Les Matériaux de Chaussée

Cours de Routes
2021
Présenté par:
Dr Estimé Mukandila
  La construction d’une route demande:
➢La durabilité / résistance

? ➢Bonne qualité de roulement ( confort)

➢Moyens financiers (coût )
➢Balance entre durabilité et coût
➢Conception de route basée sur l’optimisation de
épaisseurs des couches de chaussée et la
maintenance (entretien)
 Aperçu du Cours
 Introduction au cours de routes
Objectif et résultats d'apprentissage
1. Matériaux de chaussée
2. Conception de la chaussée: introduction et chaussée flexible
3. Conception de la chaussée rigide (en Béton)
4. Conception des revêtements (enrobés et enduits superficiels)
5. Réhabilitation de la chaussée
Cours de routes: Objectif et résultats d'apprentissage

● Objectif:
La conception des chaussées est le domaine qui traite de
la conception et de l'analyse des chaussées. C'est un
domaine d'étude relativement moderne en ingénierie. Il
combine les concepts de matériaux, de véhicules,
d'analyse et d'évaluation et de gestion.
● Résultats de l'apprentissage
Fournir à l'étudiant les connaissances de base et les
données de référence nécessaires pour effectuer en
pratique les tâches de base de conception et d'analyse
des chaussées
Programme de cours (28 Juin – 09 Juillet 2021)
Programme de cours (28 Juin – 09 Juillet 2021)
1. Matériaux de chaussées
 Aperçus sur les Matériaux de chaussées
 1.1. Origine des sols
1.2. essaies des Matériaux
1.3. Système de Classification des Matériaux (AASHTO, Unified,
THR4, Congolaise)
1.4. Stabilisation
1.5. Bitume and et Goudron
1.6. Compaction
1.1. Origine des sols
Pourquoi la chaussée et des essais de matériaux de la
chaussée ?
● Un véhicule roule sur un matériau de
chaussée
● Souvent, les matériaux naturels ne
sont pas assez résistants pour
supporter la charge du véhicule.
● L'un des objectifs de la conception des
chaussée et de ses matériaux est de
remédier à cette faiblesse
● Les matériaux doivent être testés pour
évaluer leur aptitude (capacité à
remédier aux faiblesses des matériaux
naturels) à être utilisés sur la route
 Quelques caractéristiques des matériaux de chaussée
● Les bons matériaux routiers doivent être
suffisamment rigides/ solides pour
supporter la charge du véhicule sans
cisaillement excessif (capacité
portante), déformation ou flexion (pour
les matériaux liés
➢ La rigidité est la caractéristique du
matériau, elle dépend souvent de la teneur
en eau et du compactage du matériau.
➢ Le cisaillement et la déformation sont des
caractéristiques des matériaux plastiques.
➢ Le sol naturel (Sol support) est souvent un
sol plastique et meuble.
➢ La chaussée améliore la capacité
portante et protègent le sol support .
 Les termes de l’ensemble d’une chaussée
● Qu’est ce que une chaussée?
➢Ensemble of des couches matériau qui
protègent le matériau in-situ et aide a
distribuer la charge du véhicule dans la
mass du sol.
➢La qualité de matériau augmente à partir
de la couche inférieure vers le haut.
➢Les couches de chaussée typiques qui
recouvrent successivement le matériau in-
situ sont : la couche sélectionnée, la
sous-base (fondation), la base ou de
béton et le revêtement.
Terminologie des structures de chaussée

Subbase

Selected layers

subgrade

subgrade
Top of
Pavement structure terminology
 Les termes de l’ensemble d’une chaussée
● Profil en Travers d’une route
Les termes de l’ensemble d’une chaussée
Les termes de l’ensemble d’une chaussée
Les termes de l’ensemble d’une chaussée

● Partie terrassement
– Sol support (partie
supérieure de
terrassement
– couche de forme.
● Structure de chaussée
– Couche d’assise
– Couche de surface.
Type de matériaux utilisés pour les différentes
couches de la chaussée
● Type of materials used for different
pavement layers:
– Subgrade: soil / gravel
– Subbase: natural gravel /
crusted stone/ stabilized
materials .
– Base: gravel/ crushed stone/
treated materials/ concrete
– Surface course: asphalt, seal
concrete, paving blocks, stones
setts and cobbles
Type of Surfacing
ORIGINE GÉOLOGIQUE DES SOLS

● Terminologie de la structure de la chaussée

● Zones de la croûte terrestre
● Cycle géologique
➢Roches ignées
➢Roches sédimentaires
➢Roches métamorphiques
➢Argile
➢Vieillissement (désintégration / décomposition) des roches
● Matériaux à problèmes
● Classification pratique (basée sur Weinert)
La Terre
1 000 km
6 5 3 1 0

croûte terrestre
Earth’s crust
Mohorovicic discontinuity discontinuité de Mohorovicic
Upper mantle
manteau supérieur
Lower mantle
manteau inférieur
Outer core
noyau externe
Inner core
noyau intérieur
La Terre
● L'ingénierie utilise les matériaux de la croûte
➢49 % oxygène
➢26 % cent silicium
➢8 % cent aluminium
➢5 % fer

● Changement continuel
➢Climat - température et humidité
➢Hydrologie - précipitations et ruissellement
➢Topographie - taux et quantité d'infiltration, exposition au
vent et au soleil
➢Organismes - animaux et plantes
➢Activités humaines
➢Temps
Cycle géologique

Stollings gesteentes
 Geological cycle
fraiche altérée Résiduelle
 Cycle géologique - types de
roches
• Igné
• Sédimentaire
• Métamorphique

Où trouver quoi?
Qu’est ce que le sol – Perspective d'ingénierie

• Sols : agrégat non cimenté de grains minéraux et de

matière organique (particules solides), le liquide et le gaz
occupant les espaces vides entre les particules solides
Sédimentaire
• Le sol est utilisé comme matériau de construction dans
divers projets de génie civil et il supporte les fondations
des ouvrage / structures.
Phase Gazeuse
Gaz et liquide dans les
Phase Liquide espaces vide entre
Particules Minérales des particules solides
et organiques
Phase Solide

• les ingénieurs civils doivent étudier les propriétés du sol,

telles que son origine, la répartition granulométrique, la
capacité de drainage de l'eau, la compressibilité, la
résistance au cisaillement, à la déformation, la capacité
portante
 Granulométrie du sol

Dimension de grain (mm)

Nom de l’organisation
Grave Sable Limon/ silt Argile
Massachusetts Institute of
>2 2 – 0.06 0.06 – 0.002 < 0.002
Technology(MIT)
U.S. Department of Agriculture
>2 2 – 0.05 0.05 – 0.002 < 0.002
(USDA)
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation 76.2 - 2 2 – 0.075 0.075 – 0.002 < 0.002
Officials (AASHTO)
Unified Soil Classification
System (U.S. Army Corps of Fines (c.-à-d. limons et
76.2 – 4.75 4.75 – 0.075
Engineers, U.S. Bureau of argiles) <0.075
Reclamation)
 Classe granulaire de granulats & du sol:

• Classe granulaire est terminée en termes de dimension inférieure (d) et

supérieure (D) de tamis, exprimée par la dénomination d/D, des
dimensions exprimées en millimètre.

• Exemple un granulat dont très peu de la masse passe au travers un

tamis de 4 mm (d), et dont la majorité de la masse passe au travers d'un
tamis de 12 mm (D), est dénommé : « granulat 4/12 »
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_fran%C3%A7aise_de_dimensionnement_des_chauss%C3%A9es

Manuel du laboratoire routier

Classe granulaire de granulats & du sol: Norme Française (NF)
• Le sable, granulat pour lequel la dimension la plus grande (D) est inférieure
ou égale à 4 mm, et dont la dimension la plus petite (d) est égale à 0. Par
exemple : « sable 0/2 ». (nb : dans la norme NF EN 13242, le D peut aller
jusqu'à 6 mm).
• Le gravillon, granulat pour lequel la dimension la plus petite (d) est
supérieure ou égale à 4 mm, et la dimension la plus grande (D) est inférieure
ou égale à 12 mm. Par exemple : « gravillon 4/12 »
• La grave désigne quant à elle tous les granulats de dimension (d) égale à 0,
et dont la dimension la plus grande (D) est supérieure à la limite désignant
les sables, c’est-à-dire supérieure à 4 mm (6 mm dans le cas de la norme NF
EN 13242) et ce jusqu'à 90 mm. C'est un mélange de sables et de gravillons,
voire de fillers. Elle peut être produite d'emblée, sans passer par la
séparation puis le mélange des sables et gravillons. Par exemple : « grave
0/31.5 ».
• Le filler, matériaux fin, dont la plupart des grains passe à travers un tamis
de 63 µm (= 63·10−6m), et qui peut être ajouté aux matériaux de
construction pour leur conférer certaines propriétés.
• L'enrochement, provenant soit directement du tri des matériaux brut
d'abattage ou du premier traitement de celui-ci, est composé de matériaux
dont la dimension supérieure (D) excède les 90 mm.
Classe granulaire de granulats & du sol: Norme Française (NF)
• Le sable, granulat : D<=4 mm et d=0. Exemple : « sable 0/2 ». (norme
NF EN 13242: D jusqu'à 6 mm).
• Le gravillon, granulat: D<=12 mm et d>=4mmm. Exemple : « gravillon
4/12 »
• La grave, tous les granulats: 4 mm (ou 6mm) <D<=90 mm et d=0
Exemple : «« grave 0/31.5 ».
• Le filler, matériaux fin, dont la plupart des grains passe le tamis de 63
µm (= 63·10−6m), et qui peut être ajouté aux matériaux de construction
pour leur conférer certaines propriétés.
• L'enrochement: D> 90 mm provenant soit directement du tri des
matériaux brut d'abattage ou du premier traitement de celui-ci,
Matériaux à problèmes - Argile
• Argile:
– complexes de silicates d'aluminium composés de
silice et d'alumine (gibbsite) en feuilles (plaques
minces)
– caractérisé par une grande surface spécifique
(surface par unité de masse) jusqu'à 800m2/g 23 micron
– les particules d'argile portent à leur surface une
charge nette négative dérivée d'une surface
spécifique plus grande, équilibrée par des cations
échangeables comme Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ et K+,
entourant les particules

