IN TERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOL OGY, 1997, 32 (1), 35±42

Social Cognition and Evolutionary Psychology:

Physical Attractiveness and Contrast Effects on
Wom en’s Self-perceived Body Im age

T. Joel Wade and Heather Abetz

Bucknell University, Lewisburg, USA

Self-eva luatio ns of bod y im age were exam ined in a 2 (attrac tivene ss of stim ulus person ) 3 2 (sex of
stim ulus person ) desig n to determ ine if contra st effect s consis tent w ith ev olution ary psycho logy occu r
for wom en’ s self-pe rcepti ons of their bod y im age. M ain effe cts for attract ivenes s were hypoth esized .
Highe r self-ra ting s for ® gure-r elate d asp ec ts o f bod y im age w ere predic ted for w om en expose d to an
unattractiv e m ale or fem ale. T hese effect s w ere sign i® cant . W om en exposed to an unnatt ractiv e m ale or
fem ale had m ore positive feelin gs ab out ® gure-r elate d aspect s of th eir bo dy im age than w om en ex pose d
to an attra ctiv e m ale or fem ale. Contrast effects in accord ance w ith ev olution ary theory occu r for aspe cts
of bod y im age that play a role in infere nces reg ardin g re produ ctive ® tn ess.
Des auto-e valuations de l’ im age corpore lle sont exam ine es aÁ l’ aid e d’ un sche m e 2 (attira nce envers la
person ne-stim u lus) 3 2 (sex e de la person ne-stim u lus) pou r de term iner si le s effets de contra ste pre dits
par la the orie de la psycho logie e voluti ve s’ appliq uent au x auto-p erceptions que les fem m es on t de leur
im age co rporelle. L ’ hyp o theÁ se su r les effet s p rincipa ux eÂ
tait que les auto- e valuat ions su r les aspe cts
m orphol ogique s d e l’ im age co rporelle seraient plus po sitiv es pou r les fem m es ayan t e teÂconfro nteÂ
es aÁ un
hom m e ou aÁ une fem m e pe u attiran t(e). Ces effets se sont ave reÂs sign i® catifs. L es fem m es confro nteÂes aÁ
la phot o d’ un hom m e ou d ’ une fem m e peu attiran t(e) ont e valu e plus positiv em ent les aspect s
m orphol ogique s de leur p ropr e im age corpor elle que le s fem m es co nfront e es aÁ la ph oto d’ un hom m e
ou d’ une fem m e attiran t(e). Les effet s de contra st donne n t des re sultats en accord avec la the orie
eÂ
volutiv e pour ce qui des aspect s de l’ im age corp orelle su r lesque ls sont base es les infeÂrence s quant aÁ la
ca pacit eÂreprod uctric e.

INTRODUCTION Thom as & Freeman, 1990; W ade, subm itted).

Psycholog y has devoted a great deal of attention to
body im age (Fisher, 1986; Rosen, 1990). For
example, we now know that body im age is a stron-
ger con cern for wom en (cf. Buss & Schm itt, 1993;
Singh, 19 93), and is linked to wom en’ s self-
esteem, and self-perceived physical and sexual
attractiveness (cf. Cash, W instead, & Jand a,
1986; Davies & Furnham, 1986; Jackson, 1992;
Koff, Rierdan, & Stubbs, 1990; Lerner, Karabe-
nick, & Stuart, 1973; Se cord & Jourard, 1953;
The heightened im portance of bo dy im age for
and among wom en and the aforem entioned body
im age relationships can be explained in m any
ways. One such way is in terms of evoluti onary
psycholog y and reproductive concerns (cf. Buss &
Schm itt, 1993; Henss, 1995; Singh , 1993, 1994 ;
Singh & Luis, 1995; Tow nsend, 1989, cited in
Singh, 19 93; W ade, subm itted). According to evo-
lutionary psychology , hum an social behaviour and
social perception can be in¯ uenced/guided by
adaptations executed based on producing the

Requests for reprints should be addressed to T. Joel Wade, PhD, Departm ent of Psychology, Bucknell University,
Lewisburg, PA 17837, U SA.
The authors wish to thank Angele Kingue and the m odern languages departm ent of Bucknell U niversity for the French
translation of the abstract, and D . FrancË ois D oreÂand anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions on an earlier
version of this m anuscript.

