646

NOTE / NOTE

Parameters affecting the thickness of bentonite

cake in cutoff wall construction: case study and
physical modeling
Abbas Soroush and Mohammad Soroush

Abstract: Concrete cutoff walls are usually constructed using a panel-by-panel technique in which primary panels are
constructed with space between them and then secondary panels are constructed and inserted in the spaces. A small
thickness of residual bentonite cake from the slurry used during excavation usually remains in the construction joints
between adjacent primary and secondary panels. The thickness of such bentonite-filled joints should be minimized in
terms of the performance of the cutoff wall in controlling seepage. This research experimentally evaluated the effects
of a number of design and construction parameters on the thickness of the bentonite cake using data from a case study
(the cutoff wall of Karkheh Dam). A physical model test was developed and a number of tests were conducted. The
test results showed that parameters such as age of the primary panels, cement content of the slurry, quantity of addi-
tives in the slurry, and circulation versus noncirculation of the slurry are responsible for the thickness of the bentonite
cake. The results are presented and analyzed.
Key words: cutoff wall, plastic concrete, bentonite slurry, bentonite cake, physical model.
Résumé : Les parafouilles de béton sont habituellement construites selon une technique panneau-par-panneau. D’après
cette technique, des panneaux primaires sont d’abord construits avec assez d’espace entre eux. Par la suite, les pan-
neaux secondaires sont exécutés dans ces espaces. Habituellement, une mince couche de bentonite résiduelle provenant
de la boue utilisée durant l’excavation forme une croûte qui reste coincée dans les joints de construction entre les pan-
neaux primaires et secondaires adjacents. Quant à la performance de la parafouille pour le contrôle de l’infiltration,
l’épaisseur de ces joints remplis de bentonite devrait être minimisée. Dans la présente recherche, en utilisant les don-
nées d’une étude de cas (la parafouille du projet de barrage de Karkheh), on a évalué expérimentalement les effets
d’un certain nombre de paramètres de conception et de construction sur l’épaisseur de cette croûte. Dans ce but, on a
développé un essai sur modèle physique et réalisé un certain nombre d’essais. Les résultats des essais montrent que les
paramètres tels que l’âge des panneaux primaires, la teneur en ciment de la boue, la quantité d’additifs dans la boue, la
circulation versus non circulation de la boue, etc. sont responsables de l’épaisseur de la croûte de bentonite. On pré-
sente et analyse ces résultats dans cet article.

Mots clés : parafouille, béton plastique, boue de bentonite, croûte de bentonite, modèle physique.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Soroush and Soroush 654

Introduction develop a lateral support pressure against any potential in-

Bentonite slurry (i.e., a suspension of colloidal particles in
water) has been used in a wide variety of geotechnical engi-
neering projects for many years. There are three main func-
tions of the bentonite slurry in an excavation assignment:
Received 6 December 2002. Accepted 30 August 2004.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
http://cgj.nrc.ca on 20 May 2005.
A. Soroush.1 Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran
Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran.
M. Soroush. Iran Water and Power Resources Development
Company (IWPC), Tehran, Iran.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: soroush@aut.ac.ir).
stability of the excavated walls, produce a thin concentrated
cake on the walls of the excavation to minimize seepage of
groundwater into the excavated area, and facilitate extraction
and removal of excavated materials (Xanthakos 1979). In
terms of minimizing seepage, a thick cake might be desir-
able. In some cases in geotechnical engineering projects,
however, thick, stiff bentonite cakes may have adverse ef-
fects, for example in the case of the construction of a cutoff
wall.
Figure 1 shows how colloidal slurry penetrates into a po-
rous granular medium. The slurry enters the pores due to a
pressure difference and during this process groups of solid
particles begin to occupy the void space between soil grains
(Fig. 1a). The slurry continues to infiltrate as more solid par-
ticles accumulate in the pores, and the system then forms a