Gibbsite sheet
Silica sheet

Gibbsite sheet
7.2 Å
Silica sheet
 Matériaux à problèmes - Argile

● Constitué de plaques minces

– Kaolinite (silice répétée - gibbsite)
– Illite (gibbsite liée à deux silices)
– Montmorillonite/ smectite (similaire à l'illite mais K remplacé par de
l'eau et des cations échangeables)
Si Si
Si
7.2 Å G 10 Å G 9.6 Å G
Si Si
nH20 and exchangeable cations
Si Si Si
G G G
Si Si Si
Potassium nH20 and exchangeable cations
G Si Si
G G
Si Si
Composition Composition
minérale Kaolinite Composition minérale
minérale de Illite Montmorillonite
 Matériaux à problèmes - Argile
• Lorsque l'eau est ajoutée à l'argile, les cations et
les anions flottent autour des particules d'argile.
C'est ce qu'on appelle la double couche
diffuse
• Les molécules d'eau sont polaires, L'eau
dipolaire est attirée à la fois par la surface
négativement chargée des particules d'argile et
par les cations de la double couche. L'eau
adhère fortement à l'argile, l'eau adsorbée, plus
visqueuse que l'eau libre
• L'orientation de l'eau autour des particules
d'argile donne aux sols argileux leurs propriétés
plastiques
• Charge négative
– Se repousser (dispersion)
• L’ajout de charges positives
– Floculation (plus grande résistance,
plus perméable, moins compressible)
 Matériaux à problèmes - Sol dispersif
• Force de répulsion supérieure à la force d'attraction
• Sec - haute résistance
• Mouillé - faible résistance
– la capacité de se disperser dans un environnement
humide et les particules fines peuvent être emportées
du sol, ce qui entraîne le creusement de tunnels et la
formation de cavités
• Important pour tester les propriétés in-situ des
matériaux
➢ L'analyse et la reconnaissance des sols dispersifs
nécessitent divers essais en laboratoire d'ingénierie
des sols et de pédologie. Ces tests comprennent :
– Détermination du pourcentage de sodium échangeable
(ESP).
– Test de trou d'épingle.
– Capacité d'échange cationique (CEC).
– Test de la mie.
– Essai au double aréomètre.
– Rapport d'absorption du sodium (SAR) et pH.
 Matériaux à problèmes - Argiles gonflantes

• 2:1 argiles
• Libres et lien instables
• Les molécules H2O forment des liaisons propres
• Plaques d'argile écartées
• Augmentation du volume
• Problème pour les structures
– Inégalités de la chaussée
– Fondations de la structure
• Les précautions suivantes peuvent être
recommandées :
– remplacer l'argile active jusqu'à une profondeur de
600 mm (alternative coûteuse) ;
– stabilisé avec de la chaux ;
– utiliser une couche de roche pionnière sur l'argile ;
– assurer un bon drainage et éviter de marteler l'eau
 Matériaux à problèmes – Sols mouvants
• Matériaux sableux de faible densité
(densité in situ inférieure à
1400kg/m3)
• Faible tassement à faible teneur en
humidité
• La pénétration d'humidité brise les
liens - la résistance à la rupture
– Le matériau doit avoir une structure
d'effondrement potentielle
– Le matériau doit être partiellement saturé
– Une augmentation de la teneur en
humidité doit se produire
• Essai humide / sec
• Faible densité
• Solution :
– Roulement à haute énergie d'impact
– le rippage et le recompactage à la
profondeur appropriée (600 mm)
Matériaux à problèmes – Dolomite
● Dolomite: CaCO3-MgCO3
– H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
– 3CaCO3.2MgCO3 + 5H2CO3 → 3Ca(HCO3)2 +
2Mg(HCO3)2
– (Dolomite + Carbonic acid = Calcium bicarbonate +
Magnesium bicarbonate)
Classification Géologique (basée sur Weinert)
● Weinert N-value
● Classification en fonction du potentiel d'altération
● Valeurs principales – 2, 5, 10
– < 5 – Décomposition des roches - drainage indispensable
– > 5 – Désintégration des roches

• EJ – Évaporation au cours du mois le plus chaud (Janvier???)

• Pa – Précipitations annuelles totale
Classification Géologique (basée sur Weinert)
● La classification est basée sur neuf groupes de roches
➢ Roches cristallines basiques (dolérite, andésite et basalte) ;
➢ Roches cristallines acides (granite et gneiss)
➢ Roches à haute teneur en silice (quartzite et cornéenne
(hornfels))
➢ Roches arenacées (grès et conglomérat)
➢ Roches carbonatées (dolomie et calcaire)
➢ Diamictites (tillite)
➢ Roches métallifères (ironstone)
➢ Matériaux pédogènique (latérite, calcrete, ferricrete, phoscrete et
silcrete)
1.2. Essaies des Matériaux (TMH1/SANS 3001)
Essais de sol et d'agrégats
● Introduction et généralités
● Paramètres du sol
● Paramètres d'agrégat
 Introduction et généralités
● Exigence de méthodes standard pour l'évaluation des
propriétés
● Valeurs d'utilisation dans la conception pour la sélection des
matériaux
➢ Technical Methods for Highways (TMH) 1
➢ Now SANS 3001 a été introduit en SA pour remplacer TMH 1
Tests on soils and gravels (TMH 1)
Method A1: The wet preparation and sieve analysis of gravel, sand and soil samples.
Method A2: The determination of the Liquid Limit of soils by means of the flow
curve method.
Method A3: The determination of the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of soils.
Method A4: The determination of the linear shrinkage of soils.
Method A5: The determination of the percentage of material, in a soil sample,
passing a 0,075 mm sieve.
Method A6: The determination of the grain size distribution in soils by means of a
hydrometer.
Method A7: The determination of the maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content of gravel, soil and sand.
Method A8: The determination of the California Bearing Ratio of untreated soils and
gravels.
Method A9: The determination of the California Bearing Ratio of lime-stabilised
soils and gravels.
Method A10(a): The determination of the in-place dry density of soil or gravel by
the sand replacement method.
Method A10(b) T: Tentative method for determining the in-place density and
moisture content of soils and gravels by nuclear methods.
 Tests on soils and gravels (SANS 3001)
GR1:Wet preparation and particle size analysis
GR2: Dry preparation and dry particle size analysis of graded materials
GR3: Particle size analysis of material smaller than 2 mm (hydrometer method)
GR5: Wet preparation and air-drying of samples for plasticity index and hydrometer tests
GR10: Determination of one-point liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and linear
shrinkage
GR11: Determination of the liquid limit with the two-point method
GR12: Determination of the flow curve liquid limit
GR20: Determination of moisture content by oven-drying
GR30: Determination of the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
GR31: Determination of the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of
laboratory mixed cementitiously stabilized materials
GR40: The determination of the California Bearing Ratio
GR50: Preparation, compaction, and curing of specimens of laboratory mixed
cementitiously stabilized materials
GR51: Sampling, preparation, compaction and curing of field mixed freshly cementitiously
stabilized materials including the determination of the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content
GR52: Sampling and preparation of cored specimens of field compacted, matured,
cementitiously stabilized materials
GR53: Determination of the unconfined compressive strength of compacted and cured
specimens of cementitiously stabilized materials
GR54: Determination of the indirect tensile strength of compacted and cured specimens
of cementitiously stabilized materials
GR55: Determination of the wet-dry durability of compacted and cured specimens of
cementitiously stabilized materials by hand brushing
NG4: Verification of a nuclear density gauge
NG5 : Determining the in-situ density using a nuclear density gauge
PR5: Computation of soil-mortar percentage, Coarse sand ratio, grading modulus and
fineness modulus
 Tests on aggregates (TMH 1)
Method B1: The determination of the Aggregate Crushing Value.
Method B2: The determination of the 10 per cent Fines Aggregate Crushing Value.
Method B3T: Tentative method for the determination of the Flakiness Index of a coarse aggregate.
Method B4: The sieve analysis of aggregates, including the determination of the material passing the
0.425 and 0,075 mm sieves.
Method B6: The determination of organic impurities in sand for concrete.
Method B7: The determination of the Treton impact value of aggregate.
Method B9: The determination of the bulk density of coarse and fine aggregate.
Method B10: The determination of the shrinkage properties of concrete aggregate.
Method B11: The determination of the adhesion of bituminous binder to stone aggregate by means
of the chemical immersion test (Riedel Weber).
Method B12: The determination of the effect of soluble deleterious material in fine aggregate for
concrete.
Method B13: The determination of the fineness modulus of fine aggregates.
Method B14: The determination of the dry bulk density, apparent relative density and water
absorption of aggregate retained on the 4.75 mm sieve.
Method B15: The determination of the dry bulk density, apparent relative density and water
absorption of aggregate passing the 4.75 mm sieve.
Method B16T: The quantitative determination of the total water-soluble salts in soils and aggregates.
Method B17T: The quantitative determination of the water-soluble sulphates in soils and aggregates.
Method B18: The determination of the average least dimension of aggregates.
Method B19: The determination of the sand equivalent of aggregates.
 Tests on aggregates (SANS 3001)
AG1: Particles size analysis of aggregates by sieving
AG2: Determination of the average least dimension of aggregates by direct
measurement
AG3: Determination of the average least dimension of aggregates by computation
AG4: Determination of the flakiness index of coarse aggregate
AG5: Sand equivalent value of fine aggregates
AG10: ACV (aggregate crushing value) and 10% FACT (fines aggregate crushing test)
values of coarse aggregates
AG13: Soundness of Mudrock
AG14: Determination of the ethylene glycol durability index for rock
AG15: Determination of rock durability using 10% FACT (fines aggregate crushing
test) value after soaking in ethylene glycol
AG16: Determination of the durability mill index values for aggregates
AG20: Determination of the bulk density, apparent density and water absorption of
aggregate particles retained on the 5 mm sieve for road construction materials
AG21: Determination of the bulk density, apparent density and water absorption of
aggregate particles passing the 5 mm sieve for road construction materials
AG22: Apparent density of crushed stone base
AG23: Particle and relative densities of aggregates
Aggregate and soil physical properties

