCl
• concentrated NH3
• cotton swabs (Q-tips)
• narrow, hollow glass tubes several inches long (6 – 10”)
• ruler
• invisible tape
• latex gloves
• safety glasses
• a textbook or cinder block
Procedure:
1) Put on latex gloves and safety glass (and aprons if you wish), as we will be working with
concentrated acids and bases in this experiment.
2) Obtain a textbook or cinder block and tape down the glass tube to it, using invisible tape an
inch or so from each end of the tube. This is to prevent the tube from rolling off and
shattering.
3) Obtain small vials of HCl(aq) and NH3(aq) (pre-prepared) and 2 clean cotton swabs.
4) Dip one end of the first swab into the HCl solution, and one end of the second swab into the
ammonia. Simultaneously insert the dampened end of one cotton swab into each end of the
hollow glass tube just until all the cotton is inside the tube. It is essential that you insert both
swabs simultaneously! Be careful not to jostle glass tube once swabs are inserted.
5) Observe the chemical reaction that occurs in the tube (you should see a white solid ring
develop in the tube somewhere), and take any measurements you feel are necessary using the
ruler provided.
6) Write and balance a chemical equation describing this reaction, and consider how you can
evaluate Graham’s Law using the data you collect. You will receive marks on this lab for
data collection, data processing & presentation, and evaluation.
805
KINETIC
MOLECULAR
THEORY
806
Kinetic Molecular Theory
A theory that explains
the physical properties
of gases by describing
the behavior of
subatomic particles
807
Physical Properties of Gases:
• Gases have mass
• Gases are easily
compressed
• Gases completely fill their
containers
•Gases diffuse rapidly
•Gases exert pressure
808
KMT has 5
postulates:
809
#1
A gas consists of very
small particles that
have mass.
(molecules or atoms)
810
#2
Gas particles are
very far apart from
each other.
(therefore gases are
easily compressed)
811
#3
Gas particles are in
continuous, rapid,
random motion.
812
#4
Collisions of gas
particles (with each
other and with
container) are
perfectly elastic
(no energy lost)
813
#5
The average energy
of the gas particles
depends on the
temperature of the
gas.
814
We can measure gases in 4 ways:
Measurement Unit
Amount of gas Moles
Volume (V) Liters (L)
Temperature (T) °C, °F, or K
Pressure (P) atm, kPa, Torr,

mm Hg, or lb/in2
815
Temperature (T)
A measurement
of the average
kinetic energy of
a substance
816
Higher
temperatures
cause gas
particles to move
faster
817
K = °C + 273
14°C = ? K
14°C + 273 = 287K
To solve gas problems,
the temp must always be
in Kelvin (K) !!!
818
Pressure (P)
The force per
unit area on a
surface
819
Pressure is caused
by gas particles
slamming into the
container’s walls.
820
Units of Pressure:
1) atmosphere (atm)
2) kilopascal (kPa)
3) millimeters of Mercury (mm Hg)
4) Torr
5) Pounds per square inch (lb/in )
2
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mm Hg =

760 torr = 14.7 lb/in2
821
STOP…
collaborate and listen
822
Boyle’s Law
P1V1 = P2V2
1 = before
2 = after
MUST BE AT CONSTANT
TEMPERATURE!!
823
A gas occupies a volume of
0.458 L at a pressure of 1.01 kPa
and temperature of 295 Kelvin.
Although the temperature stays
the same, the volume is increased
to 0.477 L. What is the new
pressure?
0.970 kPa
824
Charles’ Law
V1T2 = V2T1
1 = before
2 = after
MUST BE AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE!!
825
What will be the volume of a
gas sample at 309 K if its
volume at 215 K is 3.42 L?
Assume that pressure is
constant.
4.92 L
826
Gay-Lussac’s Law
P P
1 2
=
T T
1 2
1 = before
2 = after
MUST BE AT CONSTANT
VOLUME!!
827
A balloon with a pressure of
0.900 atm is heated from
105 K to 155 K. If volume is
held constant, what is the new
pressure?
1.33 atm
828
Confused yet???
There’s an
easier way…
829
Combined Gas Law
P !V P !V
1 1 2 2
=
T 1
T 2
1 = before 2 = after
JUST HOLD ONE
QUANTITY CONSTANT!!
(take it out of the equation)
830
The gas in a 0.010 L container has
a pressure of 1.39 atmospheres.
When the gas is transferred to a
0.017 L container at the same
temperature, what is the pressure
of the gas?
0.82 atm
831
The gas inside a 70.8 mL
piston has a temperature of
35.0°C. If the temperature is
raised to 100.0°C, what is the
new volume of the gas?
85.7 mL
832
An elastic container is inflated to
a volume of 18.0 liters at a
pressure of 1.26 atm. The
container then expands to a new
volume at a pressure of 1.05 atm.
What is the new volume?
21.6 liters
833
Avagadro’s Law
Equal volumes of gas
(at same P and T)
contain the same
amount of particles
834
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023
particles
1 mole = 22.4 L
Only works at same P and
T
835
Ideal Gas Law
The mother of all gas
laws. It includes
everything!
PV = nRT
836
PV = nRT
P = pressure (atm)
V = volume (L)
n = moles (mol)
R = Gas Constant
T = Temperature
(Kelvin)
837
PV = nRT
atm!L
R= 0.0821 mol!K
MUST USE THESE
UNITS!!!
838
If the pressure exerted by a
gas at 0.00°C in a volume of
0.0010 L is 5.00 atm, how
many moles of gas are
present?
2.2 x 10 -4 moles
839
Ideal gases don’t
really exist…
…real gases do!
840
Real Gas
All gases are real
gases.
DUH!!
841
Ideal Gas
A gas that is
described by the
KMT postulates.
842
Ideal Gas Law
works most of the
time.
843
It does NOT work
at very low
temperatures and
very high pressures.
844
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
The sum of the
partial pressures
of the gases is
equal to the total
pressure
845
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
846
A balloon contains O2 and N2
gas. If the partial pressure of
the O2 is 0.75 atm and the
partial pressure of the N2 is
0.55 atm, what is the total
pressure of the balloon?
1.30 atm
847
The gas inside a 70.8 mL can
contains H2O(g) and CO2(g) and
has a total pressure of 760 mm
Hg. If the partial pressure of the
H2O is 350 mm Hg, what is the
partial pressure of the CO2?
410 mm Hg
848
Graham’s Law
Gases with smaller
masses move faster than
gases with large masses
(like a kid in Walmart)
849
H2 moves faster than N2.
Which of the following gases
moves the fastest?
O2 Cl2 Ar
CO2 I2 N2
NH3 H2O Br2
850
STP
Standard
Temperature
and Pressure:
0°C and 1 atm
851
How many moles of N2 gas are
in a 4.5 L balloon at STP?
0.20 moles
852
A gas at STP is heated to
55°C. What is the new
pressure if volume is held
constant?
1.2 atm
853
A gas tank contains CO2 and
O2 gas. What is the total
pressure in the tank if the
partial pressure of CO2 is 0.45
atm and the partial pressure
of O2 is 0.55?
1.00 atm
854
KMT Mini-Lab
Purpose: To observe color changes in the chemical reactions of gases and to interpret
these changes in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Procedure:
1) Obtain a clean Petri dish and cover, dropper of Bromothymol blue indicator, and a
template sheet for dot placement.
2) Place the smaller dish on the template page and place 1 small drop of Bromothymol
blue indicator on each small dot on the template. There should be a total of 24 drops. Be
sure the drops do not touch one another.
3) When ready, ask Ms. Mouton to please add 1 drop of NaOH and 1 drop of NH4Cl to
the center of your dish. As soon as she adds the drops, put the cover on the dish and
observe CAREFULLY AND WITH FOCUS. LOOK AT DETAILS!
Questions:
1) Describe in detail the changes you observed in the drops of BTB over time. Draw
pictures to illustrate the changes. Use colors.
2) Draw a series of pictures showing how one of the BTB drops might look over time if
you could view the drop from the side. Use colors.
3) The BTB changed even though you added nothing to it. If the mixture in the center
circle produced a gas, would this explain the change in the drops of BTB? Use kinetic
theory to explain your answer.
4) Translate the following word equation into a balanced chemical equation: sodium
hydroxide reacts with ammonium chloride to produce ammonia gas (NH3), water, and
sodium chloride. Balance this equation. This is the rxn you just witnessed!
855
Fluid Pressure Demo (Organizer)
Can O’ Holes!
Predict what is going to happen to the can Observe the demonstration.