Can. Geotech. J. 42: 646–654 (2005) doi: 10.1139/T04-090 © 2005 NRC Canada
Soroush and Soroush
Fig. 1. Formation of filter cake: (a) deposition of colloid fraction in soil voids; (b) filtration of slurry; (c) formation of impermeable
film along face (after Xanthakos 1979).
tightly packed zone of gelled material, commonly called fil-
ter cake (Fig. 1b). The cake is soon covered by a thin layer
of bentonite particles, called a protective film or bentonite
cake (Fig. 1c); at this stage the barrier is fairly impermeable
and resists further penetration (Xanthakos 1979).
This paper presents the findings of a study on the effects
of design and construction parameters on the thickness of
bentonite cake. A physical-testing model was used to simu-
late most conditions encountered with a prototype. The pro-
totype is the construction of the plastic concrete cutoff wall
in the foundation of Karkheh Dam in southwest Iran. The
paper introduces the parameters affecting the cake thickness,
describes the model test and testing procedure, and presents
results of the tests and the analyses. The results show the ef-
fect of each of the parameters on cake thickness. The next
section presents the background information, including a
summary of the general procedures of cutoff wall construc-
tion and the characteristics of Karkheh Dam and its cutoff
wall, which directed the authors to this research.
Research background
Cutoff wall construction procedure
Cutoff walls (COW) for controlling seepage can be made
of different materials and with different construction tech-
niques. These include slurry walls (i.e., mixture of water,
bentonite, and in situ excavated materials), concrete walls,
and plastic concrete walls. Plastic concrete is a special con-
crete containing bentonite, which makes the concrete more
deformable and weaker than ordinary concrete. While a
slurry wall may be constructed in a continuous fashion with
no joints along the wall, concrete and plastic concrete COWs
are usually constructed using a panel-by-panel technique
(ICOLD 1985). An inherent feature of this technique is a
construction joint between every two successive panels.
With the panel-by-panel technique, a number of primary
panels, each a few metres wide and with space between
them, are constructed. After a few days, secondary panels
are inserted between the primary panels. Since the COW
should be practically water-tight against excessive seepage, a
proper contact between the adjacent primary and secondary
panels should be provided. There are a number of methods
for providing this contact (ICOLD 1985), one of which is
overcutting.
647
Fig. 2. Plan view of secondary panel (S) between two primary
panels (P) with overcut fraction. If depth < 40 m, overlap =
25 cm; if 40 < depth < 50 m, overlap = 30 cm; if 50 < depth <
70 m, overlap = 35 cm; if depth > 70 m, overlap = 40 cm.
In the overcutting method, fractions of the two adjacent
primary panels are excavated and removed during excavation
of each secondary panel to (i) counteract a possible devia-
tion in the direction of the wall axis at greater depths, where
there may be discontinuities between adjacent panels; and
(ii) provide a tight construction joint between primary and
secondary panels. The length of the overcut fraction depends
on the panel depth and may range from 25 to 40 cm; the
deeper the panel, the greater the overcut fraction. Figure 2
shows a schematic plan view of a secondary panel with
overcut fractions between two primary panels.
Bentonite slurry is used during both the excavation and
concreting of the trenches of the panels. Some additives may
be used to control viscosity and pH of the slurry. In general,
a cutter machine excavates the trenches; however, the upper
3 m should be excavated by a backhoe. This preexcavation is
a prerequisite for the embedment of the cutter in the ground.
Figure 3 illustrates schematically the insertion of a second-
ary panel between two primary panels.
In general, the steps involved during the construction of a
plastic concrete panel of a COW can be summarized as fol-
lows:
(1) A trench is excavated by a cutter machine (or backhoe)
when bentonite slurry is used; this slurry is called a
working slurry.
(2) For secondary panels, the trench walls are brushed using
special brushes installed on the cutter frame to try to re-
move pasty bentonite cakes adhered to the sides of the
adjacent primary panels. During the brushing, the trench
is washed with fresh slurry, which replaces the working
slurry.
(3) Plastic concrete is poured into the trench using a tremie
pipe, which fills the trench by gradually moving up
© 2005 NRC Canada
648
Fig. 3. Execution of a secondary panel (S) between two adjacent
primary panels (P).
from the bottom of the trench. The period between the
termination of the trench excavation and the commence-
ment of the concreting should be minimized to prevent
