The eastern Libyans : an

essay / by Oric Bates,...

Source gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale de France

 Bates, Oric (1883-1918). Auteur du texte. The eastern Libyans : an
essay / by Oric Bates,.... 1914.

1/ Les contenus accessibles sur le site Gallica sont pour la plupart

des reproductions numériques d'oeuvres tombées dans le
domaine public provenant des collections de la BnF. Leur
réutilisation s'inscrit dans le cadre de la loi n°78-753 du 17 juillet
1978 :
- La réutilisation non commerciale de ces contenus ou dans le
cadre d’une publication académique ou scientifique est libre et
gratuite dans le respect de la législation en vigueur et notamment
du maintien de la mention de source des contenus telle que
précisée ci-après : « Source gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale
de France » ou « Source gallica.bnf.fr / BnF ».
- La réutilisation commerciale de ces contenus est payante et fait
l'objet d'une licence. Est entendue par réutilisation commerciale la
revente de contenus sous forme de produits élaborés ou de
fourniture de service ou toute autre réutilisation des contenus
générant directement des revenus : publication vendue (à
l’exception des ouvrages académiques ou scientifiques), une
exposition, une production audiovisuelle, un service ou un produit
payant, un support à vocation promotionnelle etc.

CLIQUER ICI POUR ACCÉDER AUX TARIFS ET À LA LICENCE

2/ Les contenus de Gallica sont la propriété de la BnF au sens de

l'article L.2112-1 du code général de la propriété des personnes
publiques.

3/ Quelques contenus sont soumis à un régime de réutilisation

particulier. Il s'agit :

- des reproductions de documents protégés par un droit d'auteur

appartenant à un tiers. Ces documents ne peuvent être réutilisés,
sauf dans le cadre de la copie privée, sans l'autorisation préalable
du titulaire des droits.
- des reproductions de documents conservés dans les
bibliothèques ou autres institutions partenaires. Ceux-ci sont
signalés par la mention Source gallica.BnF.fr / Bibliothèque
municipale de ... (ou autre partenaire). L'utilisateur est invité à
s'informer auprès de ces bibliothèques de leurs conditions de
réutilisation.

4/ Gallica constitue une base de données, dont la BnF est le

producteur, protégée au sens des articles L341-1 et suivants du
code de la propriété intellectuelle.

5/ Les présentes conditions d'utilisation des contenus de Gallica

sont régies par la loi française. En cas de réutilisation prévue dans
un autre pays, il appartient à chaque utilisateur de vérifier la
conformité de son projet avec le droit de ce pays.

6/ L'utilisateur s'engage à respecter les présentes conditions

d'utilisation ainsi que la législation en vigueur, notamment en
matière de propriété intellectuelle. En cas de non respect de ces
dispositions, il est notamment passible d'une amende prévue par
la loi du 17 juillet 1978.

7/ Pour obtenir un document de Gallica en haute définition,

contacter
utilisation.commerciale@bnf.fr.
TMÈ ~A~TERN LIBYANS
 MACMfLLANAXD CO., L)M[TED
LOXDOSBOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURXE
THE MA~!ILLAX COMPA\Y
KEWYORKBOSTONCHICAGO
nAtLAS SASFRASOSCO
THE ;t)ACM!LL.A~tCO. 0F CANADA,LTD.
TOROSTO
 û

s*
m
<
M
H
ë
.5
§

te
S
&
E/)

M
 THE
EASTERN LIBYANS
AN ESSAY

BY
QRÏC BATES
B.A.i
F.R.G.S.
t.ATEOFTHENUBtANARCHAEOLOGfCAt.S

ïr~otS
0~6'
d~o~tî~Ot~
dr9~d(Tt~
etô'~tx~ot )rap'
6\f~ot
<at N~tT(t<S'Mf)T~«At~t!t)fT4<
~~tms
d~i~foSpTtU
~M~cf,
N~
oj!
fr«!T~<)M~!r&'r<t~oWf)"9/m~«~T),~<~tfttTomM'){
Cup)du9l-ibuMcog'no!!eere6aes.–jm.f.v.

'9~
MACMlLLANANDCp.,LIMÏTCD
ST.MARTÏN'S
STREET,
LONDÔN
COPYRIGHT
 TO
[ (~QRGB~ ANDREW REISNER, Pn.D.

vl WHOSE CNSWERVING DEVOTION

AN ~3~
A&C~EQM~~T TO SCIEKCE

IS BOTH AN EXAMPI-E AND AN INSPIRATION

THIS ESSAYtSDEDICATED
WITH AFFECTIONAND RESPECT
 PREFACE
<.r~ THE
.'ff a
presen~\volume'ne~s but few words by way of preface. The matcrials hère
presented were'~f~cted as part of the évidence relating to the history of Cyrenaica,
to thé study of which hâve devoted alteady a number of years, and to which 1 hope
1

to give more. As my Libyan notes grew in volume, and suggested the various questions
which are discussed in the following pages, it became clear that in mere mass alone
they would be a feature disproportionatelylarge if IntroduCed wlthout àbridgment into
thé work Ï hope ultimately to publish. Such an abridgment would, unless the way
were first prepared by a series of articles in the journals, necessit&te my making în
many parts of my treatment of Cyrenaic history a number of statements which, without
explanation, would appear dogmatic. That Ï have. chosen to set forth the Libyan
m~terial in the present form instead pf in the journals, is due to a conviction that the
subject is of such importance as to warrant its treatment in book form to a desire to
ha~e thé évidence easily accessible to others; and.to a wish to provide, as far as Ï
may, a scientific basis for further study of the Libyans èast of Africa Minor.
The importance of thé Hamites in thé eastern Mediterranean in Minoan times
will not be underrated to-day by any thoughtful student of that sphere and period.
Equally, to the Egyptologist, any systematic treatment of the people whose contribution
to the civilization of the Nile Valley has, for over a decade, been the source of so much
an<j[ such reckless controversy, Should be welcom~.

This essay bôth sun'ers and dérives advantages from the fact that it has been
wr)tten in thé ~eîd. The dtsadvantages of being often eut off from all libraries are
toO obvious to be dweit upon; 1 am much to beblamed, however, if there do not
appear in the following pages some traces of thé opportunities of which, by being in
th~ Leyant,! hâve been able to avail myself. For 1 hâve had and used exceptional
op~ortunides to collate the monumental and textual évidence to be found in Egypt,
rel~t:ngto;thë Libyans; Ï hâve tr~velled in thé Libyan Désert and Marmariea and,
in regard to thé Nubiân question, treated in the Arst Appendix, I was actively engaged
 which the great "C Group"
in thé Nubian Archaeological Survey during the year in
Dakkah excavated, and 1 personally examined every grave and its
cemetery at was
reader to have made good use of
contents. These opportunities, if t shall scem to thé
woutdhave
them, 1 beg him to accept as an onset to such errors and omissions as
been avoided had been working with the aid of a European library.
As the historîcal
A word may hère be said about the spelling of foreign names.
Egypt:an names have been given English forms by Breasted, either in his or N~
his speUIngs have here been for thé most part preserved, with
in his
which are there
th.? exception, that those which appear oniy in the R~o~, and
reproduced with the aid of diacritical signs, have been simplified by the
method
employed by Breasted himself in his ~M~.
tabulated below,
Arabie words have been transcribed according to the System
forms have
although in the case of some of the more familiar names the usual European
the
been preferred to literal transcription. Berber words have been transcribed by
a
same signs as Arabie ones.
t A as in fathcr," or omitted in transcriptions.
<-j B as in boit."
°
'–< T as in me!t."
~j T or TH as in thus."
G as in "get," or G as in "agitate."
– H strong aspirate.,
H Mke < in the Scotch "toch."
j Das'<ïall'ance."
misanthrope," sometimes as z in Mny."
D sometimes like lh ~n

i Ras in "rat."
Z as in zeal."
.G(Berber)asin"edge"(French<~).
Sasiti "sing!e."
~§orSHasin"shatter."
(.= S ltkec<tn "menace."
D hard palatal d as in brigade."
kThardp~atat~asii"tower."

J! .<
&Zasin"zoo!ogy."
e ~of',somewhatlik~ihe pause in "co-operatiye."
').H.Brea5tcd,M~<<,2nded.,NcwYor)!,t9t<
;~o6. Hereafter cited as BAR, with volume (Roman numéral) and
2 Idem, Chicago,
:ect!')nnambers.

.j.~?~ ·
 or GH, strong guttural resembl'ng the g in /<~w.
~jF~in"tbw!
J~like<!n"M)sson."
~Kasin"keep."
G (Berber) slight nasal quality, somewhat as in banged."
JLasin"long."
*Masm"mat."
tt)Nas!n"note."
tHas!n"hwry."
~WorUasm"weil"or"crude"respect:ve!y.
(~ Y or 1 as in Il ye!!oiv" or machine respectively.

The full titles of the modem works cited in the notes, and of thé editions of thé
ancient sources used, will be fbund in the bibliography at thé end of the work. In
the dotes, writers hâve been cited usually by brief titles.
In conclusion, among those whom 1 hâve to thank for helping me during thé
course ofthis work, 1 wish especmtly to mention the followlng :–
Dr. G. A. ReMncr, with whom 1 served ~l four expéditions in Syri~, Nubi~, and
Egypt, for continual help and criticism, especially in the parts relating to philological,
questions and religion Dr. R; Basset, of Algiers, for several valuable miscellaneous
notes on religion, and Dr.J.Toutain, ôf Paris, for similar help Dr. A. Erman, for a
notice of thé god Ash Dr. L. Borchardt, for most generously and hospitably extending
t6 tn~ the privilèges ofthe Imperial and Royal German Archaeological Institute in Cairo,
whet'eI was'free at aH hours to use the excellent Egyptological Hbrary there collected
Dr. t) E. Derry, for an outline of his theory of the Ëgyptian race,and for thé friendly
enth~slasm he mani~~ted toward this work while wc wcre together in the Khedivtal
service, and later in the Egyptian Sudan Dr. G. Roeder, for continued sympâthy
and advice, and for bibliographie material; Mr. E. M. Dowson, Director-General
of ~Ï.H. Survey Department, and the officers of H.H. Coast Guards for thé aid
give~ me in connectioh with an expédition made m thé Libyan Désert in thé autumn
of i~to, and. especially, in this connection, B!nbash! L. V, Royie, wbose guest 1 had
thé jpleasure of being during part ofthat journey; Dr. P. A. A.- Boeser, of Leyden,
~or photographs; Mr. C, M. Firth, for allowing me to use, after 1 had lett thé
Gov~rnment service in order ~to write this essay, unpuMIshed material obtalned by thé
Nub~an Archaeologicàl Survey then under his charge Professer G. F. Moore, of
Harvard University, for his kindness in reading and criticizing the 6rst draft of thé
chapter on Libyan religion Dr. G. H. Chase, of the same University, for generously
reading thé entire work, and making a number of valuable suggestions and corrections
andUnaHy, my father, Dr. Arlo Bates, for his untiring patience in correcting proofs.
To those whose names are not mentioned in thé âbove Hst, but who have given me
their help in this work, 1 here wish to acknowledge my gratitude. As was necessarity
thé case in dealing with a subjec~~f* ~HI~ort, 1 have incurred a number of obtigations
which lack of space forbids me~sp~cl~. 3:\
ORtC BATES.

T'HE PVRAM<DS, G:ZAH, t~H.