when it is filled it with water.
What happened?
Was your prediction correct? _______ How did this relate to fluid pressure?
Why or Why not?
856
Sprung a Leak!
Predict what is going to happen to each Observe the demonstration.

stream of water as the jug is filled What happened?
Why or Why not?
857
Forces of Water!
Predict what will happen when you try to Observe the demonstration.
pull the two pieces apart (dry).
What happened?
Predict what will happen when you try to

pull the two pieces apart (wet).
Predict what will happen when you try to

pull the two pieces apart (salty).
Why or Why not?
858
Forces of Vacuums!
Predict what is going to happen when you Observe the demonstration.

try to blow up the balloon.
What happened?
Why or Why not?
859
Ping!
Predict what is going to happen when you Observe the demonstration.

try blow the ping pong ball out of the
funnel. What happened?
Why or Why not?
860
Due: ___________ Name: __________________________
Period: ________ Date: ____________
Compound: ______________________
LAB: Charles’ Law
OBJECTIVE:
Students will collect and analyze data that shows the relationship between temperature
and volume of a gas (Charles’ Law).
PRE-LAB:
1) What does Charles’ Law state?

_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________
2) According to Charles’ Law, if temperatures increases, what happens to volume?

________________
3) What two values are held constant in Charles’ Law?

______________________________________
LAB
Methods
1. Obtain a balloon and blow it up. Do not tie the balloon. Knead the balloon to
reduce the elasticity. Deflate the balloon. Blow up the balloon to a size that will
fit easily into a 600 or 1000 ml beaker. Allow plenty of extra room. Tie the end of
the balloon.
2. Fill the beaker about half full of water. Place the balloon in the water and subtract
the volume of the water from the volume of the water plus balloon when the
balloon is immersed in the water. You will need to place a small beaker filled
with water on top of the balloon to submerge it (see pg. 337 of text). Record the
volume of the balloon and the temperature of the water.
3. Heat the water and balloon to about 80 degrees C and then record the volume as
you did in step two.
4. Carefully pour out the hot water and fill the beaker about half full with the coldest
water you can find. Place the balloon in the beaker, put the small beaker on top,
and place entire setup into a container of ice. Allow it to cool until the
temperature of the water reaches between 0-10 degrees C. Record the volume of
the balloon.
861
Questions:
1. Make a graph of volume versus temperature. Let the x-axis be temperature and the y-
axis be volume. Scale the graph so as much of it is used as possible.
2. What type of curve did you obtain? (parabola, straight line, hyperbola, ellipse,
circle,etc)
3. What does this tell you about the relationship between volume and temperature for a
gas?
4. What is the significance of the temperature at which the balloon would occupy no
volume?
862
Station #1
What volume will 0.75

moles of oxygen gas occupy
at 25 °C and a pressure of
0.520atm?
Station #2
A sample of gas has a

volume of 2.0 Liters at a
pressure of 1 atm. What
will the pressure be if the
volume is increased to
4.0L?
863
Station #3
What pressure will be

exerted by 0.450mol of a
gas at 25 °C if it is held in a
0.650L container?
Station #4
The volume of a gas at 0°C
is 100L. If the volume is
increased to 200 L at
constant pressure, what is
the new temperature of the
gas?
Station #5
864
A glass jar contains 685L of
helium gas at a temperature
of 621K and a pressure of
0.0187atm. How many
moles of helium does the jar
contain?
Station #6
A sample of gas occupoes 6.00

liters at a temperature of 200K.
If the pressure remains
constant and the temperature
is raised to 600K, what will be
the new volume?
Station #7
At 34 °C, the pressure inside a
tennis ball filled with N2 gas is 2.09
865
atm. If the volume is 0.148 L, how
many grams of N2 are in the tennis
ball?
(Hint: find moles first!)
Station #8
A gas with a pressure of 0.89 atm and
a volume of 3.5 L is squeezed into a
container with a volume of 2.8 L.
What is the new pressure?
866
Station #9
What volume does

