Bismillh ar-Rahmn, ar-Rahm

Au nom de Dieu le Clment,

le Misricordieux
par Dr Ahmad Badreddine Hassoun,
Grand Mufti dAlep

D
ieu a dot lhomme des sens afin quil soit un
trait dunion entre lunivers, avec tout ce quil
comporte comme causes et accidents, et son
monde intrieur avec ses sentiments, sensations et
qualits. Dieu a plac dans sa merveilleuse cration
quest le corps humain de formidables nergies et
de subtiles sensations. Il en a fait lcho de causes
extrieures et intrieures. Les sons provenant de
lunivers ont provoqu des effets vidents sur les
ractions de lhomme, ses sentiments voire ses mou-
vements. Lunivers qui nous entoure met de faon
permanente les mlodies les plus douces. Les arbres
et les branches des arbres en balanant, les fleurs en
dansant et les oiseaux en chantant diffusent les airs
divins les plus merveilleux et interprtent les mlo-
dies les plus exquises. Ils sadressent ainsi aux tres
dont les curs sont purs et les mes clestes par des
signes qui disent leur bonheur et expriment leur sens
profond de ladoration. Cest pour cela que lImam
al Ghazali a dit : celui qui na pas t remu par les
fleurs du printemps et les cordes du luth a une me
corrompue pour laquelle il nexiste pas de remde.
Je nai pas rencontr damoureux sincre dont lme
baigne dans le firmament de lamour ternel de Dieu
et dont le cur a t purifi par sa lumire sans
que cet amour nait surgi en lui partir de la parole
pleine de bont et de la mlodie cleste rythme
dbordante issue de Dieu. Cest ainsi que lunivers a
t entour par son Crateur de splendides enceintes
faites des chants les plus suaves de lexistence et
dune musique manant des cordes sensibles du cur
qui reoit de lamour dbordant de Dieu lhymne de la
foi et du bonheur ternel.
Traduit de larabe par Saadane Benbabaali
Professeur Paris III
2
 Le sam,
audition et entendement

L
orsquils sorganisrent en confrries soufies au dbut du ixe
sicle, les mystiques musulmans adoptrent la musique comme
support de mditation, comme moyen daccder des tats de
grce ou dextase, ou simplement pour nourrir lme cest--dire
rgnrer le corps et lesprit fatigus par les rigueurs de lascse. Le
sam, qui signifie littralement audition, dsigne dans le soufisme
cette tradition dcoute spirituelle de musique et de chants, dans des
formes trs varies et ritualises des degrs divers.
Le sens mme du terme sam suggre que cest bien ici lcoute
qui est spirituelle, sans que la musique ou la posie aient forcment un
caractre sacr. L audition peut dailleurs porter sur tout son, naturel,
artificiel, ou artistique, ainsi que sur les sons subtils du monde cach ou
du cosmos. Dans son sens minent, laudition est synonyme d entende-
ment, cest--dire comprhension et acceptation de lappel divin, ce qui
peut aller jusqu lextase, le ravissement, le dvoilement des mystres.
Donner un contenu lextase et une signification la musique,
tel fut le premier souci des mystiques musulmans. Il sagissait aussi
de rpondre aux docteurs qui prtendaient proscrire cette pratique,
et de mettre en garde les novices qui risquaient de ny voir quun
divertissement. On invoqua des mythes fondateurs, tels que celui du
Pacte Primordial (Alast), o Dieu interroge les descendants dAdam
contenus en puissance dans ses reins : Ne suis-je pas votre Seigneur
? (alastu bi rabbikum), quoi tout homme a rpondu dans la pr-
ternit oui je latteste. De nos jours encore, les hymnes mevlevi
modulent une rponse extatique la voix suave du Crateur dont la
musique est lallgorie : Oui, mon me, oui mon Seigneur, oui mon
Aim... (Bal jnam, bal miram bal dust). On attribua le premier
sam musical aux anges qui parvinrent par ce stratagme capturer
lme extasie dAdam et lenfermer dans le corps. Le renverse-
ment de ce mythe est que la musique peut aussi permettre lme
du mystique de svader du corps et de saffranchir des contingences
du temps et de lespace. La musique est donc lcho sensible du verbe
Divin, des sons angliques, clestes (le vent du paradis ou le grince-
ment de sa porte), ou cosmiques (lharmonie des sphres). Dans les

3
spculations gnostiques, elle est un lment de lordre du monde et,
par le biais des intervalles, elle tire son essence de lharmonie des
sphres et des nombres, donc de lIntelligible.
Certains grands cheikhs ont us trs modrment de la musique tan-
dis que dautres taient des passionns de sam et de danse. Trs rares
furent ceux qui expressment dconseillrent cette pratique, et mme
les tenants de la tendance sobre du soufisme, contrairement certains
oulmas, ne se prononcrent jamais contre la musique en gnral. En
revanche, la plupart dentre eux insistrent sur la faon dcouter. Dans
le grand dbat sur la musique, sa licit et son bon usage, qui durant des
sicles opposa les soufis et les puritains, cest bien davantage laudition
plutt que la musique elle-mme qui est prise en considration. Tu as
besoin de loreille du cur, pas de celle du corps, dit Mawln Rm
(xiiie s.) propos du sam. Il en va de mme pour la posie, souvent
mise en musique : il faut couter ces paroles par le cur et lme; il
ne faut pas les couter avec son soi deau et de terre, dit Attr. Plus
prcisment les derviches sont gnralement invits runir certaines
conditions afin de tirer tout le bnfice du sam. Selon Semnni (m.
en 1336) il sagit : - davoir renonc au monde - davoir renonc aux
dsirs - davoir lutt contre son soi imprieux - de pratiquer la rem-
moration dhikr - de considrer Dieu prsent - de voir tout dun il
pur. Il faut aussi un temps propice - un endroit propice - ne pas laisser
participer les jeunes gens - ne pas se forcer sagiter ou au contraire
rester tranquille mais, comme le prconisent les soufis fils de linstant,
se comporter tel que le moment (waqt) le commande.
Dans lensemble, ces recommandations dfinissent galement,
semble-t-il, les conditions optimum dune coute purement esth-
tique, tant il est vrai que lexprience de la Beaut et lexprience du
Sacr sont deux voies convergentes vers lapprhension du divin.

Jean During,
chercheur au CNRS, ethnomusicologue

B ibliographie :
Musique et extase, laudition mystique
dans les traditions soufies par Jean During,
d. Albin Michel

4
 La Syrie,
terre des prophtes

La Voie Soufie

O
n demanda au grand matre Junayd pourquoi les soufis prou-
vaient une forte motion spirituelle et sagitaient pendant
laudition de la musique sacre. Quand Dieu, rpondit-il, a
demand aux mes dans le monde spirituel, lors du Pacte primordial :
Ne suis-je point votre Seigneur ?, les mes furent pntres par la
douceur du discours divin. Quand elle entendent la musique, ce sou-
venir les rveille et les fait se mouvoir.

L a S yrie , T erre des P rophtes

La Syrie actuelle fait partie dune rgion, autrefois unifie sur le plan
culturel et politique, que lon appelle parfois Grande Syrie, ou Bild
al-Shm, et qui englobait galement la Jordanie, la Palestine et Isral
ainsi que le Liban. Le Bild al-Shm est donc la terre des prophtes,

5
et lIslam, hritier des monothismes proche-orientaux, a pu labo-
rer sa spiritualit et ses pratiques dvotionnelles sur cette topographie
immmoriale du sacr. Le prophte Muhammad lui-mme aurait
vant les vertus de cette rgion, et aurait incit ses Compagnons
sy tablir. La position centrale de la Syrie dans laire musulmane
explique limportance quelle a toujours eue pour la culture isla-
mique. Ds les premiers sicles de lHgire, une cole spirituelle, lie
au zuhd (dtachement, renoncement) voit le jour, mais le sou-
fisme syrien sera surtout aliment par lIrak. Les grandes confrries
qui y naissent au xiie sicle,
telles que la Qdiriyya, exer-
cent une empreinte profonde
sur le paysage initiatique
syrien : mme le thologien
Ibn Taymiyya (m. en 1328),
rput tort tre oppos la
mystique, saffilie lordre
de Abd al-Qdir al-Jln.

D amas , refuge des S aints

La tradition islamique a
rserv Damas une place
de choix dans son espace
spirituel ; il nest qu
parcourir les nombreux
ouvrages crits sur les
mrites distinctifs (Fadil)
de la ville pour sen rendre
compte. Le Prophte lavait
dcrite comme une terre
dlection, refuge des saints pour tous les temps. De fait, certains
de ses descendants y reposent, tels que Sayyida Zaynab, fille de
limam Al, et Sayyida Ruqayya, fille de limam al-Hussein. Sur
le mont Qassyoun, qui domine la ville, plusieurs centaines de
prophtes auraient sjourn ou seraient morts, et certains cheikhs
parcouraient ses pentes chaque vendredi, marchant pieds nus par
respect pour les savants et les saints qui y sont enterrs. Damas
est lune des plus anciennes mtropoles de lIslam, qui a tou-
jours attir les personnalits religieuses. Ghazl, par exemple, y
sjourna prs de deux ans, lors de sa priode de qute mystique.
Il y tait, nous dit-il, consacr la retraite et la solitude, aux
exercices et aux combats spirituels.

6
 I bn A rab

Le Grand Matre Ibn Arab, quant lui, sy est fix, aprs une
longue prgrination qui commena en Andalousie. Son mausole
est situ sur les pentes du mont Qassyoun, dans lancien faubourg
de Salihiyye, ou faubourg des saints. Il attire des plerins venus
du monde entier. Le rayonnement du matre se mesure dans le fait
que le quartier o il est enterr porte son nom : Sidi Muhy ad-Dn,
le vivificateur de la religion. Lendroit est en effet un lieu de
vie permanent, du march
qui court dans les venelles
avoisinantes au terminus
des bus de la ligne Cheikh
Muhy ad-Dn. Mais il nen a
pas toujours t ainsi : de sa
mort, en 1240, jusqu lar-
rive des Ottomans, la per-
sonne dIbn Arab fut lob-
jet dun opprobre de la part
des juristes damascnes,
car ceux-ci ne compre-
naient pas son uvre, trs
audacieuse sur le plan doc-
trinal. Ces censeurs avaient
impos leur point de vue
la population ; nous avons
ainsi plusieurs tmoignages
montrant que la tombe du
matre servait de dpotoir, et
que ses adversaires urinaient
Confrrie Mawlawiyya - Damas, vers 1930
dessus ! Lorsque le sultan
ottoman Slim prend Damas
aux Mamelouks, en 1516, un de ses premiers ordres est ddifier un
complexe monumental (mausole, mosque, etc.) sur la tombe dIbn
Arab. Depuis ses origines en effet (xive sicle), la dynastie ottomane
avait pris fait et cause pour le matre andalou et sa doctrine mta-
physique.