q 199 7 Intern ationa l U nion of Psychol og ical Scienc e

36 W ADE AND AB ETZ
``best’ ’ offspring and providing best for said off-
spring (Kenrick, 1994). C onsequently, aspects of
the body and behaviours linked to reproductive
® tness and successful mothering affect unm arried
indivi duals’ perceptions of and behaviour toward
othe rs.
M en and wom en compete intersexually. Both
sexes attem pt to exert preferential choice when
selecting mates (Buss, 19 88; Buss & Dedden,
19 90). Consequently, women are judged based
on an evoluti onary adaptation whereby men
attend to aspects of their bo dies that index repro-
du ctive potential.
Attractiveness is the primary characteristic
m en attend to (cf. B ailey, Gaulin, Ageyi, & Gla-
du e, 19 94; Buss & Schm itt, 1993; Henss, 19 92,
19 95; Kenrick, Neub erg, Z ierk, & Krones, 1994;
Singh, 19 93, 1994; Singh & Luis, 1995; Sym ons,
19 95). Singh (1993, 1994), Singh and Luis (1995),
and Sym on s (1995) point out that the cue that is
m ost visible and im po rtant for wom en is the
waist-to-hip ratios, which relates to endocrine
states associated with fecun dity. A sm aller
waist-to-hip ratio is con sidered most attractive
for wom en and these women are considered
m ost reproductively ® t. Thu s, greater signi® cance
is assigned to wom en’ s bodies due to fecundity/
fertility concerns. W om en execute an evo lution ary
adaptation whereby they judge m en in term s of
social dom inance characteristics such as their
® nancial status and dom inant facial characte ris-
tics (cf. Keating, 19 85; Kenrick et al., 1994).
W om en’ s parental investm ent po tential is also
linked to wom en’ s physical attractiveness (cf.
C unning ham, 1986; Cun ningh am , Roberts, Bar-
bee, Druen, & W u, 1995; Henss, 1995; Singh,
19 93). W om en with physical characteristics asso-
ciated with successful m othering also receive
higher attractiveness ratings.
Additionally, due to parental investment con-
cerns and intersexu al com petition, wom en com -
pete intrasexu ally with other wom en for access to
the best mates (B uss, 1988; B uss & Dedden,
19 90). W om en execute an evo lutionary adapta-
tion whereby they strive to receive the best eva-
luation from m ale perceivers in comparison to
other wom en. This intrasexual com petition can
be direct, whereby indivi duals actually m eet in a
con frontational context, or indirect, whereby the
com petitors neve r m eet or confront one ano ther
(Buss, 19 88; Daly & W ilson, 19 83). This intra-
sexual com petition also centres around correlates
of reproductive value such as ph ysical attractive-
ness (B uss, 1988). Buss (1988) reports that newly-
wed women com peted intrasexu ally by displaying
their attractiveness and/or altering aspects of their
appearance to appear attractive.
Since attractiveness is so crucial, contrast
effects consistent with evo lutionary adaptations
have been reported for observers’ perceptions of
wom en’ s ph ysical attractiveness (Kenrick et al.,
1994) . The contrast effect is a product of social
comparison whereby individuals try to verify their
abilities and characteristics by com paring them -
selves to others (cf. B rown, 1990; Festinger,
1954 ; W ood, 1989) . It rests on the idea that indi-
viduals tend to judge stim uli in the context of the
entire perceptual ® eld. If the ® eld is biased toward
extreme stim uli, then judgem ents on a single sti-
mulus that would norm ally be considered mod er-
ate are displaced away from the extreme (Kenrick
& Gutierres, 19 80). Kenrick et al. (1994) report
that exposure to an attractive wom an prior to
rating another wom an leads to lower attractive-
ness ratings for the second woman, based on evo -
lutionary adaptations.
W om en’ s self-ratings of attractiveness are also
subject to contrast effects (cf. C ash, Cash, & But-
ters, 1983; T hornto n & M oore, 1993). How ever,
evolutio na ry ada ptations and intrasexual com peti-
tion ha ve not been applied to contrast effects on
self-ratings of attractiveness. Nevertheless, as self-
perceived attractiveness can be based on observer’ s
perceptions (Felson, 19 85; Franzoi & Herzog,
1986 ; W ade, submitted), evoluti on ary adaptations
and intrasexual com petition should also lead to
contrast effects on self-perceived attractiveness.
Consequently, as wom en’ s body im age and
attractiveness are related, wom en’ s self-ratings
of bo dy im age might also be subject to contrast
effects that com port with evoluti onary adaptations
based on parental investm ent and intrasexual
competition. C ash and Pruzinsky (1990 ) sugg est
that body im age is a state variable; therefore, it
should also be subject to contrast effects. Self-
ratings of body im age should chang e across situa-
tions, as attractiveness does, as a function of evo -
lutionary biolo gical con cerns. Yet there is a
dearth of research investigating bo dy im age con -
trasts. Furthermore, contrasts in wom en’ s self-
perceived body im age have be en neglected by
social psychology.
Ratings of every aspect of body im age should
not ¯ uctuate. Since fecundity /fertility may be
inferred from visible physical cues (Singh, 1993,
1994 ; Singh & L uis, 1995 ; Symons, 1995) , only
those aspects of body im age dealing with fecund-
ity/fertility should be subject to contrast effects.