0.742mol of argon gas
occupy at STP?
867
868
20 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
10 points
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
5 points
4 points
Eliminate 3 points
Ask Ask 2 points
2
Answers
869
20 points
14 points
13 points
12 points
11 points
*10 points*
9 points
8 points
7 points
6 points
*5 points*
4 points
Eliminate 3 points
Ask Ask 2 points
2
Answers
870
1 POINT Ask Ask Eliminate 2
Mouton Class
When is the test?
!(A) Today !(B) Tomorrow
!(C) Next Week !(D) Never

Final Answer?
A
871
Teacher Class
Gases have
!(A) Mass !(B) Temperature
!(C) Volume !(D) All of the

above
Final Answer?
D
872
Teacher Class
Gas particles slamming against things
causes:
!(A) Temperature !(B) Reactions
!(C) Increased !(D) Pressure

volume
Final Answer?
D
873
Teacher Class
Pressure can be measured in:
!(A) Liters !(B) Kelvin
!(C) Atmospheres !(D) Moles

Final Answer?
C
874
Teacher Class
Gas particle motion is:
!(A) Constant !(B) Rapid
!(C) Random !(D) All of the

above
Final Answer?
D
875
Teacher Class
A measurement of kinetic energy is:
!(A) Temperature !(B) Volume
!(C) Pressure !(D) Moles

Final Answer?
A
876
Mouton Class
STP = ?
!(A) 10°C and 1 atm !(B) 0°C and 1 atm
!(C) 0 K and 0.5 atm !(D) 273 K and 0.1

atm
Final Answer?
B
877
Teacher Class
Higher temperatures cause:
!(A) Lower pressure !(B) Higher

pressure
!(C) Higher volume !(D) All of the

above
Final Answer?
B
878
Mouton Class
Which of the following are ideal gases?
!(A) H2 !(B) CO2
!(C) O2 !(D) None of the

above
Final Answer?
D
879
Teacher Class
R=?
!(A) 82.1 !(B) 8.21
!(C) 0.821 !(D) 0.0821

Final Answer?
D
880
Teacher Class
Which gas atom moves the fastest?
!(A) He !(B) Ar
!(C) Ne !(D) Kr

Final Answer?
A
881
Teacher Class
If temperature decreases, pressure:
!(A) Stays the same !(B) Increases
!(C) Decreases !(D) Fluctuates

Final Answer?
C
882
Teacher Class
How many sig figs in 0.0870 ?
!(A) 2 !(B) 3
!(C) 4 !(D) 5

Final Answer?
B
883
Teacher Class
Is it possible to find moles by using the
combined gas law?
!(A) Yes !(B) Sometimes
!(C) Maybe !(D) Never

Final Answer?
D
884
Teacher Class
The ideal gas law does not work when:
!(A) Low !(B) Low Pressure

Temperature
!(C) Low volume !(D) None of the

above
Final Answer?
A
885
Teacher Class
What is the Ideal Gas Law Equation?
!(A) P1V1=P2V2 !(B) PVn=RT
!(C) P1T2=P2T1 !(D) PV=nRT

Final Answer?
D
886
887
EQUILIBRIUM
888
Guess what…
Most reactions go
forward and
backward!
889
These reversible
reactions come to
a chemical
equilibrium.
890
Equilibrium
Occurs when the rate
of the forward
reaction is equal
to the rate of the
backward reaction
891
Applications of Equilibrium:
• Phase Changes
• Saturated Solutions
• Acids/Bases
• Chemical Reactions
892
893
894
895
896
Equilibrium
Occurs when the rate
of the forward
reaction is equal
to the rate of the
backward reaction
897
Reaction Rate
How fast or slow a
reaction occurs
898
Collision Theory
Molecules must
collide in order to
react
899
Reactions with a
HIGH Ea proceed
at a SLOW rate.
900
2 HI !" H2 + I2
901
902
Equilibrium Constant
(Keq)
A measure of how
far a reaction goes
to the right
903
aA + bB ! cC + dD
c d
[C] [D]
K eq = a b
[A] [B]
[ ] = concentration
904
Keq > 1
More products than reactants
Keq < 1
More reactants than products
905
Once a reaction
reaches equilibrium
can it ever change??
YES!!! All it takes is a
change in either the
forward or reverse rates.
906
What changes rxn rate
(and therefore changes
the equilibrium):
Concentration
Pressure
Temperature
907
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If changes are made to
a system in equilibrium,
the RXN will shift in
the direction that will
reduce the change
908
Concentration
If substance is added, the
rxn will shift away from
that side;
If substance is removed, the
rxn will shift towards that
side
909
Pressure
If pressure is increased,
the rxn will shift to the
side that will produce
fewer molecules
(compare moles of gas)
910
Temperature
Increased temp will
shift the rxn to the
side that absorbs heat
911
CHEMICAL
KINETICS
912
Chemical Kinetics
Study of the speed
of reactions
913
Reaction Rate
Rate at which
products appear
(or reactants disappear)
914
Reactions are usually
several steps
(not just one step)
All of the steps together
is called the reaction
mechanism.
915
916
Rate-Determining Step
The slowest step of the
reaction mechanism
(determines the overall
reaction rate)
917
Collision Theory
Molecules must
collide in order to
react
918
In order for the
collision to work, it
must have the proper
orientation and
enough energy.
919
ENERGY
DIAGRAMS
920
Exothermic Rxn
Reaction that
releases heat
(heat exits)
921
Endothermic Rxn
Reaction that
absorbs heat
(heat goes en)
922
Activation Energy
Amount of energy
needed to start a
reaction
923
Enthalpy Change (!H)
Amount of heat lost
or gained in a
reaction
(unit = kJ)
924
Reactions with a
HIGH Ea proceed
at a SLOW rate.
925
Catalyst
Substance that
speeds up a
reaction by
lowering the Ea
926
Four factors that
affect reaction rate:
•Temperature
•Concentration
•Surface Area
•Catalyst
927
REACTION RATES AND EQUILIBRIUM
Le Chatelier’s Principle: Concentration and Rxn Rate
You will examine the reaction of baking soda and vinegar (surprise! surprise!). The
reaction again is: NaHCO3(s) + HC2H3O2(aq) -> NaC2H3O2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Your question is: How does concentration affect reaction rate?
Procedures:
1. Obtain the following materials: 1 gas collecting flask, 1 large beaker, 1 small or
medium beaker, 1 100mL graduated cylinder, 1 small piece of cardboard, and 1
stopwatch.
2. In the small beaker place 20g of NaHCO3 (baking soda); in the medium beaker
place 100mL of vinegar.
3. Fill the graduated cylinder up to the brim with water and fill the large beaker ¾
full of water. Place the cardboard on top of the graduated cylinder and quickly
invert it and place in the large beaker of water. (The goal here to not let any air
in.)
4. Connect the rubber tubing as shown in the diagram below.
5. Place the 20g of baking soda into to square flask and put the top on.
6. When ready, add the 100mL of vinegar to the flask and start the stopwatch
immediately. BE CAREFUL NOT TO SPILL. POUR SLOWLY BUT
CONSISTENTLY.
7. After 50mL of gas have been formed, stop the stop watch and record the time.
8. Repeat three more times for diluted vinegar (as shown in data chart), using 20g
baking soda each time.
Vinegar Water % Vinegar Time (s) Rate (mL