C heikh A rsln , saint protecteur de D amas

Mais le saint le plus enracin dans la ville, celui que la tradition

damascne dsigne comme le protecteur de Damas et sa rgion, est
Cheikh Arsln, qui construisit au xiie sicle son ribt hors les murs,

7
 lendroit o le chef de larme musulmane, Khlid Ibn al-Wald,
stait install aprs avoir pris Damas aux Byzantins (en 635). Cheikh
Arsln y pratiqua les deux jihd : le jihd mineur, cest--dire la
lutte arme contre les Croiss qui cherchaient semparer de la ville,
et surtout le jihd majeur, soit le combat quil mena contre son me
charnelle pour lamener steindre en Dieu. Jusqu une poque
rcente, ltranger allait rendre visite au saint ds son arrive
Damas, afin de lui demander lautorisation dentrer dans la ville.
Le souverain zenkide Nr ad-Dn, qui ceignit Damas de ses
murailles encore visibles, se fit le hraut de lIslam sunnite, la fois
contre les Croiss et les Fatimides chiites du Caire. Contemporain de
Cheikh Arsln, il nourrissait pour celui-ci une vnration telle quil
se fit enterrer avec un morceau de la scie ayant appartenu au saint,
menuisier de son tat. Ce souverain est le seul parmi les chefs tempo-
rels jouir auprs des Damascnes dune aura de saintet. Des cr-
monies soufies se tiennent rgulirement chez lui, mais il est aussi
visit pour un but prcis : roi quitable de son vivant, il veille main-
tenant encore la justice, et les gens qui sestiment spolis sadres-
sent lui. Saladin, autre prince pieux et dfenseur de lIslam tre
enterr Damas, a droit moins dgards de la part de la population,
sans doute parce que son souvenir est davantage li lEgypte. Nr
ad-Dn, Saladin, ou encore le grand sultan mamelouk Baybars, sont
enterrs proximit de la Mosque des Omeyyades. Les hommes
du pouvoir temporel, en effet, cherchaient frquemment pour leur
demeure dernire la protection de lieux chargs de sacralit : difices
religieux vnrables, tombes de saints...

Jusqu ce jour jignorais mon Bien-Aim

Puisque ma religion de la sienne tait loigne
LAmour, dsormais, est ma seule croyance
O que se dirige sa caravane,
lAmour sera ma religion et ma foi

Laqad kuntu qabla al-yawn (Ibn al-Arab)

CD1 Plage 11
10
 L a G rande M osque des O meyyades de D amas

La Grande Mosque des Omeyyades tmoigne elle seule de la

profondeur historique et de la permanence de la sacralit de Damas
: elle est btie sur les fondations dun temple grec, puis romain qui
devint une glise avant dtre transform en lieu de culte islamique.
Acheve au dbut du viiie sicle, elle a toujours t le foyer de la vie
religieuse et spirituelle de la ville intra-muros. Lhritage prophtique
dont se rclame lIslam sy manifeste de faon tangible, car le sanc-
tuaire du prophte Yahya (Jean-Baptiste) est enchss au cur de
ldifice. La tradition rapporte que la tte de Yahya aurait t trouve
de faon fortuite, lors des travaux qui eurent lieu sous le califat dal-
Wald (m. en 715). Ce sanctuaire reoit un flux continu de visiteurs
et de plerins, et on sollicite le prophte pour toutes sortes de vux.
Lendroit serait galement un haut lieu de lsotrisme islamique :
certains initis affirment quil sy tient chaque vendredi laube le
dwn awliy al-Shm, ou conseil des saints de Syrie, invisibles
aux yeux des profanes, et qui protgent et gouvernent la ville et
sa rgion. Quoi quil en soit, des ordres soufis y effectuent rgulire-
ment des sances de dhikr, comme ils le font dailleurs dans dautres
mosques de la ville. La mystique damascne, en effet, revt un
caractre trs orthodoxe, et est intgre dans la vie religieuse. Les
ulmas et muftis de la ville ne sont-ils pas eux-mmes souvent des
matres soufis ? Il nest donc pas tonnant que cette dimension spiri-
tuelle de lIslam ait investi la Mosque des Omeyyades.
Ancre dans un pass immmorial, la Mosque doit galement jouer
un grand rle eschatologique. Pour lIslam, Jsus nest pas mort sur la
croix, mais il a t lev vivant aux cieux. Il en redescendra la fin des
temps pour combattre lAntchrist, en jugeant selon la loi islamique. Or,
la tradition affirme que le Messie arrivera sur terre Damas, sur un des
minarets de la Mosque, appel prcisment minaret de Jsus. Ghazl
rapporte quil sy enfermait pour y passer la journe.

L e S oufisme dans l I slam

Dieu, dans le Coran, est prsent la fois comme lExtrieur (al-

Zhir) et lIntrieur (al-Btin). Ces deux noms divins rvlent eux
seuls la plnitude et le souci dquilibre qui caractrise lIslam : il
ny a pas de religion exotrique authentique sans sotrisme, mais il
ny a pas non plus dsotrisme authentique en-dehors dune forme
religieuse reconnue. De toute vidence, lIslam nest pas cette reli-
gion lgaliste, ritualiste que lon nous montre trop souvent. LIslam
bien vcu dlivre avant tout un message de misricorde, de beaut et

11
dharmonie. La force spirituelle qui se dgage des chants de Hamza
Shakkr nous invite pntrer dans la tradition mystique de lIslam
: le soufisme.
Loin dtre un aspect excentrique ou marginal de lIslam, le
soufisme reprsente au contraire son cur vivifiant, son noyau
sotrique quentourent la pulpe et lcorce de lexotrisme. Il est, si
lon veut, le fruit de la rencontre entre la verticalit, primordiale et
universelle, de la Sagesse ternelle, et de lhorizontalit bien tablie
de lIslam, en tant que religion paracheve, avec ses dogmes, ses
rites, etc. Mais mille autres dfinitions, disent les matres, peuvent
tre donnes du soufisme. Pour rendre compte de la pluralit des
dimensions de lIslam, ils utilisent aussi le symbole gomtrique
du cercle. La circonfrence reprsente la Shara, la Loi rvle
quil appartient tout musulman de suivre. La plupart des hommes
restent toute leur vie sur la circonfrence, cest--dire dans lob-
servance extrieure de la religion. Seuls certains entreprendront le
voyage initiatique qui consiste se rendre vers le centre du cercle,
o rside la Haqqa ; ralit divine et ralit de toute chose, celle-
ci est la fois partout et nulle part. Pour cela, ils doivent emprunter
une des voies, ou rayons, conduisant au centre : cest la Tarqa,
terme qui signifie la Voie.

L a V oie S oufie : T arqa

Selon ladage soufi, il y a autant de chemins menant Dieu que

de fils dAdam, chacun peut progresser sur la Tarqa selon ses
prdispositions et sa modalit propres. Si la Haqqa existe immua-
blement per se, il est vident que ltre contingent ne peut y accder
qu partir de la Shara : lune et lautre, assurent les matres, sont
deux aspects dune seule et mme ralit. Des rites tels que la prire,
le jene ou le plerinage sont en fait des montures spirituelles pour
ceux qui en peroivent le symbolisme et le sens sotrique.
La Voie soufie consiste en un processus initiatique devant ame-
ner laspirant (murd) gravir lchelle de la hirarchie universelle
de ltre. Potentiellement, celui-ci a en effet laptitude de devenir
lHomme parfait. Il a pour modle le Prophte, qui fut port lors
de son Ascension nocturne (Mirj) jusqu la Prsence divine. Le
parcours de la Voie est sem dembches, car le novice na pas le dis-
cernement ncessaire pour dissiper les illusions quentretient son ego
ni pour djouer les piges de Satan. Les faveurs divines elle-mmes,
telles que les miracles, se rvlent pernicieuses si elles le dtournent
de sa progression sur la Voie. Il lui faut donc se placer sous la direc-
tion dun guide, car qui na pas de matre a Satan pour matre.

12
 L e C heikh , guide spirituel

La fonction du cheikh est daider le disciple traverser les diff-

rentes stations initiatiques (maqmt), qui correspondent autant
de vertus spirituelles. Lui-mme, il va sans dire, les a parcourues.
Les auteurs du soufisme distinguent ces stations, fruit de la disci-
pline initiatique (mujhada), et qui restent acquises pour celui qui
les a atteintes, des tats spirituels (ahwl) fluctuants et phmres,
qui surviennent chez le mystique sans quil les ait suscits. Tous les
matres insistent sur la sincrit et la puret dintention requises
de laspirant, lequel devra traquer dans les recoins de son me la
moindre trace de complaisance pour lui-mme, la moindre consi-
dration pour les uvres pieuses quil accomplit. Mais l rside la
difficult : tant que lhomme na pas atteint un certain niveau de
contemplation, il se peroit encore comme adorant Dieu, comme
tant sincre, etc.
Du dbut jusquau terme de sa qute spirituelle, le soufi a pour
modle le Prophte. Cest lui le Matre des matres, et les multiples
matres du tasawwuf, en effet, ne sont jamais que ses reprsentants.
Entretenant gnralement un lien subtil avec lui, ils puisent son
influx spirituel (baraka), qui provient de Dieu. Lun dentre eux les
compara autant de lunes, qui rflchissent sur terre la lumire du
soleil quest le Prophte. Do limportance, dans les ordres soufis, de
la chane initiatique (silsila) par laquelle les cheikhs transmettent de
gnration en gnration cette baraka jusqu nos jours. Cest pour-
quoi les diffrentes voies initiatiques, ou ordres soufis (turuq), sont
perues comme autant dexpressions particulires de la Voie muham-
madienne (al-tarq al-muhammadiyya).

L e D hikr , remmoration du divin

Paralllement son rattachement un matre et, au-del, la

source muhammadienne, laspirant recourt des mthodes qui doi-
vent le conduire la ralisation spirituelle. Hormis le fikr, mdita-
tion sur les signes (yt) par lesquels Dieu Se fait connatre dans
lunivers et en nous-mmes (cf. Coran XLI, 53), les soufis sattachent
au dhikr, terme-cl du lexique coranique qui signifie la fois se
remmorer et invoquer Dieu. Le dhikr a une dimension cosmologique
trs profonde car il incite se souvenir du Pacte (mthq) scell entre
Dieu et les hommes dans la pr-ternit, avant lincarnation sur terre
: Ne suis-Je point votre Seigneur ? Ils dirent : oui, nous en tmoi-
gnons (Coran VII, 172) : par cette rminiscence que constitue le
dhikr, le mystique cherche revivre lexprience du jour du Pacte,

14
 La plainte de la colombe sur la branche ma attrist
Voyant lardeur de mon amour, sur mon sort le censeur a pleur.
La colombe se plaint cause de la douleur de lloignement
Quant moi, cest par crainte de Dieu le Clment.
Il ny a point lieu de me blmer si je pleure,
Car dans la dsobissance, je me suis longtemps gar.
Seigneur, Ton serviteur craint les tourments de Ta punition
Et pour chapper aux brasiers de lenfer, auprs de Toi, il se rfugie.
Piti, pour celui que Ton mal afflige et qui Te supplie.
Accorde-lui aujourdhui la faveur de Ton pardon.

Nawhu al-hamam (Ibn al-Bura i)

CD1 Plage 11

qui a prcd la cration et donc la sparation des tres de Dieu.