G~BEt. MoYAH, SEKNAR, I~t2.
 CONTENTS
tNTRODUCTtON .– CHAPTER 1

PHYStOGRAPHYOFEASTERNLtBVA · t

CHAPTER II
ËTHNOLOGY AND ETHNOGtOGRAPHY 39

CHAPTER HI
LA~GUAGEANDWRiTING ?3

CHAPTER IV

Il
EcONOMtes 9!
–
.CHAPTER
R V
SoC~ETYANpGo~ERNMENT t0~

.r~
DR~SSANDORNAMENTATtOM
CHAPTER VI
< tt8
1"
~CHÀPTER ..vn~
~MA~htA~C'Vi~MAMoAR.T t~t
;CHAPTER"Vnï
REt.tO!
 CHAPTER IX
t-ACZ
HfSTORY 2t0

APPENDIX 1

OtTHt:"CGROUP"PtOPLEOFNuBtA 2~~

APPENDIX 11 `

OxTWottSCRtPTtOKSFROMGHEYTAH 2~3

APPENDIX HI t
TRADtTIOXAÏ.LtBYANOf.tONS 2«
APPENDIX IV
BtBLtCALNoTtCES 2<8

APPENDIX
TttEAMTAEUS-CRATER OFEuPHRONiiJS.260
V

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHILOLOGICAL INDEX 2~
GENERAL INDEX 283
 ;L:~ 0F ILLUSTRATIONS
r
i\ttje,few
[Ëxccpt !<nta~ 9pe<<!edbelow, thé illustrations hâve been drawn or redrawjt by the author.]

MAPS `
MC!
~Africa:disthbuti6noftheHamiticstoc)t.After G. Sergi ·
-t4

.37
Il. EastemLibya: ethnogeography m. 1200 B.c. From Egyptian sources 3~
Ilt.EasternLibyanethnogeographyaccordingtoHerodotus. 53
IV. Eastern Libya: ethnogeography according to Scy!ax. AfterC.MO))cr, ?c~ G'f~fM
jM'M~M,Par.P!s.ii!.andv. St
5~
Eastern Libya ethnogeogfaphy according to Strabo
VEastern Libya ethnogeography according to Diodorus Sicutus
VH.EasternLibya:ethnogeographyaccordingtoP)iny

?~~K/<!<' in C/M~7
IX. The same,with projection rectifted
X. Ea;t6rnL!by~: ethnogeography aecordingtohte Roman sources
xxv.
VU!. Eastern Libya: ethnogeography according to Ptotemy, projection unrectified. After C.Ma)!cr,
Pfo/ Geographiam xxxvi., Pis. xxiii. and
· 39

60

6/
XL Eastern L'bya ethnogeography according to early Arabie sources ` ?o

GEJERAL MAP OF EASTERN LtBYA, t ~,000,000, eomp!)<;d at thé Oeees of the Survey Department,
Cairo, Egypt, and at t'he Rcyat Geographicat Society, 4odon.. (In ~M~}

.PLATES'
fACtFAGE
th ee Libyan~ (Tttes from Medtnet Habu). XXth Dynasty, Ga:ro Museum photograph by Emile,
BrugsehPasha. t'ir9tpubHsh€dbyG.DareMy,P~M<MM.M'~f~~ ~-Mt!t<~
Ï. Libyan Typts from the Egyptian Monuments. Fig. t, Rebu, after W. M. F. Petne, ~<:f~
~;Mf~No.77t[a]. Fig.2,Rebu,arte~ i6id., ï1"o. Fig.3,Rebu,attert~
~M., No. 8z [<!]. Fig. 3, Tehenu,aMw No.
No. 77! ~]. Fig. Rebu (?), after
83 F'ig. 6t Rebu (?), after ~W., No. 8ï [~]. Ftg. Meshwesh, after No. t~.
Fig.8,Rebu(?),aher~,No.t6~ F'g.9,T<-henu,atter~M.,No.S~
 .46
FI%'CE PAGE
]). [~ibyan Types from the Egyptian Monuments. Fig. t, Western Type (painting), after <~W., No.
772. Fig.a,Rebu,AbuSimbe!(backofheadrestored),after photograph. Fig. 3, Western
Type (painting), Pétrie, op. f/f., No. yoo, Figs. 4, S, Meshwesh (?), sma)) bronze in Louvre,
défaits in silver.Fig. 6, Rebu, aftcr LD, iii., Pl. 233. Fig. 7, Meshwesh (f), after Petrie,

No. t6~ (slightly rcst~red)

f~. t;'f.,No. t6oL Fig. 8,Tehenu,after /«~No. 7t. Fig. 9, Meshwesh

III. Libyan Princes from the Tomb ofSetit. After LD iii., PL :36
(r),after/

tM
IV. King Seti I. shying Libyans. Karnak 126
V. Libyan Tributaries. Beni Hasan. This représentation,which 1 have often cited a~ Libyan, is
generally regarded as portraying Semitic Bedawîn. But I think that the subjects are
southern Temeh:) Libyans because the paintings reprèsent blonds with Mue eyes, in the
shorter Libyan robe, and wearing ostrich plumes. Fig. t after P. E. Newberry, BM< Hasan,
Yo). i., PI. xiv. Fig. 2 after ibid., /?f. f/f, Fig. 3 aftcr ibid., Pl. xvii. (east uall of tomb

l~, middle registcr) t~O

VI. F'gs- t and 2, Small granite head in Cairo Muséum. Photograph by Emile Brugsch Pasha.
Head said to have corne from ThebM, and p/obaMy represents a Rebu. Fig. 3, Relief from
the Tomb cfHarmheb. Lcyden Museum; kindnessofP.A.A.Boeser 134
VIL Retief from the Mortuary Temple of King Sa-hu-re. Kihdness of 1,. Borchardt 136
VIII. Fayum Impiements. After H. W. Seton-Karr, T~MM ~Mt /m~& as fbOows: PI. iii., 3,
6, 9, PL ii., 9, 11, 6, t, t?, 3, 2, 5 PL vii., 5 PI. iv., t, 6, y P). vi., t, 2 Pl. i., t, 2,
3 PL ii., t8, 20, 25; PI. viii., 3, t PL xi., 4 PL xiii., 5 PL viii., 9; Pl. vii., 4; Pl.
ix., 3. The foregoing are arrow-heads, the following are lance- or spear-heads Pl. xlix.,
called a knife, but more probabty a spear-head, though knives of this type were known in

xxxiv., 2
predynastic Egypt PI. xvi., 4; Pl, xvii., 3, 5, 7 PL xvL, t P). xtvii., Pl. )xii., t PI,

IX. King Seti I, and his Libyan captives. K?rnak. (Representation of heads at back of King's
t~6

chariot particularly excédent) 2!

X. Libyan Captives. Medînet Habu 224
XLMidd!eNub!anCrania- Bull. Nub., vi. Figs.t,f~,Skutt from Grave 87:00. Figs.2,2a,from

.43
Grave t0t:t0~. Figs.3,3~,fromGravetOt:2t9 2~6

FIGURES IN THE TEXT

e!-Wa)y
(") Egyptian représentation of Egyptian eye. (~ Egyptian representation ~f Libyan .eye. Beyt

2.(~)EyeofaKaby!e:front. (~)Same:side. (c) Eye of modern EgyptiM~<?~:<rpnt. MYSame:

~3

side, From orig-'nal sketches

3.Tehcnu:negro!dtype. After Pétrie, ~.Ht., No. 72
4. Te~enu: negroidtype. After ~< No, ;63 · 43
J~t ">
 ~,6,y.Petrog)yphsatTe!i-Sagha,Fezzan.
i~t~
~jr ILLUSTRATIONS
i~iot 0F
LIST
AfterH.Barth,MM~~y~K~ToL! 9~9!
xv
rA<.<
PAf.<'
Ê
t
1

8. Libyan Hunting-Dog. Intef-Steta, Cairo Museum · 97

9. Petroglyphs showing Pack-Oxen. Western Libya. (a)
Frcm 'Ayn Memnunah. After E.-F.
Gautier, Sahara ~'r/
p. 99, Fig. t8, 7. (b) and (~ Fcom Barebbi, after
eid. p. <
F!g.t5,2 ~3
10. Libyan. Temple of Rameses IL at Wady Sebua, Nubia. Photograph through the kindness of
C.M.Fifth "9
tt.DetaitafterN.deG.Davies,ma<i.PLxv. 920
t2.Detai),s)!ght~restort:d,after ~/<iii.,P).xx<i.,af.dPhotog.P).xxxix. t20
~.Latcretief in Constantinopte Museum. After C.Tissot,<~r~~C~vo).).)Fig. 1
t4..Latere)ief. A[terH.Barth,<-<'f.,vo!p.tt7 ttt
t~Laterc)ief. AfterH.Barth,vo).i.p.tty t2t
t6. (a) Dotait from Pl, iii. (b) Sardinian potsherd, after A. Baux, Potterie ~J A~r~A~, Figs. t and ï tï'
ty. be)iefotLibyanfrom the Mortuary Temple of KingNe-user ~e. After L. Borchardt,M~-r/,F!g.

~r~
~t (for position, ibid., Pl. x.; this scùlpture is now in the Bertin Museum, Nos. t~t5-!6).

~)After~'<PI.x.,Fig.2.
t8. Primitive Egyptian Sheaths. (a) After J. E. Quibell, Part I., PI. viii., Fig. 3.
123

~3
t0. Libyan Sheath and B~!t. After L. Borchardt, Ne-user-re, Fig. 29 (general position of this fragment
shownin<PLxi.) '23
20. Libyan Sheath, Belt, and Cross-bands. After LD iii., P). t2Q (XIXth Dynasty) t2~
2t. Libyan Sheath. Detail from original sketch, Temple of Rameses II. at Abydus
22. L'byM Sheath and Bdt., After LD iii., Pl.
23. Libyan Sheath and Bc)t.
14~0
After Photograph 206 K. und K. ~rfA. Institut, Cairo Abu Simbel
t2~
12+
t2~

25.t)etai)ofBe)tandLoop. After LD iii., Pl. t~o

2~. captive Meshwesh. After LD iii., Pl. 2og (XXthDynasty;Med!netHabu)

26. petail of Sheath and Statue. After G. Daressy, Statues de /)<Mw~ in C<?;~ Ccr., vo!. ii., PL vi.
!2J
t2j

27. Détail ofBeks in Figs.ty and ta. (Conjectura! restoration)

origin,
(Cairo Museum, No. 38,068). Cf. vol. i. (text), p. 23. From Karnak. This unknown
god–"hewhawearsthedouMep)ume"–wasprobaMyof Libyan t25
t2Ô
28. Détail of Loops in Figs. 17 and ig. (Conjectura) restoration) t26
29. M Shell Sector-bead. "C Group." After G. A. Reisner, ~A. ~rc<y, ~L i. (Plates),
P!xx.: b. t3. (~) Conjectural stringing ~6
30.Sandi)!, DctaitfromFrontispiece < t~y
3!, Libyan. WoodenpanetfromTombofThothmesIV. Muséum of Fine Arts, Boston tty
32. (~) Hat of Arcesitaus. After représentation on the Si!phium-we!gbingvase. Deta!) from reproduc-
tion in E, Babe)on, Cabinet </<f .~tMM~ A? Biblioth. ~<!f., P). xii. (b) MoJern Imushagh
I~at-Dstait from originat sketch at Tripoli t2S
33.Ret!efatGhadames. AftcrH.Duveyner,Zf~?m<r~tA<ycn~PLx.,Fig.t
1 tïS

iMtitti~
3<)..Stunt Sculptures. ReprûduccdfrpmG.HaimMn,û'rf<tMM,F!g.33 t:<)

r k~M.,=.
35. Libyan Plumes. TombofRamesesH.atThebes t~o
36. Sketch showingNegromethodofwearingptumes. Cf.LDiii.,PLtt7 !*ACt
'30
3~. Ear-rings. (a) Detail from F'g.4j!= Pétrie, piospolis Parva, PL Xxv.(GraveY3~). (~Cf.thisessay,
PL 1.,8 8, PL and Figs. 4, 17. (.) Cf. ibid., Pl. Il., 2. (d) Cf. ibid., PI. VI., 3 (the
Il., 9