CO2/s)
100mL 0 mL 100%
50mL 50mL 50%
25mL 75mL 25%
12.5mL 87.5mL 12.5%
928
Graph the data carefully on a separate piece of paper. Your dependent variable (on Y-
axis) should be reaction rate and your independent (on X-axis) is % vinegar.
Question: Describe the relationship between the concentration of vinegar and the rate of
carbon dioxide production. (use back of page)
Equilibrium Review
1) Explain the action of the molecules at the surface of an ice cube sitting in a classroom.
(Describe what the molecules are doing and use references to phase and equilibrium.)
2) Describe what is happening in a reaction that has reached equilibrium. (Discuss rate.)
3) Write the equilibrium expression for the following reactions:
2 H2 + O2 -> 2 H2O
2 SO3 > 2 SO2 + O2
2 NO -> N2 + O2
N2 + 3 H2 -> 2 NH3
4) For each of the following reactions, state whether the reaction will shift to the right
(make more product) or shift to the left (make more reactant) when the following changes
are made.
2 H2 + O2 -> 2 H2O
929
a. Adding O2
b. Adding H2O
c. Increasing the pressure
2 SO3 -> 2 SO2 + O2
a. Increasing the pressure
b. Adding SO2
c. Removing SO3
N2 + 3 H2 -> 2 NH3 + 92 kJ
a. Decreasing the pressure
b. Adding NH3
c. Removing NH3
d. Increasing the temperature
e. Decreasing the temperature
5) In each of the examples above, why do the reactions shift? (Hint: use the term rate.)
Reaction Energy, Kinetics Problems
1) For each reaction listed below, determine the ΔH and type of reaction
(endothermic or exothermic)
a. 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) -> N2(g) + CO2(g) + 746.8kJ
930
b. 2Al(s) + 3/2 O2(g) -> Al2O3(s) + 1675.7kJ
c. 2NaHCO3(s) + 129kJ -> Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
d. 2HCl(g) + 184.6kJ -> H2(g) + Cl2(g)
e. N2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + 197.8kJ
2) Rewrite each reaction below with the ΔH value in its appropriate position and
identify the reaction as endothermic or exothermic.
a. ½N2(g) + O2(g) -> NO2(g)
ΔH = 33.15kJ
b. Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> MgCl2(s)
ΔH = –641.2kJ
931
c. Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) -> SiCl4(l)
ΔH = –687.1kJ
d. CO2(g) -> CO(g) + ½O2(g)
ΔH = 283.0kJ
e. H2O(g) + C(s) -> CO(g) + H2(g)
ΔH = 131.3kJ
3) Increasing temperature increases the rate of a reaction. What are the other 4 factors
affecting reaction rate? Why does a higher temperature increase reaction rate?
932
4) Write equilibrium constant expressions for each reaction in #1 (a-e). Ignore the ΔH
value in reactions. The only thing to remember is whether the compounds are gases /
aqueous solutions, or solids / liquids.
a. d.
b. e.
c.
5) Write equilibrium constant expressions for each reaction in #2 (a-e). Ignore the ΔH
value in reactions.
a. d.
933
b. e.
c.
Rate Law WS
1) Given the following data, write the correct Rate law (R = …). (show all work –
what order is the reaction with respect to reactants A, B, and C (1st order, 2nd, 3rd,
etc.)?)
experiment # initial initial initial rate of reaction

[A] [B] [C]
1 0.75M 0.50M 0.50M 24
2 1.50M 0.50M 0.50M 12
3 0.75M 1.00M 0.50M 3
4 0.75M 0.50M 1.00M 6
2) Given the following data, write the correct Rate law:
experiment # initial initial initial rate of reaction

[A] [B] [C] (min.)
1 0.30M 0.60M 0.60M 12
2 0.30M 1.20M 0.60M 6
3 0.60M 1.20M 0.60M 1.5
4 0.30M 0.60M 1.20M 3
Reaction Energy & Kinetics/Equilibrium Review