● most readily apparent properties

● most direct effect on how an aggregate / soil performs as

either a pavement material constituent or by itself as a
base or subbase material

● Tests largely empirical

● Physical properties of aggregate / soil can change over

time
Paramètres de Sol

● Analyse Granulométrique

● Limites d’Atterberg ( Constantes de sol)

● Retrait linéaire

● California Bearing Ratio (CBR )

Analyse granulométrique par tamisage et par sédimentométrie

● Déterminer la distribution en poids des particules de sol

suivant leurs dimension size distribution

● tamisage: secouer l’échantillon en tamis jusqu’à ce que la

quantité retenue devient plus ou moins constante.
Alternativement, l’échantillon peut être lavé a travers les
mailles sans un liquide réactif (généralement l’eau )
Analyse Granulométrique
● L’une des caractéristiques les plus influents dans la détermination
de la performance de matériaux de la chaussée
● Asphalte
➢ détermine rigidité, stabilité, durabilité, perméabilité, mise en œuvre,
résistance a la fatigue , friction et résistance aux dommage de l’humidité

● Béton
➢ détermine durabilité, porosité, mise en œuvre, demande en ciment et
eau, résistance, et le retrait (rétrécissement)

● Couches granulaires
➢ détermine résistance, capacité portante , durabilité, perméabilité, mise en
œuvre
Pavement Interactive
Pavement Material: Soil Tests
● Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer
 Sieve size (mm)
TMH1 SANS 3001
75.0 75.0
63.0 63.0
53.0 50.0
37.5 37.5
26.5 28.0
19.0 20.0
13.2 14.0
9.5 10.0
4.75 5.0
2.00 2.0
0.425 0.425
0.075 0.250
0.150
0.075
Size distribution and grading

Fine Graded

Continuous Graded

Gap Single Sized

Gap Graded
Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer

● The hydrometer test is performed on material sample of -0.425 mm.

This test is done using Bouyoucos device
● hydrometer is initially used to measure the relative density of liquids
● The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, often a
graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the
liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid
touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.
● Use dispersing agent (sodium silicate or sodium oxylate) for 50g or
100g of -0.425mm of soil sample, disperse the soil in water, agitate
the mix then take readings as follows:
➢ 18 s → mass passing 0.075mm sieve
➢ 40 s → mass passing 0.05mm sieve
➢ 1 hour → mass passing 0.005mm sieve
➢ 7 hour → mass passing 0.002mmsieve
 Procedure of Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer

Sample

Sample
prep
Sample Sample
425μm < Sample 75μm < Sample <
> 20mm < 75μm
<20mm (M20-0.425) 425μm (M0.425-0.075)
(M>20) (M<0.075)
Sieving &
Weighting

R50 R14 R0.25

P50 P14 P0.25
Portion of P0.425
R37.5 R10 R0.15
P37.5 P10 P0.15
Portion of P20

R5 R0.075
R25
P5 P0.075
P25 R2
R20 P2 Pan
P20 R0.425 Hydrometer test
Pan P0.425 𝑀𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Pan 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 "𝑖"
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 "𝑖"
Example of computation of Pi
● 1) Weighing retained Mass on each sieve 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀20−0.425
𝑅14 𝑅10 𝑅5 𝑅2 … 𝑒𝑡𝑐 R14

R10
● 2) Add mass retained on each sieve (Cum on sieve)
𝑅14 , (𝑅14 +𝑅10 ), (𝑅14 +𝑅10 + 𝑅5 ) … 𝑒𝑡𝑐 R5

● 3) compute Mass passing each sieve (MPi) R2.

𝑀𝑃14 = 𝑀20−0.425 −𝑅14 R0.425

𝑀𝑃10 = 𝑀20−0.425 − 𝑅14 − 𝑅10 Pan
𝑀𝑃5 = 𝑀20−0.425 − 𝑅14 − 𝑅10 − 𝑅5
෍ 𝑅𝑖
… 𝑒𝑡𝑐
𝑖=𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

● 4) computer Percentage passing (Pi)

𝑀𝑃14 𝑀𝑃5
𝑃14 = 𝑃20 𝑃5 = 𝑃20
𝑀20−0.425 𝑀20−0.425
𝑀𝑃10
𝑃10 = 𝑃20 … 𝑒𝑡𝑐
𝑀20−0.425
Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer
Grading Analysis Sieve Test
Contractor： Consultant:
sample description Dark Reddish orange soil date of test: 7/15/2011
sample number Dry mass of sample +19mm (g)
12060
cum mass on sieve mass passing the Percentage passing
sieve size (mm) mass on sieve (g)
(g) sieve (g) by mass (%) Specified value (%)
75.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
63.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
53.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
37.5 500.0 500.0 11560 96%
26.5 850.0 1350.0 10710 89%
19.0 1070.0 2420.0 9640 80%
Dry mass of sample -19mm (g)
1245.7
13.2 120.3 120.3 1125.4 72%
2.00 203.4 323.7 922.0 59%
0.425 295.3 619.0 626.7 40%
Mass for wet sieve (-0.425mm)
100.0
0.075 22.0 22.0 78.0 31%
Mass for hydrometer (-0.425mm) (g)
50.0
Percentage passing
sieve size (mm) reading
time by mass (%)
18 s 0.075 37.0 30%
40 s 0.050
1 Hr 0.005
7 Hrs 0.002
value of 0 31%
Conclusion: Remark： GM 1.693
Size distribution and grading
Sieve %
Size Pass
(mm) Sieve 100

53.0 100 90

80

37.5 96
70
% Passing by Mass

60 Fine graded material

26.5 89
50

19.0 80 40

30

13.2 72
20

10
2.0 59
0

53.0
0.002

0.050
0.075

0.425

4.75

13.2
19.0
26.5
37.5
2.0
0.425 40
Sieve Size (mm)

0.075 31
62
© WJvdMS
Type of grading

GRADING Types

100

90

80
CUMULATIVE PERCENT PASSING

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1.18

6.70

26.50
4.75

13.2

37.5
0.075

2.36
0.3

9.50
0.6
0.15

0.425

19
Sieve Size
mm
single size continuously graded fine gravel Gap graded Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
 Fuller curve

𝑐
𝑆𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = 100 ∗ 𝑆𝑀𝑎𝑥

• Px = % passing sieve Sx
• Smax= maximum aggregate (sieve) used
• c = 0.45 or 0.5 (adjusts curve for fineness or coarseness
Convenient for determining maximum density line and adjusting
gradation
 Blending of aggregates

● Performed between coarse and fine aggregate to get require

grading. Usually, two or three different aggregates are mixed
according to equations
– 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥 = σ𝑛𝑖=0 𝐶𝑖 × 𝑃𝑖
Blending of aggregates
Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer

● The hydrometer test is performed on material sample of -0.425 mm.