W he ther or not contrast effects for self-ratings
would be stronger or equal with exposure to m em-
bers of the opposite sex and same sex is not clear.
The effects m ay be the same, as intrasexu al com-
petition is a product of intersexual com petition
(Buss, 1988; Buss & Dedden, 1990). However,
prior research has not exam ined both types of
exposure in one experim ent. Prior research has
also not focused on wom en of high socioeco-
nom ic status. Body im age is a heightened concern
amon g high socioeconomic status wom en
(M cCaulay, M intz, & Glenn, 1988).
The present study investigates these issues
using a 2 (sex of stim ulus person) 3 2 (attractive-
ness of stimulus person) design, the bo dy esteem
scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984), and a sample of
women of high socioeconom ic status.
The body esteem scale (B ES: Franzoi &
Shields, 1984 ) taps an affective dimension of
body im age (M end elson & W hite, 1985) . It con-
tains 35 item s dealing with affective sentim ents
regarding aspects of the body, with 7-poin t
scales ranging from 1 = I have strong negative
feelings to 7 = I have strong positive feelings.
Prior research (W ade, submitted) shows that this
scale breaks down into three subscales for
women of high socioeconomic status: a ® gure
subscale, a streng th subscale, and a sex appeal
subscale.
Hypotheses
Based on evoluti onary adaptations and prior
research, attractiveness of stimulus person main
effects are hypoth esized. Con trast effects for
body im age items such as waist, weight, ® gure
or physiqu e, thighs, butto cks, legs, hips, body
build , and appetite (the ® gu re subscale) are
hypothesized. These item s are all related to the
waist-to-hip ratio and crucial endocrine levels
and body fat ratios that are associated with
increased fecundit y and inferences regarding
fecundit y (Singh , 1993 , 1994 ; Singh & Luis,
1995; Symons, 1995).
Con trast effects on the B ES item s m uscular
strength, physical stamina, re¯ exes, physical
coordin ation, agility, and biceps (the streng th sub-
scale) are no t expected. T hese items are asso-
ciated with physical condition/stam ina, which is
also related to fecundit y (Kenrick & Keefe, 1992;
Symons, 1979). B ut these item s are no t the m ost
im portant aspects of the body for fecundit y infer-
ences (Singh , 1993, 1994; Singh & L uis, 1995;
E VOLU TION AND BODY-IMAGE CONTRASTS 37
Sym on s, 1995) and these items do not predict
wom en’ s self-ratings of physical attractiveness
(W ade, subm itted).
Contrast effects on the sex appeal subscale
(com prised of the items feet, sexu al organs,
appearance of stomach, health, body hair, chest
or breasts, face, body scent, no se, and cheek-
bo nes) are also no t expected. W om en’ s facial
characteristics have been linked to perceived
parental investment and reproductive ® tness
(C unning ham, 19 86; Cunningham et al., 1995 ;
Sym on s, 1995). However, those items as well
as the other items on this subscale are no t the
most reliable and crucial aspects of the body for
fecundity and attractiveness inferences (cf.
Singh, 1993, 1994; Singh & Luis, 1995; W ade,
submitted).
Interactions of sex of stim ulus person and
attractiveness of stim ulus person are possible.
Due to assortative mating concerns (Buss &
Barnes, 1986) and intersexual com petition, con-
trast effects m ay be stronger with exposure to one
sex of attractive or un attractive stimulus person
than with exposure to the other sex.
METHOD
Participants
Fifty-six white wom en from the introd uctory psy-
chology course, rang ing in age from 17 to 22,
from a private university in the northeastern
USA took part in this research. These women
were prim arily upper-middle-class, with a median
family incom e of $100,000.00 (personal com mu-
nication from the Dean of the College of Arts &
Sciences, July, 19 94). Participation was in partial
ful® lm ent of course requirements.
Procedure
Participants arrived at an exp erimental room
expecting to ta ke part in tw o experim ents.
They were greeted by an experimenter, who
told them that the ® rst exp erim ent dealt with
sleep habits and personal characteristics. T hey
were given a bogus questionnaire, with questions
asking about sleeping habits and their sense of
hu mour, intelligence, personality, etc. After com -
pleting this questionnaire, participants were told
the second experim ent dealt with cogniti ve pro-
blem solving and self im age. They were told that
38 W ADE AND AB ETZ