1) Given the following reaction for the synthesis of water:
2H2O(g) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) (ΔH = +483.6 kJ)
934
Write the thermochemical equation for this reaction and tell whether it is exothermic or
endothermic.
2) Increasing temperature increases the rate of a reaction. What are the other 4 factors
affecting reaction rate? Why does a higher temperature increase reaction rate?
3) When a 10.25 g sample of solid NH4NO3 dissolves in 87.5 g of water in a calorimeter,

the temperature drops from 21.1°C to 14.7°C. Determine the quantity of heat for this
solution process. (the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g·C°)
4) Briefly explain the relationship between the temperature, transfer of heat, and heat
capacity of a liquid.
5) Nitric oxide, NO, decomposes into nitrogen and oxygen gas according to this reaction:
2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) ΔH = –90.3 kJ
Calculate the heat evolved per gram of nitrogen monoxide.
935
6) When a 4.25 g sample of solid ammonium nitrate dissolves in 60.0 g of water in a
coffee-cup calorimeter, the temperature drops from 22.0°C to 16.9°C. Calculate ΔH (in
kJ/mol of NH4NO3) for the solution process
NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
7) Write the equilibrium constant equation (K) for the following reaction:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
8) Write the equilibrium constant equation (K) for the following reaction:
2NH3(g) <--> N2(g) + 3H2(g)
9) If the value of K is small, which of the following is true? (circle one)
the [products] is greater than the [reactants]

the [reactants] is greater than the [products]
the [reactants] and [products] is roughly equal
936
10) Write the acid ionization constant (Ka) for the following reaction:
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) <--> H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
11) Consider the following reaction:
2NH3(g) + 92kJ/mol <--> N2(g) + 3H2(g)
(for each of the following, write either “increase” or “decrease”)
What happens to the [H2] if:

a. you increase [N2]?
b. you increase [NH3]?
c. you decrease the temperature?
d. you decrease [N2]?
(for each of the following write either “forward” or “reverse”)
Which way does the equilibrium shift (forward or reverse) if:

a. you increase [N2]?
b. you decrease [H2]?
c. you increase the temperature?
d. you increase the pressure?
12) Based on the Potential Energy Diagram provided below, answer the following
questions:
What is the ΔH for the forward reaction (ΔHforward)?

What is the ΔH for the reverse reaction (ΔHreverse)?
What is the activation energy for the reverse reaction (EA’)?
What is the activation energy for the forward reaction (EA)?
Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
937
FACT:
Chemical reactions
happen because
electrons are shared or
transferred from one
substance to another
938
MAX NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
IN AN ENERGY LEVEL
ENERGY LEVEL MAX # OF ELECTRONS
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
5 50
939
Write a mathematical equation that
allows us to predict the Max # if we
know the energy level (n)
Max # = …n…
ENERGY LEVEL MAX # OF ELECTRONS
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32
5 50
940
Equation to calculate
Max # of e -
2n2
Where n is any energy level
941
On the Back of your Max # of
Elections Sheet
Bohr Models
Draw the Bohr Structures
for elements 1-18
942
WHITEBOARDING
Bohr Models
Draw the Bohr Structure

for Z=19 (Potassium)
943
Catalyst
Draw the Bohr Structure
for Z=19 (Potassium)
944
Obviously something is
wrong…because the
electrons fill in an
unexpected order.
We need a more
complicated system!
945
There are 4 Quantum
#s and those #s are
used to describe where
an electron is likely to
be found at any given
time
946
This is a lot like being
able to use four “places”
to describe EXACTLY
where Mr. T should be
at 8:00AM on Friday.
947
The first number we
already know…
The Principle
Quantum #
(b.k.a. The NRG level)
948
1 st Quantum #
Principle Quantum #
Specifies the energy
level that the electron
is on
949
Principle Quantum #
(IDEA Academy’s Street)
950
But this doesn’t
explain why K’s last
electron goes into the
th
4 energy level instead
of the 3 rd
951
2 nd Quantum #
Specifies the shape of
the sub-energy level
952
Second Quantum #
(IDEA Academy)
953
s and p Sub Energy Levels
954
III. Quantum Mechanical Model: Atomic Orbitals
E. Shapes of orbitals
d orbitals
955
956
ORBITAL
Space occupied by
a pair of electrons
957
Four Sub-Energy Levels
Sub NRG Shape Max # of # of
Level electrons Orbitals
s Sphere 2 1
p Dumbbell 6 3
d 4-Lobed 10 5
f 6-8 Lobed 14 7
958
Sub-Energy Levels
959
So why do
electrons fill in
like they do?
i.e. why is K’s last electron
th
in the 4 NRG level?
960
2 Factors Influencing
Electron Placement
1.Energy Level
- Closer to nucleus=easy
2. Subenergy level (shape)
- s!p!d!f
961
Electron
Configuration
A detailed way of
showing the order in
which electrons fill in
around the nucleus
962
Electron Configuration
Symbols
# of e- in
5f 3 sub-energy
level
Sub-Energy
Energy Level Level
963
Electron Configuration PT
964
Bohr
Models
K vs. e -
Configs
K:1s 2 6 2 6 1
2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
2
965
Write the -
e config for:
H: 1s 1
He: 1s 2
Li: 1s 2s
2 1
K: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
2 2 6 2 6 1
966
HOMEWORK
Do Worksheet entitled
“Electron Configurations”
967
Again…
Why are we
concerned so
much about
electrons?
968
So do we really
need to know
about all of the
electrons?
969
e -configs with
the NGSC
represent which
electons?
970
Valence Electrons
Electrons in the
outermost energy
level
(involved in chemical reactions)
971
Noble Gas Shortcut
K: 2 2 6 2 6
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 1
K: [Ar] 4s1
So what is different?
972
Aufbau
Principle
All lower energy sublevels
must be full before high
energy sublevels begin
filling in
973
Steps for writing NGSC
1. Write the noble gas
preceding the desired
element [in brackets]
2. Carry on as usual
974
With only the first two
Quantum #s, do we have
as much information as
possible as to where the
electrons are likely to be
found?
975
3 rd Quantum #
m or magnetic Q#
Specifies the
orientation of an
orbital in space
976
Third Quantum #
(Mr. T’s Office)
977
4 th Quantum #
s or spin Q#
Spin of an electron on
its own axis
978
Fourth Quantum #
(Mr. T’s Desk)
979
Quantum Review
1 stQ#: Energy Level
nd
2 Q#: Shape of sub
rd
3 Q#: Orientation of Orbital
th
4 Q#: Spin of e -
980
Quantum Review
Principle (n): 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Azimuthal (l): 0, 1, 2, 3
Magnetic (ml): …-2, -1, 0, 1, 2
Spin (ms): +1/2 or -1/2
981
Pauli Exclusion
Principle
No 2 electrons can
have the same set of 4
quantum numbers
982
Arrow-Orbital
Diagrams
A way to show
orbital filling, spin,
relative energy
983
Hund’s Rule
Most stable
arrangement of
electrons is the one with
the maximum number of
unpaired electrons
984
Arrow-Orbital Diagrams
Energy
3d
4s
3s 3p
2s 2p
1s
985
Lewis Electron
Dot Diagrams
The easiest way to
represent the # of
valance electrons
986
Steps for writing
electron dot diagrams
1. Write the element’s symbol
-
2. Write out e config
-s
3. Count # of valence e (1-8)
4. Place same # of dots as e-
around symbol
987
Order to fill in an -
e dot
3 6
Bm
4 1
7 2
5 8
988
What up?
Who do 1 and
Bm 1
2
2 represent?
Why do 1 and 2 fill in on
the same side?
989
What up?
3 6
Bm
4
7
Who do 3-8
5 8 represent?
Why do 3,4,5 and 6,7,8