Les sances daudition collective de chant et de musique (sam),
ou encore la flte de roseau (ney) de Rm, le fondateur des der-
viches tourneurs, jouent le mme rle : rappeler avec nostalgie ltat
dunion primordial.
Pour invoquer Dieu, le novice prouve le besoin de se retirer du
monde ; la pratique de la retraite (khalwa) rpond cette ncessit.
Par la suite, lorsque lhomme sest suffisamment empli de Dieu, il
peut Le mentionner en toute circonstance, mme au milieu de la
foule (jalwa). Les auteurs distinguent souvent trois tapes dans lin-
triorisation du dhikr, mais dautres subdivisions existent : au dhikr
de la langue, fruit de la volont, doit faire place le dhikr du
cur. A ce stade, la conscience est encore maintenue et ce nest que
dans le dhikr de lintime (sirr) quelle disparat : la dualit entre
le sujet qui invoque et lobjet de linvocation est alors abolie. Les
soufis utilisent des modalits diffrentes dans leur pratique du dhikr,
la plus connue en Occident tant la danse circulaire des derviches
tourneurs, qui symbolise la rotation des plantes autour du soleil.
Leurs techniques se singularisent par exemple par linvocation dun
nom divin particulier, ou par la rptition dune formule prcise, gar-
de parfois secrte. Certaines voies initiatiques pratiquent le dhikr

15
haute voix tandis que dautres le font intrieurement. Leurs membres
se runissent rgulirement pour participer un dhikr collectif. Ces
sances sont souvent nommes hadra car le participant doit sentir
la prsence (hadra) subtile du Prophte, qui est le vritable matre
de la crmonie : par cet intermdiaire, le soufi est introduit dans la
Prsence divine.

L es O rigines du S oufisme

Les termes sf et
tasawwuf ne figurent ni dans
le Coran ni dans la Tradition
du Prophte. La raison nous
en est donne par un matre
du xie sicle : du vivant du
Prophte et de ses Com-
pagnons, le soufisme tait
une ralit sans nom alors
quil est maintenant un nom
sans ralit, affirmait-il.
Cest lorsque la lumire de
la prophtie sest loigne
que les saints musulmans,
hritiers des prophtes, ont
d jouer un rle de guide de
plus en plus apparent dans la
socit. Peut-tre le soufisme,
ses dbuts, a-t-il reu au
Proche-Orient linfluence des
pres du dsert chrtiens,
ou en Asie centrale celles du
bouddhisme et de lhindouisme. Quoi quil en soit, les orientalistes
saccordent dsormais donner au soufisme une origine coranique et
muhammadienne. Les soufis suivent dailleurs lexemple du Prophte
en vitant la vie dermite, en se mariant et en ayant des enfants (sans
compter leurs disciples, qui sont leurs enfants spirituels).
Les expriences pionnires ont lieu durant les trois premiers
sicles. Par exemple, Bistm (m. en 877) reprsente le caractre
ivre du soufisme, tandis que Junayd (m. en 911) en incarne le
versant lucide, etc. Au cours de cette phase dexploration, certains
mystiques contrlent mal leurs dbordements dextase, ce qui choque
les docteurs de la Loi et entrane le procs de plusieurs soufis : Hallj
est supplici en 922 Bagdad. Par la suite, les soufis savent tirer

16
leon de ce procs, et se montrent plus prudents dans leur expres-
sion mystique. Dsormais, des savants musulmans qui font autorit
saffilient au soufisme, et en montrent la parfaite orthodoxie ; cest
le cas du grand Ghazl (m. en 1111), dont le parcours personnel
aura valeur dexemple: savant renomm de Bagdad, il traverse une
profonde crise intrieure ; aprs avoir quitt toutes ses fonctions, il
voyage durant plusieurs annes et trouve dans le soufisme la dli-
vrance. Dans son sillage sinscriront de nombreux savants soufis
cherchant raliser losmose entre la Loi et la Voie. partir du xiie
sicle, la culture islamique
est donc fortement impr-
gne par le soufisme.

L es C onfrries M ystiques ,
ordres
initiatiques soufis

Cest cette poque que

se constituent les ordres sou-
fis, ou confrries (tarqa, quil
faudrait traduire par voie
initiatique). La relation de
matre disciple revt une
grande importance ds les
dbuts du soufisme, mais les
dmarches demeurent gn-
ralement individuelles et il
est rare quun aspirant reste
toujours auprs du mme
cheikh. Pour de multiples rai-
sons, la relation initiatique
entre matre et disciple se
systmatise et se structure progressivement partir du xiie sicle.
Le soufisme, qui attire alors un nombre sans cesse croissant de per-
sonnes, revt un aspect communautaire de plus en plus prononc
; les disciples se fixent maintenant autour de grands matres qui
proposent un enseignement particulier et font cole. Apparaissent
notamment en Irak la Qdiriya (de Abd al-Qdir al-Jln) et la
Rifiya (dAhmad al-Rif), en Turquie la Mawlawiya (les derviches
tourneurs de Mawlana Jall al-Dn Rm), en Egypte lAhmadiya
(dAhmad al-Badaw) et la Shdhiliya (dAb l-Hasan al-Shdhil),
en Asie centrale la Naqshbandiya (de Bah al-Dn Naqshband), etc.
Laspirant se rattache un ordre en prenant le pacte avec le matre
de cet ordre ; il a alors des oraisons rciter quotidiennement,

17
souvent adaptes sa propre volution. Il participe aux sances collec-
tives de dhikr, qui ont lieu dans des mosques ou dans des btiments
appartenant la confrrie (appels gnralement zwiyas).
Paralllement cet essor des ordres soufis se dveloppe un sou-
fisme fortement mtaphysique, dont les formulations sotriques
sont souvent rejetes par les juristes de lIslam. Le Grand Matre
(al-Shaykh al-Akbar) Ibn Arab (m. en 1240) en constitue le meilleur
reprsentant, puisque ce matre a influenc tous les courants soufis
aprs lui. De nos jours, son rayonnement sexerce mme dans les
milieux non-musulmans dOccident. Cette doctrine spirituelle trs
raffine est galement distille dans la posie mystique, dont lEgyp-
tien Ibn al-Frid (m. en 1235), contemporain dIbn Arab, est un
minent reprsentant.

L e M awlid , clbration de la naissance du prophte

Lapparition des confrries et la formulation sotrique du sou-

fisme ne sauraient tre dissocies, car elles participent lune et lautre
dun mme mouvement dextriorisation. Cest autour de la personne
du Prophte que se fait cette double volution. Au cours des pre-
miers sicles, les soufis ont t absorbs par lexprience de lUnicit
divine ; avec llaboration des doctrines sur la saintet, ils reven-
diquent dsormais leur hritage muhammadien en dployant une
prophtologie caractre sotrique : si le simple croyant ne voit
en Muhammad que la figure de lintercesseur, le gnostique sattache
sa fonction cosmique d isthme (barzakh) ou intermdiaire entre
Dieu et les hommes. Ainsi lexplicitation des doctrines de la Ralit
muhammadienne et de lHomme parfait, aux xiiie et xive sicles,
concide-t-elle dans le temps avec lmergence de formes dvotion-
nelles centres sur le Prophte, telles que la clbration de lanniver-
saire de sa naissance (Mawlid).

La tradition damascne du chant religieux

La plupart des chants enregistrs ici font partie du patrimoine

spirituel syrien, voire damascne. Sen dmarquent quelques po-
sies mystiques (qasda) dIbn Arab et dIbn al-Frid (CD1 plage 5),
puises dans la tradition classique. Exaltant livresse de lAmour
divin, elles sont connues dans tout le monde musulman. Ibn al-Frid,

18
au demeurant, a certes pass sa vie en Egypte, mais il est natif de
Syrie. Les chants se partagent en louanges divines et implorations
(ibtihlt) dune part, et en louanges du Prophte (madh) dautre
part. Limportance donne ce dernier registre caractrise la reli-
giosit damascne. Depuis au moins le xiiie sicle, la rfrence au
Prophte y est devenue centrale. Ce sicle et celui qui le suit voient
ainsi clore une cole proprement damascne dtude de la Tradition
prophtique (Hadth), reprsente notamment par Nawaw, Ibn Kathr
et Dhahab. Damas est alors un bastion pour la dfense du sunnisme,
et donc de la Sunna, ou modle prophtique. Paralllement se
dveloppe une perception mtaphysique du Prophte : derrire la
personne charnelle que fut Muhammad rside sa Ralit prcratu-
relle, al-Haqqa al-muhammadiyya, voque plus haut, qui irrigue la
cration entire et par laquelle les mystiques musulmans expliquent
la production du monde.
Ces lments doctrinaux sont distills doses variables dans le
genre littraire que constitue dsormais la louange du Prophte
(al-madh al-nabaw). Le pome le plus clbre de ce rpertoire est
la Burda, rdig par al-Bsr (m. en 1296), soufi gyptien dorigine
maghrbine. Celui-ci a eu beaucoup de disciples syriens, mais la
vnration que vouent les Damascnes au premier et dernier des
prophtes tait sans doute ancre bien avant. Les chants dloge que
nous offre Hamza Shakkr vivifient donc la tradition damascne la
plus authentique.
La clbration de lanniversaire de la naissance du Prophte
(al-mawlid al-nabaw) est une des principales manifestations de la
dvotion porte Muhammad. Apparue au Proche-Orient au xiie
sicle, elle a pris une grande ampleur Damas. De nos jours encore,
les festivits durent jusqu deux mois, et donnent loccasion aux
nombreux groupes de chant religieux de se produire dans tous les
quartiers. La Mosque des Omeyyades fut bien sr un thtre pri-
vilgi pour toutes ces formes de dvotion. A la fin du xve sicle,
par exemple, des soufis y institurent le majlis salt al an-Nab,
nuit de prires dvolues au Prophte, qui se prolonge aujourdhui
sous certaines formes. Chaque anne, par ailleurs, le 27 du mois de
Ramadan, on y clbre officiellement lAscension du Prophte vers
la Prsence divine : le Mirj. Autre exemple de cette vnration : les
litanies dloge au Prophte (salawt) chantes la Mosque avant et
aprs la prire du vendredi (CD1 plage 2). A Damas, chaque appel
la prire (adhn) entonn par les muezzins est suivi dune formule de
prire sur le Prophte, ce qui nest pas le cas dans les autres mtro-
poles du monde musulman.
Eric Geoffroy,
Matre de confrences lUniversit de Strasbourg

19
B ibliographie :
Sur Damas :
- Geoffroy, Eric, Lempreinte de la saintet, revue Autrement
hors-srie sur Damas, n65, 1993, p.166-174.
- Geoffroy, Eric, Djihd et Contemplation - Vie et enseignement
dun soufi au temps des croisades, d. Dervy, Paris, 1997.
Sur le soufisme :
- Ibn At Allh, La sagesse des matres soufis (traduit et com-
ment par E. Geoffroy), d. Grasset, Paris, 1998.
 Les Derviches Tourneurs
de Damas