the experimenter for the second experim ent
cou ld not be present, but had sent a letter includ-
ing his or her instructions and a picture of her/
him self (see Append ix for instruction letter). The
picture was of an attractive or unattractive male
or female. Participants random ly received a
ph otograph of a man or wom an and a corre-
spondin g letter. The instruction letter drew atten-
tion to the photogr aph and participants were told
to read the letter carefully. After reading the
letter and observing the photog raph, participants
worked on a series of anagrams and a word
search task. C are was taken to ensure that tasks
were neither too simple nor too hard, to avoid
po ssible induced mood changes associated with
success or failure. After com pleting the task
participants completed the bo dy esteem scale
(Franzoi & Shields, 1984) . T he exp erim enter
was a white wom an. No pa rticipants indicated
suspicion du ring debrie® ng.
Attractiveness M anipulation
To control for possible confounds associated with
ph ysical individual differences, the sam e man and
wom an were used in each attractiveness condi-
tion. Attractiveness was manipul ated by photo -
graphing a college-aged m an and wom an of
abo ve-average attractiveness as they norm ally
app ear and then photogr aphing them after altering
their app earance throug h the use of makeup,
padded clothin g, spectacles, etc. This m ethod is
con sistent with methods utilized in prior research
m anipulating attractiveness (cf. W ade, 19 90,
19 91; W erner, 1994) . These ph otographs were
then rated by a sample of 20 college-aged wom en
on a 1 = unattractive overall to 10 = attractive
ov erall scale. T wo add itional samples, each
includin g 20 college-aged women, rated the
ph otographs. One sample rated the ph otographs
using a 1 = un attractive body to 7 = attractive
bo dy scale. T he other sample rated the photo -
graphs on each B ES item with a 1 = attractive
to 7 = unattractive scale. Separate additio nal sam-
ples were used because the body and B ES ratings
were po st-hoc in response to a com ment from a
prominent social psychologist (personal com mu-
nication from Marilyn B rewer, August, 19 95) and
a later comment from an anonym ous reviewer.
RESULTS
Reliability of Body Esteem Subscales
Cronbach’ s (1951) alphas were com puted for each
subscale. The subscales proved to be reliable.
Alphas were as follows: sex appeal .82, ® gure
.95, strengh .88.
Manipulation Check
To determ ine if the photog raph s differed in ov er-
all attractiveness and attractiveness of body, tw o 2
(sex of stim ulus person) 3 2 (attractiveness of
stim ulus person) ANOVAs were conducted. In
each case the interaction and sex of stim ulus per-
son effects were not signi® cant. M ain effects for
attractiveness occurred for the overall attractive-
ness and the attractiveness of body ratings,
F(1, 20) = 193.40, P < .0001 and F (1, 20) =
24.00 , P < .0001 for ov erall attractiveness and
body attractiveness, respectively. Means were as
follows: attractive photo graphs M = 7.60 and M =
5.08, and unattractive photographs M = 3.3 0 and
M = 3.00, for overall attractiveness and body
attractiveness, respectively.
Since the BE S subscales differed for m ale and
female stim uli, separate one-way M ANOVAs
were com puted to determ ine if the attractive and
unattractive stimulus photographs were rated dif-
ferently on the B ES subscales. If attractiveness is
related to evoluti onary con cerns, then the attrac-
tive photographs should receive higher evalua-
tions on the B ES subscales. T his prediction was
con® rm ed for the fem ale stim ulus photogr aphs
and partially con® rmed for the male stimulus
photog raphs. An attractiveness main effect
occurred for the fem ale stim ulus photographs,
multivariate F(3, 6) = 7.89, P < .017. The pictures
differed signi® cantly on the ® gure subscale, uni-
variate F(1, 9) = 27 .98, P < .000 7 (M = 6.25, SD
= 0.8 4 vs. M = 3.88, SD = 0.55, for attractive and
unattractive ph otographs, respectively) and on the
streng th subscale, univariate F (1, 9) = 17.39 , P <
.003 (M = 5.20, SD = 0.84 vs. M = 3.60, SD =
0.19, for attractive and unattractive photographs,
respectively). Addition ally, there was a m argin-
ally signi® cant difference in ratings of the female
stim ulus photogr aphs on the sex-appeal subscale,
univa riate F(1, 9) = 3.42, P < .10 (M = 4.68, SD =
0.57 vs. M = 3.72, SD = 1.01 for attractive and
unattractive photographs, respectively).