This test is done using Bouyoucos device
● hydrometer is initially used to measure the relative density of liquids
● The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, often a
graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the
liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid
touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.
● Use dispersing agent (sodium silicate or sodium oxylate) for 50g or
100g of -0.425mm of soil sample, disperse the soil in water, agitate
the mix then take readings as follows:
➢ 18 s → mass passing 0.075mm sieve
➢ 40 s → mass passing 0.05mm sieve
➢ 1 hour → mass passing 0.005mm sieve
➢ 7 hour → mass passing 0.002mmsieve
Grading analysis by sieving and hydrometer
Grading Analysis Sieve Test
Contractor： Consultant:
sample description Dark Reddish orange soil date of test: 7/15/2011
sample number Dry mass of sample +19mm (g)
12060
cum mass on sieve mass passing the Percentage passing
sieve size (mm) mass on sieve (g)
(g) sieve (g) by mass (%) Specified value (%)
75.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
63.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
53.0 0.0 0.0 12060 100%
37.5 500.0 500.0 11560 96%
26.5 850.0 1350.0 10710 89%
19.0 1070.0 2420.0 9640 80%
Dry mass of sample -19mm (g)
1245.7
13.2 120.3 120.3 1125.4 72%
2.00 203.4 323.7 922.0 59%
0.425 295.3 619.0 626.7 40%
Mass for wet sieve (-0.425mm)
100.0
0.075 22.0 22.0 78.0 31%
Mass for hydrometer (-0.425mm) (g)
50.0
Percentage passing
sieve size (mm) reading
time by mass (%)
18 s 0.075 37.0 30%
40 s 0.050
1 Hr 0.005
7 Hrs 0.002
value of 0 31%
Conclusion: Remark： GM 1.693
Exercise of grading analysis calculation
Question
Initial sample 1762g
mass on sieve
sieve size (mm)
(g)

75.0 0.0
63.0 0.0
53.0 0.0
37.5 0.0
26.5 69.0
19.0 212.0
13.2 129.0
9.5 77.0
4.75 206.0
2.00 165.0
0.425 213.0
hydrometer
time reading
18 s 27.0
40 s 25.0
1 Hr 23.0
7 Hrs 22.0
 Atterberg Limits

Brittle solid Semi-solid Plastic Liquid

State

Water content
W (%)
0 SL PL LL

PI
 Atterberg Limits

● LL: casagrande apparatus

● PL: worm of soil rolled
● LS : material in trough and oven
Atterberg Limits
 Atterberg Limits
● determination of Liquid Limit (LL)
30.0
Atterberg Limits
Moisture content [%]

25.0
Liquid limit

25 taps
20.0

15.0
10 100
LOG Number of Taps
 Calculation of Liquid Limit

Container No. 37 38 36 Moisture Content (MC)

= [Mass water/Mass dry soil]*100
Cont + Wet Soil (g) 25.30
Liquid Limit (LL)
Cont + Dry Soil (g) 24.28

27.4
Container Mass (g) 20.37

MC %
26.1
Mass Water (g) 1.02
24.7
Mass Dry Material 25.3
3.91
(g)

No. of Taps 22 28 18 18 22 25 28
Log Taps
MC % 26.1 24.7 27.4

Thus LL = 25.3 %
Atterberg Limits
Plastic Limit (PL) = Average of MC1 & MC2
Example: MC1 = 20.1% and MC2 = 20.4%
Thus PL = [20.1 + 20.4]/2 = 20.2%

Plasticity Index (PI) = [LL – PL] = 25.3 – 20.2 = 5

Plasticity Index (PI) ➔ 0 – 1% ➔ NP (Non Plastic)

➔ 2 – 3% ➔ SP (Slightly Plastic)

Rule of Thumb: PI = LS *2 and LL = PI *2

 Compaction
● Purposes of material compaction:
➢ Improve strength / bearing capacity
➢ Reduce permeability
➢ Reduce settlement
➢ Improve slope stability
● The compaction is affected by:
➢ Moisture
➢ Type of material (grading, particle shape…)
➢ Compaction energy.
 Pavement Material: Soil Tests
● Laboratory Compaction
 Laboratory Compaction

● Maximum Dry Density (MDD)

● Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
● Proctor Compaction:
➢ 25 blows/layer; 3 layers, 2.5kghammer, 300mm drop
● Modified AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials)
➢ 55 blows/layer; 5 layers, 4.5kghammer, 457mm drop
● NRB compaction:
➢ 25 blows/layer; 5 layers, 4.5kg hammer, 457mm drop
Pavement Material: Soil Tests MDD and OMC
Sample description: Dark Reddish orange soil sample number: S210
Date of test: 5/9/2011
Compaction method: heavy-duty Blows for one layer: 55 Total layers: 5

219 219 219 219 219

Mould number
Mass of mould (g) 4445 4445 4445 4445 4445

Volume of mould (cm3) 2306 2306 2306 2306 2306

Mass of mould + wet sample (g) 9565 9666 9725 9689 9651

Mass of wet sample (g) 5120 5221 5280 5244 5206

Wet density (kg/m3) 2220 2264 2290 2274 2258

Water added beforehand (g) 102.4 156.63 211.2 262.2 312.36

% Water added beforehand (%) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Container number LX5 PV10 PV15 PX1 PM8

Mass of container + wet sample(g) 515.0 635.0 573.0 640.0 636.0

Mass of container + dry sample(g) 485.0 594.0 531.0 588.0 580.0

Mass of container (g) 63.0 67.0 67.0 63.0 63.0

Mass of water (g) 30.0 41.0 42.0 52.0 56.0

Mass of dry sample (g) 422.0 527.0 464.0 525.0 517.0

Moisture content (%) 7.1 7.8 9.1 9.9 10.8

Hygro 5.1 4.8 5.1 4.9 4.8

Average Hygro 4.9

Correction of moisture content (%) 7.1 7.8 9.1 9.9 10.8

Dry density (kg/m3) 2072930 2100664 2099627 2069126 2036952

MDD (kg/m3) 2105 OMC (%) 8.5

 Laboratory Compaction

• MDD and OMC

2110

2100

2090

2080
DD(kg/m3)

2070

2060

2050

2040

2030
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0

MC(%)
 Field compaction
● Static Compaction: use of mass
● Dynamic Compaction
● Impact compaction
● Measuring field density
➢ Sand replacement method
➢ Nuclear Method: nuclear gage (Troxler)
● DD=WD/(1+ω)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
● CBR: measure of the load (kN) require to allow standard piston
to penetrate the surface of material compacted @ Mod.
AASHTO
● CBR: mat load/California mat load
(@ 2.54 mm pen)
● California standard:
➢ 2.54 mm pen: 13.344 kN
➢ 5.08 mm pen: 20.016 kN
➢ 7.62 mm pen: 25.354 kN
CBR specs:
Base ➔ CBR ≥ 80% @ 98% MOD AASHTO
S/Base ➔ CBR ≥ 45% @ 95% MOD AASHTO
Selected ➔ CBR ≥ 25% @ 93% MOD AASHTO
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Sample number: Sample description: Dark Reddish orange soil Blow times: 10 Date of test: 5/14/2011
S210
Moisture content of sample
Swelling Test
Container number PV7 Y4
Initial reading Final reading
Mass of container + wet sample
726.0 743.0
(g) 28.0 MOD NRB STD MOD NRB STD
Mass of container + dry sample
671.0 688.0
(g) Dial reading(mm) 10.32 5.5 9.25 11.3 6.44 10.15
Mass of container (g) 68.0 69.0 24.0 Swelling(%) 0.77 0.74 0.71
Mass of water (g) 55.0 55.0

Load(kN)
Mass of dry sample (g) 603.0 619.0
20.0 CBR Test
Moisture content (%) 9.1% 8.9%

Average value (%) 9.0% Area of penetration piston: 1963mm2

16.0
Compactness of sample
Penetration (mm) 0.635 1.27 1.905 2.540 3.810 5.080 7.620 8.890
MOD NBR STD
Compaction Standard California Standard (kN) 13.34 20.02
12.0
Mould number J4 J5 J6
MOD Dial reading (kN) 2.250 4.400 6.600 9.000 13.25 17.35 24.66 27.05
Mass of mould + wet sample (g) 9017 9748 9908
CBR (%) 67.4 86.7
8.0
Mass of mould (g) 3762 4608 5102
NRD Dial reading (kN) 2.600 4.300 6.050 7.200 10.20 12.65 17.05 18.85
Mass of wet sample (g) 5255 5140 4806
CBR (%) 54.0 63.2
Volume of mould (cm3) 2304 2320 2318 4.0
STD Dial reading (kN) 1.450 2.450 3.600 4.40 7.400 10.00 15.95 18.90
Wet density (g/cm3) 2281 2216 2073
CBR (%) 33.0 50.0
Dry density (g/cm3) 2092 2033 1902 0.0
MOD NRB STD
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MDD (g/cm3) 2105
Penetration(mm) Percentage Compaction 99.4 96.6 90.4
Compactness (%) 99.4 96.6 90.4
Adopted CBR value (%) 67.4 54.0 33.0
Example: (CBR)
CBR - Curve