L
a confrrie mystique sunnite des soufis Mawlawiyya (Mevlevi-s
en turc, derviches tourneurs en Occident) a t fonde par le
grand pote persan Jall al-Dn al-Rmi (1207-1273), install
Konya (Anatolie).
Bien que ce rituel soit surtout diffus grce des interprtes
turcs, des traditions locales existent en Syrie, en Egypte, en Irak
depuis le xvie sicle : elles ont survcu labolition de la confrrie
turque et au suicide du grand matre Abd al-Hlim Thslbi Bashi.
Un des principaux centres de lIslam, ancienne capitale des
Omeyyades et tape du plerinage vers la Mecque, lart musical de
Damas se caractrise par des suites (Wasla), des modes (maqm) et
des rythmes originaux, repris par les Mawlawyya dans leur takiyya
(centre de confrrie). Le rituel ne peut tre interprt dans les mos-
ques o linstrumentarium est interdit ou uniquement constitu de
percussions, gnralement joues dans les cours.
Certaines grandes mosques, comme celle des Omeyyades, pos-
sdent un rpertoire vocal particulier. Les suites sacres y sont appe-
les nawba-s, terme rserv aux profanes par les anciens Andalous
et les Maghrbins. Gnralement accompagns dun chur masculin
(bitna), les rcitants desservent le sam (concert sacr) en y int-
grant des extraits du rpertoire de la Grande Mosque, des rituels din-
vocation de Dieu (dhikr-s) et des extraits de la Nativit du Prophte
(mawlid). Leur expressivit (hiss) est fondamentalement sereine,
toujours subtilement inventive et rgle rythmiquement de manire
rigoureuse pour mener progressivement une assemble vers la transe
(inkhitf) ou la mditation (taammul) selon le choix des confrries.
Certaines phases du rituel comportent la profration litanique
de lunit de Dieu (kalimat al-tawhd) ou du nom divin (lafz al-
jalla) choisi parmi Ses 99 qualificatifs (asm Allh al-husn) dont
fait partie le pronom apocop H (Lui), et suivi de prires pour le
Prophte. Elles comprennent aussi des bndictions (tara) en prose
rime et rythme (saj), extraites des diffrentes versions du mawlid.
Gnralement anonymes ou dattribution incertaine, les pomes sont
du genre qasda, monorime et monomtre, ou muwashshah, mul-
tirime et multimtre. La thmatique est traditionnelle, utilisant des
formes rhtoriques et une imagerie ancienne, souvent dorigine popu-
laire. La diffrenciation entre le profane et le sacr reste largement
inoprante. Modes et rythmes sont communs : ils restent constam-
ment ouverts aux changes avec les musiques modales de la rgion.
B ernard M oussali

21
22
 Al-Kind
et le Concert Sacr

D
epuis ma dcouverte merveille et quasi fortuite de la
musique arabe en 1976, par le biais du matre irakien du
luth Munir Bashir, je nai eu de cesse den explorer lim-
mense richesse et la grande varit. Jai fond lensemble Al-Kind en
1983 avec cette perspective et quelques principes et ides-forces qui
ont guid mes pas jusque dans la ralisation du Salon de Musique
dAlep et de ce nouveau CD consacr au rpertoire religieux syrien.
Pour ces enregistrements, jai runi autour de moi des instrumen-
tistes et chanteurs dexception, solistes virtuoses et matres de la tra-
dition reconnus comme tels dans leur pays. Ayant depuis longtemps
dplor linflation drisoire du grand orchestre moderne au dtri-
ment du takht (ensemble traditionnel), jai supprim tout instrument
europen y compris les cordes (violon, violoncelle, contrebasse) qui,
si elles sadaptent fort bien lintonation des musiques extra-euro-
pennes, ont vritablement phagocyt lespace sonore, rduisant les
instruments purement arabes un rle de figuration.
Dautre part, mes recherches dans le domaine acoustique et phy-
sico-mathmatique de lintonation mont naturellement rapproch des
chanteurs dobdience religieuse. En effet, outre la fascination quexerce
sur moi lunivers spirituel des soufis, ceux-ci ont un vaste rpertoire en
partie a cappella dans lequel fort heureusement na pas t introduit le
synthtiseur qui normalise les gammes arabes en 24 quarts de tons tem-
prs et altre la perception fidle de lintonation traditionnelle. Cette
problmatique du temprament gal est stigmatise non seulement par les
ethno-musicologues dont Alain Danilou fut le prcurseur non exempt
dinterrogations mystiques, et en quelque sorte mon inspirateur, mais
aussi par les crateurs californiens du Movement of Just Intonation
qui ont cherch recrer un langage musical physiologiquement lgi-
tim par les ratios puiss au long du spectre des harmoniques.
Or, le Qnn peut avoir lui aussi un rle normatif contestable au
sein de lensemble car il induit un temprament rducteur du fait de
lempirisme dfectueux des luthiers.Les thories foisonnantes des
intervalles des musiques dOrient de lAntiquit nos jours sav-

23
rant peu fonctionnelles, jai d raliser de nouveaux instruments, en
soumettant ces systmes scolastiques une tude comparative et cri-
tique la lumire des pratiques vivantes dans le monde arabe.
Lors du choix crucial du rpertoire, jai slectionn les chants les
plus riches sur le plan rythmico-mlodique qui mettent en valeur le
phras et le timbre somptueux du Sheikh Hamza Shakkr ainsi que
son talent dimprovisateur (Anashd et Ibtihalat). Jai tenu absolument
prserver lunit modale de chaque suite la manire des anciens,
alors que bien trop souvent les chanteurs modernes alternent de faon
peu cohrente les mqmat de peur de lasser lauditoire.
Pour la mme raison, dans le rpertoire instrumental,
les Bashrf ne sont plus jamais jous, sous largument
fallacieux quils seraient ennuyeux, et on joue quasi
exclusivement quelques Sama standardiss excessi-
vement rabchs et tronqus dans leur dveloppement.
Pour ce disque, outre les indispensables taqasim qui
donnent libre cours la crativit de linstrumentiste, jai
choisi quatre prludes instrumentaux dauteurs purement
arabes, syrien, gyptien, tunisien et irakien. Ces belles
pices rarement interprtes et prsentes ici dans leur
intgralit restent fidles lesthtique moyen-orientale
alors que linterprtation arabe de pices turques est tou-
jours sujette polmiques.
Une autre modeste innovation consiste avoir choisi
comme ostinato de la plage 11 du CD 1 un rythme
13/4 dont la complexit accrot mon sens la profondeur
mtaphysique des improvisations. Cette basse continue
engendre un effet contrapuntique des plus orthodoxes
mais que lasymtrie du rythme Murabba enrichit en
regard des rythmes binaires gnralement utiliss.
Nous sommes redevables au Sheikh Nbuls davoir
introduit au xviie sicle linstrumentation dans les confrries
mystiques en Syrie et den avoir lgitim la pratique sur le plan tholo-
gique. La liturgie des derviches tourneurs, si elle a perdu un peu de son
sotrisme en rejetant les apports turcs et persans originels, sest enrichie de
lapport syncrtique des rites des nombreuses confrries mystiques toujours
vivantes Damas. Chorgraphie pour lusage des ftes religieuses offi-
cielles et diffuse la tlvision par exemple lors du 27e jour du Ramadan,
elle est devenue un lment emblmatique de lidentit nationale syrienne.
Depuis 1991, grce lamiti de lhymnode Hamza Shakkr, hritier
en quelque sorte du Sheikh Nbuls, nous avons explor les richesses
du patrimoine religieux syrien vocal et instrumental et contribu, je
lespre, le faire mieux connatre en occident.
Julien Jlal Eddine Weiss

24
25
 Le chant

S heikh H amza S hakkr

N en 1947 Damas, le Sheikh Hamza Shakkr est muqri (lecteur du

Coran) et munshid (hymnode). Disciple de Sad Farhat et de Tawfiq
al-Munajjid, il assure la continuit du rpertoire de la confrrie
des Mawlawiyya. Chef de la chorale des Munshiddin de la Grande
Mosque des Omeyyades de Damas, il dessert les
crmonies religieuses officielles en Syrie, o il est
minemment populaire.
Sheikh Hamza possde une voix de basse au
timbre ample et chaud, une corpulence
imposante et un charisme certain.
Considr comme lun des plus grands
interprtes actuels de chants musul-
mans, il prserve sans concessions
un art sobre et intrioris qui exclut
toute affterie et dveloppe ses
improvisations dans le contexte dun
art modal ancien ; loraison sy mle
la danse et la prire lart.
LIslam quil reprsente, loign de tout
intgrisme, est celui du mysticisme et du
bonheur dans la foi.

La musique
LE nsemble A l -K indi

Julien Jall Eddine WEISS. Franais, dorigine alsacienne et suisse,

n Paris en 1953, il se convertit lIslam en 1986. Devenu un
virtuose de la cithare sur table (qnn), aprs avoir suivi depuis
1977, lenseignement de matres gyptiens, tunisiens, turcs, libanais,
syriens et irakiens, il mne une carrire la fois de soliste et dac-
compagnateur au sein de lensemble Al-Kind quil a fond en 1983.
Son dynamisme lafft de voix arabes inconnues de lOccident quil

26
accompagne, ou quil enregistre, la conduit devenir le trait dunion
idal sur le plan du concert entre deux mondes. Ce lien sest davan-
tage solidifi depuis quil sest tabli Alep dans un palais mame-
louk du xive sicle o il organise rgulirement un salon de musique
traditionnel. Il ne cesse de parcourir lEurope, avec ces illustres voix
dOrient : lirakien Hussein al-Aczam, les alpins Sabri Moudallal,
Omar Sarmini et Adib Daiykh, le damascne Sheikh Hamza Shakkr,
et le tunisien Lotfi Boushnak.

Ziyd QD AMIN. Fltiste damascain, lve de Abdelsalam Safar, il

est considr comme le meilleur interprte de la flte de roseau nay,
en Syrie. Il est intgr depuis quelques annes lensemble Al-Kind
et participe ses tournes en Occident.

Muhammad Qadri DALAL. N en 1946 Alep, ce virtuose du luth

arabe (oud), est devenu une notorit musicale dans son pays. Il
est le dpositaire du style du luth alpin, issu de lcole turque, la
recherche dune sonorit veloute et ronde, et possde une connais-
sance encyclopdique du rpertoire traditionnel.

Adel SHAMS EL DIN. N en 1950 au Caire, rsidant en France, ce

percussionniste gyptien est un des piliers de lensemble Al-Kind
depuis sa fondation, dont il est devenu lincontournable accompagna-
teur. Sa parfaite matrise des cycles rythmiques les plus complexes en
font un interprte respect du riqq (tambourin cymbalettes).