two Libyans). M Cf. /~W., PI. t., 7. (/) Detail from ?<
Fig. 24. (g) Afrer LD iii., Pl.
209. (A)Cf.~W.,PLVI.,t. (i) After E.-F. Gautier, ~~ra~r/M,
PI. xv., Photog. 28 <3t
38. Ear-ring and Stud. Beyte]-Wa)y. Kindness of G. Roeder !3*
After G. A. Reisner, A'a~. ~7). A<fT~, vol. i. (Plates), P). )xx. b;
30. Pbte-bcad: showing stringing.
~0. Detai)ofCroM-band~<TomFig.17 (conjectura!) tgt
'32
~t. Défait of Cross-bands from Beyte)-Wa)y,shôw!ngco)our-seheme. Kindness of G. Roeder

support).
132
~2. Detai)afterL.Borchardt,A'f-M~ Pl. viii.B (Berlin Museum, No. 17,918) !33
~3.Knee]ingLibyan,Beyte!-Wa)y. KindnessofG.Roeder t34.
.{- Hieroglyph. (ExamFle in the "Osireion" shows one pendent, and in the place of the other a stave
fer 135
Cranium. After W. M. F. Petrie, Diospolis Parva, PI. xxv. (Grave Y 3~) !35

t39
~6. Head of Fulah of Ka or, showing side-lock (photograph by Co))ignon). After J. Deniker, Races of
.M~a, p. ~2, Fig.
~y. Lock of Youth (Egyptian). Statue Rameses tl., Karnak, after W. M. F. Pétrie, y~r~y, iii., p. 4.0
t~ô
137
~8. Libyan Tattooing. After N. de G. Davies, /?/MrM, vi., P!. iv. Right shoulder of original
damagcd 137
~9. Four Libyans. 1 hebes. After J. G. Wilkinson, ~HM~f and Customs the ~<«af ~~fM~,
vo). i. p. 2~6, cut No. 76 (group ~) 138
$0. Tattooing. Défaits of Neith-symbots." (a) From Frontispiece (A) from P). lit. (right-hand
ngure), (f) from Fig. 4~9, (d) rrom Frontispiece (t) from Pl. III. (third ngjre from left)¡
from P). III. (second figure from left) 139
~t. rhree Hierogiyphs
32. Elements of Libyan Tattooing from Frontispieee; Pl. 111., Figs. 48,~9 t~O
t~Q
53. Libyan Vese!s. Afte- W. M. Maller, Egypt. Researches, vol. ii. p. 124, Fig. ~6
5f. Libyan Sticks. (a, b) After N. de G. Davies, .E~MfM, ii., Pl. Ix. (c) Detail from Fig. 64. 1~2
I~
S~. Libyan Bows. (a, A) Défaits from Pl. IV. (~ After LD iii., PI. 253 '~3
$6. Arrow-head from near Gerbah (S!wah), 2: 3 nat. size. (Sent to me by Major L. V. Royte, !9t2) 14.5

~7. Libyco-Berbcr Glyphs at Barrcbi. After E.-F. Gautier, Sahara algérien, p. 97, Fig. )7 scaie 1:20 t~ô
58. Libyco-Berber Relief. (From near Abisar in Kabylia; now in Algiers Museum, Ne. 104.) After
V. Reboud, Recueil d'Insrriptions; PI. xvi., Inscr. t35 t~6
S9. Poignards. (") After L. Borchardt, Ne-user-re, Fig. 64.(fragments in Berlin Museum, Nos.
t6,tt0, ~6,ttj). Possibly Puntite Cf.< (text), p. 87. (c, d) After LD iii., Pl. 6t
times)
(Karnak, XVJUth Dynasty). (e) After LD iii., PL 253 (repeated eight !4.7

224.
&3.RockG)yph. AfterG.-B.-M.F)amand,fM<!f~~G~t!~CA~,Fig.7(p.ll) 148
6t.SMeMfromRock-g!ypMnTibesti. AfterG.Naehtigat~.G.-B.-M.F)amand,Fig.~(p.t!) 148
62. Musical Instruments. Details from a N.E. représentation. After J. G. Wilkinson, ~MM~r! ~M~
`fi
Caj~/nt ~<Af ~a<
~~fMMf, vol. i. p. 456, eut !Ï5
'S~ A."
 f~t
63.Temet)uWar-dance. Afterï,Rose)!ini~.G.Maspero,~&<A~~<p.2~o t$)
6~. Arch!tectura) Mou)d!n~ from Stunt. AtMr photograph < A. Ghisteri, ?~<.f«/<' C<'r~<t/M, p. $t[ ) ;8
63. Siunt Scu!pture$ fragnents. Reprodueed fron) G. Haimann, C/y' Fig. anfi (A) F:g. $.

i.
(<?)

Cf. Fig. 3~ i$8

66. HawahSega). ReproducedfromG.Haimann,<f<'r.,Fig.2 162
67, 6:<?. Reconstruction ofFortress ofthe Chemines type. Scafe n6oo. Sources as !n Kxt, Ch. VU '6~
68,68<7,68~. Reconstruction of For: atGhemines. Sca)et:6oo. Sources as in text t6~
69,6~,6~. Reconstruction of Fort atHenayah. Scatet-600.* Sources as in text t6$
~o, yo~. Smatt Fort near Wady Ma)ah, Gutfof Bombah. Scate n6oo. Pian and section by 0. Bâte?,

100~ <66
Photogrzph~WadyMaiat)Fort, showing passage between thé twoenctosurc. t6/
y2. Thesame,showingmasonrynearramp 167

73. Native Hut. After F. Gauck!er in C~r~ A /û~. /a~fr~ t8<)8, p. 828. (From a
Roman thosaie) t6~
~.Native Hut. AfterS.Gse)),~<PA<7~<p.32andP).ii. (From~RomaHMrcophagus) 170
.75)73' Large Cistern in Mariut. Sca!e!:SOO. 0. Bâtes, 1~10 t~o
y6,y6<?.Cistern. Seat Is.; Gu!fof Bombah. Scii)et:200. 0. Bâtes, 1909 tyo
7 7, 7~. Grain Store. NearMarsaSuzah. Sca)e t:200. 0. Bâtes,: 009 t~t
78<?,f,< Piastic représentationofAmon; fromKarnak. ReproducedfromG.Darcssy,t/~A~t'<
~rmt~7;w,in~<?/vo).!x.(tQo8),PLi. t~
~.Re)tef(Romanperiod)atKarnak. After <~W., PI. 193
80. Amon from Bronze Mirror from M!t Rah!nah. After G. Daressy, UtM 7)-~co<7/f FrMM~ f~
in.Ma/M,vo).iii.(tQ02),P!.ii.Fig.t
1 19~
8t <?,f. Tcknv/. After J. J. Tytor, ?~~ < PaA~r), Pt. vii)., Register y. (~) After idem., 7t~

.196
(<?)

~Marf, P). xx! bottom register. (c) After idem., ?c~ ~MM/, P). xii! Register 2 f~~
82.Hock-g!yphofRam,fr?mCotdeZenaga. After E.-F. Gautier, ~.t~ Fig. <~ (p. 93) t~
83.Rock-g)yphofRam(?). Same source. After

Fig. 13
Fig. !t (p. 89)
8~. Rock-gtyph of Ram, from Bu *A)em. After S. Gse)), A~Mamc~ o;)r~Mf /f, vo). i. p. ~6,
196
85. Punie Relief. After F. de Sainte-Marie, /MfM!'M, etc., p. 6y t99
86. 't'erra Cotta Figurine of Ba'a! ~ammon. Barre Co))eet!on. After Perrot and Chipez, ~~f~r~f

8y.
/etc.,vo!)).,f!g.2$.(Cf. ~W.vpt.F'g.t.tO,for another examp!e.)
Terra Cotta Figurine of thé C~~Ow' After E. de Sainte-Marie,
88. t~ameses U. sbyng a Libyan Chief. Beyt et-Waty. After
p. 60.
a photograph,through thé kindnes$ of
t~
!99

G. Roeder

.2~6
89 Revamped Head (changed from Syrian to Libyan). Beyt e~Waty. After a tracing ofthe originat
madeby G. Roeder ~'5
90 < (o')fypicat Ear!y C Group Grave snd Superstructure(ntting ete&red) as found at Dakkah

“ (PsekhM).~) Section through Mme, on N.W,-S.E. axis

9't. SeetiOt through r~< ee~r'Ayn Sefrah. After E.-F. Gautier, f~ F!g. g (p. 69)
 FAGt
o~. Ph)nt'fGra\c-c.'rcte,Rokn!ahtype. After MactverandW))k!n,Z,<7'y<tA~rM,P).xv.t
Q~<t,f.S<'i)t!shndr<~<'m.
ç~.SMH~bndr'~fw.
tQoo
O.Batc~tQQQ.
0. Bâtes,
24.7
2~.8
2~8
QStr, Scènes from Smoothc<) Coarsc RcJ Warcjars from "C Group" Graves at Dakkah. Kindness
C.M.Firth 2~
~6. Jar-~ating fron Amadah, Nub!.). After Maciver and Woo)ey, ~-<t?, P). ix. b (two examptes were
<bund). Cf. thé simitar exampie in ibid., &<Afa, Pjates; P). ~2, three towest Kgures 2~9
9~. "C Group "Figurine from Dakkah. KindnessC.M.Firth 2~0
()S. EtemenKof "C Group" Tattooing, as seen on thé Figurines from Nubian Arch. Survey cemetery, tôt 2~0
(~ <T,
Duncan, /fM
ta?. HeaJs of Herades and Antaeus from a
txviii.
Two Inscriptions (rom Gheytah ()n thé Egyptian De)ta). After W. M. F. Pétrie and F. G.
<??</ /tr<!<ff C'r<ft (doubte vo)ume), P).

crater by Euphronius. After E.

t
Po!tt!cr, A~~M (~~«~
23~

A/.<'Mr'ii.(Sa))ME-G),Pt.tOO, 260
 ~JNTRODUCTtON
ÏH~ name passed into our nomenclature from that of thé Greeks and
Ronn~ns.~ Thé former Of thèse people derived it D-om an Egyptian,~ a Semitic,~ or thé
original African source. Thé name was In cîaMical timcs used to dénote a région
to which various otner names were, with varylng prOpnety, applied,~ and which was
more or less ëxtended according* to thé writcr's knowled~e or geographical théories.
Ampng Greek writers it thererore'happens that I,<~ may dénote ait Africa,~ or
Africa west of Lower and Middie Egypte or Africa west of thé Red Sca and of thé
ïsthmus of Suez, exclusive of EgyptJ Th!s vagueness regarding even thé true eastern
boundary of LIbya–at best merely ah académie question–persisted untll Roman
tim~s. At that penod thé current signincance of thé term was generailyrestr!cted to
Atr~ca north of Aethiopia, west of Egypt, inclusive or exclusive of Afnca Fropria and
thé Mauretanias. But as long as It was cmployed, thé word was oitcn used very
carelessiy–much a~ we employ thé word ''India" in !ts sincter mcamng, or to
incipde paluchistan, Kashmîr, Nepaul, Ceyion, and even Burmah.
Undcr thèse circumstances, thé readerts qultejust!6ed in asktng,What, then, is
Eastern Libya ? In reply, it may at once be said that on thé maps no such name
Is applied to any portion of Africa. Its s!gnincance is not geograph!cal so much as
ethmcal and even hère it reters to a din'erence in culture rather than in race. Thé
région which is throughout this essay to be understqod by this name Is bounded on thc
north by thé ~tedkerranean, on thé south by thé déserts just'north of thé Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, on thé east by thé Nile Vallcy, and on thé west by a line runnîng