fill in on different sides?
990
What up?
3 6
Bm
4
7
1
2
Why will you
5 8 never have
more than eight
dots?
991
Examples of Lewis Electron Dots
992
What is different between the
dot diagrams below and the
ones that we’ve been doing?
Our way accounts for

Quantum #s, this way doesn’t!
993
http://doody36.home.attbi.com/liberty.htm
Play Star Spangled Banner Here!
994
Flame Tests
Certain elements
emit specific
wavelengths of light
when the electrons
fall from outer
energy levels back
to their ground
state.
995
996
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
997
Line Spectra of Excited Atoms
• Excited atoms emit light of only certain wavelengths
• The wavelengths of emitted light depend on the
element.
Hg
Ne
998
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Getting to Know your Quantum Numbers

(1) What does each of the four quantum numbers represent?
Quantum # What it represents

1
(2) What energy level is Neon’s last place electron in? ________________________
(3) How many electrons can the 7th energy level hold? ________________________
(4) What is the max number of energy levels that we would need in order to hold all of
the electrons in element 118? Try to explain why we have more than we need.
999
(5) Please complete the following table concerning the second quantum number:
Sub NRG Level Shape Max # of electrons # of Orbitals
(6) What is an orbital?

_____________________________________________________________
1000
(7) Draw the three confirmations of a p subenergy level.
(8) What is the spin on the last filled electron in each of the following:
Ba: __________ Re: __________ S: __________ Am: __________
WORKSHEET: Arrow-Orbital Diagrams

(1) What do the short, horizontal lines represent?
(2) Some of the arrows go up and some go down. Why do they do this?
(3) There is an arrow going up on the left side of every arrow-orbital diagram. Why?
1001
(4) Please draw the arrow orbital diagrams for Boron and Astatine (you probably want
to do At on the back with your paper horizontally)
Worksheet: Max # of e- / NRG Level
Calculate the maximum number of electrons in each of the following energy levels. Use
the equation (2N2), where N = the energy level. NOTE: There are only 7 “real” energy
levels.
1. ENERGY LEVEL 4 2. ENERGY LEVEL 5
3. ENERGY LEVEL 8 4. ENERGY LEVEL 55
Below are the maximum numbers of electrons in an energy level. Which energy level is
it?
5. 392 electrons 6. 1458 electrons
7. 484 electrons 8. 22 electrons
1002
9. Explain why 35 electrons could not be a possible maximum number of electrons in an
energy level.
1003
REDOX
REACTIONS
1004
OXIDATION
A process in which a
substance loses one or
more electrons
1005
REDUCTION
A process in which a
substance gains one or
more electrons
1006
OIL RIG
Oxidation Is Losing electrons
Reduction Is Gaining electrons
1007
Oxidation and
reduction always
occur together!
1008
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
RXNS
Reactions in which
electrons are
transferred between
reactants
(bka Redox Reactions)
1009
The key to
Redox is
Oxidation
Number!
1010
OXIDATION NUMBERS
A way of
tracking
electrons in
redox reactions
1011
Assigning
Oxidation
Numbers
(6 rules)
1012
Rule 1
The oxidation # of an
atom by itself is zero.
1013
Rule 2
The oxidation # of any
monatomic ion is
equal to its charge.
1014
Rule 3
The oxidation # of
elements in a
compound are written
per atom.
1015
Rule 4
The sum of the
oxidation #s in a
compound is zero.
1016
Rule 5
The sum of the
oxidation #s in a
polyatomic ion is
equal to the ion’s
charge.
1017
Rule 6
Oxidation #s to
remember:
•Elements in Group 1A: always +1
•Elements in Group 2A: always +2
•Aluminum: always +3
1018
Rule 6
Oxidation #s to
remember:
•Fluorine: always -1
•Hydrogen: usually +1
•Oxygen: usually -2
1019
Remember:
Oxidation #s are not
charges!
(they are just a way
to track electrons)
1020
Another Definition
Oxidation:
when the
oxidation #
increases
1021
Another Definition
Reduction:
when the
oxidation #
decreases
1022
Remember that
oxidation and
reduction occur
together…
1023
Oxidizing Agent
• Causes oxidation
• Is itself reduced
1024
Reducing Agent
• Causes reduction
• Is itself oxidized
1025
REDOX REACTIONS
Lab: Copper or Aluminum Foil
In this lab, student try to explain what happens when copper chloride is placed in water,
and how aluminum foil place in that solution reacts. Key Concept: Oxidation-reduction
reactions occur when there is a transfer of electrons between reactants. Objectives: 1)
Explain what occurs when copper chloride is placed in water. 2) Observe and describe
what occurs when aluminum foil is placed into a beaker of copper chloride solution.
http://www.chemistry.org/portal/resources/ACS/ACSContent/education/wande/resourcec
hem/ reactions/CRAct_10.pdf
1026
Name: ____________________________________
Group: _________________________Block #: ___
Date: _____________________________________
Exceed to Succeed
Oxidation Number Party