formation of thick bentonite cakes on the walls of the
trench.
Working and fresh slurries are usually quality controlled
in the laboratory for a number of specifications, including
pH, density, viscosity, filtration, and cake thickness.
Case study
General characteristics
The Karkheh Dam was constructed on the Karkheh River
in the Province of Khoozestan, Iran. The Karkheh River,
which is the third largest river in Iran in terms of discharge,
is fed by a catchment area of about 50 000 km2. The river
originates from the South Flank of the Zagross Mountain
Range in the western and northwestern parts of Iran, flows
about 900 km, and then terminates in Hoorolazim, a large
swamp at the border with Iraq.
The Karkheh Dam was constructed to (i) provide water
for irrigation, (ii) produce electricity, and (iii) control floods.
Construction was started in 1994 and finished in 2000. The
dam is an earth-fill dam with a central core. Table 1 summa-
rizes some characteristics of the Karkheh Dam project, in-
cluding the dam dimensions, the expected capacity, and the
size of the reservoir.
Figures 4 and 5 show the layout and a typical cross sec-
tion of the dam, respectively. Materials for the dam core are
mixtures of 60% clay (CL) and 40% gravelly clay (GC). The
shell material is a mixture of sand and gravel. The upstream
surface slope is 2.0 (H) to 1.0 (V), and the average down-
stream surface slope is about 1.8 (H) to 1.0 (V), with a berm
approximately at mid-height of the dam. The dam founda-
tion comprises conglomerate masses intercalated by layers
of mudstone (Fig. 5). Whereas the conglomerate is very non-
homogeneous and fairly permeable, the mudstones are ho-
mogeneous and almost impervious.
A plastic concrete COW was constructed to control seep-
age in the foundation. The panel-by-panel technique with the
overcutting method and the procedure described earlier in
the paper were employed during the construction. The COW,
with a maximum depth of around 80 m, is extended over al-
most the whole length of the dam (2940 m). The thickness
of the COW varies between 0.6 and 1.0 m, depending on the
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 42, 2005
Table 1. Characteristics of Karkheh Dam.
Dam body
Maximum height (m) 127
Crest length (m) 3 030
Crest width (m) 12
Volume (m3 ×106) 32
Reservoir
Operational volume (m3 ×106) 5 600
Gross volume (m3 ×106) 7 800
Spillway (gated chute spillway) 18 395
discharge capacity (m3/s)
Diversion system (culvert with four 3 680
openings) capacity (m3/s)
Powerhouse (surface power house) 400
capacity (MW)
dam height, for different sections of the dam; however, this
thickness is constant with depth. The top of the COW is em-
bedded in the dam core, with an embedment height ranging
from 2 to 8 m for different sections depending on the height
of the dam. Figure 6 shows a longitudinal section of the
COW.
Tables 2 and 3 present the mix design and specifications,
respectively, of the plastic concrete of the COW. The specifi-
cations of the fresh and working slurry used in the secondary
panels are summarized in Table 4; in general, the bentonite
content of the fresh slurry was about 50 kg/m3.
Joints between panels
After the construction of a number of panels of the COW,
residual cakes of bentonite were observed in joints between
some of the primary and secondary panels. The cakes had
adhered so strongly to the side walls of some of the primary
panels that they had not been removed even by (i) washing
the secondary trenches with fresh slurry prior to the concret-
ing, (ii) brushing the side walls of the adjacent primary pan-
els, and (iii) upward movement of the fresh plastic concrete
during concreting. The thickness of the cake was almost uni-
form across the wall, i.e., in plan view. Figure 7 shows
a simplistic, schematic three-dimensional view of these
bentonite-filled joints. The joints observed between the pan-
els could be divided into two general categories, namely up-
per joints and lower joints. Some observations on the joints
are given in the following sections.
Upper joints
The upper joints were observed primarily from the surface
after removal of the guide walls. To detect the extent of
these joints with depth, the ground immediately upstream of
the joints was excavated to produce observation wells. The
wells were later filled with plastic concrete. The upper joints
had a maximum depth of about 6 m (although in a few loca-
tions up to 12 m) and a maximum thickness of a few centi-
metres. In the first 3 m, which were pre-excavated by a
backhoe, the joints were thicker and contained pieces of
plastic concrete in the matrix of bentonite cake. As shown in
Fig. 8, these joints were usually diagonal toward the adja-
cent primary panels because the backhoe produces inclined
side walls (the sides of the adjacent primary panels) during
© 2005 NRC Canada
Soroush and Soroush 649