Penetration Load 16

Reading Reading
15
(mm) (kN) 14.60
0.00 0.00 14
1.27 0.60
2.54 1.60 13

3.81 4.10
12
5.08 8.00 11.60
6.35 10.50 11
7.62 12.30
8.89 13.80 10

Load Reading (kN)

9
CBR2.54 = 6.4 * 100
8
13.344
= 48.0% 7
6.40
6
CBR5.08 = 11.6 * 100
5
20.016
4
= 58.0%
3

CBR7.62 = 14.6 * 100 2 In SA, CBR @ 2.54mm

25.354
1
= 57.6%
0
2.54 5.08 7.62
0 1 20 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Penetration Reading (m m )
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

100.0
CBR (%)

10.0

1.0
90.0 92.0 94.0 96.0 98.0 100.0 102.0 104.0

Compactness (%)
Aggregate parameters
● Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
● 10% Fines aggregate crushing test (10%FACT)
● Flakiness Index
● Fineness Modulus
● Average Least Dimension (ALD)
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
METHOD B1 - DETERMINATION OF THE AGGREGATE
CRUSHING VALUE
● Scope:
➢ Aggregate crushing value of an aggregate, as defined below,
is determined by crushing a prepared confined aggregate
sample under a specified, gradually applied compressive load
and determining the percentage of the material crushed finer
than a specified size.
● Definition:
➢ Aggregate crushing value (ACV) of an aggregate is the mass
of material, expressed as a percentage of the test sample,
which is crushed finer than a 2,36 mm sieve when a sample
of aggregate passing the 13,2 mm and retained on the 9,50
mm sieve is subjected to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load of 400 kN.
where :
A = mass of test sample before test.
B = mass of fraction passing the 2.36 mm sieve
ACV equipment
 10% Fines aggregate crushing test (10%FACT)
METHOD B2 - DETERMINATION OF THE 10 PERCENT FINES
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE
● Scope:
➢ 10 per cent Fined Aggregate Crushing Value (10% FACT) as
defined below is determined by measuring the load required
to crush a prepared aggregate sample to give 10 per cent
material passing a specified sieve after crushing. The
procedure described in SABS Method 842 is followed.
● Definition:
➢ 10 per cent Fines Aggregate Crushing Value is the force in kN
required to crush a sample of -13,2 + 9,5 mm aggregate so
that 10 per cent of the total test sample will pass a 2,36 mm
sieve.
 ACV 10% FACT
400 kN for 10 min

16 mm • Same material and test as for

ACV
• Crush, more, more
• Read of load @ 10% -2.36mm
-13.2

140 mm
12
 10
8

P2.36
+9.5

152 Ø
L1 L2 L L3
ACV % = [Mass P2.36/Mass Sample]*100
Load (kN)
Weak ➔ 100%
Road Stone ➔ 210 – 300 kN
Strong ➔ 0%
Wet 10% FACT
Road Stone ➔ 20 – 35%
Flakiness Index
METHOD B3 - DETERMINATION OF THE FLAKINESS
INDEX OF A COARSE AGGREGATE

● Scope:
➢ Flakiness Index of a coarse aggregate is determined by
gauging screened-out fractions with the appropriate slot(s)
given in TMH1:B3. Aggregate retained on the 75 mm and
passing the 4,75 mm sieve is not included in the test.
● Definition:
➢ Flakiness Index of a coarse aggregate is the mass of particles
in that aggregate, expressed as a percentage of the total
mass of that aggregate, which will pass the slot or slots of
specified width for the appropriate size fraction, as given in
TMH1:B3. The width of the slots is half that of the sieve
openings through which each of the fractions passes.
FLAKINESS INDEX

Slot width ➔ ½ sieve size

Flakiness Index % = [Mass passing slot / Mass Sample] * 100

Chip seals ➔ < 35%

G1 Base ➔ < 45%, on 2 particular fractions
Flakiness Index

Same sieve
size

Flakiness Index % = [Mass passing slot / Mass Sample] * 100

 Aggregate tests

● Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV): apply 400kN on -13.2mm

+9.5mm
➢ ACV%= 100 X Mass passing 2.36mm/mass sample
● 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Test (10%FACT): load to
produce 10% of -2.36mm
● Flakiness Index (FI): shape of material
➢ FI= 100X mass passing slot /mass of sample
● Average Least Dimension (ALD)
Fineness Modulus
● SCOPE:
➢ Fineness modulus is a measure of the average grain size of a
fine aggregate and is computed by adding the cumulative
percentages retained on specific sieves and dividing the sum
by 100
● Sieve
➢ 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.600 mm, 0.300 mm and 0.150
mm
Average Least Dimension (ALD)
● SCOPE
• Average Least Dimension (ALD) of surfacing aggregates is
determined from the gradation and the flakiness index
ALD

ALD

ALD
1.3. Materials Classification Systems
(AASHTO. Unified, TRH4)
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: Gravel
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: Gravel

𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
𝐷30 2 G= gravel
𝐶𝑐 = S= sand
𝐷10 × 𝐷60
M= silt
C= Clay
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: SAND
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: Silt and Clay
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION

● Classification of material according to:

– Description of material or parent material: gravel, soil, sand,
rock
– Additional fines
– Size of material (max size)
– Strength and/or shape of material
– Grading of material /Granular modulus (GM)
– Atterberg limits
– Durability
– CBR
– Swell
– Compaction requirement
TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
MATERIAL TYPE OF MATERIAL
CHARACTERISTIC
G1 G2 G3
Sound rock from an approved Sound rock, boulders or coarse Sound rock, boulders or coarse gravel
PARENT quarry, or clean, sound mine gravel
MATERIAL rock from mine dumps, or clean
sound boulders
Only fines crushed from the May contain up to 10% by mass of May contain up to 15% by mass of
ADDITIONAL same sound parent rock may be approved natural fines not approved natural fines not obtained
FINES added for grading correction necessarily obtained from parent from parent rock. Added fines shall
provided that added fines shall rock. Added fines shall have a LL have a LL not exceeding 25 and PI
have a LL not exceeding 25 and not exceeding 25 and PI not not exceeding 6.
PI not exceeding 4. exceeding 6.
STRENGTH 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Value (10% FACT), determined in accordance with TMH1 method B2, shall
be not less than the appropriate value in table 3602/2, column 3. The Aggregate Crushed value (ACV),
determined in accordance with TMH1 method B1, shall not exceed the appropriate value in table 3602/3.
DURABILITY The material shall comply with the requirements in columns 3, 4 and 5 of table 3602/2.
FLAKINESS INDEX Flakiness Index, determined in accordance with TMH1 method B3, shall not exceed 35 on each of the -26,5
+ 19 mm fraction and the -19 +13,2 mm fraction.
FRACTURED FACES All faces shall be fractured For crushed materials at least 50% by mass of the fractions retained on
faces. each standard sieve 4,75 mm and larger shall have at least one fractured
face.
FRACTION LL shall not exceed 25. LL shall not exceed 25. LL shall not exceed 25.
(mm) PI shall not exceed 5. PI shall not exceed 6. PI shall not exceed 6.
LS shall not exceed 2%. In addition the arithmetic mean of LS shall not exceed 3%.
ATTERBER In addition the arithmetic mean the PI's for a lot (min 6 tests) shall In the case of calcrete the PI shall not
G of the PI's for a lot (min 6 tests) not exceed 4,5. exceed 8.
LIMITS shall not exceed 4. LS shall not exceed 3%. (% passing 0,425 mm sieve) LS
170
-0,425
-0,075 The PI shall not exceed 12. If the PI exceeds 12 the material shall If chemical modification is required,
be chemically modified. After chemical modification the PI of the the PI of the -0,075 mm fraction after
minus 0,075 mm fraction shall not exceed 8. modification shall not exceed 10.
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
MATERIAL TYPE OF MATERIAL
CHARACTERISTIC
G1 G2 G3
SOLUBLE SALTS See additional requirements.
NOMINAL MAXIMUM SIZE 37,5 mm 37,5 mm 37,5 mm 26,5 mm
Nominal Percentage passing sieve, by Percentage passing sieve, by Percentage passing sieve, by
aperture size mass mass mass
of sieve
(mm)
37,5 100 100 100
26,5 84 - 94 84 - 94 84 - 94 100
19,0 71 - 84 71 - 84 71 - 84 85 - 95
GRADING 13,2 59 - 75 59 - 75 59 - 75 71 - 84
4,75 36 - 53 36 - 53 36 - 53 42 - 60
2,00 23 - 40 23 - 40 23 - 40 27 - 45
0,425 11 - 24 11 - 24 11 - 24 13 - 27
0,075 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 5 - 12
COARSE SAND RATIO Shall not be less than 35% and Shall not be less than 35% and Shall not be less than 35% and
(SEE DEFINITION IN shall not exceed 50% in respect shall not exceed 50% in respect of shall not exceed 50% in respect of
SUBSUBCLAUSE of the target grading. the target grading. the target grading.
3602(c)(i)(5))
COMPACTION Minimum of 88% of apparent Minimum of 85% of bulk relative 98% or 100% of modified
REQUIREMENTS relative density. density. AASHTO density (as specified).
PROPERTY TYPE OF MATERIAL
G4
DESCRIPTION OF Natural gravel, or natural gravel and Natural gravel, or natural
MATERIAL boulders which may require
crushing.
ADDITIONAL FINES May contain approved additional
fines not obtained from parent rock. fines not obtained from
Added fines shall have a liquid limit parent rock.
(LL) not exceeding 25 and a
plasticity index (PI) not exceeding
6.
NOMINAL (i) Uncrushed material : 53 mm
MAXIMUM SIZE (ii) Crushed material : 37,5 mm or
26,5 mm (unless otherwise
specified in the project
specifications)
FLAKINESS INDEX Flakiness Index, determined in
accordance with TMH1 method B3,
shall not exceed 35 on each of the -
26,5 + 19 mm fraction and the -19 +
13,2 mm fraction.
FRACTURED FACES Alluvial and colluvial gravels shall
be crushed so that at least 50% by
mass of the fractions retained on
each standard sieve 4,75 mm and
larger shall have at least one
fractured face.
G5
gravel and boulders which
may require crushing, or
crushed rock.
May contain approved natural
(i) Uncrushed material :
63 mm
(ii) Crushed material : 53 mm
before compaction
(unless otherwise
specified in the project
specifications)
- -
All alluvial and colluvial
material shall be crushed so
that at least 50% by mass of
the fraction retained on the
4,75 mm sieve shall have at
least one fractured face.
G6
Natural gravel, or natural gravel and
boulders which may require
crushing, or crushed rock.
May contain approved natural fines
not obtained from parent rock.
(i) Uncrushed material:
Two thirds of the compacted layer
thickness (unless otherwise
specified in the project
specifications)
(ii) Crushed material:
63 mm before compaction (unless
otherwise specified in the project
specifications)
-
PROPERTY TYPE OF MATERIAL
G4 G5 G6
Percentage passing through sieve by mass
GRADING
Crushed material Uncrushed
Nominal Nominal Nominal material
apertur maximum size maximum
e size 37,5 mm size
of sieve 26,5 mm
(mm)
53,0 100 The percentage by mass passing -
37,5 100 85 - 100 the 2,00 mm sieve shall not be less
than 20% nor more than 70%.
26,5 84 - 94 100 -
19,0 71 - 84 85 - 95 60 - 90