Fill in the correct oxidation number for each element. Not every box will be filled; use
only the ones you need.
H S O N Mn Ca Cl K Li
Ca
Ca2+
H2 S
H2
O2-
Cl-
NH3
K
H2SO3
H2SO4
H2 O
O2
HNO3
NO
NO2
Ca3N2
Li3N
KMnO4
MnO2
MnCl2
MnO4-
SO42-
NO2-
NO3-
1027
Oxidation – Reduction Reactions
For #s 1 – 6, consider each of the following atom/ion pairs and indicate how many
electrons have been gained or lost, balance the reaction if necessary, and tell if that
represents oxidation or reduction:
(1) Mn+7 → Mn+2
(2) Cl2 → Cl-
(3) Fe+2 → Fe+3
(4) S-2 → S
(5) Cu+ → Cu+2
(6) Br- → Br2
For #s 7 – 10: (1) assign oxidation numbers to each atom in the following reactions; (2)
write the oxidation and reduction half reactions; (3) identify the oxidizing agent &
reducing agent.
1028
(7) Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn+2(aq) + Cu(s)
oxidation half reaction:
reduction half reaction:
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
(8) Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(s)
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
1029
(9) Mg(s) + Ca2+(aq) → Mg+2(aq) + Ca(s)
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
(10) Fe(s) + Ni3+(aq) → Fe+2(aq) + Fe(s)
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
1030
(11) SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
(12) NO(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq)
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
Redox Reactions & the Activity Series

Directions: Using the activity series in your notes, determine if the following single
replacement reactions will occur. If no, simply write “NR” for No Reaction. If the
reaction will occur, then: (1) predict the products of the reaction; (2) balance the
1031
reaction; (3) identify the substances oxidized and reduced; (4) identify the oxidising and
reducing agents; and (5) write the oxidation and reduction half reactions.
(1) Zn(s) + KF(aq) →
(2) I2(g) + KBr(aq) →
(3) Ca(s) + Mg(OH)2(aq) →
(4) Na(s) + CaI2(aq) →
(5) Cl2(s) + NaBr(aq) →
1032
(6) Mg(g) + KI(aq) →
(7) Cu(s) + AgOH(aq) →
(copper here is copper (II) )
(8) Co(s) + Ni(NO3)2(aq) →
(cobalt here is cobalt (III) )
Oxidation-Reduction Review
( 1) What does the acronym OIL RIG stand for? Explain what that means.
1033
(2) For each of the following redox reactions, show how many electrons are added, & on
which side, and indicate whether oxidation or reduction has occurred.
a. Ca2+ → Ca _____________________
b. O2- → O2 _____________________
c. Pb+2 → Pb+4 _____________________
(3) Is the following a redox reaction? (You do not need to balance this reaction).
If no, write “No” and in one sentence say why not.
If yes, write “Yes” and in one sentence say how you know that.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO4
(4) Consider the following reaction, and write the oxidation & reduction half reactions,
and identify the oxidizing and reducing agents:
Ni+2(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu+2(aq) + Ni(s)
oxidation:
1034
reduction:
oxidizing agent:
reducing agent:
(5) Would the electrolysis of water be spontaneous or non-spontaneous?
(6) Write an equation illustrating that corrosion is an example of a redox reaction. Show
oxidation numbers for all atoms, stating which elements were oxidized and reduced.
_____________ was oxidized. _____________ was reduced.
(7) Write an equation illustrating that combustion is a redox reaction. Show oxidation
numbers for all atoms, stating which elements were oxidized and reduced.
_____________ was oxidized. _____________ was reduced.
(8) For the following diagram showing an electrochemical cell, correctly label:
the direction of electron flow

the direction of cation flow across the salt bridge
1035
Which metal bar is the anode? ______________________
Which electrode (metal bar) is getting larger? ______________________
What is happening to the concentration of copper ions?

_______________________________
Why do cations move in the direction you indicated above?
1036
(9) Would an electrochemical cell (such as a battery) be spontaneous or non-
spontaneous?
(10) Electroplating is an example of electrolysis. Suppose you were goldplating a