27
 Bismillh ar-Rahmn, ar-Rahm
In the name of God
the Forgiving, God the Merciful
by Dr Ahmad Badreddine Hassoun
Grand Mufti of Aleppo

G
od gave Man his senses for them to be a link
between the universe and all the causality or
chance incidents it holds, and his own inner
world with its feelings, sensations and qualities. In
the wonderful creation the human body represents,
God has placed all sorts of tremendous energies and
subtle sensations, making them the echo of inner and
outer causes. All sounds coming from the universe
have provoked visible reactions in man and on his
feelings and even his movements. The world around
us is constantly emitting the sweetest melodies.
Trees and their branches as they sway in the breeze,
nodding flowers, singing birds are all emitting the
most wonderful divine tunes and singing the most
exquisite of songs. These messages of happiness, the
expression of the Creations adoration of the Divine,
are addressed to the pure in heart and heavenly of
soul. This is why the Imam al-Ghazali said:
he who has not been moved by the spring flowers
or the strings of a lute has a corrupt soul for which
there is no known cure.
I have never come across a man sincerely in love
whose soul is bathed in Gods eternal love and whose
heart has been cleansed by His light, without this
love having a single source - it has sprung up within
him from the bountiful words and heavenly music
that stem directly from God. Thus the whole universe
has been enclosed by its Creator within splendid
walls made of the sweetest possible songs and a
music coming from the heartstrings - of a heart open
to the hymn of faith and eternal happiness promised
to him through Gods boundless love.
Translated from the Arabic by Saadane Benbabaali
Professor at Paris III

28
 The Sama, listening and
understanding

I
n the early 9th century, when the Muslim mystics organised their
Sufi brotherhoods or orders, they adopted music as a support for
meditation, as a means of access to the state of grace or ecstasy,
or quite simply as soulfood, in other words, something that would
give new vigour to a body and soul tired by the rigours of the ascetic
life. In Sufism the sama, (meaning literally listening), denotes the
tradition of listening in spiritual fashion to music, chanting and
songs of various forms, all ritualised to a greater or lesser degree.
The very meaning of the word sama suggests that it is the act
of listening that is spiritual, without the music or poetry being
necessarily religious in content. Moreover this listening can refer
to any sound, whether natural, artificially created, or artistic, as
well as the subtle sounds of the hidden world or of the cosmos
in general. In its predominant sense, the word is synonymous with
understanding, that is an understanding and acceptance of the
call from God, which can lead as far as ecstasy, rapture, bliss, the
unveiling of mysteries.
The major preoccupation of the Muslim mystics was to give
the ecstasy a real content and the music a true meaning. They had
also to reply to the doctors who tried to proscribe this practice, and
put the novices who might think of it as pure entertainment on
their guard. Some basic myths behind the practice were invoked,
such as that of the Original Covenant (Alast) when God asked of
Adams potential offspring trapped in his loins: Am I not your
Lord? (alastu bi rabbikum), to which every man in pre-eternity
replied: Yea, we do testify. Even now mevlevi hymns still return
an ecstatic reply to the sweet voice of the Creator, of Whom music is
the allegory or metaphor: Indeed, my Soul, indeed, my Lord, indeed
my Beloved (Bal janam, bal miram bal dust). The first sama
was attributed to the angels who used it to capture Adams soul in
its state of bliss and confine it within his body. This myth has its
absolute opposite when we remember that music can also enable the
soul to escape the physical body and move outside the contingencies
of time and space. Thus music is the vibrant echo of the Divine verb,

29
of angelic or celestial harmonies and sounds (the wind of paradise
or the squeaking of its door), or of sounds from the cosmos (the
music of the spheres). According to gnostic teaching, it is one of the
elements in the essential order of the world and through its intervals,
it draws its nature from the music of the spheres and the world of
numbers, in other words, from the Intelligible.
Certain great shaykhs only made moderate use of music, whereas
others were passionate about the sama together with dance. Only a
very few went so far as to advise against this practice and even the
followers of the more sober trends of Sufism never actually spoke
out against the practice of music in general, unlike certain ulemahs.
But what most of them did do, on the other hand, was put great
emphasis on the way of listening. In the great debate waged over
centuries between Sufis and more orthodox believers, about music,
its legitimate status and proper use, the accent was always much
more on the act of listening than on the music itself.
You need to listen with your heart, rather than with your body
said Mawlana Rum (13th c.) speaking of the sama. The same can
be said about poetry, often set to music: One should listen to these
words with ones heart and soul, not with the bodily self made of
earth and water, said Attar. In concrete terms, this means the
dervishes are usually required to ensure a certain set of conditions
so as to reap the fullest benefit from the sama. In Semnanis (d.
1336) words, one must have given up the world- have given up all
desire - have struggled against ones overriding self - practise the
remembrance or dhikr - consider God to be present - see everything
with a pure eye. There is also a right time - a right place - young
people must not be allowed to take part - never force oneself to act
or move, on the contrary, one should remain utterly quiet, but as
the Sufis or sons of the moment recommend, always behave in the
manner dictated by the moment (waqt).
All in all, these recommendations would also seem to describe
the optimum conditions for listening to music on a purely aesthetic
level, for surely the experience of the Beautiful and the experience of
the Holy are two paths that meet up on their way to perceiving the
Divine?
J ean D uring
ethnomusicologist and research worker at the C.N.R.S.

B ibliography :
Musique et extase, laudition mystique dans les traditions
soufies / Music and ecstasy, mystic listening in the Sufi tradition,
by Jean During.

30
 Syria,
Land of the Prophets

The Sufi Way

T
he great master Junayd was asked why the Sufis felt such
powerful emotions in their spirit and the urge to move their
body when listening to sacred music. This was his reply:
When God asked the souls in the spirit world, at the moment of the
First Covenant: Am I not your Lord?, the gentle sweetness of the
divine words penetrated each soul for ever, so that whenever one
of them hears music now, the memory of this sweetness is stirred
within him, causing him to move.

S yria , land of the P rophets

Modern-day Syria is part of a region that was once unified on the

cultural and political level, and was sometimes known as Greater
Syria or Bilad al-Sham. It also included Jordan, Palestine, Israel and
the Lebanon. So the Bilad al-Sham is the land of the prophets, a holy

31
land going way back in time, where Islam, heir of the Near-Eastern
monotheistic religions, was able to develop its spiritual dimension as
well as its religious rituals. The prophet Muhammed himself is said
to have praised the virtues of this region and urged his Companions
to settle there. Syria has always played an important role in Islamic
culture because of its central position on Islamic territory. During the
first few hundred years of the Hegira, a spiritual school linked to the
zuhd (detachment or abnegation) emerged but Syrian Sufism was
mainly inspired by Iraqi thought. The important 12th c. brotherhoods
or orders such as the Qadiriyya have left a deep mark on the range of
initiatory rites in Syria. Even the theologian Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328),
incorrectly supposed to be opposed to mysticism, was initiated into the
order of Abd al-Qadir al-Jilan.

D amascus , resting place of the S aints

Damascus has a special place in Islamic tradition and its religious

geography - one has only to run down the list of works citing the
distinctive merits (Fadail) of the city to realise its importance. The
Prophet described it as a chosen land, a refuge for holy men for
ever and ever. In fact some of his descendants have been laid to rest
there - Sayyida Zaynab, for example, the daughter of the Imam Ali,
and Sayyida Ruqayya, the daughter of the Imam al-Hussein. Several
hundred prophets are said to have stayed or even died on Mount
Qassyun which overlooks the city; just as every Friday certain shaykhs
would climb barefoot up the slopes out of respect for the wise men
and saints buried there. Damascus is one of the most ancient Islamic
cities and has always attracted men of religion to its walls. Ghazal,
for instance, spent nearly two years there during his long spiritual
quest. He tells us that while he was here he spent his time in retreat
and solitude, engaged in spiritual exercises or combats.

I bn A rab

The Grand Master Ibn Arab settled in Damascus after a long

period of travel that had started in Andalusia. His mausoleum is
to be found on the slopes of Mount Qassyun in the old quarter
of Salihiyye or the saints quarter; it attracts pilgrims from all
over the world. The Masters influence can be gauged by the fact
that the quarter where he is buried bears his name: Sidi Muhy
ad-Din - He who brought religion alive, and indeed, the spot is
truly bustling with life, from the market held in the nearby narrow

32
alleyways to the bus terminal for the Shaykh Muhy ad-Din line.
But it was not always like this, for after his death until and the
arrival of the Ottomans in 1240, Ibn Arab was the object of hatred
and disapproval on the part of the Damascene doctors of religion,
who failed to understand his outspoken approach to the doctrines
of Islam. Unfortunately, these religious censors had managed to
impose their point of view on the common people, and we even have
several eye-witness accounts proving that the masters tomb was
used as a dump and that his enemies went so far as to urinate on it !
When the Ottoman sultan Selim seized Damascus from the Mamluks
in1516, one of his first tasks was to order the construction of a
whole complex of buildings on the site of Ibn Arabs tomb, with a
mausoleum, a mosque etc. For ever since its foundation in the 14th
century, the Ottoman dynasty had taken up the cause of the Moorish
master and his metaphysical teachings.

S haykh A rslan , the patron saint of D amascus

But the saint who has really left his mark on this city, and who is
designated according to Damascene tradition as the patron saint of
Damascus and the surrounding area is Shaykh Arslan who built his
ribat ouside the city walls in the 12th century, on the same spot where
the Muslim army chief Khald Ibn al-Wald had set up post after
the capture of Damascus from the Byzantines in 635. Shaykh Arslan
carried on both jihads here - the minor jihad, in other words, the
armed struggle against the Crusaders who were trying to seize the city,
and the major jihad, or the combat he led against his fleshly soul so as
to bring it to extinction before God. Until very recently any stranger
who arrived at the city would go and visit the saint immediately on
arrival and ask his permission to enter the town walls.
The Zenkid sovereign Nr ad-Dn who had the city walls built,
still visible today, made himself the herald of Sunnite Islam, aimed
against both the Crusaders and the Shiite Fatimids of Cairo. He was
a contemporary of Shaykh Arslan whom he held in such veneration
that when he was buried he gave orders for a piece of the saw that
had belonged to the holy man to be buried with him (for Ibn Arab
was a carpenter by trade). Nr ad-Dn is the only secular head of
state to have been conferred with saintly status by the Damascenes.
Sufi ceremonies are held regularly in his palace, which is also visited
for another very precise reason - a lover of justice and the fairest of
kings in his lifetime, he still sees that justice is correctly meted out,
so those who consider themselves badly done by inevitably turn to
him in their time of need. Saladin, another pious prince and defender

33
of the Islamic faith, is also buried in Damascus, but he is not held in
the same esteem by the citys population, no doubt because his name
is linked with Egypt rather than Syria. Nur ad-Dn, Saladin and even
the great Mamaluk Sultan Baybars are all buried near the Ummayad
Mosque. Men of worldly power often sought places of high spiritual
charge as their final resting place, thus we find their tombs in
venerated religious buildings, on the site of the tombs of holy men...

T he G reat U mmayad M osque of D amascus

The Great Ummayad Mosque is sufficient proof of the historical

grounds for Damascus consecration as a holy place, resistant to all
attempts to undermine its essentially sacred nature. The Mosque is
built on the foundations of a Greek temple, covered by a Roman one,
which was then covered by a church, before being turned into a place
of Islamic worship. Ever since its completion in the early 8th century
it has been the heart of the citys religious and spiritual life intra
muros. Tangible evidence of the prophets that Islam claims for itself
is to be found here too, in the form of the sanctuary of the prophet
Yahya (John the Baptist) embedded in the very centre of the building.
Tradition has it that Yahyas head was found fortuitously during
building work undertaken when al-Wald (d. 715) was Caliph. The
sanctuary has a constant flow of visitors and pilgrims and all sorts of
vows and requests are made to the prophet. This is also claimed to be
one of the high spots of Islamic esotericism, some initiates even going
so far as to say that every Friday at dawn, a council of Syrian saints
takes place (dwan awliya al-Sham), it is they in fact who protect
and govern the city and the surrounding area, though they remain
invisible to the uninitiated. Whatever the truth of this story, Sufi
orders do hold regular dhikr sessions here, as indeed they do in other
mosques in the city. For mysticism in Damascus is very orthodox by
nature and totally integrated into the religious life of the city, in fact
the ulemahs and muftis of the town are often Sufi masters as well. So
it is hardly surprising that this particular spiritual aspect of Islam has
taken the Ummayad Mosque as its centre.
Anchored in an ageless past, the Mosque also has an important
eschatological role to play. For Islamists, Jesus did not die on the
cross, he was carried up to heaven alive. He will come down again
at the end of time to combat the Antichrist, basing his judgements
on Islamic law. Tradition has it that the Messiah will arrive on
earth in Damascus, on one of the minarets of the Mosque, known
appropriately as Jesus minaret. Ghazal recounts how he used to
shut himself in there for whole days at a time.