13,2 59 - 75 71 - 84 -
4,75 36 - 53 42 - 60 30 - 65

2,00 23 - 40 27 - 45 20 - 50

0,425 11 - 24 13 - 27 10 - 30

0,075 4 - 12 5 - 12 5 - 15
GRADING - 2,5  GM  1,5 2,6  GM  1,2
MODULUS (GM)
(a) All materials except calcrete: (a) All materials except calcrete: PI shall not exceed 12 or a
LL shall not exceed 30, value equal to 2 times the
LL shall not exceed 25. PI shall not exceed 10. GM plus 10, whichever is
PI shall not exceed 6. LS shall not exceed 5%. the higher value.
ATTERBERG LIMITS Linear shrinkage (LS) shall not exceed 3%. LS shall not exceed 5% .
FOR NATURAL (b) Calcrete: In the case of calcrete the
MATERIAL (-0,425 (b) Calcrete: LL  30 PI shall not exceed 15
mm FRACTION) LL 25 PI  15 provided the LS does not
PI  8 LS  6 exceed 6% and (%
(% passing 0,425 mm sieve) LS  170 (% passing 0,425 mm sieve) LS  passing 0,425 mm sieve)
320 LS  320.
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
PROPERTY TYPE OF MATERIAL
G4 G5 G6
The material shall comply with the Mudrock shall have a wet Mudrock shall have a wet 10%
DURABILITY requirements in table 3402/3. 10% FACT value of not less FACT value of not less than 80 kN,
than 90 kN, and a wet/dry and a wet/dry Venter test class of I
Venter test class of I or II. or II.
SOLUBLE SALTS The materials shall comply with the requirements of clause 3602.
CBR at 98% of modified AASHTO CBR at 95% of modified CBR at 95% of modified AASHTO
STRENGTH (CBR) density shall not be less than 80%. AASHTO density shall not be density shall not be less than 25%.
less than 45%.
Swell at 100% of modified AASHTO Swell at 100% of modified Swell at 100% of modified AASHTO
SWELL (MAXIMUM) density shall not exceed 0,2% for AASHTO density shall not density shall not exceed 1,0%.
all materials except calcrete for exceed 0,5%.
which the swell shall not exceed
0,5%.
COMPACTION 98% or 100% (as specified) of The density requirements of the layer in which the material is
REQUIREMENTS modified AASHTO density for used, shall be applicable. (See subclause 3402(b).) In restricted
natural materials areas the in situ dry density of gravel material shall comply with
the requirements in the project specifications.
PROPERTY TYPE OF MATERIAL
G7 G8 G9
Natural material (soil, sand or gravel) Natural material (soil, sand or Natural material (soil, sand or gravel)
DESCRIPTION OF gravel)
MATERIAL
ADDITIONAL Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
FINES
NOMINAL (i) Uncrushed material : Two Two thirds of the compacted layer Two thirds of the compacted layer
MAXIMUM SIZE thirds of the compacted thickness thickness
layer thickness

(ii) Crushed material :

75 mm
GRADING 2,7  GM  0,75 2,7  GM  0,75 2,7  GM  0,75
MODULUS (GM)
ATTERBERG The PI shall not exceed 12 or a value The PI shall not exceed 12 or a The PI shall not exceed 12 or a
LIMITS FOR equal to 3 times the GM plus 10, value equal to 3 times the GM value equal to 3 times the GM plus
NATURAL whichever is the higher value. plus 10, whichever is the higher 10, whichever is the higher value.
MATERIAL In the case of calcrete the PI shall not value. In the case of calcrete the PI shall
(-0,425 mm exceed 17 provided that the LS does not In the case of calcrete the PI shall not exceed 17 provided that the LS
FRACTION) exceed 7% and not exceed 17 provided that the does not exceed 7%.
(% passing 0,425 mm sieve) LS does not exceed 7%.
LS  320.
DURABILITY Mudrock shall have a wet 10% FACT Mudrock shall have a wet 10% Mudrock shall have a wet 10% FACT
value of not less than 60 kN, and a FACT value of not less than 60 value of not less than 60 kN, and a
wet/dry Venter test class of I, II or III kN, and a wet/dry Venter test wet/dry Venter test class of I, II or III
class of I, II or III

SOLUBLE SALTS The materials shall comply with the requirements of clause 3602.
STRENGTH (CBR) CBR at 93% of modified AASHTO CBR at 93% of modified AASHTO CBR at 93% of modified AASHTO
density shall be at least 15% density shall be at least 10% density shall be at least 7%
SWELL Swell at 100% of modified AASHTO Swell at 100% of modified Swell at 100% of modified AASHTO
(MAXIMUM) density shall not exceed 1,5% AASHTO density shall not exceed density shall not exceed 1,5%
1,5%
COMPACTION The density requirements of the layer in which the material is used, shall be applicable. (See subclause 3402(b).)
REQUIREMENTS In restricted areas the in situ dry density of gravel material shall comply with the requirements in the project
specifications.
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
● 10% FINES AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUES

Rock type Matrix Dry Wet Wet/dry

min min relationship min
Arenaceous Non-siliceous 140 kN 75%
rocks cementing material
Siliceous cementing 110 kN 75%
material
Diamictites 200 kN 70%
(tillite)
Argillaceous 180 kN 125 kN -
rocks
Other rock 110 kN 75%
types
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
● AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Rock type ACV, max

Arenaceous : without siliceous cementing matrix 27%
Arenaceous : with siliceous cementing matrix 29%
Diamictites (tillite) 21%
Argillaceous rocks 24%
Other rock types 29%
 TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION
● DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS FOR G4 MATERIAL
GROUP MEMBERS OF GROUP DURABILITY MILL INDEX % PASSING 0,425 mm SIEVE
(MAXIMUM) AFTER THE DURABILITY MILL
TEST (MAXIMUM)
Basic crystalline rock Basalt 125 35
Dolerite
Gabbro
Acid crystalline rock Gneiss 420 35
Granite
High silica rock Chert 420 35
Hornfels (clay mineral kaolin)
Quartzite
Sandstone Arkose 125 35
Conglomerate (increase from original not more
Sandstone than 15%)
Siltstone
Mudrock Mudrock 125 35
Phyllite
Shale etc
Carbonate rock Dolomite not applicable not applicable
Limestone
Marble
Diamictites Greywacke 125 35
Tillite
Pedogenic material Calcrete 480 40
Ferricrete
Silcrete
Classe de sols
 Classe de sols et
spécifications
Classe de graveleux
Classe de graveleux et spécifications
Classe de graveleux et spécifications
Classe de graveleux et spécifications chaussées non revetues
Classe de graveleux et spécifications chaussées non revetues
Caractéristiques moyennes des compactage des sols graveleux
Classe de sables
Classe de sables
Classe de sables
1.4. Stabilisation
Pavement Material: Soil STABILISATION

● Purpose
– Improve workability
– Better durability
– Reduce permeability (sometime)
– Reduce PI
– Reduce shrinkage (sometime)
– Increase strength / bearing capacity
Pavement Material: Soil STABILISATION

● 2 types:
– Mechanical stabilisation: mix natural material
– Chemical stabilisation:
• Lime (+ slag, fly ash)
• cement (+ slag, fly ash)
• Bitumen: BTB …
Pavement Material: LIME STABILISATION

● Lime is a product from heating of limestone and/or dolomite.