t'HAt~jLibya. From thé ethnie J ~~1,

Thé ethnie tonn cxists as
o'~ ~.e~, in thé O.T., M it Chron. x'i. 3 xv:. 8, etc. or xs c-M% J~M~, in
GeB.'x. t~).
St<ph. ByZt M t'f~. ~tj8~, wh<te Liby~ is <)!ej ~P" ~<S~M, :<<tM' Atex~jer Po!y&Ht&f.
Herodotus
) Homer, iv. 85, ~:v.
O~f. iv~S~,
Homer, Od~is. liv. !()S;
29$ Hestod, r~. 739.
fles~Iod, nt»g.- 739. 'Accordint
According Nto Scy!tï,
Scylay, Peripl~s, ffr~j,§ toy,
io7, m4
and Marcixnas
hlarct«nus
HeMcteenM, P~&~ M~~ ~M,i. § Libyt began M thé Cmopic month of thé Nilc.
'Her9'!ctM<)7,<S~Y.t67~<:f.StMbo!,{)p,S6,t~,Pto)emy,t~
south-eastcriy from what was thé Lake Tritonis of thé ancients. Thc position of this
!ast point has given r!se to some controversy, but may be taken as either representcd
by thé System of sa!t ponds and !akes south-west of thé Guif of Kabes, or by some one
of these,~ though Herodotus seems to hâve ia!!en Into thé crror of mistaking thé whole
Syrt!s Minor for thé Lake.\1
White thé reader wilt at once understand that thé occupation of thé Nile Vattey
by thé Egyptian race in thé east detimited Eastern Libya upon that side by an
ethnica! as weU as by a geographicat boundary, it may not be equally c!ear just why
Lake Tritonis bas been chosen to mark thé western confines ofthis area. As intimated
above, thé point m question marked a division not between two différent races, but
between two groups of thé same race, who, on broad tines, were characterized by two
différent states of civilization. From Egypt to Lake Tritonis thé ancient populations
were ma!nly nomadic to thé west of thé take thé people were sedentanes, who
ditrered from thé nomads in their customs/ and who 6)r thé most part lived in
permanent dwetlings, and tilted ths ground.5
Thé !ine between thé two populations was, of course, not a hard and tast one.
Large bodies of nomads were to be found on thé Atlas stopes and in Eastern Libya
permanent or semi-permanent communities existed, as for example at Augila and
Ammonium.~ That thé weU-watered plateaux and enhtades of thé Atlas System, west
of Tritonis, shouïd hâve been occupied by a peopte Mtowing a habit of lijfe difierent
from that of those sc&ttcreJt ovcr thé barren
steppes of Tripolitana and Fczzan, or Hving
!n such ferti!e areas as were to be 6)und in thosc régions, !s not to be wondered at.
Thé richness of thé soit, thé dimculties of moving about m large bodies in a région
of high mo'jntains and nàrrow deDIes, and thé knowîedge that to thé south and west
of them tay tess désirable lands,–ait thèse retors contributed to inspire thé western
branches of thé LIbyan race to remain rirmty seated in their country. Periodic
droughts, a région fer thé most part open, and to be traversed, even though painrulty,
throughout its habitable length and breadth, and thé rapidity with which thé water
or grazing in any one tocatity was exhausted, tended to keep thé Eastern Libyans
in that state of nomadism in which they entered their country. Thé Lake Tritonis
was therctbre a boundary not merety arbitrary, but with some real signiricance, and it is

H. B<tr:h, ~<t<r~f~; vo), p, ?; Tissot, P< 7Tr<< ~ff< p~s?!«! C, Perrond, /)f!w <<rw, p. tQ f~.
Thé t«[-Mtne<twnKr secms M twc csMbtishedKnatiy («) that thc ~!te of thé o!(! Triton!: Lacus is to-day niarked by thé

~HtfodotMtv.
et-Ma..
Shott e!-Gend and Shott ct-Hameymet, and (~) that thé T~TMf ~oTa~o; of Ptoiemy iv. § 3, Scyfax § «o, CM., i} hot
maritedby thé Wady Abar!t, bat by thé iesser Tarf
s/<86.
"?
<v.t87.

t~
'1"
/~A/. iv. t~t. C~ Strabo ii. p. )jt.
1,
Met~ i. 8 Proenp!a~, 0~ ~</</?fw vi. z.' Herodotus ii. ~t f~ <f/
 with thé indigenous North Afftcan peop!es who Mciently dweit between tt and ~gypt
that th!s essay WtH deat, treating of theif face, theif historydown ta thé t!me of thé
Invasions of thé Moslem!n:n thé seventh century A.D., their tanguage, their retigion, and
their customs.
Analogies on'ered by modefn conditions wilt be emptoyed not infrequentty, since
désert environmer.t bas, dcspite hundreds of years, pfeserved âmong thé modefn indigènes
ofËastern Libya many ofthe customs and usages oftheir ~orefathers.
Thé meanings of a few words that are of common occurrence in th!s and other
Works relating to North Africa, and on thé maps, may hère be ntting!y introduced, w:th
a view to obviatmg îater comment. For thé same reason, a
table of thé ma!n outt!nes
of Egyptian Chronology, which is that used In referrmg to thé earl!er h!stor!c per!ods in
Libya, fbHows thé glossary.

~MM.–!)i thé modem continente sensé, and not :n thé Roman, untess spednej.. ~w~=
M~r~, and not, as sometimes, ait North Africa.
'~e.Spring of sweet water.
5~'r.–Stnctty, a word hav~g on!y a giossologica! meamng ths modem iangnage of thé LibyM
race, in aU its diatects. Hère, and in many other books, used in an ethnie sensé to mean
modem Libyan," Berber superstitions = thé superstitions,not of aU Berber-speak-
Ing peoples, wh'ch wou!d indude some negroids, etc., but of those directiy de&eended from
thé ancient Libyens.
~r.–Wetl, water-hote.
~<–A pond, or smati Jake.
J9<t~.–Route,road, trait.
D«~–Fiât, désert, plateau oftimestone.
f.<~–Thé région mentioned above, and !n more détail in Chapter î.
j~–Thé NUe VaUey from thé sea to Aswan (First Cataraet).
JE~.–Désert of sand-dunes.
Ga~.–Isotated Mun~ or WJ<! of iimestone.
G~M.–A général term for aU désert or mountainous tracts.
~M~a~.–Stony, burnt up, désert.
H<!<M~.–Or, or pertaining to thé Hamitic race. This race comprises thé Berbers or Western
Hamites, and thé Aethiopian, Ëastern, Hamites. See .M)w?.
or
~<–Désert hatting-place ~here some grazing !s to be had, and, rarely, wa<er.
~M/0~.–AftertheinrddynastyofEgypt.
~t:/f/–-Carnet-train, caravan.
~r~.–~Water-9ktn(p!).
~–StronghoM, jfbrt. AppHed by thé modem Arabs to many ancient buitdings regard!ess of
their engluât purpose.~
L

.L<~4.–North Afnca west of Egypt, and KOrth ûf thé fegion of tropical rains.
Z.–Ofor belongihgtothe Indigenous poputattoh ofLIbya whole; generally used in
as a
référence to thé ancient population, and not synonymous with Hamitic, wh!ch bas a wider

~~8m~)~!j!
 meaning, !nc!uding as it d~s such peop)e, pure or mixed, as thé Begah, Masai, Danak)!,
someAbyssin!ans,ete.
A~r~Port, harbour. E. in thé !ta!ian corruption Marsa!!a==~t ~yt Marsa-A!!ah==
"God'sHaven."
Af~ or f/.M~r~–North-west Africa–the who!e Atlas région.

sensé..
~~fr.–SpurofHnMstonec!irF;isotatedpeakoftimestone.
A~~A ~ï/M.–Mediterranean,9aharan, and Attarde Afnca west of Egypt. Libya m tts broker

~~M.–NHe Vattey from Aswan (F)rst Cataract) to Wady Ha)ra (Second Cararact),
~rf
ianguage..
~H~nf.–Beforethé IVth Egypt!an dynasty.
P~f-~w~~f.–Befbre thé ht Egypt!an dynasty.
ProM-fr.–Anc!ent Libyan
/Ve~<–Thé ht, Itnd, ahd HIrd Egyptian dynasties.
~FertHe strip of eu!ttvat!on, f.j. a!ong thé Nite in a spécial sensé, thé African littoral along
thé north stopes of thé Maroccan Atlas.
~~f~.–Piain-distnctat thé foot of mountains or plateaux.
~~<)~.–Satt-covered marsh, dépression caked with sa!t.
~0~.–A wide, shaiîow pond of satt water.
y~Tab!e-tand,h€!gh~theA)gerianTetl;ahii).
~~f.–Ravine,streM~-bed (generaHy dry), va!iey.
Thé outUne of Egyptian Chronotogy which now Mlows Is that adopted with certam

.B.c.
sUghtmodtdcationsbYG.A.RetsnerfromthesystemoftheBerUnSchool:–

andil.
Empire
Pre-dynasMpafiod
0)d
~00
33~°
to 3300

.,3000]
Middte Empira
[Dynasties!,

t6oo,.
3300
n 2~CO,,l6oo
N';w Empire
Saitepenod'1
Ptotemaieperiod
663 “ 33~
663
33!
~3~
Roman and Byzantine period o 3°
Thé htcer part of [h~ period, from about 500 to ~}t B.c., may be conyen!en[)y sty)ed thé Late New Empire.
 CHAPTER 1

PHYSIOGRAPHY 0F EASTERN HBYA*1

MAN's relattot!s"to his physical environment are ofsifeh vital importance that it is
essential at thé outset of this essay for thé reader to be acquainted witb thé physio-
gr~phy and climatology ofthose régions pver wh!ch thé Eastern Libyans were anciently
distributed. This is thé more necessary because, on thé one hand, thé characteristics
of A<tica between Egypt and Tunisia are such as profbundiy to innuence thé lives and
habh~of those dwetling m that area, and because, upon thé other, thé ex!stlng général
descriptions of th!s région as a whole are unsatisfactory.
~astern Libya may be dcnncd as that area bounded on thc north by thé
Mediterranean Sea, on thé east by thé Ni!e Vatley,and on thé south by thé twenty-
second paratlel of north latitude. To thé west, it is bordered by a line running S.
from thé Shot~el-Gerîd on thé eighth meridian (E. Greenwich)~to iat. 28° N.;
thence onS.E. to tat. 22° N. în thé most général terms, thé région thus denned
may be described as a central rectangle of désert, with a fertile coastal beit on thé
north a stil! more fertile strip, thé Nile Valley, on thé east thé fertile mountains
of T~besti on thé sonthwest, and a chair, of small oases along thé western border.
South of thé northern fertile zon~ ruhs another chain of oases yet a third lies In thé
easte<'n section, parallel to thé Nile. Such, in its broadest outlines, is thé région which
is di~cussed in thé présent chapter for convenience it wil! be treated under thé
fbHowingeightheadIngs:–
t, Thé Littoral Zd~e–thé Sortes Cyrenaica Marm~dca.
11, thé LibyanDesert~Northernand Eastern Oases; Nile Valley; Kufra.
lïït Thé West–thé Chad Route Oases; Hamadahel-Homrab; HamadahMufzuk.
IV~ Internai Gebgraphy–Roads; Rates ofTravel.
Vi Géographie posîtion with regard to pudying régions–thé West
North. 'y. South East