The male photog raphs did not differ signi® -
cantly overall on the B ES subscales, multivariate
F(2, 7) = 2.27, P < .17. However, a trend was
evident for the sex app eal subscale, univariate
F(1, 9) = 4.95, P < .057. T he attractive male
photo graph was rated higher on the sex appeal
subscale than the un attractive m ale photo graph
(M = 4.58, SD = 0.78 vs. M = 3.62, SD = 0.58
for attractive and unattractive ph otographs,
respectively).
Body Image Contrast Effects
A 2 (attractiveness of stim ulus person) 3 2 (sex
of stim ulus person) M ANOVA was conducted
for the ® gure, streng th, and sex appeal subscales.
Effect sizes were also com puted for all signi® -
cant differences betw een means using Coh en’ s
(1988) form ula. Additionally, a repeated m ea-
sure ANOVA for attractiveness conditions and
BE S subscales was com pu ted to determine
further if attractiveness of stim ulus person only
affects the ® gure subscale ratings as hy pothe-
sized. To determ ine if the sam ple size was ade-
quate, a power analysis was com puted using
Cohen’ s (1988) form ula for computin g power for
main and interaction effects in analysis of var-
iance designs.
A signi® cant main effect for attractiveness of
the stimulus person occurred, multivariate F (3, 50)
= 3.11, P < .03, affecting the ® gure subscale
ratings, univariate F(1, 55) = 5.72, P < .02 . W om en
exposed to the un attractive stim ulus persons had
more po sitive feelings about their ® gu re (M =
5.36, SD = 1.69 vs. M = 4.38, SD = 1.28 for
unattractive and attractive stim uli, respectively,
d = .65 large effect [Coh en, 1988]). No other
signi® cant effects occurred. See Table 1 for the
means for all body esteem subscales.
TABLE 1
Mean Figure, Strength and Sex Appeal Subscale Ratings
as a Function of Attractiveness of Stimulus Person
Attractiveness Condition
Attractive Unattractive
Subscale M SD M SD
Figure 4.38 1.69 5.36 1.28
Strength 5.32 0.91 5.35 1.14
Sex Appeal 4.98 0.82 5.10 0.96
E VOLU TION AND BODY-IMAGE CONTRASTS 39
In response to a com ment from an ano nymous
reviewer, a po st-hoc test was condu cted. To deter-
mine if the contrast was positive (upward) or
negative (downward), the means for the attractive
and unattractive exposure conditions were com -
pared to a mean rating on the ® gure subscale from
W ade’ s (subm itted) research (M = 4.02, SD =
1.31). The sample in W ade’ s (submitted) research
involv ed a larger version of the present sample.
The mean rating on the ® gure subscale for this
sam ple can be thought of as a population mean
and the sam ple can be thought of as a no-attrac-
tiveness exposure control group. T-tests with B on-
ferroni corrected alpha were com puted using a
form ula from Runyon and Haber (1980) . The
mean for the attractive photogr aph exposure con-
dition did not differ signi® cantly from the popula-
tio n mean [t(176) = 2.02, ns]. The mean for the
un attractive photograph exposure conditio n did
differ signi® cantly from the population mean
[t(174) = 7.25, P < .001]. The contrast was a
po sitive (upw ard) contrast.
The repeated measures analysis revealed a sig-
ni® cant interaction for attractiveness of stim ulus
person and BE S subscale, multivariate F(2, 53) =
4.5 4, P < .015, univariate F(2, 53) = 6.48, P <
.002. M eans associated with the ® gu re subscale
on ly were affected by the attractiveness of the
stimulus person.
The power analysis revealed that our sample
size of 56, with 27 and 29 cases per attractiveness
condition, was adequate. According to Cohen’ s
(1988) formula, for an effect size of .65, 1 degree
of freedom, an alpha of .05, and a beta of .20, the
average num ber of cases per mean to be com pared
should be 11 , with a total sam ple size of 22 .
DISCUSSION
As hypothesized, an attractiveness main effect
occurred. Contrast effects con sistent with evolu-
tionary adaptations occur for wom en’ s self-rat-
ings of their body im age. The attractive fem ale
stimulus photographs differed on all three aspects
of body im age. But the contrast effect only
occurred for ® gure-related aspects of body im age.
Con trast effects only occurred on the ® gure
subscale because this aspect of the bo dy is most
adaptively im portant for judgin g wom en (Singh,
19 93, 1994; Singh & Luis, 19 95; Symon s, 1995)
and it has the strongest effect on wom en’ s ability
to attract the ``best’’ m ates (cf. Bailey et al., 1994 ;
Buss, 1994, 1995a; B uss & Schmitt, 19 93; Ken-
rick, 1994; Kenrick et al., 1994; Symons, 19 95).
40 W ADE AND AB ETZ
W om en m ay feel their ® gures (thighs, hips, bu t-
tocks, le gs, waist, weight, ® gure of ph ysique,
bo dy build , appetite) com pare well with an unat-
tractive female, enhanc ing their competitive abil-
ities to attract the ``best’ ’ m ates.
B uss and Dedden (1990) report that wom en can
deal with intrasexual com petition by derogating