Fig. 4. Layout of the Karkheh Dam project. U/S, upstream; D/S, downstream.

Fig. 5. Cross section of Karkheh Dam. Vertical scale in metres.

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section of the cutoff wall of Karkheh Dam. Horizontal distances in metres.

© 2005 NRC Canada

650
Table 2. Plastic concrete mix design for the
cutoff wall of Karkheh Dam.
Cement (kg/m3) 200
Bentonite (kg/m3) 37.5
Aggregates (kg/m3) 1500
Ratio of water to cement 1.5–1.7
Table 3. Specifications of the plastic concrete of the cutoff
wall of Karkheh Dam.
Plastic concrete (28 days)
(USC)min (kg/cm2) 30
E (kg/cm2, ×103) 20–50
kmax (cm/s) 10–7
Fresh plastic concrete
Slump (cm) 18–22
Pouring temperature (°C) <30
Cement Type V, low alkaline
Bentonite Sodium montmorillonite
Note: E, elastic modulus; k, permeability; UCS, unconfined
compressive strength.
the excavation. These upper joints were relatively thick be-
cause it is less likely that the bentonite cakes would have
been removed from these inclined walls during concreting
than from the vertical side walls produced by the cutter.
Lower joints
At the time of the excavation of the three power tunnels in
the left abutment of the dam, panels of the COW in this area
became fully exposed. This provided an excellent opportu-
nity to detect, and in fact observe, the quality and size of
some joints to a depth of about 35 m below the top of the
panels. The COW in this section of the dam was 73 m deep
and continued down into mudstone layer 2. Six joints be-
tween the adjacent primary and secondary panels, with two
joints in each power tunnel, were evident in this area. Four
of the joints had thicknesses of less than 7 mm; however,
two joints had a maximum thickness of about 15 mm. The
joints were filled with flocculated and compacted bentonite
slurry and extended from the upstream to the downstream of
the panels. It should be noted that the upper joints observed
in this area were a maximum of 5 m deep.
The significance of seepage control in the dam foundation
led all sides of the project organization to arrange an interna-
tional expert panel to review the bentonite-filled joint
phenomenon and discuss its effects on seepage in the foun-
dation. More details of this case study and a summary of the
opinions of the expert panel are given by Soroush (1999b).
Joint phenomena in other projects
Cutoff walls have been used to control seepage in a num-
ber of hydropower and waste-containment projects world-
wide. Table 5 summarizes the characteristics of a number of
cutoff walls in various countries. As indicated, the over-
cutting technique has been used for joint construction
between the adjacent panels. Accordingly, the joint perfor-
mance in all of these cutoff walls has been satisfactory and
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 42, 2005
no unexpected seepage has developed. In terms of the qual-
ity and filling material of the joints, we provide information
about two projects, namely the Al-Wahdedh Dam and the
New Ensa Dam, both in Morocco (Soroush 1999a).
A total of 37 joints were found in the Al-Wahdeh Dam, of
which six were continuous from the upstream to the down-
stream. The maximum depth at which such joints were
found was 6 m. The joints consisted of bentonite mixed with
cement from overcutting of the primary panels (Soroush
1999a). In the New Ensa Dam, bentonite-filled joints were
found between the panels of the COW, with the joint thick-
ness varying from 50 mm at the surface to 15 mm at a depth
of 3.90 m, and cements were found in the filling materials
(Soroush 1999a). The cutoff walls in both dams have not ex-
perienced any deficiencies, including erosion of the joint
materials (Soroush 1999a).
Physical modeling
Observations and experience from the construction of the
COW in the Karkheh Dam showed us that it is almost im-
possible to completely remove bentonite cakes from the side
walls of primary panels. The application of measures such as
washing the trenches with fresh slurry, brushing the side
walls of the panels, and concreting into the trenches could
have removed only a portion of the cakes at best. Therefore,
we concentrated on finding procedures and parameters that
could produce a thinner bentonite cake without jeopardizing
the trench stability and without allowing the ambient water
to enter the trench.
Testing parameters
On the basis of the observations made during construction
of the COW at the Karkheh Dam and conclusions made by
the international expert panel referred to earlier, the follow-
ing design and construction parameters and factors were
found to be responsible for the thickness of the bentonite
cakes: (1) age of the plastic concrete of the primary panels;
(2) cement content of the slurry; (3) sodium bicarbonate, as
an additive, added to the slurry; (4) bentonite concentration
of the slurry; (5) circulation versus noncirculation of the
slurry; (6) working slurry versus fresh slurry; (7) dry soil up-
stream and downstream from the panel; (8) workability of
the plastic concrete of the secondary panel; and (9) high fil-
tration of the slurry, high hydrostatic pressures, and suction
forces.
To experimentally evaluate the effects of these parameters
on the thickness of bentonite cakes adhering to the side
walls of the primary panels, we tried to develop a physical
model for simulating the general procedures of the insertion