VÏ.C~matology.
'Ï'hr<tagt<'atth!s<ndth~ Mtowingthapter~ thereadcr is [c(err6~ <br thc j~euera! geographyand physiogrtphyof
E~ter~Liby9tpt!)ekrgeK!t!<t!tap!tthecover-poc)(et.
<
?Çf,P.Langha')S,~«~< AnexceDentphysieatm~pshowingthewh~earti).
B
 VI!. Flora; Fauna.
VIII. Man–Présent Numbers; Distribution; Relations ofMan to his Environment
InEastcrnLibya.
I. THE LITTORAL ZONE
Thé East Libyan !!ttora! Is about mites in !ength, measured from !ong.
tico
!0° E.in thé Gu!f of Kabcs to long. 20° 30~ E. in thé el-Arabs Gu!f, near A!exandria.
Thé gênerai trend of thé shore !~ne, from its western extremity, is S.E. to thé bottom
of thé Syrtis Major, a distance of about ~oo miles thence N. by E. about too
mites, foiïowing thé western coast of Cyrenaica, thence to thé et-Arabs Gutf, about
~$o miles in a mean E.S.E. direction. Thé above courses deEne thé main bends of
thé coast: they are, as it were, thé simplest terms short of a right !ine to which
thé coastat traverse can be reduced. By examination of thé littoral somewhat more in
deta! though again without regard for Its minor Irregu!arit!es, it wi!l be seen to
proceedthus.fromwesttocast:–
GuifofKabes toCape Mizratah, about 2~ mi!es S.E. by E.
Thence to Zerid (S.W. ofthe Syrtis Major), about ~o mites S.
Marsi Braygah (S.E. part ofthe Syrtis Major), about !8o mites S.E. by E.
“ Benghazi (W. extremity of Cyrenaica), about 100 n~iies N. by E.
“ Ras et-T!n (E. extremity ofCyrenatca), about 17~ mites E. hy N.
“ Ras e)-Mudawr (S.E. extrernity ofCyrenaica), about 30 mites S.S.E.
“ Ras €)-MiIh(beginningofGuIfofSottum),about 90 mites E.by S.
“ of Gutf ofSoitum), about 30 miles S.
Sottum (S.W. point
“ Long.29°30'ntheet-ArabsGu!f,about2~omitesE.byS.
“
In a!l this extent of coast, thé most northerly points touched are lat. 33° 33~
N. (northern point Gerbah Istand) In thé west, and tat. 32° N. (Rase!-Hi!tH m
Cyrenaica) In thé east. Thé !owest iatitude on thé coast is 30° N. (Mubtar,
at thé bottom of thé Syrtis Major), ând thé whole coast !Ies thererbre between thé
thirtiethandthethirty.fourthpara!!e!s.~
Thé physiography of thé littorat zone may best be folîowed from west tqeast.
Beginning at thé Shott el-Gerîd~ a shallow sait !ake interposed between thé eastern
extremity of thé Adas system and thé iower and smaHer mountains Qf thé Syrtica
Règle, thé reader wt)!, evcn from a glance at thé map, note that thé Shott bas every
appearance of having at cne time been connected with thé Gu!f of Kabes. Such~in
fact, seems once to hâve been thé case, for although thé ievei of thé Shott is now
dicferent from that of thé sea, thé connecting channel between thé two is still marked
by thé Wady Akarit. Immediately east of thé Shott et-Gerïd, thé Gebe! Dahar
recèdes southward ta meetthe Gebel Nafusa in !at. 32° N. This lattef range bas
a gênera! E. trend, running, as thé Gebe! Gharyan, into thé fertile zone rfQm N.W.

'Bnd9hAcfm;ra!tyChartNo. 66~9,M<~fM.x~, for thé générât posiMonofthccoMt.

T-S.G.S. maps. No. <7, Tr~, No. t~o-)~, and No. t;39
phce-nant<:9areotten!ncorrect,ando[herm!norerrorsocc']r.
~j;
for thé Syrtic région. Thé
 corner of thc grcat Hamadah cî-Homrah m a direction roughty para!te! with thé
coast. From thé point of contact bctweeh thé Gebet Nafu<;a and thé Hamadah,
thé bdundary of thé fertile tittorat district trends
away S.E., fbftowlng a direction
approximateïy paraHet to thé coast, at a never greatty varying distance of about
2 J; mites frorn thc Mediterranean. Thé ïine is marked by thé norchern deciivitiesof
thé Hamadah, thé edge of which, under thé names of e!-Mudar mta el-Hamadah,
Gebe: es-Sodah, Gebel Sharkîah, and thé Harug es-Sod, is fairly we!t denned
as far
east as thé Oasis of Wagî)ah (Augi!a), where thé Hamadah itself begins to give p!ace
to thé sand dunes of thé Libyan Désert. Thé shore Une of thé district just outlined
is, excepting that of Marmarica, thé most deso!ate and fbrbidding in thé who!e
Mediten-ancan. After leaving Gerbah, thé onty inhabited !s!and'
on thé East Libyan
coa$t, thé voyager secs on!y a monotonous succession of sand dunes, with an occasional
cluMer of palms at a seaside we!i. In thé Immédiate neighbourhood of Tripo!i
town,
thé monotony is varied by thé fich gardens that there stand by thé thèse
sea, but once
passed, thé coast again takes on a desolate character which it maintains throughout
thé rest of thé Syrtic région, In some p!aces,
as atong thé wcst shore of thc Guif
of Kebrît (Syrtis Major) in thé vicinity of Melfah, thé low dunes
are backed by
some of which are. rendered dangerous to traveHers by treacherous quicksands.
Occasiona!!y, shallow boat-coves occur;
as at Marsa ZaSran and eI-Hammah, but
thèse interruptions are not sufncient to break thé mournfui
monotony of thé coast.
Between thé sea and thé Hamadah eI-Homrah (to return
to thé western part of
th's district) thé interior country is diversined by
numerous !cw hil!s and ridées,
pres~ntingfor thé most part a barren and stonyappearance, which is, however, of[cn
relieved by thé verdure of thé wadys they contain. Thèse larter
arc in some cases
perenniaUy ~erti!e, at !east in spots, and throughout thé lower
parts of their courses
water may be had by excavation, thé général trendof thèse wadys, and so of thé
ranges that fbrm them, Is E. or N.E., those In tne vicinity of thé Syrtis Ma)or
being less inctined from thé meridian than those farther
west. East of thé Syrtis
Major, lacking thé mass of thé Hamadah as watershed, thé wadys
a are fewer and
drier thé Wady Farag, which,
as its name Implies, is wlthout water, and runs S.W.
ahdthen W. to thé coast near Marsa Braygah.is thé ohty
one of any consIderaMe
size. A &w of thé western wadys unité severat sma!ter branches
at points not far north
of thé edge of thé Hamadah, and reach thé coastat sands bearing !ict!e
a water, which
is increased in winter by thé rains. Untike thé
gréât water-bearing wadys of AIgeria
and Maroccô, those pf Tnpotitana hàrdty
ever carry water to thé sea itseit, except when
in futtspate from thé winter rains.
On leaving thé Syrtica !<.ëgio, with its sandy
coast, its hills, and thé Hamadah
el-ï.Ïomrah, one passes at once into Cyrenaica,~whieh'constltutes, together with thé

Mohamma~ Abu Ras Abmed ch-Na;!r, O~ft~/M D/

~Si<
for th!~ ishnd.
'ApptyingthistermtnitsfaUcsteïKnt.
“
Gebet eï-'Akabah which !ies next h on thé east, thé centrât portion of thé East Libyan
Httora!. tn shape, this district rudety resemb!es thé segment of a circk thrust out !nto
thé Mediterranean, thé chord of this segment being about t~o mites in tength, and
running E.N.E. from Bueb Bay in thé Gu!f of Kebrît, to Ras el-Mudawr in thé
Gu!fof Bombah.~ Thé area thus denned consists, in its northern part, ofa mountainous
Mmestone gebe!, thé N.W. end of thé gréât Libyan Coastal Plateau which runs east
and west behind thé shore iine, nearïy to thé Egyptian De!ta. In Cyrenaica, thé
heights are separated irom thé sea by a very ferttte sahel or ribbon of coastat plain,
descending In steep. terraces, which are broken by numerous short ravines and wadys, to
thé sea.
Thé height of thé plateau, which from thé ierti!ity of its vaUeys is ca!ted thé
Gebet et-Abdar ("Grcen Mountain"), is in its more etevated parts as much as 2200
feet above sea-tevet its mean élévation is about 2000 feet. Thé depth of thé fertite
zone in Cyrenaica is at its greatest onîy about yo mites, at which distance ~rom thé sea
thc plateau, which déclines toward thé south, takes on thé appearance of a barren grass
steppe. StiH farther south, where thc underground moisturc from tlie north is
dissipated by thé sand and thé heat, thé grasses disappear, thc Hmestone ends, and thé
dunes of thé Ubyan Désert, which hâve aireadybeen seen meeting thé eastern extremity
oftheHamadaheî-HomrahnearWagi!ah,againappear.
Taking up thé topography of Cyrenaica in greater détail, one 6nds that thé
western district, just north of Bueb Bay, and known as Barkah cl-Ï.Iomrah ("Barkah
thé Red "), :s a p!a!n, roughty tnangu!ar, having Its apex at thé Dorth where thé
mount-uns of thé timestonc plateau approach thé sea. Its name is due to thé hue of thé
soi!, which is hère a pecuHar sandy !oam, thé colour of old tan-bark/ At Ras Teyones,
a little south of Benghazi, thé mountains approach thé coast to withm about 2 miles,
and at about haïf this distance north of Benghazi, corne atmost to thé sea, which they
may be said to meet at a point yet farther north, near Tolmeytah.
In proceeding easter!y from Toimeytah, thé traveller crosses a succession of ndges
and ravines a!! thé way to Ras et-Tîn, where thé coast turns sharply to thé southwards,
and thé high part of thé plateau, dipping toward thé S.W., recèdes from thé shore tine.
Many of thé ravines jnst mëntioned contain a !itt!e water permanently–a!! of them do
so in thé rains, some being at that time unfbfdable. South
of Ras et-Tîn, at a distance
of about miles from that place, thé Guif of Bombah is entered.$ This remarkabte
break in thé coast lice occurs between thé two masses of thé Gebe! et-Ahdar on thé
west and thé Gcbel cî-'Akabah on thc east. It may bc said to consist of two small
harbours, tymg both on a N.W. by W.-S.E. by E. ax!s, fac!ng each other, and separated

T.S.G.S. maps No.

Admir~ty Charta, No. to~),
'9-t;, ~~&, No. t;
by a smalt gu!f, and a slight projection in thé coast Une at Ras er-RamU. Thé northern
~M-C~z<. G. Hitdebrand,
~z< « D~M, and No. !0ïo-ï~, D<~<! M
C~M?~ TaK iii. iv. British
X/H ~«&K.

<
E!-Idrisi, C/M?<t iii. j,
mentions th!s_earth.
BnMhAdmiM)[yCharM:No. to~o- F~M.md No. tozg- DfnM~ ~<M~&<f.