their com petitors or by self-enhancem ent. This
derogation and enhancement centres around
aspects related to or indexing reproductive value.
How ever, whereas wom en are m ore likely to
derogate the attractiveness of a com petitor than
m en are, this form of derogation is no t very effec-
tive for wom en (Buss & Dedden, 1990). Conse-
qu ently, the wom en exposed to an un attractive
fem ale engage in self-enh ancement rather than
derogation. W om en may not have experienced a
con trast effect for their ® gures with exp osure to
the attractive female be cause de rogation is inef-
fective. Furtherm ore, self-enh ancem ent would be
easier when the com petitor is at the negative
extreme than when the competitor is at the posi-
tive extreme.
Additionally, wom en may feel that in reality a
highly attractive male would not select them as a
m ate. Their ability to com pete intersexually may
also be affected. They may feel their ® gu re does
no t match the attractiveness of a highl y attractive
m ale and they can compete better when said male
is unattractive. W ith exposure to the un attractive
m ale, wom en may feel they are more assured of
their ability to execute preferential selection when
cho osing a m ate. Once again they engage in self-
enh ancement. Prior research supports this. M ost
indivi duals’ ideal mates are extrem ely attractive,
bu t indivi duals settle for or select a mate that is
no t at one of the extremes of attractiveness (cf.
B erscheid, Dion, W alster, & W alster, 1971 ; Hus-
ton, 1973 ; W alster & W alster, 1969 ) in order to
feel secure about their relationships. This would
exp lain why the effect on feelings about ® gure-
related aspects of bo dy im age is the same regard-
less of the sex of stimulus person women are
exp osed to. This explanation is consistent with
evo lution ary psychology, as prior research po ints
ou t that evolutionary adaptations can interact with
social learning to in¯ uence perception (cf. Buss,
19 95b; C unning ham et al., 1995; Symon s, 19 95).
Strength and sex appeal related aspects of body
im age did not change as hypothesized. These
aspects of self-perceived body im age are not as
im portant as other aspects of the body are for
wom en’ s perceived reproductive ® tness (Singh,
19 93, 1994; Singh & Luis, 1995).
T hese results further illuminate the link
betw een evo lutionary psycho logy and self-per-
ception. As there are other theories that can
explain self-perception, there m ay also be other
theories that cou ld explain body im age con trasts.
Future research should endeavo ur to uncover
addition al theoretical explanations for contrast
effects associated with body im age.
In addition , the present study utilized photo-
graphs rather than live indivi duals. It is po ssible
that wom en’ s body im age con trasts may be stron-
ger with exp osure to a live indivi dual. It is also
possible that exposure to other types of stim uli or
stim ulus persons of different races m ay also cause
body im age contrasts. Future research exam ining
these issues is also warranted. In add ition, to
determine more precisely if positive or negative
body im age contrasts occur, future research
should include a no-exposure condition along
with attractive and unattractive exposure con di-
tions. Kno wledg e that evolutio na ry theory can
account for wom en’ s bo dy im age contrasts
furthers our understanding of body im age and
may further strengthen the heuristic value of evo -
lutionary-based explanations of social perception .
M anuscript ® rst received Decem ber 1995
Revised manuscript accepted June 1996
REFERENCES
Bailey , J.M ., G aulin , S., A geyi , Y ., & Gladue , B.A .
(1994) . Effects of gende r and sexua l orient atio n on
evolut ionar y releva nt aspect s of hum an m atin g
psycho logy . Journal of P ersona lity and Socia l
P syc holog y, 66, 1081 ±1093 .
Bersc heid, E., D ion , K ., W alster , E ., & W alster,
G .W . (1971) . P hysica l attractivene ss an d datin g
choice : A test of the m atchin g hypoth esis. Journa l
of E xperi m enta l Socia l P sychol og y, 7, 173±189.
Brow n, J.D. (1990) . Evaluat ing one’ s abilities: Short -
cuts and stum b lin g block s on the road to self-k nowl-
edge . Journa l o f Experimenta l Socia l P sych olog y,
26 , 149±167 .
Buss, D .M . (1988) . The evolut ion of hum an intrase x-
ual com petition.: T actic s of m ate attrac tion . Jour-
na l of P ersona lity and Socia l P sych olog y, 54(4),
61 6±628.
Buss, D .M . (1994) . The evolut ion of desire . S trategi es
of hum an m atin g. New Y ork: B asic B ooks .
Buss, D .M . (1995a ). Evo lutiona ry psycho logy : A new
paradi gm fo r psycho logica l scienc e. P sycholo g ical
Inquir y 6 , 1±30.
Buss, D .M . (1 995b). P sychol ogica l sex differences:
O rigin s thro u gh sexua l selection. A m erica n Psy-
cholog ist, 50(3), 164 ±1 68.