This latter product is known as quick lime or unslaked lime. In
presence of water quick lime produces hydrated lime or slaked
lime

• CaCO3 CaO+ CO2

• CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat
(15.3 kcal)
Pavement Material: CEMENT STABILISATION

● Cement is a product from heating of limestone and shale. At

high temperature up to 1000°C, calcium carbonated of lime
stone change to calcium oxide, which combine with silicates and
aluminates from shale to form clinker. A small amount of
gypsum is added to the cooled clinker to form a fine powder
called Portland cement
Cement vs. lime stabilisation
 TESTS ON STABILISED MATERIALS

● Initial consumption of stabiliser (ICS)

● Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)
● Unconfined Compressive strength (UCS)
● Durability
● carbonation
Initial Lime Consumption (ICL)
Distilled Water
1% 2% 3% 4% 5%

100g
Soil
PH ➔ 11 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.4

PH @ 12.4 + Extra for Strength = ICL

12.4

+ Extra
PH

% Lime Added
3% 4%
ITS test
Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986

● INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH (ITS)

• Appropriate test, since tensile strength of a cylindrical sample is
measured and this reflects the resistance of the material to
cracking.

• Test carried out either by static or dynamic load, and stiffness or

elastic modulus determined.

• Pull sample apart

• Foam or ETB Bases
75mm

• 600kPamin

60mm
 Soil Tests: TMH1: 1986
● METHOD A14
THE DETERMINATION OF THE UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (UCS) OF CHEMICALLY STABILIZED SOIL, GRAVEL
AND SAND

● Scope:
Determination of the load in kPa necessary to fail a cylinder of
152.4Ø by 127mm high that is loaded at 140kPa/s.

140kPa/s
Cemented Materials C1 C2 C3 C4
UCS @ 7 Days (MPa) – 100% 6-12 3-6 1.5-3 0.75-
MOD AASHTO 1.5
127mm

UCS @ 7 Days (MPa) – 97% 4-8 2-4 1-2 0.5-1

152.4Ø MOD AASHTO
Durability
● Large number of problems associated with stabilised
layers
● indicated that more attention needs to be given to
the long-term durability of stabilised materials
particularly when materials are of marginal quality

● Various durability tests

Wet-dry brushing test
Erosion tests
Residual UCS and PI after accelerated carbonation
Carbonation
● Calcium Oxide + Carbon ➔ Calcium Carbonate
• CaO + CO2 ➔ CaCo3 Carbonation

➢ CaO 4 times more in soil than in air

➢ CaO reacts with stabilized layer ➔ CaCO3
➢ Loose strength, breaks up
➢ Usually in top 20mm of layer

Test for Carbonation:

➢ CaCO3 + HCL ➔ Fizz if carbonated

Test if layer stabilized:

➢ Phenolphthalein in layer ➔ PH >11 ➔ Red
Carbonation
● To prevent Carbonation
➢ Seal layer – no evaporation
➢ No water sprays after construction
➢ Granular base layer on top of stabilized subbase
➢ Bitumen tack coat on base layer
➢ Keep away from wet/dry cycle
Block cracking on surface
TRH 14 CLASSIFICATION OF STABILISED MATERIALS
REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICALLY STABILIZED PAVEMENT LAYERS

CRITERIA C1 C2 C3 C4
Material before treatment At least G2 At least G4 At least G6 quality
quality quality
Atterberg limits after treatment Slightly Slightly plastic PI shall not exceed 6
plastic
Design strength (MPa)
(Laboratory unconfined strength)

(a) at 100% of modified AASHTO minimum : 6 minimum : 3 minimum : 1,5 minimum :

density maximum : maximum : 6 maximum : 3 0,75
12 maximum :
minimum : 2 minimum : 1 1,5
(b) at 97% of modified AASHTO minimum : 4 maximum : 4 maximum : 2
density maximum : 6 minimum : 0,5
maximum : 1
Indirect tensile strength at 100% of Minimum : 250 Minimum :
modified AASHTO density (kPa) 200
Durability : Fines lost All characteristics, including amongst others the carbonated
Wet-dry values with regard to durability, shall comply with the
Freeze-thaw requirements in the project specifications.
Stabilisation design
 Stabilisation design
•Applicable Specification criteria
➢Minimum CBR prior to Stabilization
➢UCS (Minimum / Maximum)
➢Minimum ITS
➢Maximum PI after Stabilization
➢Durability (Maximum % loss)
▪ Max 20% Loss
 Stabilisation design
•Factors determining the quantity of stabilising agent
➢pH after Stabilization: Initial consumption of Stabiliser (ICS)
▪ Design Stabiliser content > Stabiliser content satisfying ICS
➢UCS Strength
➢ITS Strength
➢PI after Stabilization
➢Wet / Dry Durability after Stabilization
▪ Max 20% Loss
➢Allowable variation of quantity of Stabilizing Agent in the
specification
Stabilised layer Construction: Equipment

• Motor grader
Stabilised layer: Construction process
Stabilised layer: Construction process
Stabilised layer: Construction process
Stabilised layer: Construction process

• Construction method
➢Construction sequence and method for stabilised layer
▪ In-place material mixed with imported quality material if
required
▪ mixed material could be pre-shaped to required depth if
necessary
▪ Cement supply and spread on site
❖ in bulk (with a cement spreader vehicle)
o the speed of the spreader and the spread amount are
controlled using canvas Patch test
❖ per cement bags
o Calculate spacing of the cements bags using the maximum
relative compaction density) for recommended stabilizer
agent as per mix design.
❖ Cement spread evenly on the road section
Stabilised layer: Construction process
• Cement supply
Stabilised layer: Construction process

• Construction method (continuous…)

➢Construction sequence and method for stabilised layer
(continuous…)
▪ pulverizing (milling) and mixing material in the section to the
required depth by reclaimer machine, couple with to the water
truck (Nurse Truck),
❖ Control of moisture content of the material during the mixing
process (@ + - OMC, for homogeneity of mix material and
required density.
Stabilised layer: Construction process

• Construction method (continuous…)

➢ Construction sequence and method for stabilised layer (continuous…)
▪ Compaction
❖ The density is a key factor for strength and durability for stabilisation .
❖ success of stabilisation compaction depend on
o use appropriated compacting equipment
o using them in correct sequences to perform compaction
▪ Compaction and level control sequences
❖ Pad foot (heavy roller - 12 ton or more) compacting behind the
reclaimer
o in number of passes as per trial section on the specific material.
o Provides an initial compaction by vibration at high amplitude /
low frequency mode.
o high amplitude / low frequency mode ensures maximum
penetration and densification of deep material.
o Low amplitude / high frequency mode densifies the material in
the upper horizon only.
❖ Motor grader cuts final layer’s level after initial deep compaction
❖ smooth drum roller performs second compaction sequence
o @ low amplitude / high frequency mode or static mode: to
compact the upper horizon only
Stabilised layer: Construction process
• Construction method (continuous…)
➢ Construction sequence and method for stabilised layer (continuous…)
▪ Curing of stabilised layer
❖ After compaction at required density, the curing process commence.
❖ The stabilized layer should be allowed to cure for 7 days before the
traffic is allowed on the section.
❖ A fog seal (prime coat) can be spread on the compacted stabilised
layer
o to minimize any ravelling of material during curing period.
❖ A moist cure or curing membrane can also be used
o especially in the case of cement stabilization.
▪ Quality control during construction
❖ Take Sample of stabilised material behind the reclaimer for the
laboratory testing
o to assess conformance of material to the mix design
❖ Take Sample of stabilised agent from tanker to performed test
o half-life expansion Ratio for Foamed binder
o visual sieve test for Emulsified binder
❖ Density test on the compacted material to the required relative density
o nuclear gauge
o sand replacement
1.5. Bitumen and Tar
 Bitumen and Tar

● Bitumen origin:
➢ occur in nature or from petroleum processing
● Tar Origin:
➢ Obtain from organic material (wood, coal)
● In South Africa :
➢ Asphalt = bituminous material+ aggregate
● In USA:
➢ asphalt = bitumen (in SA )
➢ Asphalt cement = asphalt (in SA)
 Bitumen and Tar

● Bitumen: Adhesive production, which is temperature and load

depend
➢ Low to high temperature: solid, elastic, viscoelastic, viscous state
➢ Can also have viscoplastic behaviour.