"<~
 harbour is but a cove, shettered from thé sea on thé E. by a narrow point ("Tank
Point"), and ending in a sait marsh; thé southern is a narrow Inlet ("Enhant
Kurza!a"), fbrmed by Ras c!-Mudawr and "SeaÏ ïstand," and running south from thé
gulf. Both, especialïy thé !atter, an~ord good anchorage ~br smalL craft, and are a
~avourite resort of thé Greek sponge-nshermenat thé présent day. Of thé isïands in
thé gut~, Bombah or Burdah is an uninhabltab!e steep mass of granu!ar timestone, whiîe
Seat Island," which is tcw and nat, is suitabte, to some exfent, for human occupation.
From tour points in thé stretch of coast which bas just been surveyed, natural
passes give access from thé sea to thé intenor, Thé most westerty of thèse is at
Benghazi, east of which one may pass through a break in thé high, coastwise barrier
which (together with à number of seml-lsotated peaks) terminâtes thé Gebe! e!-Ahdar
on thé N.W. From this pass, going in a N.B. direction, one travcts through a séries
of vaîïcys to Merg, one of thé more considérable towns* of thé Interlor, occupylng thé
site of thé ancient Barca. ïf, on entering thé gebel at thé same place, thé trave!!cr
take~ an E.N.E. route, he will corne to thé head of thé greatest of thé Cyrenaic wadys,
thé Wady Dernah, by which he may descend to thé town of that name on thé sea.
Thé second important break in thé gebel occurs at To!meytah, at thé end of thé coastwise
barrier mentioned above. Having entered the'Gebet e!-Ahdar by this pass, and
crossed a high N.-S. range behind thé barrier, thé traveller fa!!s in upon thé valley
of Merg, at a point somewhat to thé north of that place. Between Benghazi and
l!"ol'~eytah a minor pass !eads from thé eoast at Tukrah to Merg, a fact maln!y of note
since thé former place, ancientty Tauehe'ra, WM at one t'me thé port of Barca,
whi~h !ay 27 mites from its harbour town, From Marsa Suzah, a port about half-way
bet~een Tolmeytah and Dernah, another of thèse secondary passes–in this case short
and iti-dènned–runs back to thé modem Grennah. Marsa Suzah, anciently Sozusa
(tater ApoUonia), was thé port of thé tatter p!ace, which marks thé site, and préserves
thé <tame, of thé o!d metropolis Cyrene. Thé .third primary pass from thé sea into thé
Gebet e!-Ahdar, and thé most important of them, is thé Wady Dernah mentioned above.
This val!ey,which in Its lower course Is perenniaUywater-bearing, begins to assume
an Important size at a point about ~o mites southeast of Grennah. It runs trom
this point in an eàsferly direction &r 2j miles, then turns N.N.E. toward thé sea,
and (inaUy débouchés at Dernah, coming to an end just behind thé town, between
two
conspicuous shoulders of thé plateau, which are clearly visible rrom thé sea at a distance
of semé miles. Thé fourth wady leading mto thé Intenor is not one of gréât Im-
portance, sinceit passes through a désert country.and is on!ya!Ittle below thé ïcvel
of ttte plateau through which it runs. Thé wady m question is that caUed on thé maps,
thoughwith doubtfu! authorlty, thé Wady Gharrah. tt.-enters thé Gu!fof Bombah
from thé south, and is~brmed bythc junction of two smalter dépressions, which run
Into thé low plateau fbr about miles In a S. and S.W. direction respectively.
Cyrenaica is, as a whole, botter supptied with water than any equaHy large arca
f
MmitMtm~
 !n Eastern LIbya. Thé occurrence of water-course$ in thé wadys has been notcd
thé Gebet et-Abdar is furnished with n~merous good spripgs, some of which .are
remarkabty powctfui. A!ong thé coast, sites such as Mar$a Suzah and To!meytah,
wh!ch were former!y watered by aqueducts from thé hH!s, are now but poorly supptied
from and water-ho!es. In thé région about thé Gu!f of Bombah, which is
désert in character, )he water obtained irom thèse sources was fbrmerly supplemented
by that stored m çisterns. In some !oca!itie$, away from thé coast, as at Merg and
Wady Kerayb, ponds of sweet water $tand !n thé bottoms of thé wadys. Thèse after
a long drought somettrnes go dry, but, even in
thé cases when this occurs, thé végéta-
tion issustainedby thé subterraneousmoisture.
Good natural h~rbours, as has been mentibned, do not exist in Cyrenaica. Thé
best are Benghazi, which can accommodate smaU coasters, and thc coves of thé Guif
of Bombah, mentioned above. At Tukrah, To!meytah, Ras el-Hamadah, Marsa
Suzah, and Ras el-Hittit are boat-!and!ngs, but they are al! exposed to raking winds
from one or more quarters. It is barely possible thàt thé subsidence of thé Cyrenaic
coast line may hâve iowered !edges which formerÏy served as breakwatëfs, but as no
vestiges of thèse appcar on thé charts, It is safe to suppose that untit thé Greek colonists
in this région improved such anchorages as they fbund, thé coast was anciently as
Inhospitab!easitisto-day.
Thé Gebet et-'Akabah, which fbrms thé eastern ha!f of thé centra! section of thé
East Libyan littorat, is an elongated mass of !Imestone capping thé nqrthern side
ofthe gréât Libyan Coastat Plateau, from Ras el-Mudawr totheGulfofSoUum,aa,
distance of about 90 mites. Thé dcpth of thc 'Akabah p!ateau isonîy about 2~ miles
its highest point, so far as known, Is not much ovcr 1800 feet. Like thé Gcbel et-
Ahdar, it is separated from thé shore by a narrow fibbôn bf p!àin,and its seaward
face is eut by numerous !itt!e ravines. Thé çoast, which Is focky, is at Marsa TTobfuk
broken bythe best harbour of Eastern Libya.the port o~ïering good anchorage even
easter!y ~fom
to large vcssels, and being welt protected by a high ridge running out
thé tand. Thé Gebel e!Akabah has been passed by numerous traveliers a!ong; thé
coast road, but Its interior has yet to be expïored. At présent, httte more can be
added to what has been said of it
than that it
appears to be welt watered, and thé
région to thé south of thé mountàins becomes rapidty mère barren taMe-land. At
thé east end of thé Gebet el-'Akabah, thé mountàins cease abrupdy, thé Gu!fof Sbnum
!ying immediatety to thé east of thé range. In t,h!s locatity are three smat! boat-coves
Port Bardia," Hmreyg, and So!!um itse!f in thé 8.W. angte of thé guif which bears
itsname..
In passing eastward$ from thé Gu!f“ of Bombah to thé Gu!f of SoUum, this survey
Wh!ch !s proved t(i tave ~un): s)!ght)y, even withtn thé past 1000 years, as there are bu!)(i)ngs of thé Ptotemaic
anj Romanperiods wh!ch may n~w be seen 9tand)ng in thé wator at Marsa Suzah. !t may hère be remar):ed that thé
ra:n9 martfed on Engthh ch~rK as standing in thé water at Ras et-Madtwr (" Ra9 aitem PatYr '') <;i)nhot be addeced M
evidenceofcoasta!su!)s!dence,s!n<:e[heydonot'e!f!st.
hfS a!ready crossed thé vague!yde(]ned Western boundaries of what, in HeUeniStic and
Rpt~an t!mes,was know~ as Marmarica. From So!tum to thé Egyptian Detta, this
district tneasufes,rough!y,o mites a!ong an Ë.by S. trending coast; its southem
tim~ is that of thé S.Ë. edge of thé Libyan Coasta! Ptateau whïch, from thc v!cintty
of thç Delta, runsawayWS.W.toward thé Qas!s of Siwah. For thé most part,
this dtstrtct consists bf ah extremëtyifiat expansé ofdcScrt timcstohe, 300 to ~oo fect
ab&ve sea-!eve!, hère and there broken down into sma! barrett depfessions of irf€gu!ar
shape, and in places dtvers!6ed with tso!atedpeaks or/w~w~. Near thé edges of thé
p!at<au, eSpectaUy in thé nortb, occUr occasional which in this région are mereîy
$Càn patches of camel-thorn and gazetîe-gfass, watered by
thé winter rains and hëavy
dew!. À!ong thé coast itse!f funs a narrôw Strip of dayey !oam, which Is now &nd
then interrupted by tongues of sand making !n from thé sea dunes, or by !!mestone
spuri projecting frotM thé !ow gebët. Thé tqapny stf!ps,however,when watered by
thé vinter fa!ns, weM repay thé crude ttHage thëy reccive from thé BedawYn, and !n thé
sprtfg are çoveredw~h grasses and Wtidaowcrs. At sotne points, as in,the neighbour-
hqot of ~rs~ ~atr~, thts a~ would, with a
Uttt<! care, prôduc$ good crop§. scarcity of water during much of thé year,
how~ver, gre~tly !!)ter~~ thé çoast it is obtainëd from
water-holes Whtch~ fed byseepage, but wluch, open far a short penod,
bëcome tbo salty for Use, Wells~ occur m con-
side)ab!enumbers,asdoa!socis~ of the Roman penod.~
.a'r,b,
Thé Marmaric.eo~st orfers seVcral harbpùrs su!tab!e for smali craft, though none
are ;apac!o~S ehough mbderh Cô for exampte, !s admirably
shelered from aHwin~ diSicuît entrance.it cannot behalfas
gob< a refuge as wa5 thé ancten~P the, ~arbour of !s now a deep,
!ahd îoçked iagoon tmmediate!y w~ thc modem port. Boat-coves atso occur, as
atet-GuttahandRase~a~ ar~ ait poof' and lll-sheltered.
thé Ltbyan C~ ëastward, where it is high and
is a !!ttle w!thd~
steejt, $e,a'¡"o ast,o, pl?ce between that point and thé

ab~ ~M~~ariça
bo~)m bf el-A~ 20 mi!e$ deep
and m~s !ong~an tor surHctentty, wou !d support a cpnsider-
penetrated àt onty two points by wadys
of a~y s~ ~n.~l~a~ It.. be traversed in ahy direction
with no other dIfËçult~s than those a~ from thé scarcity of water and forage.
The form~ be pbviated in win(er,K)r rain-water co!!ects
m t ie "cteant-ups ? on thé ptatëa a~4. for 'some., stands In poo!s and puddtes.
At poin~ ",the o~s~s, Càrah and

onth~~p$.
Egypt!m Gov~Kntent D~~ "1,"M, ,e"I',J"j>M,'t'ii" .I>i,I,1' <~ .)/~ J! yhe ?MNe areM are c!ear!y shown
"'l'
~G ]MM~
S'"
0~ ~Sip~/p. ~9~ and osterns, ~hd arrives tt 'h~.
thé con-
ctusiph tKM thcy dtte mainty frotnth~ s~conj cenmry À.t-, an<} wtra Nsed unti) thac))d pftKefourth century.
Sîwah, from thé former of whtch places a simitar but tess marked vattey, thé Wady
et-Ta!at, runs northward somc 40 n)i!es. In thé east, a littte before thé plateau.is
terminated by thé Nite VaMey and thé De!ta, :t Is crossed In a W.N.W. and E.S.Ë.
direction by thé Wady Na~un, which runs from near thé bottom of d-ArabsGutf to
thé apex of thé Deha at Gïzah. Near thé middte of Its course occur a numbcr of
~~<~ in a toca!ity where drinkabîe water is to be obtamed from welts, and wh!ch
is known in thé annaJs of Christianism as thé seat of numerous Coptic monastcrtes.

Iï. THE LtBYAN DESERT

Bordered on thc north by thé southern cdge of thc Ubyan Coastat Plateau and
thé oases lying atong !ts southern dccl!vit!es, thé Hbyan Désert stretches away some
800 miles to thé northern connnes of Darfur and Kordofan m th€ Sëuth, and thé
Tibest! and Borku ranges on thé southwest. On thé east, thé désert is diVersined by
thé Egyptian cases, and bordered by thé Ni!e VaUey on thé west, it is lessdennitely
deHmited by thé Hamadas ûf Fezzan and on thé northwest by thé Harug es-Sod and
thé fertile Syrtic zone which runs thence to thé Oasis of Wagïlah. Thé southern
it
portion of this région need not hère be discussed, since lies outside thé LibyaR ethnie
sphère, which may bc regarded, as bas been sa!d, as practically terminated on thé south
by !at. 22" N. ïn a fashion rough, but sumcientty acçurate for présent purpo~es, thé
boundaries and oases of thé Libyan Désert may'thus be traversed, beginning at Wagî!ah,
and moving thence easterly, southerly, westerly, and northerly. j
Wag!iah(Augtta)toGarabub abouti 7~ mUesE.N.E.
(Ammonium)
Thence to S:wah
“ 6~“
80 S.E. by E.

“
“
Garah(Ummes-Soghayr)
apex of EgyptianDelta “
“ 270 “ N.byE..
N.E.byE.

Thé !ast cours': foiïows a!ong thé south edge of thé Libyan Cpastal Poteau. Returning
to Sïwah
toBahitrhh
Thence
“ Fayum “ 130. “,
aboutxoomiiesE.S.E.
N.E.byE..
Thé area south of thé Libyan Coastat Piateau and west of thé $iwah Baharîah-Fayum
!ine is, as far as known, a confused waste of dunes. Ïmmediatety south of thé Siwah-
Bahanah-Fayum Une, however, a hardcr gebet of sand and stpne begins, extehdlng
S.S.W. from Sîwah to thé Ni!e Valley m Nubia. Il:

BaharîahtoFarafrah
Th'encetoHd~-hh
Abu''Ungar
jo,
,60
W.N.W.
about! oo miies S.S.W.
S.byW.'f
el
Bahar!ahtoDa~hh -Ho S.S.W.
ThcncetoHargah
Beds
Kurkur(iti direct !ine).
tOO

t20
"r~S.
/E.byS.
'S.E.byE.
“ N.'icatAswan '3~ E.N.E-
“
-.t~ia'E~S
 thé traverses given above pass thfough thé Ëgyptian Oases, thé eastera oncs of which
–~argah, Ber!s, Kurkur–may be said to be in a segment of gebet, bounded on thé
east by agréât dcHect:on of thé Ni!e toward thé R;ed Sea. Thé courses of thé Ni!e
itset~, thé river being th6 true eastern boundary of thé Libyan Désert, from thé apex
of th~i Detta (Cairo) to Jat. 22~ N. are approximatety as fbUows :–

.t~ .)'io~,
Cairote e!-Wastah about ;om;)esS.
frhencetoMedinetet-Fayum o 20 n W.)
WastahtoMinyah 8j;A, S.byW.
(TrhencetoBahar!ah(K~r) W.byM.)
Minyahtoes-SSut t 6~ '“ S.S.E.
(ThentetoF~frah.
,l'"

~s-S~ttoH~g~
..t'8~ W.;ndirc<:t!!ne.)
S.byW.)
~s-S!uttoDaMah ,S.W. m direct Lne.)
~-SiuttoFarshut.
Thenceto~Mh
,Ii
.~o~. S.E.