B uss, D .M ., & B arnes , M . (1986) . Prefere nces in hu-
m an m ate selection. Journ a l of P erson a lity an d So-
cial Psychol ogy, 50, 559±5 70.
B uss, D .M ., & Ded den, L .A . (1 990). D ero gatio n of
com petito rs. Jo urna l of Socia l and P erson a l R ela-
tionshi ps, 7, 395±422.
B uss, D .M ., & Schm itt, D .P. (1993) . Sexua l strate gies
theory ; A contex tu al evolutionar y analys is of hu m an
m ating. Psychol o gica l R evie w, 100 , 2 04±232.
C ash, T .F., & Pruzins ky, T . (199 0 ). B ody im ages: De-
velop m ent, devianc e, and chang e. N ew Y ork: G uil-
ford Press.
C ash, T .F., Cash, D .W ., & B utters , J.W . (1983) . ``M ir-
ror, m irror , o n th e w all. . . . ?’’ : Con trast effect s and
self-ev aluati ons of physic al attrac tivene ss. P erson-
ality and Social Psychol ogy Bulletin, 9 (3), 351 ±35 8.
C ash, T .F., W instead, B.A ., & Jand a, L .H . (1 986). T he
grea t Am erican shape- up. P sychol ogy Toda y, A pril,
30±37.
C ohen , J. (1 988). S tatisti cal p ower analys is for the
behavi oura l scienc es (2 nd ed.) . H illsdal e, NJ: Law r-
ence E rlbau m A ssocia tes Inc.
C ronbac h, L.J. (1951) . C oef® cien t alph a and the inter-
nal structu re o f tests . Psycho m etrik a, 16, 297±334.
C unnin gham , M .R . (19 86). M easurin g the physic al in
physic al attract iv en ess: Quasi-e xperim en ts on the
sociob iolog y of fem ale facia l beauty . Jou rnal of
Personality and Socia l P sy cholo g y, 50, 925±935.
C unnin gham , M .R ., Ro berts, A .R ., B arbee , A .P.,
Druen , P .B., & W u, C.-H . (1995) . ’ ’ T heir id eas of
beauty are, on the w hole , the sam e as ou rs’’ : C on-
sistenc y and variab ility in the cross-cu ltura l p ercep -
tion of fem ale physic al attracti veness . Journa l of
Personality and Socia l P sy cholo g y, 68, 261±279.
D aly, M ., & W ilson , M . (1983) . Sex, evolution and
behavi our. Boston, M A : W illiar d G ra nt P ress.
D avies , E ., & Furnha m , A . (1986) . B ody-im age satis-
factio n in adoles cent girls . B ritish Journa l of M ed-
ical Psychol ogy, 59, 278±2 87.
Felson , R .B. (1985) . R e¯ ecte d apprai sal and the de-
velop m ent of self . Socia l Psychol ogy Q uarter ly, 4 8,
71±78.
Festing er, L. (1954) . A theor y of social com pariso n
proces ses. Hum an R elatio n s, 7, 117±140.
Fisher , S. (1986) . D evelopm ent and struct ure of the
body ima ge. H illsdal e, N J: L aw renc e Erlbaum A s-
sociates Inc.
Franzoi, S.L ., & H erzog , M .E . (1986) . T he bod y es-
teem scale : A conver gent and dsicrim inan t validity
study. Journa l of Personal ity A ssess m ent, 50, 24±3 1.
Franzoi, S.L., & Shields, S.A . (1984) . T he b ody es-
teem scale : M ultidi m ension al struct ure and se x dif-
ferenc es in a colleg e popula tion . Journa l of
Personality Assessm ent, 48, 173±178 .
H enss , R. (1992) . ``Sp ieglein, Spiegl ein, an der W and
. . . ’ ’ G eschlecht, alte r und physis che attrak tivitat .
(``M irror, m irro r on the wall . . . ’’ Sex, age, and
physic al attract iv en ess.) W einhei m , G erm any: P sy-
cholo gie V erlag s U nion .
H enss , R . (1995). W aist to hip ratio and attract ive-
ness . R eplica tion and extens io n. P ersona lity and
Individu al D ifferen ces, 1 9(4), 479 ±488 .
H uston , T . (197 3). A m bigu ity of accept ance , socia l
E VOLU TION AND BODY-IMAGE CONTRASTS 41
desira bilit y and datin g choice . Journa l of Exp eri-
m enta l Socia l P sychol o gy, 9, 3 2±42.
Ja ckso n , L .A . (1 992). P hysic al appear a nce and ge n-
der: Sociob iologica l and socioc ultura l perspe ctive s.
State U nivers ity of New Y ork Press : A lbany , N Y .
K eating , C .F. (1985) . G end er and the physio gno m y of
dom inanc e and attract iv eness . Social P sychol ogy
Q uarter ly, 4 8, 61±70.
K enrick , D .T . (1 994). E voluti onary socia l psycho l-
ogy : From sexua l selection to socia l cognit ion.
A dvance s in E xperim enta l Socia l P sy ch olog y, 26,
75±121 .
K enrick , D .T ., & G utierre s, S.E . (19 80). C ontras t ef-
fect and judge m en ts of p hysica l attracti veness :
W hen beauty beco m es a social proble m . Journa l
of P ersona lity and Socia l P sych olog y, 38, 131±140.
K enrick , D .T ., & K eefe , R.C. (1992) . Age preferences
in m ates re ¯ ect sex differen ces in hum an reprod uc -
tive strateg ies. B eh aviora l and B rain Scienc es, 15,
75±133 .
K enrick , D.T., N euberg , S.L ., Zierk , K .L ., & K rones ,
J.M . (1 994). E voluti on an d so cial cognit ion: Con-
tras t effects as a function of sex, dom inance , and
physic al attrac tivene ss. Perso nality a nd Socia l P sy -
cholog y B ulleti n, 20(2), 210 ±217.
K off, E., R ierdan , J., & Stubb s, M .L . (19 90). G ender ,
bod y im ag e and self-co ncept in earl y ado lescen ce.
Journa l o f E arly A dolesc ence, 10, 56±58.
L ern er, R .M ., K arab enick , S.A ., & Stuart, J.L. (1973) .
R elation s am o ng physica l attract iven ess, body atti-
tudes, and self-co nc ep t in m ale and fem ale colleg e
studen ts. Journa l of P sycholog y, 85, 11 9±129.
M cC aulay , M ., M intz, L., & G lenn , A .A . (1988) . B ody
im age, self-es teem , and depress ion pron eness : Clos-
ing the gende r gap. Sex R oles , 1 8, 381±391.
M endelso n, B.K., & W hite , D .R . (1985) . D evelop-
m ent of self-bo dy-est eem in o verw eigh t
youngs te rs. D evelop men tal Psychol ogy, 21, 90±96.
Ro se n, J.C. (1990) . Body-i m age distur bance s in eat-
ing disord ers. In T .F. C ash & T . Pruzins ky (Ed s.),
B ody im ages : D evelopmen t, devian ce, a nd chang e
(pp. 190 ±21 4). New Y ork: G uilford Press.
Ru nyon , R .P., & H aber , A. (1980) . Fund a mental s o f
behavi oral sta tistics : F ourth editio n . C alifo rnia :
A ddiso n W esley Publishi ng, Inc.
Secord , P.F., & Jourar d, S .M . (1953) . T he apprai sal of
bod y cathex is: bo dy cathex is an d self. Journa l o f
C onsu lting P sy cholog y, 17, 343±347.
Singh , D . (199 3). A daptiv e signi ® canc e of fem ale
physic al attract iveness : R ole of waist-to- hip ratio .
Journa l of P ersona lity and Social Psychol ogy,
65(2), 293 ±307 .
Singh , D. (1994) . Is thin reall y beauti ful and good ?
R elation ship between w aist-to -hip ratio (W H R )
and fem ale attrac tivene ss. P ersona lity and In divi -
dua l D ifferen ces, 16(1 ), 123 ±132 .
Singh , D ., & L uis, S. (1995) . Ethnic and gende r co n-
se nsus for the effe ct of waist-to- hip ratio o n judg e-
m ents of wom en’ s attrac tivene ss. H uman N atu re, 6,
51±65.
Sym ons, D . (1979) . The evolut ion of h uman sexual ity.
N ew York: Oxford U nivers ity Press.
Sym ons, D. (1995) . B ea uty is in the adapta tion s of the
42 W ADE AND AB ETZ