quarter (made from copper and zinc. The quarter, suspended in the gold (II) nitrate
solution, quickly becomes plated with gold. Would the quarter be the anode or cathode?
Briefly explain how you know.
CHEMISTRY: Redox, Chemical and Physical Changes, and Atomic Spectra Unit
Basic Level: (Maximum of 70 points for this section. Can move on with 65 points.)
(1) Listen to the Lecture; take notes (5 pts./day) Thurs Fri Mon Tues
(2) ***REQUIRED: Redox Practice Worksheet (15 pts)
(3) Be able to identify the species oxidized, species reduced, oxidizing agent, and
reducing agent for any redox reaction. Also, be able to write the oxidation and reduction
half reactions. Your teacher will give you the rxn when you are ready. (20 pts)
(4) Do problem #22 on page 713. Do it well. (15 pts)
(5) Read pg. 67-71 in the book. Write a paragraph summary of what you learned. (15
pts)
(6) Make a colorful poster that shows the indicators of a chemical change. Use pictures!
(20 pts)
(7) Think of two classroom demonstrations that show a physical change and a chemical
change. Do them for the class. (15 pts)
(8) Do one or two of the green worksheets. (10 pts each)
1037
(9) Do problems #21 and #25 on page 157. (10 pts)
(10) Make a poster that shows the Hydrogen atomic spectra. Include an example of
radiation absorption and radiation emission. (20 pts)
(11) Give a speech to the class on why light is considered a particle and a wave. (15 pts)
(12) Write a song about redox reactions. (15 pts)
(13) Write a story that includes at least 10 physical changes and 10 chemical changes.
(20 pts)
Explore Level: (20pts)
(1) ***REQUIRED: What metals are the most reactive? (Activity Series Lab)
Rock Star Level (Choose one only – 10 pts) Use Rock Star Assignment Sheet.
(1) What brand of battery is the best?
(2) Redox reactions are very useful in the world around us, and are therefore very
important to learn about. However, are they too difficult for a high school chemistry
class? Why or why not?
(3) Is Albert Einstein the most brilliant scientist to ever have lived?
1038
Coll_rmlucas - Amino Acids Reference
AMINO ACIDS
Alanine - The second simplest amino acid, but used the most in proteins.
beta-Alanine - The only naturally occurring beta amino acid.
Arginine - Amino acid often used at the active sites of enzymes.
Asparagine - Amide derivative of aspartic acid.
Aspartic Acid - Important intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
Carnitine - Unusual amino acid that carries fatty acids into mitochondria.
Citrulline - An amino acid that works to detoxify and eliminate unwanted ammonia.
Cysteine - Thiol containing amino acid involved in active sites and protein tertiary structure determination.
Cystine - Oxidation product of cysteine that holds proteins together.
gamma-Aminobutyric Acid - Decarboxylated amino acid that helps you chill out.
Glutamic Acid - Negatively charged amino acid found on the surface of proteins.
Glutamine - The only amino acid with the ability to easily cross the barrier between blood and brain tissue.
Glutathione - Small peptide that helps dump free radicals.
Glycine - Simplest amino acid that also acts as a neurotransmitter antagonist.
Histidine - Amino acid responsible for histamine biosynthesis.
Hydroxyproline - Important amino acid used in structural proteins like collagen.
Isoleucine - Hydrophobic amino acid used almost exclusively in protein and enzyme construction.
Leucine - Another hydrophobic amino acid used almost exclusively in protein and enzyme construction.
Lysine - An essential amino acid with a positive charge on the aliphatic side chain.
Methionine - An essential amino acid that helps initiate protein synthesis.
Ornithine - Critical member of the amino acids in the urea cycle.
Phenylalanine - Most common aromatic amino acid found in proteins.
Proline - Cyclic aliphatic amino acid used in the synthesis of collagen.
Serine - Amino acid alcohol found in the active site of serine proteases.
Taurine - Mercaptan-containing amino acid that is involved in bile acid biochemistry.
Threonine - Amino acid alcohol involved in porphyrin metabolism.
Tryptophan - Aromatic amino acid used the least frequently in proteins.
Tyrosine - Hydroxyphenyl amino acid that is used to build neurotransmitters and hormones.
Valine - Hydrophobic aliphatic amino acid used to hold proteins together.
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1039

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!"#$%&'()*#%+,#-.

CHEMISTRY DIAGNOSTIC (Beginning)

2) On this graph, what is a dependent variable?

3) What is the independent variable?

5) Give a reason for this relationship.

10) How many centimeters (cm) are in a meter? ________________________

11) A meter is a measurement of what? _________________________

12) How many kiloliters are in a liter? ________________________

13) Please write 6,030,000,000 in scientific notation

15) What are the 3 phases of matter?

18) What is an atom?

20) What is different between an atom of gold and an atom of silver?

21) What is an isotope?

22) What is an ion?

24) What is the difference between an endothermic and an exothermic reaction?

26) What is the pH of an acid? _______________ A base?

27) Draw an electron dot model of Chlorine.

29) What is the difference between ionic and covalent bonds?

Lab Equipment Matching

Equipment Discovery Sheet

____Funnel – Used to transfer liquids into small mouthed containers

____Graduated Cylinder – Used for measuring the volume of liquids

____Goggles – Used to protect eyes

____Wash Bottle – Used to dispense H2O for rinsing and washing.

____Mortar and Pestle – Used to grind solids into a fine powder.

____Pasteur Pipettes – Used to dispense small amounts of liquids, dropwise

____Bunsen Burner – Used to produce a flame for heating materials

____Test tube Clamp – Used for grabbing hot test tubes

____Ring stand Clamp – Attached to a ring stand to hold items

____Lab Apron – Worn to protect user from splashes and spills

____Safety Shower – Safety item used in case of an emergency to rinse student

____Burette – Used for dispensing measured amounts of a liquid, dropwise

____Volumetric Flask – Used to create known concentrations of a solution of a certain

____Crucible Tongs – Used to move items that have been heated

____Crucible – Used for heating solids to extreme temperatures

____Ring Stand – Used to hold items above a flame for heating

____Thermometer – Used to measure temperature.

____Pipette – Used to transfer exact volumes of a liquid.

Worst Case Scenario Project

Lab Safety Video Preparation (30 pts)

Actor # 4 (or cueman):

We will provide: Mr. Boland Please Provide:

Continue on back if necessary

Period Group Rule Violated Was it addressed in

Choose the setting for your video:

Write your dialogue:

ON A SEPARATE SHEET A PAPER, WRITE THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN YOUR

2. Briefly describe your Worst-Case Laboratory Scenario:

4. What is at least 1 way to safely resolve the worst-case scenario?

Student Name __________________________________________

We will provide: Mr. Boland Please Provide:

Event Special Effect Solution

Decanting – gradually pouring off liquid from a mixture.

Volumetric Flasks/Graduated Cylinder

2) Put a drop of water between two overhead slides. What happens?

2) Scrub with the brush.

3) Rinse THREE times with water.

How do you dispense a KNOWN amount of liquid from a burette?

Mortar and Pestle

b. ______ A good procedure for trying to identify a substance in lab is to take

a big whiff of it and see what it smells like.

c. --______ You should never horse around in lab.

and see what kind of animal it is.

→ +