of a secondary panel between two successive primary panels
(see the section titled Cutoff wall construction procedure).
During the development of the physical model, we realized
that it is very difficult to account for the effects of high fil-
tration of the slurry, high hydrostatic pressures, and suction
forces (parameter 9) and therefore did not consider them in
the model development. Because of their significance, how-
ever, a brief discussion is provided here. Parameters 1–8 are
described during presentation of the tests results.
The process of high filtration of the slurry into the sur-
rounding dry ground and the unsaturated adjacent primary
© 2005 NRC Canada
Soroush and Soroush
Table 4. Typical specifications for fresh and working slurry in prototype practice.
Density
pH (g/cm3)
Fresh slurry 7–10 1.015
During excavation of secondary panels 7–12 1.200
During concreting in secondary panels 7–12 1.100
Fig. 7. Schematic three-dimensional view of joints between the
primary and secondary panels.
Fig. 8. Schematic section of the upper joints between the pri-
mary (P) and secondary (S) panels.
panels, with reference to the filter cake theory (Fig. 1), can
be described as follows. In most sections of the foundation
and abutments of the dam, the COW has been constructed
above the groundwater table and in a dry condition. In these
sections, a substantial amount of water from the plastic con-
crete of the primary panels and from the slurry in the trench
of the secondary panel has been absorbed by the unsaturated
surrounding ground. This process results in high filtration of
the slurry and therefore thickening of the bentonite cakes.
Another consequence of this condition is high differential
hydrostatic pressure (especially at deeper elevations) from
the slurry in the trench of the secondary panel against the
cake adhered to the overcut side walls of the primary panels.
This high differential pressure induces high gradients, result-
ing in higher rates of filtration. In addition, since the rock
formation consists of pervious but fine-grained unsaturated
materials, suction forces may have developed in the primary
panels, which results in attracting the bentonite cakes ad-
hered to the side walls of theses panels.
651
Viscosity Sand content Filtration Cake thickness
(s) (%) (cm3) (mm)
32–50 0 <30 <3
32–60 <6 <50 <6
32–50 <4 <30 <3
Characteristics of the physical model
The physical model consisted basically of a cubical steel
container with dimensions 130 cm × 100 cm × 30 cm (l ×
h × w), as shown schematically in Fig. 9. The front side of
the container was made of glass to provide a view into the
container during the tests. A hole was included in the floor
for evacuating slurry at the end of the tests. Two 15 cm wide
plastic concrete panels were constructed in the two sides of
the container to represent the prototype. To evacuate the
plastic concrete when required, two pull-out gates were in-
cluded in the side walls of the container. The corner joints of
the container were sealed to prevent loss of the slurry during
the tests.
Testing procedure
We developed a test program to examine the effects of
parameters 1–8 on the thickness of the bentonite cake. The
tests were carried out in the model container, which was lo-
cated at Karkheh Dam. The test site was located at the dam
to give the same temperature and humidity environment and
to ensure that sufficient test materials, including plastic con-
crete, fresh slurry, and working slurry, were readily avail-
able. The Karkheh site is located in a warm area with
average monthly temperatures ranging from 11 °C (January)
to 36 °C (August) and an average annual humidity of about
46%. The tests were conducted during the period May to
August, with an average temperature of 29 °C.
Generally, the same procedure used in the construction of
the prototype was followed at the test site. However, the ef-
fects of hydrostatic pressure of the slurry on the cakes, suc-
tion, and surface forces could not be simulated because of
the comparatively small dimensions of the model test con-
tainer and the simplistic boundary conditions. Therefore, the
physical tests modeled only the upper joints, and the conclu-
sions, as far as an absolute value of the cake thickness is
concerned, may not apply to the lower joints. In contrast
with the prototype conditions, all of the tests were carried
out in no-drainage conditions, and therefore, in general, cake
formation could have been limited by lack of drainage.
As mentioned previously, two 15 cm wide plastic concrete
panels, modeling the primary panels, were constructed in the
sides of the container. To comply with the prototype prac-
tice, the plastic concrete was cured dry prior to filling the
test tank with slurry. Depending on the test, fresh slurry or
working slurry was poured into the space between the two
primary panels and the thickness of the cakes was carefully
measured at different time intervals (usually every 2 h). To
facilitate these measurements, the level of the slurry in the
container was gradually lowered by evacuating it through the
hole in the floor. To control the quality and characteristics of
the slurry, density, Marsh viscosity, pH, and filtration testing
were carried out at the beginning, during, and at the end of
each of the tests. Table 6 summarizes typical values of these
© 2005 NRC Canada
652 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 42, 2005