● Type of Bitumen:
➢ Product from straight-run distillation: Penetration grade
➢ Cutback bitumen: pen grade + curing solvent
➢ Modified bitumens
➢ Emulsion
 Bitumen and Tar

● Modified bitumen
➢ elastomers :
• Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber/Styrene (SBR)/(SBS)
➢ plastomer:
• Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate (EVA)
➢ Bitumen rubber: rubber crumb
➢ advantages:
• Durability
• Higher aggregate retention (higher viscosity)
• Resistance to permenant deformation
• Resistance to fatigue cracking
• Ductility/cohesion
• Elasticity
• Temperature susceptibility
 Bitumen and Tar

● Bitumen emulsion
➢ Bitumen, water, emulsifier and soap.
➢ Break of emulsion
 Bitumen Tests
● Penetration test:
➢ Needle under load of 100g, penetration
in 0.1mm
➢ Consistency of bitumen (soft, hard)
➢ Characterised the bitumen (30/50, …,
70/100)
● Softening point: Ring and ball
➢ T° at which ball sink through ring
➢ Hardness and viscosity T° relationship
● Ductility:
– Elongation of briquette up to breaking
point
● Dynamic Viscosity: brookfield test
➢ Resistance to shear:For pen grade
➢ In Pascal second
 Bitumen Tests

● Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test (RTFOT)

– Check aging characteristics of bitumen
● Kinematic viscosity test of cutback:
– Measure the time of cutback in U tube [in stokes]
● Distillation of cutback
● Distillation of emulsion.
 Bitumen Tests

● Classification of bitumen
– Pen grade: 40/50, 60/70, 80/100, 150/200
– Cutback: MC-30, MC-70, MC-3000, RC-250
– Anionic and cationic emulsion:
• Spray grade :60%, 65%, 70%
• Premix grade :60%, 65%
• Stable mix grade: 60%
• Invert prime: 80%
• Quick setting grade: 60%
● Tar: RTH, RTL
1.6. Compaction
Compaction Introduction
● Process by which volume of voids in material is reduced
● Use is made of external forces
➢ reorient the aggregate particles
● Reduction of air volume
➢ corresponding increase in the material unit weight / density
● Decreases potential amount of permanent deformation (rut)
● Inadequate compaction
➢ pavement with decreased stiffness, reduced fatigue life,
accelerated aging/decreased durability, rutting, raveling, and
moisture damage
 Soil components
● Soils can be considered to consist of three
components or phases:
➢ Solid soil particles
➢ Liquid, usually water, in the voids between the soil
particles
➢ Gas, usually air, in the remaining voids between the soil
particles
Gas Phase
Gas and liquid in
Liquid Phase empty space
Mineral and organic between solids
particles particles
Solid Phase
Compaction process
Compaction Introduction
● Compaction Improves:
➢ Shear strength
➢ Bearing capacity
➢ Stiffness
➢ Slope Stability
➢ Reduces voids ratio and permeability

● Compaction is affected by:

➢ Dry density of material
➢ Moisture content of material
➢ Type of material (i.e. grading, particle shape etc.)
➢ Compaction energy
 Laboratory
● Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for
control procedures used on site
➢ Modified AASHTO, Proctor etc
➢ Provide basis for compaction effort

● Compaction tests provide the following basic data

for soils:
➢ Relationship between dry density and moisture content
for a given degree of compactive effort
➢ Moisture content for the most efficient compaction that is,
at which the maximum dry density is achieved under that
compactive effort
➢ Value of the maximum dry density so achieved
Compaction
● Factors that affect the degree of compaction that can be
achieved:
➢ Nature and type of soil, i.e. sand or clay, grading, plasticity
➢ Water content at the time of compaction
➢ Site conditions, e.g. weather, type of site, layer thickness
➢ Compactive effort: type of plant (weight, vibration, number of
passes)
METHOD A10a: THE DETERMINATION OF THE IN-PLACE DRY DENSITY
OF SOIL OR GRAVEL BY THE SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

● Scope
➢ in-place dry density of compacted soil or gravel is determined by
making a hole in the compacted layer and dividing the mass of the
material removed from the hole by the volume of the hole, which is
determined by filling the hole with sand with known density
● Definition
➢ in-place dry density of a material is the mass per unit volume of
the material and is expressed in kg/m3

1 2
METHOD A10b: THE DETERMINATION OF THE IN-PLACE DRY
DENSITY OF SOIL OR GRAVEL BY NUCLEAR METHOD

● Scope
➢ method describes the in-place determination of the density and
moisture content of a compacted layer by nuclear method
● Definition
➢ in-place dry density of a material is the dry mass per unit
volume of the material expressed in kg/m3

• Density relates to counts

• MC in theory
• Emulsion – error MC
• Hydrocarbons
• Use oven dry MC
Pavement Interactive
Typical nuclear gauge

● Beware of calibration
● Ensure correct method is used
● Get well trained staff
Laboratory compaction
● TMH1 - Method A7
➢ Determination of Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture
Content

➢ MDD - highest density obtainable when compaction is carried out on

the material at varied moisture contents

➢ OMC - moisture content at which maximum density is obtained (at

specific compactive effort)
Method

● Start with enough homogeneous material for 5 samples

● Mix moisture at around OMC (look at consistency), as well as
2 mixes lower and 2 higher MC
● Compact material in standard mould
➢ 55 blows with 4,536 kg tamper dropped exactly 457,2 mm
➢ 5 x 11 blows over surface
➢ 5 layers of material
● Determine MC of material
● Weigh mould with material
● Subtract mould mass
● Repeat for other 4 moisture contents
● Plot DD vs MC
Example
2 kg wet material
5 per cent moisture content
Diameter = 100 mm
Height = 100 mm

D=
(2 000/(100 + 5))*(100/(502*π*100)(1000))
= 2.425 relative density = 2 425 kg/m3
Compaction
● Pavement layer compacted to adequate density
➢ maximum structural support
● Else
➢ continue to compress, deform or erode after construction
➢ causing pavement cracks and deformation

● Adequate density specified as relative density of not less than

90 % of maximum density (laboratory)
● Dependent on the specific location of the layer in the
pavement
● Deeper layers lower densities than shallower layers
● Optimal density for all layers
● Material must be at or near its optimum moisture content
Good compaction
● tightly bound gravel with
➢ optimum particle interlock
➢ minimum permeability and porosity
➢ significantly increased strength

● Poor compaction
➢ permeable material of low density and strength
General process
● Moisten material prior to hauling and dumping on the road
➢ reduce segregation
➢ provide material that is more easily compactable
➢ generation of dust during transportation is minimised
● Material should be dumped, spread and compacted before a
significant quantity of the moisture has evaporated
● Requires careful project planning and management
● Construction during wet season results in additional moisture
being available (from rain) and often lower evaporation
● Beware of excessive rain
Compaction Equipment
● Different types of equipment
➢ Vibrating steel drum
➢ Pneumatic tired rollers
➢ Grid roller
– break down large material
– initial compaction passes

● Large particles of soft aggregate

➢ initial rolling with grid roller (break down)
➢ Re-mix material with grader
– compact with vibrating flat roller
– clayey material - tamping roller most effective
Compaction Equipment
● Static
➢ Dead Load, Doesn’t stand still, no additional action
– Steel wheel roller
– Pneumatic roller
– 3-wheel roller
– Grid roller
– Sheep's foot
– Pad foot

● Dynamic
➢ Vibrating rollers
➢ Inside drum – mass rotates
➢ Spin @ 20-50 Hz, depending on design – Low/High
Range
Compaction Equipment
● Impact Compaction

● Compacts up to 2m, faster (10-15km/h),

better, more done
Rolling procedures
● Road should be compacted to refusal density for
plant used
➢ ensuring minimum specification obtained
➢ prevent excessive crushing of material
➢ crown and appropriate cambers retained
● Ensure that any depressions are filled with moist,
treated (where necessary) material
➢ ensure adequate compaction over full area of road
Rolling procedures
● Proof rolling be carried out at each site where
obvious changes in the material occur
➢ short section of road (about 20 m) rolled for a number of
passes
➢ nuclear density or DCP test done after each pass
➢ until no significant increase in density or strength is
obtained
➢ defines the number of roller passes necessary to achieve
the desired density
Rolling procedures
● Should commence at the outer edge of the road
➢ prevent forcing material to outside of the road
– loss of shape
Forward and reverse pass is made over the same section of
pavement before moving to the adjacent section
➢ check at edges of the pavement
● Each pass of the roller should overlap the previous pass
by up to 500 mm
➢ ensure complete coverage
● Where outside edge of pavement is unsupported and
squeezes out excessively
➢ rolling commence 200 to 300 mm from the edge
➢ 200 to 300 mm strip rolled on completion of the section
Rolling procedures
● Vibrating rollers should have vibrator turned off when the
machine is stopping or manoeuvring and when reversing
● Rollers should be slowly reversed without jolting
➢ sharp turns of roller / sudden changes in direction avoided
➢ Static drum rollers should have drive wheels leading on the initial pass
➢ avoid pushing material ahead of the drum
● Vibrating rollers
➢ sequence consisting of a non-vibrating initial pass, followed by several
high amplitude passes and finishing with low amplitude passes
– achieve good compaction and surface finish
● Always sufficient water carts available to ensure that rolling is
not interrupted while waiting for water