34
 Sufism in Islam

In the Koran God is presented as being Without (al-Zahir) and

Within (al-Batin). These two names alone reveal the fullness and
desire for balance that is so typical of Islam. Any authentic exoteric
religion has its element of esotericism as well, but there can be no
authentic exotericism outside a recognised religious form either. Islam
is obviously not the law-bound, ritualistic religion that we are so often
given to believe. If properly lived out, it is a religion that preaches
a message of clemency
and mercy, beauty and
harmony. The spiritual power
emanating from Hamza
Shakkurs songs draws us
into the mystical tradition of
Islam embodied in Sufism.
Sufism is far from being
an eccentric or alternative
aspect of Islam, on the
contrary it represents the
very heart-beat of the
religion, bringing life and
vigour to it, its esoteric core,
so to speak, surrounded by
the flesh and skin of the
exoteric side. We could
say that it is the fruit of
the meeting between the
fundamental and universal
verticality of eternal Wisdom
and the well-established
horizontality of Islam as a
complete religion with its established dogmas, rites etc. etc. But the
masters claim that there are at least a thousand other definitions of
Sufism as well. They use the geometric symbol of the circle to give an
idea of the multiple dimensions of Islam: the circumference represents
the Shara, or Revealed Law which every true Muslim should obey.
Most people spend their whole life on the circumference, i.e. they
observe religion from the outside. Only a few will undertake the
journey of initiation that will take them nearer to the centre of the
circle, the dwelling place of the Haqqa: divine reality and the reality
of every single thing, this is both everywhere and nowhere at one and
the same time. To attain his goal the initiate must take one of several
paths or ways leading to the centre, known as the Tarqa (The Path).

36
 T he S ufi W ay : T ar qa

The Sufi adage claims that there are as many paths leading to
God as there are sons of Adam, every man can progress along the
Tarqa according to his nature and his own chosen way. Whilst the
Haqqa is eternalper se, any human being who depends on it can
only have access to it via the Shara. According to the masters, the
Haqqa and the Shara are two aspects of one and the same reality.
Rituals such as prayer, fasting or a pilgrimage are spiritual settings
for those who can grasp the
symbolism and the esoteric
sense they contain.
The Sufi Way consists
of an initiation process
intended to help the aspiring
adept (murd) to climb
the ladder of the universal
hierarchy of beings. Thus
any such person has in fact
the potential to become a
perfect Man, his example
being the Prophet who
was carried into the Divine
Presence when he made
his night-time Ascension
(Miraj). The journey along
the Way is strewn with
pitfalls, for the novice is not
always discerning enough
to dissipate the illusions
maintained by his ego, nor is
he sufficiently clear-sighted
or perspicacious to thwart Satans traps. Even divine favours such
as miracles can turn out to be pernicious if they hinder his progress
along the Way, so he must take himself a guide who will lead him
forward, for he who has no master has Satan as his master.

T he S haykh , a spiritual guide

The shaykhs function is to help the disciple go through the

different stations (maqamat) of the initiation process, corresponding
to the same number of spiritual virtues. He himself has of course
already gone through these rituals. Sufi authors distinguish between

37
38
the stations which are the result of initiatory discipline (mujahada),
and which, once attained, remain acquired for the person who has
reached them, and other changing and ephemeral spiritual states
(ahwal) which happen to the mystic independent of his own will. All
the masters are united in the emphasis they place on the sincerity
and purity of intention required of every aspirant, who must search
into the innermost recesses of his soul to seek out the slightest
trace of complacency on his part, or the least bit of recognition for
any pious works he may achieve. And this is precisely where the
difficulty lies - for the level of meditation attained by man is so low
that he never ceases to see himself as someone who adores God, a
man of sincerity etc. etc.
All the way through his spiritual quest, from its earliest
beginnings to its conclusion, the Sufis example is the Prophet. He
is the Master of all masters, in fact the numerous masters of the
tasawwuf are only his representatives. They usually maintain a
relationship on the subtle or impalpable level with him, drawing
upon his spiritual influx or energy (baraka) which comes directly
from God. One such master has compared these religious teachers
to so many moons reflecting the light of the Prophet, considered
to be the Sun, on earth. Hence the importance in Sufi orders of the
initiatory chain (silsila) though which the shaykhs have transmitted
the baraka from one generation to another, right up the present day.
This is why the different initiatory paths or Sufi orders (turuq) are
all considered to be special expressions of the Way of Muhammed
(al-tarq al-muhammadiyya).

T he D hikr , recollection of the D ivine

Over and above the inspiration he draws from Muhammed, the

aspiring Sufi has recourse to other methods besides his attachment
to a master that will lead him to spiritual fulfilment. Apart from the
fikr, a meditation on the outward signs (ayat) through which God
reveals Himself both in the universe and within ourselves (cf. the
Koran XLI, 53), the Sufis set great store by the dhikr, a keyword in
the Koranic lexicon, denoting both remembering God or calling Him
to mind, and invoking Him. The dhikr has a profound cosmological
dimension because it helps the disciple to remember the Covenant
(mthaq) sealed between God and man in pre-eternity before mans
arrival on earth. Am I not your Lord ? And they said, Yea, we do
testify (Koran VII, 172). With this recollection, the dhikr , the mystic
seeks to relive the experience of the day of the Covenant which
preceded Creation and therefore came before all living creatures were

39
separated from God. The group sessions held by the Sufis, where
they listen to music and chanting (sama) or Rums reed flute (Rumi
being the founder of the whirling dervishes) have the same function
- they are used to evoke with nostalgia the souls original state of
union with God.
The novice will feel the need to withdraw from the world in order
to invoke God, hence the practice of retreat (khalwa). Subsequently,
when he feels himself sufficiently suffused with the Divine, he can
mention His name in any conditions or circumstances, even in the
midst of a crowd (jalwa). Sufi writers often describe three different
phases of the interiorisation of the dhikr, though there are also
further subdivisions. The dhikr of the tongue or language, the
result of ones own will, should give way to the dhikr of the heart.
At this stage, consciousness is still maintained and it is only when
the faithful arrives at the dhikr of intimacy (sirr) that normal
consciousness disappears, thereby wiping out the duality between the
subject who is invoking and the object of his invocation. Sufis use all
sorts of different methods to practice the dhikr; the best known in the
West being the circular dance of the whirling dervishes, symbolising
the planets rotating round the sun. Their techniques have special
distinguishing features, such as the invocation of one particular name
of the Divine, or the repetition of a specific formula, often kept secret.
Certain initiatory Ways practise the dhikr aloud, whereas others do it
in silence, with the inner voice. The members of the different orders
gather regularly to take part in a group dhikr, often referred to as a
hadra because those taking part are purported to feel the impalpable
presence (hadra) of the Prophet, who is the real master of ceremonies
here; he is the intermediary who will lead the initiate into the Divine
Presence.

T he origins of S ufism

The terms sufi and tasawwuf do not appear either in the Koran
or in the Tradition of the Prophet. An 11th century master explained
this as follows: whilst the Prophet and his Companions were alive
Sufism was a reality that had no name, whereas now it is a name
that has no reality. When the light of the prophecy dwindled, it
became more and more obvious that the holy men of Islam, heirs of
the Prophets, had to take up a social role as spiritual guides. Perhaps
Sufism was influenced in its early days by the Christian desert
fathers in the Near-East, or their Buddhist and Hindu equivalents
in Central Asia. Whatever the truth in this, modern-day orientalists
all concur on the doctrinal basis of Sufism, whose origins are to

40
be found in the Koran and the Muhammedan Tradition. As further
proof of this, Sufis follow the Prophets example and avoid living
like hermits; on the contrary, they marry and have children (not to
mention their disciples or spiritual children).
The founding experiences happened during the first three
hundred years of Sufisms existence. Take Bistam (d. 877) for
instance, who represents the wild side of Sufism, whereas Junayd
(d. 911) was the living embodiment of its clear-sighted aspect.
During this exploratory phase, certain mystics did not have complete
control over the excesses brought about by their state of ecstasy,
and this shocked the Doctors of Law and even ended with several
Sufis being brought to trial. Hallaj, for instance, was tortured in
Baghdad in 922. Later Sufis learned their lesson from this and were
more cautious about the way they expressed their mysticism. Then
certain Muslim wise men of authority associated themselves with
the movement and demonstrated its perfect orthodoxy, one of them
being Ghazal (d. 1111) whose personal career set an example to all
those who came afterwards. He was a well-known wise man from
Baghdad, who went through a severe personal and spiritual crisis.

Allah, Allah, il ny a point dautre dieu quAllah

Nous venons toi, pauvres et dmunis
Toi qui dtiens toutes les richesses
Et ne cesse de nous combler de tes bienfaits.
Puisse ta gnrosit toujours durer
Dieu, prire sur lElu, et quelle soit pour nous
Protection et srnit.
Si tu es tout moment mes cots,
A toute provision je peux renoncer.

Allah, Allah, l ilha ill-ll, Ataynka bi-l-fakr

CD1 Plage 6-2 chant
 Having given up all his public duties, he set
out on a journey that lasted for several years, and
it was in Sufism that he finally found delivrance
from his spiritual torments. Various other wise
men of Sufism followed in his footsteps, all seeking
to achieve the perfect osmosis between the Law and
the Way. So Sufism has made a profound impact on
Islamic culture ever since the 12th century.

T he B rotherhoods , or initiatory orders of S ufism

The Sufi orders were founded at this time (they are known
as tarqa, which should be translated by way of initiation). The
relationship between master and disciple has always been very
important in Sufism but each man usually has control over the steps
he undertakes to progress, and an aspiring Sufi rarely remains with
one shaykh. There are various reasons why the initiatory relationship
between master and disciple became schematised and gradually
acquired its own structure from the 12th century on. This was also
when the trend towards the collective side of Sufism began to make
its mark, and attract more and more adepts. Thus disciples would
gather around one or other of the great masters, each with his
own particular teaching, and form schools or orders. Some of the
most noteworthy of these are the Qadiriya (school of Abd al-Qadir

42
al-Jlan) and the Rifaiya (attached to Ahmad al-Rifa-i) in Iraq,
the Mawlawiya (the whirling dervishes of Mawlana Jalal al-Din
Rumi) in Turkey, and the Shadiliya (Abu lHasan al-Shadhili), the
Naqshbandiya (Baha al-Dn Naqshband) in central Asia etc. Any
novice wishing to enter or attach himself to an order makes a pact
with the master; he then receives certain prayers, often adapted to
his own position on the Way, to be recited daily. He takes part in
the group sessions of dhikr which are held in mosques or buildings
belonging to the order (usually known as zawiyas).
A form of Sufism with a pronounced metaphysical element
developed parallel to the growing number of Sufi orders. Its content
was so esoteric that it was often rejected by the doctors of Islamic
law. Ibn Arab (d. 1240), The Grand Master (al-Shaykh al-Akbar) of
this form of Sufism, is undoubtedly its best representative, since all
the different currents of Sufism that came after him bear traces of
his influence and nowadays his influence is even felt in non-Muslim
circles in the West. The essence of this extremely refined spiritual
doctrine was also captured in mystical poetry, and here we may
cite Ibn al-Farid (d. 1235), a contemporary of Ibn Arab, as one
of its foremost representatives.