performance
Fig. 9. Schematic perspective of the model test container.

Joint

OK
OK
OK

OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
height (m)
Approx.
storage

15
14
35

45
30
20
30
45

45

into rock socket (granite)

Sand, clay, large boulders

Sand, gravel; key 1.5 m

Silty sand, boulders
Ground condition

Sand, gravel, silt

Existing dam
Gravel, marl
Sandstone
Sandstone

Alluvium
construction
Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting

Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting
Overcutting

Overcutting
Joint

parameters for the fresh and working slurry. The test results,
Cement–bentonite cutoff

analysis of the test results, and specifications of the tests are

Cutoff plastic concrete

given in the next section.

Table 5. Characteristics of a number of cutoff walls (H.-J. Bliss, personal communication, 1998).

Concrete cutoff

Results and analysis

Soil bentonite

The results of the tests performed to study the effects of

Wall type

parameters 1–8 on the thickness of the bentonite cake are

Cutoff
Cutoff
Cutoff

Cutoff
Cutoff
Cutoff

Cutoff

presented in this section. The results are shown in terms of

variations of thickness of the bentonite cake adhering to the
side walls of the primary panels versus time. The results are
8 500

7 500

3 200

9 000
1 760
12 500
19 000

19 050

11 500

15 650

22 760

analyzed and conclusions are made for each of the tests.

(mm)
Wall
area

(1) Age of the plastic concrete of the primary panels

Four tests were carried out with primary panels that were
depth
Max.