.3!
~30 E.byN.
Es~hh 60 S.(d:rect).
Il,
“(EsMhto~rgah *t!~ W.)
EsnahtoEdfu 30 S.E.byE.
EdfutoA$wan.(tstCatMact) S.
(Asw~toK~uf, W.S.W.)

.l! Derr~
A?watitoGerfHusseyn(MNub)a)
~hencetokorosko

Ii.

J'
“ WadyHa!fa(tat.2t°~'N.,2ndCataMc.t)
,60 ~o

7~
S.
S.E.byS.
-N.W.
S.W.
(ThtscotMptetesthé Nt'e traverse.)
FromtheNHe,Iat.2~N.,toN.W.endTtbestt about 9~0 miles W.
,J.i,
(Ta'scourseapprox!matetyb)sectstheUbyanDésert.)

,,).
From N.W. end ttbest: tO W. end Harug es-Sod ~bout 3~0 [niïes N. by E.
ThencetoWagHah. 220 ,,E.N.E, (direct).
“ t8o
,,Tayserbo(N.KutraOases) “ S.
“ Kebabo (S. “ )
“
“ no ,,N. ,E.
,,S~hen(N.E. 'oo
KebâbotoN.W.endTibestI “
Il
300 S.W.hyW.
Oft~cwide estent j~sts~ may.,
bewell, ~M ~M~M ~MM~
Thé 'feater portion of thé Yvhoïe area is sheer désert of a character as fbrmidaMeas any
inth~' endre $aha~ of thé Ltbyan Désert, trendingingre~t ranges
in a'S.SW. dtrecttOn
KanëL, and Borku on thé
f~ ~an4
nôrth, tije as an tmpassàble barner between Fezzan,
wcst, and thé Nile VaUey and thé Egypt:an oases on thé east..
An examtnatton :n more deta!! of thé ~our$€S noted above, in thé same direction
ând ffom thc samp sta~
shows that WagMah~is one of thé several smaU pases
ty:ng m a depres~ SttUated about 20 ~es S.E. from Muhtarui thé Syrt!s Major.
Th~~n 0~~ Siàhd$' ill' th,elll.iddle of deml-!une cf pa!ms, wh!ch
i~eiai,8/. gatdofl.ib~~ :"the sputh~n pMs cf Libya are a)! deep
~Cf,L')p:n, <
.sandandpMC~~on/d~~ ~(wide e~lent ,~ï¡à~f!»~~JÇ~ nothin$,!1
mesures, from end [o end, about 6 mites, and which contains, roughiy, some 6,000
trees. As is aîmost invariable w!th thc north Libyan oaSes, a OCCUrS net far
from thé fertUc zone. Water is obtaincd from weiïs, most of which are brackish and
some suiphurous.
Some 28 mîtes E.S.E. of Wagîiah is situated thé oasis of Ga!u, with its two towns of
Leb and et-Arh, and pa!m groves wh!ch contain nearly 100,000 trees. At Gatu, thé
we!!s are aH brackish,the nearest sweetwater be!hg s!x hours distant. ~.E. ofth!soasis
n another be!ong!ng to thé same group, caUed ïgherr!, t8 mi!es from Ga!u. Thepalms
at Ighern are fewer and !ess cafed tbr than !n thé other oases of th!s group, and thé
restctent Arabs tive !n pa!m-leaf buts instead of mud houses. It may be remarked that
anciendy thé name AugUa, wh!ch now survives on!y as thé name of thé westernmost ôf
thé towns, probab!y embraced thé whole group.
In passing irom Ga!u to Garabub, thé traveUer encounters a few but for
thé tnost part thé w&y !eads through stony of sandy désert. At Garabub itseif, pa !m-
tree$ occur, and there are wet!s wh!ch in thé !ast 6fty years hâve been increased in
number by thé industry of thé Senusî brotherhood, who ho!d this sma!! oasis as a
place of gréât sanctîtF, and among thé most important ofthe!r possessions.
Between this place and Sîwah, severa! sma!! ~Mj occur, as at Faghedrah and
Gaygab, and at thé extrême western end of thé S!wan dépression, bn6 fa!!s m upoh thc
smaU sait take of Umm esh-ShIattah,~ near wh!ch there are water-ho!es, and grazing, and
the~~ofGerbah.andUmmGhaz!an.
Thé Sîwan oases occupy sites in a dépression measuring about 3~ mites from
Maraghî in thé western end to Zeytun at thé eastern and about y mi!es from thé
dec!tvities ofthe !!mestone on thé north to thé ever-encroaching sand dunes on thé
south. There are tc-day in thé extrême western parts of MaragM on!y comparatively
iew palms, growing Ln thé neighbourhood of a smatt sa!t !ake, in thé vicinity of which
are severa! good '<:y/M. Besides thé pa!ms there are a!so ptots
ofgood arabie grûund,
which arc visited by thé Sîwans during thc summer but anciendy, as is proved by thé
gréât number of rock-chambered tombs of thé Ptolemaic and Roman periods in thé
ct!f~ immediate!y north of thé îake, this district must hâve been much better cu!t!vated
than at présent.
As one approaches S!wah itse!f, thé gardens become more numerous, though
interrupted w!th j~~ of forbiddmg aspect and çonsiderab!e extent. Thé town fro<n
which thé who!e !oca!!ty is named !s perchcd on a !!mestonc outcrop or~ as ts a!so
Aghurm~, a smaHer town situated among thé pa!ms 2 mites to thé N.E. of S!~ah.
Thé oases containat présent about 16~,000 adu!t pa!ms. Water isp~ntifu!!ysupp!ied
by thé numerous weHs, many of which are of Roman construction. Zeytun, at thée
ea&tern end of thé oasis, consists of a zatuM~ belonging to thé Senusï, and is surrounded
bygardens&!mi!artothosëatS{wah!tself.
O.Bat<<<MM/</t/C~
 Garah, so catted ffom Us situation on a conspicuous, iso!atcd outcrop
of !imestone,
th'e though !ess
stands !n middte or a m which springs and palm grèves oecur,
frequentty than :n thé S!wan dépression to thé southwestward.
On thé way from Sîwah to Baharlah (thé ancient 0~
P~~), one passes through
'Àfag, and B~hreyn, and thereafter through ~désert of
thé smatt and poor oases of Gary,
sand itnd !:mestone. Thé oas;s of Bahariah :s a targe t
natural excavation !n thé Ltbyan
hav:ng w:th!n Its area a gréât number
Piateau, ent:rety surrounded by escafpments,and
oftS~ated hUts. Thé cas;s is roughiy ~3 mi!es tn length.and ~omtïesacrossat ;t5
w:de~ part, There ~re ~bur pnncipat vU!ages m thé depr€M:c.n, a!! tn thé northern
D~rt.'where water is rnost abundant. Thé oas:S conta:ns neariy too,ooo palms~ about
cooo apricot trees, and above
that numbef of ot:ve$. Desp:te its fertitlty, thé gênera!
heatth of thé oas:s is far from good, cbieny because of thé infenonty of thé water
suppty.~
~rheoas:s of Farafrah,~ south of thé preceding, :s best described as a co!tect;on of
each of which issurrounded by fert:!e area, and a!l of which lie
a
soma twenty springs,
:n a depresston :n thé p!ateau.
Thé'produce of thé oas:s :s bare!y sunkient for its
:nhah;tants,who are sometimes constramed to import corn and nour from thé other
from thé Nile VaUey.s thé oas!s of ïddayhh, near Faratrah,
is at présent a
mer<' or
oasei,
halting-place where water may be had in passing between Farafrah and Sïwah.
Its position, however, warrants mention of this point, as one worthy
of notice, since
drifting sand,
it tiè at thé northern end of a large dépression which, now covered with
may in anc!ent historié times hâve been capable of supporting
tife.
bne of thé unsjbmerged points in thé southern part of thé dépression m wh!ch
Iddsylah Mes is thé unexplored oasis of Abu 'Ungar. This oasis contains four we!!s and a
numbcr ofancieht remaihs.but its <nacc€ssib:ty,and its position towardsthe Senusï
uninhabited.~
centre of Kufra, are thé causes for its being at présent
Thé next oasis tobeconsidered, that of Dahtah/ anciendy mciuded in thé
0~ ~Mof thé Romans~ is from Hssize and population thé most important
of t~e Egyptianoasesat présent. This oasis !ies along a portion of an E.-W.
esca~pmënt of numbers many we!îs
eôcene Hmestone which rises to thé north of it, and
and springs, and somenf'tee~ylltages or hamtets. There are,
ait totd, 200,000 pa!ms in
thé oasis," and a good deat. of !and is uhd~r cu!tivat:on, apart from thé pa!m groves.
Neafty dueeast of~hë pr~anda!soancient!yapart of thé O~w~f~~ Mes
Hargàh.~ thé 0~'s dépression ishemmed in ohthe northwest, north, and east by
LB~)MJH/J.L,~d~U,r~O~
~Aboi)!
H.J.L.BM<!Mt'p~3~ ~opfosect t&7.S ~e' S.O/w-

H.j. L. BeadoeU, f~~ 6~. farafrahistobeidentitiedwtththeMOMt O~M-Tr~

L. V. Roy!e, ~rb~ <:ommt)n!cat!oh,MinbasM Roy!e, teMning or
“
D~hhh Md H~gah tœpcettvcty. J. B<!) Md

/<~ p. 1.
thé exigence of Abu 'Ungar. v!s)t<:d thc citas
sdin<:yMrsag6,!t)CompMywithfmotherp6)cër.
~H.J.L.Beadncn,D~MO~u: "d'of th<: Egypt~n
thë classica) division GM~C~~ P<wr~ 0' ~t~~
.L.BMdneU,
thé Grée): At)a<rttM'yc!A~, ~or

14.
Msp,
MJ.B~0~,
 scarpments oftimestone on thé wcst, a barder of vast sand dunes runs para!!e! to thé
eastetn scarpment. Withinthe oasis dépression a !arge number
of ht!!s rise from
thé noor.' Thé cultivable !ying principaUy in thé north and south of thé
areas,
dépression, are wet! supptied with pools and '<~w,and are extrcmely fertile, thé oasis
conta!n:ng in al! 60,000 pa!m-trées.~ There are four towns or !arge villages and
ha!t'adozenham!ets.
Bens, which appears in thé rough traverse of thé oases giv~n a,bove, is really but thé
chief place in thé southern part of Hargah It
Oasis, as Us name ImpHes.~ is thé largest
vi!!age in thé oasis, and contains a remarkabiy large thermal we!! ('Ayn Hushî).~
Southeaster!y from Berîs !ies Kurkur,~ thé !ast of thé Egyptian oases. This oasis
is smalt and at présent uninhabited,but is important as a station on thé naturat désert
road connecting thé Egyptian oases with thé NIÎeYaUeyinNubia. contains two ït
we!!s and a number ofscrub-palms.
Thé haîting-piaces to be fbund in thé west Nubian désert from K~rkur to Seîîmah
need not be particuiarized: but beyond thé south Libyan désert thé chief featurës of
thé western boundaryofEasternLibyadeservebrief notice.