T he M awlid , the feast - day celebrating

the P rophet s birth

It is impossible to look at the brotherhoods and the esoteric

content of Sufism as two separate entities, for they both have a role
to play in the same move to exteriorise the spiritual awakening.
This double evolution is centred around the Prophet. During the first
few hundred years of Sufisms existence, the Sufis were completely
taken up with the experience of One-ness with the Divine. As the
doctrines on holiness became more clearly defined, they placed more
emphasis on their descendance from Muhammed, conferring the whole
tradition of the Prophet with esoteric elements. An ordinary believer
sees Muhammed as his intercessor, whereas the gnostic places more
emphasis on the Prophets function in the cosmos
as a sort of bridge or isthmus (barzakh), the
intermediary between God and men.
So the 13th and 14th century teachings
exposing the reality of Muhammed
and the perfect Man coincide with the
emergence of certain forms of worship
centred around the Prophet, such as the
celebration of his birthday (Mawlid).

43
 R eligious singing - the D amascus tradition

Most of the chants or songs recorded here are are part of the
Syrian spiritual heritage, or that of Damascus. Some mystical poems
(qasda) by Ibn Arab and Ibn al-Farid (CD1, track 5), part of the
so-called classical tradition, do not fit into this category. They praise
the blissful state of divine Love and are well-known throughout the
Muslim world. (We should not forget that Ibn al-Farid was born in
Syria, though he spent his whole life in Egypt). The songs can be
divided into songs of praise to God and songs of entreaty (ibtihalat)
on the one hand, and songs of praise to the Prophet (madh) on the
other. The importance attached to the latter is typical of the religious
fervour in Damascus, where reference to the Prophet has become a
central pillar of belief since at least the 13th century. This was when
a real school of doctrine and study of the Prophets tradition proper
to Damascus started to flourish (13th and 14th c.); its main exponents
were Nawawi, Ibn Kathr and Dhahab. At this time Damascus
was a bastion of defence of the Sunnite tradition and the sunna
or example of the Prophet. Another school developed in parallel
where the Prophet was perceived in metaphysical terms - behind the
Muhammed of flesh and blood lies his Reality of the pre-Creation,
al-Haqqa al-muhammadiya, discussed earlier, with its all-pervading
influence (it is said to have affected the whole of Creation), and its
key role for Muslim mystics, who use it to explain the creation of the
world.
All these doctrines have filtered in varying degrees into the type
of literature known as songs of praise to the Prophet (al-madh
al-nabaw). The most famous poem from this repertory is the
Burda written by al-Bsri (d. 1296), an Egyptian Sufi from North
Africa. Many of his disciples were of Syrian origin, but the great
veneration in which the people of Damascus hold the first and last
of the prophets had certainly become part of life before this. Hamza
Shakkurs songs therefore belong to a totally authentic tradition.
Celebrating the birth of the Prophet (al-mawlid al-nabawi) is one
of the key events emblematic of peoples devotion to Muhammed.
This holy celebration made its first appearance in the Near East in
the 12th century, and in Damascus it has taken on major proportions.
Even nowadays, the festivities last for anything up to two months,
an occasion for the many groups of religious singers to perform
all over the town. The Ummayad Mosque was of course a kind of
natural theatre for all these different forms of worship. Another
example is the night of prayers in the name of the Prophet (majlis
salat ala an-Nab), instituted by some late 15th century Sufis and
still celebrated today in certain forms. Every year, the Prophets

44
ascension into the Divine Presence (Miraj) is marked by official
celebrations on the 27th day of the month of Ramadan. And yet
another example to demonstrate the strength of the Damascenes
veneration: the litanies of praise to the Prophet (salawat) chanted
in the Mosque before and after the Friday prayers (CD 1, track 2).
In Damascus each call to prayer (adhan) chanted by the muezzins
is followed by a sort of prayer about the Prophet, a practice not
known in the other major cities of Islam.

E ric G eoffroy ,
lecturer at Strasbourg University
Bibliography: see page 20

45
 The Whirling Dervishes
of Damascus

T
he mystical Sunnite order of Sufis known as the Mawlawi
order (or Mevlevi-s in Turkish, whirling dervishes in the West)
was founded by the great Persian poet Jalal al-Dn al-Rmi
(1207-1273), who lived in Konya in Anatolia.
Although this ritual has spread mainly because of its practice by
the Turks, local traditions have existed in Syria, Egypt and Iraq since
the 16th century; they survived the abolition of all the Turkish orders
in 1925 as well as the suicide of the Great Master Abd al-Halim
Thselebi Bashi.
Damascus, the former capital of the Ummayads and a halt on the
pilgrimage to Mecca, is one of the main centres of Islam. Its music
has several typical features - the suite (wasla), modes (maqam), plus
some unique rhythms taken up by the Mawlawis in their takiya
(the meeting place of the order). The ritual cannot be performed in
mosques where the use of instruments is strictly forbidden, apart
from certain percussion instruments usually played in the courtyard.
Some important mosques, sucxha as the Ummayad Mosque, have
their own vocal repertory. The sacred suites are known as nuba-s,
a term used in the past by the inhabitants of Moorish Spain and
North Africa to refer to secular suites. The hymodists are usually
accompanied by a male-voice choir (bitana), and their task is to lead
the faithful into the sama (the sacred concert). The concert must
include excerpts from the repertory of the Great Mosque, rituals
invoking God (dhikr-s) and excerpts from the Birth of the Prophet
(mawlid). The concert is basically serene in expression (hiss) and
mood, and always subtly inventive; the rhythm is strictly measured
so as to lead the assembly gradually into a state of trance (inkhitaf)
or meditation (taammul), according to what each order prefers.
Certain stages of the ritual include the psalmodic recitation of
the One-ness of God (kalimat al-tawhd) or one of His divine names
(lafz al-jalala), chosen from amongst the 99 attributes (asma Allah
al-husna) - one of these is the apocope H (He) - followed by
prayers for the Prophet. The ceremony also includes blessings(tara)
in scanned rhyming prose (saj), taken from the different versions of

46
 the mawlid. The poems, of the qasda type (a single rhyme and a
single metre), are usually anonymous or cannot be attributed with
any certainty; or they might have a variety of rhythms and metres
(themuhwashshah type). The themes are all traditional, using
rhetorical forms and images going way back in time, often of
popular origin. Hardly any distinction is made between sacred and
secular, for they have common modes and rhythms and are always
open to influences from the modal music of the local area,
indeed this is a two-way process.
B ernard M oussali
48
 Al-Kind and the Concert
of Sacred Music

M
y discovery of Arab music dates from a chance encoun-
ter in 1976 with the great Iraqi master of the Arab lute,
Munir Bashir. I was astounded and overwhelmed by his
music and I have been exploring its richness and variety ever since.
In 1983 I founded the Al-Kind Ensemble with precisely this aim - to
continue exploring the domain of Arab music. Certain principles and
basic ideas provided my guidelines for the recording of The Aleppian
Music Room and now for this new CD devoted to the religious
music of Syria. For both recordings I engaged musicians, singers,
instrumental virtuosi and masters of the tradition of exceptionally
high standard, and recognised as such in their country of origin. I
have always deplored the ridiculous tendency of modern orchestras
to keep increasing their size, to the detriment of the takht, so I have
abandoned all semblance of a European instrument in my Ensemble,
including stringed instruments such as the violin, the cello and the
double bass, for although they do in fact adapt well to the intonation
of music from countries outside Europe, they have really taken up all
the available musical space, so to speak, and in the end they reduce
the role of the Arab instruments to mere secondary status.
In another direction, my personal research in the domains of
acoustics, mathematics and physics with relation to intonation
brought me naturally closer to singers of religious conviction. In
fact, apart from the fascination the whole spiritual universe of
Sufism holds for me, these singers have a vast repertoire, partly
a cappella where, thank goodness, there is as yet no sign of a
synthesizer - this reduces the Arab scales to 24 tempered quarter
tones and alters any true auditive perception of the traditional
intonation. This problem of equal temperaments has been
condemned by ethnomusicologists, with Alain Danilou as the first
to speak out on the subject. He did not adopt his position without
having certain mystical misgivings and questionings, and in many
ways he has been an inspiration to me. Similarly, the problem
has been tackled by creative musicians in California, members of

49
the Movement of Just Intonation who have tried to recreate a
physiologically viable musical language using ratios taken along
the whole spectrum of harmonies. Now the Qann can also have a
questionable standardising part to play in an ensemble since, by
the very fact that since lute-makers do not always have any sound
experience behind them, it often leads to a reductive temperament.
The multiple theories from Antiquity through to modern times on
intervals in music from the Orient are not really practicable so I had
to make some new instruments; and to do this I made a comparitive
critical study of these various theoretical systems in the light of
practices still in use in the Arab world.
As for the crucial point of choice of repertory, I
selected songs and chants that were rich in rhythm
and melody and which would highlight Shaykh
Hamza Shakkurs phrasing and timbre as well as his
improvisational talents (Anashd and Ibtihalat). I was
absolutely firm about keeping the modal unity of each
suite, exactly as they were performed in former times,
whereas all too often modern singers alternate the
maqamat without any real grounds for doing so, other
than their fear of tiring the listener.
For similar reasons, in the instrumental repertory
the Bashraf are never played any more, on the
fallacious grounds that they might be boring to
listen to; instead, certain standardised Samai are
played, usually excessively reworked and rehashed
and completely devoid of any real development of the
genre. For this record, apart from the indispensable
taqasim which give free rein to the musician and his
creative powers, I chose four instrumental preludes
by pure Arab composers: a Syrian, an Egyptian, a
Tunisian and an Iraqi. These beautiful but rarely performed pieces
presented here in their entirety adhere closely to the Middle Eastern
aesthetic, whereas Arab performances of Turkish compositions
always give rise to debate.
Another modest innovation consists of having chosen as the
ostinato for track 11 on CD I a 13/4 rhythm with a complexity that
in my opinion heightens the spiritual depth and content of the
improvisations. This basso continuo gives rise to a totally orthodox
contrapuntal effect, enriched by the assymetric rhythm of the
Murabba, in comparison to the more frequently used binary rhythms.
We owe a debt of gratitude to Shaykh Nabulsi for having
introduced musical instruments into the mystical brotherhoods in
Syria in the 17th century, and for having regularised their use from

50
51
a theological and doctrinal point of view. The liturgy of the whirling
vishes has probably lost a little of its esoteric content by rejecting
the elements originally brought in from Turkey or Persia; on the
other hand it has been enriched by the syncretic contribution of the
numerous mystic orders still flourishing in Damascus. The ceremony
has been choreographed for use on official religious holidays, when
it is also broadcast on television, as on the 27th day of Ramadan,
for example; it has become a sort of emblem of national identity for
Syria and the Syrians.
Thanks to my friendship with the hymnodist Hamza Shakkur, the
heir so to speak of Shaykh Nabulsi, we have been investigating the
treasures of the Syrian heritage both in the vocal and instrumental
domains, since 1991; I sincerely hope we have also been
contributing to making this music better known in the West.

J ulien J alal E ddine W eiss

O God, I begin my entreaties by praising your goodness.

In humility and acceptance I turn to Thee.
If Thou dost not grant me forgiveness, who else could do so ?
Thou art Allah, our generous Lord,
I have entrusted my earthly fate to Thy heavenly powers.
Grant me Thy succour, relieve my worried breast.
Thou knowest my intimate secrets just as my outward acts,
O Thou, my God, forgiving and full of mercy.