16 h, 24 h, 42 h, and 4 days old. Figure 10 presents the re-

(m)
30
40
10

40
21
24
51
50
46
41

42

sults of these tests; as indicated at any time after pouring the

slurry between the two primary panels, the cake thickness
Thickness

decreases as the age of the primary panel increases. A possi-

(mm)
600
600
600

600
600
600
900

900

800
1000
1000

ble explanation for this result is that the fresh (i.e., younger)
plastic concretes may need more water for their cement
hydration. Therefore, they may absorb more water from the
United Arab
Emirates

slurry, leading to a thicker cake. Another result of these tests

Germany
Germany
Country

and all of the other tests, as expected and as observed, was

Croatia
Austria
Japan

Spain

that the cake thickness increased when the slurry remained

US

US

US

US

for a longer period of time in the trench.

Shwaib Dam diaphragm

(2) Cement content of the slurry

Eastside Dam reservoir

Hodges Village Dam

During construction of the prototype secondary panels,

Meeks Cabin Dam

the slurry was contaminated by cement from the overcut

Brombachsperre

Shiokawa Dam

Ahrental dump

fraction of the adjacent primary panels. To examine the ef-

Peruca Dam
Kleine Roth

Wister Dam

fects of this cement on the bentonite cake thickness, a series

La Estance

project

of tests was performed with fresh slurry (i.e., without ce-

Project

wall

ment) and slurry with 1.7, 3.4, and 5.7 kg/m3 cement. Fig-
ure 11 shows the cake thickness versus time after pouring
the slurry for the fresh slurry and slurry with the various ce-
1985
1985
1988