behold er: The evolut ionary psycho logy of hum an
fe m ale sexua l attrac tivene ss. In P.R . A bram son &
S.D . Pinkerton (Eds.) , Sexua l nature /sexua l cu ltu re
(p p. 80±118) . Chicago , IL: U nivers ity o f Chicag o
Press.
T hom as, C .D ., & Freem an, R .J. (1990) . T he bod y es-
teem scale : C onstru ct validi ty of the fem ale su b-
scales . Journal of Perso nality Assess m en t, 54,
204±212.
T hornto n, B ., & M oore , S. (199 3). Physica l attractive -
ness contra st effect : Im plicat io ns for self-es teem
and evalua tion s o f th e social self. Perso n ality and
Socia l Psychol ogy B ulleti n, 19, 474±480.
T ow nsend, J.M . (198 9). M ate select ion criteria: A pi-
lot study. E thn olog y and Sociob iolog y 10, 24 1±253.
W ade, T .J. (1990). P erceive d disp o sitio n al com pat-
ibility and th e evaluat ion of interracia l couple s.
Paper presen ted at the 61st annu al Easter n Psy ch o-
logic al A ssocia tion C onvent ion , M arch 29±April 1,
P hilade lphia , PA .
W ade, T .J. (1991) . M arketp lace eco nom y: Th e eva-
luatio n of interra cial couple s. Basic and App lied
So cial Psychol ogy, 12(4), 405 ±422 .
W ade, T .J. (sub m itted). Sociob iolog y and self-
percep tion : Sex differe nces in the re lations hips be-
tween attrac tivene ss, self-estee m , an d bo dy esteem .
M anuscr ipt subm itted for pub lication .
W alster, E ., & W alster, G .W . (196 9 ). T he m atchin g
hy pothes is. Journa l o f Perso nality and Socia l
P syc holog y, 6, 24 8±253.
W erner, K. (1994) . Bo dy im age: A relative concept.
U npu b lishe d H ono rs Thesis , B uckn ell Univers ity,
L ew isburg , PA .
W ood, J.V . (1989). T heor y and research concer ning
socia l com p arison s of pe rsona l attrib utes. Psychol o-
gica l Bulletin, 106 , 231±248.

APPENDIX

Experimenter Instructions Letter

Dear PY 10 0 Student,
To start, I would like to thank you for taking part in this experiment. Your efforts today represent a
hu ge con tribution to m y graduate research. I am currently researching the effects of cog nitive tasks on
self-image. Please respond as honestly as possible to these questions. The results are con® dential and you
m ay stop the experiment at any time if you feel uncom fortable.
This study has tw o parts. The ® rst part includes ® ve minutes of cogniti ve tasks, and the second part
involves a self-image questionnaire. In this folder yo u will ® nd the tw o stapled together. M y assistant will
time you on the task. Do not ¯ ip to the questionnaire un til yo u are instructed to do so. W hen you are done
with the questionnaire, you will hand the folder and its contents in. I apologiz e for my absence from this
exp erim ent. I have included a picture of m yself so that you can see that I am just like you, a college
student, and I am very approachable. If you have any concerns or questions feel free to contact m e
directly. The psycholog y department can provide you with my phone nu mber. Otherwise, m y assistant
should be able to ® eld any im mediate questions for you. Thanks for your help.
Sincerely,
(a m ale or female nam e)

The author has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publication