Bi hamdika y ilh
CD1 Track 6 - 1st song
 The Singing

S haykh H amza S hakur

Shaykh Hamza Shakur, born in Damascus in 1947, is a muqri (Koran

reader) and a munshid (hymnodist). He is the disciple of Sad Farhat
and Tawfiq al-Munajjid; his task is to assure the continuity of the
repertory proper to the Mawlawiya order. He is the choir master of the
Munshiddin of the Great Mosque in Damascus and serves at official
religious ceremonies in Syria, where he is immensely popular.
Shaykh Hamza is an impressivley large, charismatic figure. His
bass voice with its richly rounded timbre has made him one of the
foremost perfomers of Arab singing. His art is uncompromisingly
sober and introverted, to the exclusion of all affectation. He develops
his improvisations within the framework of a centuries- old modal
art, where orison blends with dance, and prayer with art.
The Islam he represents, far from being fundamentalist, is that of
mysticism and happiness in the Faith.

The music
T he A l -K indi E nsemble

Julien Jall Edine WEISS is French of Swiss and Alsatian origins.

He was born in Paris in 1953 and was converted to the Muslim
faith in 1986. He has become an absolute expert on the board zither
(qann), after receiving teaching from masters all over the Arab
world - in Egypt, Tunisia, Turkey, the Lebanon, Syria and Iraq. He
is both a soloist and accompanist in his ensemble, the Al-Kind
Ensemble which he founded in 1983. In the concert world, his
constant search for Arab vocalists to accompany or record, who
are nevertheless unknown in the West, has turned him into a sort
of ideal link between two worlds. This link has become even more
solid since he set up home in a 16th century Mameluk palace where
he organises regular music-room concerts in the old traditional style.
He travels constantly all over Europe with his illustrious Oriental
vocalists - Hussein al-Aczami from Iraq, Sabri Moudallal, Omar
Sarmini and Adib Daiykh from Aleppo, Shaykh Hamza Shakur from
Damascus and Lotfi Bushnak from Tunisia.

53
Ziyd Qd AMIN is a flautist from
Damascus, a pupil of Abdelsalam Safar
and considered to be the best exponent of
the ney (reed flute) in Syria. He has been
a member of the Al-Kind Ensemble for
several years now and takes part in all their
European tours.

Muhammad Qadri DALAL was born in

Aleppo in 1946. He is a peerless master of
the Arab lute (the ud) and is very well-
known in his own country. He carries on the
traditional Aleppian style for his instrument,
a style emanating from the Turkish school,
aiming at a smooth, rounded sound. He
has an encyclopaedic knowledge of the
traditional repertory.

Adel Shams EDDINE was born

in Cairo in 1950, but is currently
living in France. He has been one
of the mainstays of the Al-Kind
Ensemble ever since it was
created, and indeed he has become
quite simply indispensable as an
accompanist. His total mastery of
even the most complex rhythmic
cycles have made him a much
respected performer on the riqq
(tambourine with tiny cymbals).

54
 Les Derviches Tourneurs de Damas
The Whirling Dervishes of Damascus
Sheikh Hamza Shakkr
Ensemble Al-Kind
CD 1 - Dure Totale 7022

1 - 404 Al-adhn - Appel la prire - Call to prayer

2 - 438 Inna-l-Lha wa mal ikatuhu yusalln- Salawt - prires - prayers
Dieu et Ses anges prient sur le Prophte - God and His angels pray
on the name of the Prophet
3 - 434 Taqsm Nay en Mqm Hijz - Improvisation de flte en roseau
par Zyd Qad Amn - Improvisation on reed flute by Zyad Qadi
Amin
4 - 653 Y liman bi s-sirr - Chant mesur, rythme 7/8 - Measured song
in 7/8 rhythm
Toi qui connais mon secret - You who knowest my secret
5 - 300 Ibtihl zidni bi farti al-hubb
Supplication improvise sur un pome mystique de Ibn al-Frid
Improvised supplication after a mystical poem by Ibn al-Farid
Par encore plus damour - By yet more love
6 - 1317 al-Nawba ou Hadra - Dhikr de la Grande Mosque des Omeyyades
Dhikr from the Great Ummayad Mosque - Suite de Mad ih, chants
dloges au Prophte - Madih suite, songs of praise to the Prophet
- Bi-hamdika y ilh - En Te remerciant pour Tes bienfaits,
mon Dieu - We are grateful to You for Your blessings, O my God
- Allh, Allh, l ilha ill-l-Lh, Ataynka bi-l-faqr
Nous sommes venus Toi dmunis - We come to You bereft
- Allh qaym - Dieu lEveill - God the Wakeful One
- Saltun al n-nab - Priez sur le Prophte - Pray on the name
of the Prophet
- Y rabban sall al tah
Dieu, prire sur le Prophte - O God, a prayer on the Prophet
7 - 421 Taqsm Qnn en Mqm Hijz - Improvisation de cythare
orientale par Julien Jall Eddine Weiss - Improvisation on the
oriental zither by Julien Jalal Eddine Weiss
8 - 521 Bashraf Hijaz, rythme dawr kabir 28/4
(Tawfiq al-Sabbagh)- Prlude instrumental - Instrumental prelude
9 - 726 Y man sar Chant mesur - Measured song
Toi qui a accompli le Voyage Nocturne
You who undertook the Nightime Journey
10 - 521 Mawly dqat biya - Chant mesur - Measured song
Seigneur la terre mest devenue trop troite
Lord, the earth has become too confined for me
11 - 1153 Bashraf Hijaz Murrabba (Safar Ali), rythme 13/4 et Ibtihalat et
Taqasm Mawzun
- Nawh al-hamm (al-Bura)
Ibtihal Mawzun, pome improvis sur rythme Murrabba
Ibtihal Mawzun, improvised poem with a Murrabba rhythm
La plainte de la colombe ma attrist - The doves lament did make me sad
- Laqad kuntu qabl al-yawum (Ibn al-Arab)
Ibtihal Mawzun, pome improvis sur rythme Murrabba
Ibtihal Mawzun, improvised poem with a Murrabba rhythm
Avant ce jour jignorais mon Bien-Aim
Until this day I did not know my Beloved

Arrangements traditionnels Julien Jall Eddine Weiss

Traditional arrangements by Julien Jalal Eddine Weiss

55
 CD 2 - Dure Totale 6126
I - Wasla mqm kurd - Suite modale orientale dAnashd Dniyya
Oriental modal suite by Anashid Diniyya

1 - 521 Sam` hijz-kr-kurd - Prlude instrumental - Instrumental prelude

(Slah al-Mahd, compositeur tunisien, disciple du Sheikh ali-
Darwish dAlep)
(by Salah al-Mahadi, a Tunisian composer and disciple of Shaykh ali
Darwish from Aleppo)
2 - 225 Taqsm d - improvisation de luth - Improvisation on the lute
Qadri Dalal
3 - 315 rafatu bi sirri - Ibtihl - improvisation vocale sur un pome
mystique en mqm kurd - Vocal improvisation on a mystical poem in
maqam kurd mode
Jai rvl mon secret - I have revealed my secret
4 - 201 rafatu shakwya - Chant mesur en mqm kurd - Measured song
in maqam kurd mode
Jai adress ma plainte - I have turned my lament
5 - 406 Habbun il-l-Rahmn - Chant mesur en mqm kurd - Measured
song in maqam kurd mode
Le bien-aim du Clment - The Merciful Ones beloved
6 - 246 Mawly anta-l-Whid - Ibtihl - Supplication improvise
vocalement en mqm bayati sur un pome mystique - Supplication
with vocal improvisation in maqam bayati, after a mystical poem
Seigneur, Tu es lUnique - Lord, you are the Unique One
7 - 415 Y bad as-samawti wa-l-ard - Chant mesur, en mqm bayati
Measured song in maqam bayati mode
, merveille des cieux et de la terre - O wonder of the heavens, wonder
of the earth
8 - 603 Y rasl Allh anta-l-Mustaf - Chant mesur en mqm kurd -
Measured song in maqam kurd mode
, messager de Dieu, tu es lElu - O messenger of God, you are the
Chosen One
9 - 422 Mdh uabbiran - Chant mesur en mqm kurd - Measured song
in maqam kurd
Que dire dun tre... - What can one say about a being
II - Wasla mqm Rst - Suite modale orientale dAnashd Dniyya
Oriental modal suite by Anashid Diniyya
10 - 516 Sam` Rst (Ghnim Haddd- compositeur irakien, disciple de
Sharf Muhy-Dn) - (Ghnim Haddad, Iraqi composer and disciple
of Sharif Muhyieddin)
11 - 604 Mliku-l-mulk - Chant mesur - Measured song
, Seigneur de tous les royaumes... - O Lord of all kingdoms
12 -132 Sall al hdh-n-nab - Chant mesur - Measured song
Priez sur ce Prophte - Pray on the name of this Prophet
13 - 344 Y Mawln sall - Chant mesur - Measured song
Seigneur, Priez... - Pray, Lord
L tbat al-aghn Chant mesur - Measured song
Les chants me sont devenus agrables - Songs have become
pleasant to mine ears
14 - 319 tajallat wa-njalat laylan - Chant mesur - Measured song
Elle sest rvle de nuit - She appeared in the night
shdinn sda qulb al-umam - Chant mesur - Measured song
Le chanteur qui sest insinu dans le cur des humains
The singer who has found his way into the human heart
al-madad - Chant mesur - Measured song
Viens mon secours - Come rescue me
15 - 513 Y man yurajj li-sh-shafa - Ibtihl Mawzun
Celui dont on attend lintercession - He whose intercession we await
16 - 135 Masdaru-l-ashy Ahmad - Chant mesur - Measured song
Source de toute chose - Thou source of all things
Arrangements traditionnels Julien Jall Eddine Weiss
Traditional arrangements by Julien Jalal Eddine Weiss

56
Conception et ralisation: Alain Raemackers & Julien Jall Eddine Weiss
Conception graphique: Anne Thiollent, Atelier Relations, Arles
Crdits photographiques:
Sabine Chtel (pages: couverture, page 4, 5, 16, 31, 46)
Nicolas Nilsson (pages: 9, 10, 13, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 35,
36, 38, 42, 45, 48, 50)
Ammar Abd Rabbo (page 20)
Ferrante Ferrenti (page 54)
Textes: Jean During, Eric Geoffroy,
Ahmad Badreddine Hassoun, Julien Jall Eddine Weiss
Traduction anglaise: Delia Morris
Traduction de larabe: Saadane Benbabaali

Enregistr au studio Vah Damas du 07 au 11 juin 1999

Direction musicale: Julien Jall Eddine Weiss
Ingnieur du son: Romain Frydman
Montage: Romain Frydman, Studio Cargo, Montreuil
Mastering, impression: Pozzoli S.p.a, Milan

Cration mondiale pour le Thtre de la Ville de Paris

Contact: Sabine Chtel - 12 rue Daguerre, 75014 Paris

Tl/fax (00 33) 01 43 20 92 28 - e-mail: alkindi@wanadoo.fr

Remerciements : Ahmad Badreddine Hassoun, grand Mufti dAlep,

Madame Najah Attar, Ministre de la Culture Syrienne,
Grard Violette, Mimoun Nouri, Jean During, Salah Stti,
Philippe Vigreux, Saadane Benbabaali, Romain Frydman,
Nicolas Nilsson, Bassel Kasnasrallah,
Christian Poch, Mady, lIFEAD,
Natalia Baraglioli et Sabine Chtel.

& 1999 - Le Chant du Monde - 31-33, rue Vandrezanne - 75013 Paris