1990
1990
1992
1993
1994
1997
1997

1998

ment contents. As shown, the cement content of the slurry

Year

has an increasing effect on cake thickness. Figure 11 also in-

© 2005 NRC Canada

Soroush and Soroush
Table 6. Typical specifications of fresh and working slurry used in the physical model
tests.
Density Viscosity
pH (g/cm3) (s)
Fresh slurry 8 1.025 33
Working slurry 12 1.165 37
Fig. 10. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for different ages of the primary panel plastic concrete.
Fig. 11. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for different cement contents of the slurry.
dicates that the higher the cement content of the slurry, the
higher the rate of increase of cake thickness with time.
(3) Sodium bicarbonate, as an additive, added to the
slurry
In the construction of the prototype cutoff wall, it was
common to add additives to countermeasure the effect of
contamination of the slurry by cement. We examined this ef-
fect by adding 4.1, 7.1, and 10.2 kg/m3 sodium bicarbonate
(SBC) to the slurry that had been contaminated by 6.8 kg/m3
cement. Figure 12 shows the variation of cake thickness with
time for the fresh slurry, cement-contaminated slurry, and
cement-contaminated slurry with the various SBC contents.
As indicated by adding 4.1 kg/m3 SBC, the cake thickness
generally decreases. For the higher SBC contents, however,
this thickness slightly increases. This may indicate an opti-
mal content of SBC, which was about 0.6 of the cement con-
tent for these tests (i.e., 0.6 × 6.8 = 4.1 kg/m3). In the
prototype, however, this optimum ratio was lower (about
0.35). The difference may be attributed to the fact that in the
physical model we added fresh cement directly to the slurry.
In the prototype, slurry was contaminated by cement from
the primary panels; this cement had already activated during
concreting of the primary panels and therefore had less in-
653
Sand Filtration Cake thickness
content (%) (cm3) (mm)
0 28 1.5
2 45 5.3
Fig. 12. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for different sodium bicarbonate contents.
Fig. 13. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for different bentonite concentrations of the slurry. B/W, kilo-
grams of bentonite per cubic metre of water.
teraction (i.e., less interaction than that of the fresh cement)
with the slurry of the secondary panel.
(4) Bentonite concentration of the slurry
We carried out a number of tests using a slurry with 12.5,
20.0, 30.0, 40.0, 60.0, and 75.0 kg of bentonite per cubic
metre of water. Figure 13 presents the results of these tests;
as expected, the higher the bentonite content, the thicker the
cake adhering to the side walls of the model primary panels.
(5) Circulation versus noncirculation of the slurry
In field practice, slurry is circulated during the excavation,
washing, and concreting of the trench. This is accomplished
by placing slurry from the top of the trench and evacuating it
from the bottom of the trench using a pump attached to the
cutter. Circulation of the slurry may stop sometimes because
of a delay during the excavation or concreting to repair the
cutting and (or) concreting equipment. We performed a
number of model tests to compare the effects of circulation
versus noncirculation of the slurry on the thickness of the
bentonite cake. Figure 14 shows that the slurry circulation
generally has a decreasing effect on the thickness of the
cake. This compares favorably with observations made dur-
ing the prototype practice.
© 2005 NRC Canada
654
Fig. 14. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for circulation and noncirculation of the slurry.
(6) Working slurry versus fresh slurry
In the prototype and during excavation of the trench, the
slurry mixed with the excavated materials is directed to a
desander. The desander separates the slurry from these mate-
rials and directs it back into the trench for reuse. This is
called the working slurry. In contrast, the slurry used once
only during the trench washing and concreting is called the
fresh slurry. We repeated the model tests to evaluate the ef-
fects of these two types of slurry. Figure 15 shows that the
bentonite cake resulting from the working slurry is compara-
tively much thicker for all of the time intervals.
(7) Dry soil upstream and downstream from the panel
If the surrounding ground immediately upstream and
downstream from the cutoff wall trench is relatively pervi-
ous and dry, which was the case for many sections of the
foundation of Karkheh Dam, it can adsorb some water from
the slurry. This may produce a thicker cake adhering to the
side walls of the trench. To study this effect, one side of the
secondary trench in the model test was filled with the dry
materials of the foundation. We realized that at the begin-
ning the cake rapidly became thicker when some of the wa-
ter from the slurry penetrated into the adjacent dry soil. The
rate of penetration decreased, however, as the cake became
thicker; hence, the rate of increase in the cake thickness
started to decline.
(8) Workability of the plastic concrete of the secondary
panel
As mentioned with the prototype, concreting in both the
primary and secondary trenches is achieved using a tremie
pipe moving from the bottom to the top of the trench. As the
plastic concrete substitutes for the slurry and fills up the sec-
ondary trench, it removes some gel-like parts of the cake ad-
hering to the trench walls. To examine the effects of the
workability of the plastic concrete on the removal of the
cake, three model tests were carried out using models with
3, 4, and 6 in. diameter pipe (1 in. = 25.4 mm). The same
plastic concrete of the prototype COW was used in these
tests. For the tests with 3 and 4 in. diameter pipes, the
upward-moving plastic concrete in the trench was not able to
remove the bentonite cake and gel-like parts of the cake
from the side walls of the adjacent panels because of the low
speed. In contrast, the plastic concrete poured with 6 in. di-
ameter pipe removed a considerable thickness of the cake.
This type of test confirms that the workability of the plastic
Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 42, 2005
Fig. 15. Variation in thickness of the bentonite cake versus time
for working slurry and fresh slurry.
concrete of the secondary panels has an important effect on
the removal of the bentonite cakes.
Summary and conclusions
This paper studied a number of design and construction
parameters affecting the thickness of bentonite cake result-
ing from slurry during the construction of cutoff walls. The
background and data for this research were provided from
the cutoff wall of the Karkheh Dam project as the prototype.
The study used a physical model that simulates the general
procedures involved in the construction of the prototype cut-
off wall. The results of the tests on the physical model
showed that a number of design and construction parameters
influence the thickness of the bentonite cake, such as the
length of time the slurry remains in the excavated area, the
age of the plastic concrete of the primary panels, the cement
content of the slurry, and circulation versus noncirculation of
the slurry. The tests results and their analyses are presented.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their appreciation to the
Iran Water and Power Resources Development Company
(IWPC) for permission to conduct this research and for the
support provided. The authors are also thankful to the
IWPC, the Mahab Ghods Engineers Company (consultant),
and the Sepasad Engineering Company (contractor) for pro-
viding data.
References
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© 2005 NRC Canada