ÏM. WEST–CHAD ROUTE OASES: HAMADAH EL~OMRAH: HAMADAH MURZUK

Thé western boundary of Eastern LIbya is a more arbitrary one than thé others,
but Is at !east marked geologicalty, and in some degree orographicaMy, by a gréât wedge
ôf !imestone penetrating between Kufra and Murzuk southward toward Tibesti, From
thé intersection of !at. 20" N. with !ong. !8" E., on thé north slopes of thé Tu or
Tibesti range, it is about 2j;o miles N.W.toTummo,or War, which !!es on thé west
side of thé ~M~, on )he Chad-Tripoti road. From War to thé Harug es-Sod, which

edge of thé limestone <<

has been mentioned above, it !s about 37~ mites N.E. by N., at nrst along thé western

thé western expansion of thé

over thé Chad route and thrpugh Gatrun, and then acrôss
itself, which f'.nstoward thé sunsetinto thé
Hamadah et-~omrah. Atong thé edge M!owed by thé Chad road extst a number of
smatt ~Mj and oases. Nearîy due north of War, 200 mi!es datant, iiesJ~urzuk. ït
is situated on thé Hamadah of that name, a formation runhing ~.S.W. and Ë.N.Ë.
some 2~0 mites, and in thé latitude
ofMurzukisseparated from thé ~just
<
mentioned by about 7~ miles of sand désert. Thé Ïatter contams between thé town and
{ thé edge ofthe a number ofsmaU grazing-p!aces
and some water~
On thé north side of thé Hamadah MurZuk, as alpng thé south, lies a aestrt of
sand dunes. Thé northern désert, thé Erg et-Edeyen, is bounded en thé ncrth by thé

38-
:c€m!ng)y corruption of [hc Egypt!an 1 ~r rf,
~p.~6.
Hamadah e!-Homrah. In a !ine taken N.W. from Murzuk to thé south edge of
'J.B9t),Ow,p.}8.
'Mem,3'~<C<0~
thé $owth niftnHon."
i' ")'
<J.Ba)),o/p.;9.
59.
thisHamadahItisroughty %2~ miles across thé sands; protonged across thé Hamadah
e!omrahsome!~o mites farthertn thé same direction, thé tine wouîd reach
Ghadames, This last-named town is sôme 240 miles due south
of thé Shott e!-GerH,
thé ~hief of thé satt !akes which hâve been severaltimes
mentioncd befbre, and which
t20 mîtes westerîy !n from thé Gu!f of Kabes.
exte~dfor about Ghadames, to return

M that point, is !ocatëd oh thé northern edge

of thé Hamadah el-t.Ïomrah thé terrible
and thé RedHamadahon thé one
désert of thé Erg el-KcMr Hes betwcen thé town
hand, and thé oases of thé territory of Tuggurt in thé west, on thé
other. At its
nort~em eXtremity thé Erg e!-KeMr approachee thé Shott et-Gerïd to within a very
short distance.
Thé western boundary just denned !s of a very deSert character. Thé mountains of
Tu(jrTibesti,however,areh:gh(MountTustdd€ P700 feet above sea-leve!)and
jfertJe.
Thé range islittteknpwn, oniy one European havingcrossed it andreturned
ative~ thé
ncrth from Tibest: bas on It a good mahy sandy areas, and is for the
sheer désert. A few do, however, occur, especia!!y toward thé west.
most part
Thé northwestern région, like thé southern district, is mostiy désert, ,and ~/M~<~A
ther' s~cceeding eâch other untit thé fertile zone :s rcached in thé viemity of
Southern
Tunsia and Western TripoUtana.

ÏV. INTERNAL GEOORAfHY–ROUTES: RATES OF TRAVEL

Thé internat geographyofEastern Hbya to be nottced, since bo!h thé

needs
population
of thé cduntry and its culture hâve been greatly innuenced by thé position of
thé toutes thst runthroughit. Thé roads are oftwo sorts–primary and secondary.
Theftbrmer tracksbver which pass thé caravans that undertake
are thé gréât
jourLys month or twb in length thé latter are thé shortef routes connecting one
a
permanent links between relions thé !atter
centre with another. Thé former arc thé
aretheUnksbetweentowns.
Ïn thé north, thé nrst llne to be hoted is thé gréât E -W. route rtinning
paratlel to thé coa~< Is thé Darb el-Hag, so called
because'it is used by thé
Mostemîn of thé Moghreb th making thc pilgrtmage to Mekkah. A glancc at this
roâdsho~s that, While thé coastat~
~hore
li~e itseif on~rs ob~!air.les ~to
's
is largely of a dcsert character,
E.-W, land-progressthan do thé opposite
thé
sho~s ~f thë IMediterranean.-thë l~tte>r arc div,Êsified. capes and mountainous
prornpntorie~~wxt th e~ g~ea~ ëni~~s~làs'eGr f écce âtid whh thé seas Into which
thes~ project–thé Àegean, thé and thç Thé African coast, on thé
oth~r hand, frpmËgyp~t~~ break o~y
runs west unista~
par~the int~o"the Me,d ittrran
of thp
crescept p1 4tegu pushest ou ei~n

e.Na<:ht!~],S~~M~~ni passim. Mgre, it

tôt < 'att Austrian exped'tion purpôsïd te caMy out in this regioa a pian of pénétration which, evcn in thc annats of Sah-tran
expÏctratiOt), ~s~~j to be t~tej boM. àxix~
C~ tOL x~vih ~o. l~ o. ~(Jah. tQtt)/p~95 Un'or[unate!ytt~ed.

~–––~
e~

'.––––––––––––––––“
 thé west of th!s thé sea turns !nto thé North Afncan coast m thé gréât bights of thé
Syrtes. Thé Darb e!-Hag is rea!!y shortcr by a !Itt!e than thé coast i!ne itself, for
having foHowed thé curves of thé shore from Kabes to Benghazi, it thence strikes across
to thé Gu!f of Bombah, tb!!owing thé southern dectivities of thé Cyrcnaic plateau. From
Bombah it again runs easterly to Egypt, having thé sea in sight upon thé teft for aîmost
thé wbole of thé way. Thé greatest obstacle ocTered by thé Darb e!-Hag to traveUers
moving in a large body is thé !ack of water, but it is neverthetëss feasible even for
armies. Thus, Général Eaton.though notwithout gréât hardships,!ed hisAmerican
forces over part ofthis route in t8oj from Atexandria to Bombah In about tbirty days.*
Catosucceededinmarching h!s to,o0o men fromCyrenaica to thé western extremity
of thé Syrtes by dividing them into smatt b&d!es, rbr each of wh!ch sumc!ent supply
of water cou!d be tound.~ Even wlthout this device a vefy large body of nomadic
people,inured to désert hardship and welt supp!ied with anim.iîs to carry water and
tbod, cou!d probably traverse tbe Darb el-Hag from Kabes to AÏexandna in from 6fty y
to sixty days–at least, in thé season of thé rains. Cyrenaica, It may be observed in
conclusion, being fertite and welt watered, an~brds a recruiting station midway on
this road.
Beside thé Darb et-Hag.ohe other road crosses Eastern LIbya running east and
west. It !ies in thé interior, and is dinferent in character from thé coast route in this
respect–that whereas thé former serves chieny to carry tra<Hc from ohé of its
extremities to thé other, thé tatter is reatty a succession ofseçond&ryroads which
may neverthe!ess be traversed in an easter!y and westerty direction. By this route One
marches from Tr)po!i in a S.E. direction to Sohnah thence to Ze!!ah and Abu Naym
and on to Wag!!ah and Sîwah; from which îast oasis thé road may be taken either
E.N.E. to thé Egyptian De!ta, or E. to thé I~i!e 'UM.Baharîah. Except for reasons
of trade, this road is seldom used in its entirety, though thé eastern end of it, from
Wagîtah to Egypt, is taken a good deat by thé Arabs of Cyrena!ca during thé winter,
toescape thé rains and coldof thé Darb eï-Hag.
Except for this hst-named route, aU thé primary roads of Eastern Libya are tho$e
whicb, having a N.-S. direction, connect thé Mediterraneah with thé Sudan. Thé itrst
and forcmost of thèse !inks is thé historicChadto Tripo!i road, which for over two
thousand years has been thé main channet through which thé exportable products of
Centra! Africa fbund their way to Europe. This fambus linc ofmarch~ passes trom
one srnaU oasis to another,~ in a direction atrUost due nphh from LakeChad to
Anonymou9, ~M/ It
C<«'M </T.r~&/?, </< p. !<
~t~ t/.S.?'r~<p/)t< R.Gf<:enhow,rf~
<;oh9~j
is t)iC6cu!t to (ind how many marching houM
<Yer<: )n thé JfHtney, thé
The<br~es)eftÀ)exanjnaottM~rch6,Oj,anj~rr!te<)~tBomb~h
ofpejittonWMdehyedbymutmie~MdpthercausM.
on Aprit t6-
Strabo ïvii. p. 8~6 FhiMrch, C~o J~M~, § ;6. It i$ Strabo who mentions thé difisioA of thé army into tma))
bodiet. rh)M<'chsay9[hatCa[oempioye<idot]key!tocarfyh)3waMf-shpp)y.
Denham, Oudney, an.j Ciapperton, JVjry~/M 6/' T'~t~ Vischef,
H. ~w~
~~M; H, Barth,
F~i/~M~. Thèse vor! atone wi)! <ut!)ce togfve thé reader agpod ideat oFtheChad route.
< Sma)) pases, when not too wide)y separïted, hâve throughoat ~he Sahara had something thé ettect upon thc
~–r. same
.f"'
 Murzuk, about 72~ mites distant. Somë of th<? oase$ which it threads are places
c&pabte ofsupportingperma'.en:populations, as Is thé case at Teda and Kanuri.
Towns a!so occur a!cng thé way. From mère hatting-places some of thèse, as Bi!mah,
TutMmo, or War, and Gatrpn, hâve grown to be of considerab!e nze; War dérives
addtt:ohat importance from betng at that point on thé Chad road where a divergent
traijt strikes oj!T S.S.E. frôm thé main tineinto thé ranges of Ttbesti or Tu. Simitarty,
fro~ Gatrun a road betwéen thë north ànd east leads to Wag!!ah, and so to B€nghaz~
or't!o]Egypt.
Murzuk ss a centre, or ~~o~ofthe Saharah body, and is of thé greatest
importance. Despite thé unhea!thfu!ness ofits situation, thé en~cts of which are
c!ea!y visible in thé faces of thé res!dents/ Murzuk is a large town< This is bccause
it at thé fbcus of grcat coads. From Murzuk thé caravans may pass E.N.E. to
Wagî!ah, and so to Benghazi ~d Egypt, or north to Sohnah, a minor centre, from
whitch they march N.W. to Tripoli town, about 47~ mites from Murzuk, and thus
t~Jo from take.Chad, Sohnah, justmentiohed, is united with thé ea~t by a road
runningtoZeHah,AbuNaym,ândWag!!ah.
Another gréât foad to thesouth !.s that having its head at Ghat, and running
into thé Aïr and Niger Territorles, With this, however, as it Hes In Western rather
than in Eastern LIbya, this survey is not concerned. Ghat. is situated at thé western
ext~emity pf thé Hamadah Murzuk, and is tinked witb thé Ïatter place by short
a
but dimcutt route. Nprthof Ghat tIesGhadame! a centre ofprjmary importance,
situated at thé junctton of severat gréât désert highways. It is not directty connected with
,M~uk,frpm which tt is separated by thé Hamadah et-Homrah and thé Erg el-Edeyen.
It ~s, however, connected with
Ghat on thé sôuth, as bas justbeen mëntioned; with
thé Tedemalt oâses; and espeçialty with In Sa~ !ying beyond thé Hamadah et-
Ti~ghert pn tbeS.W.{~ WarglaandGbardayah thé W.K.W., and so with
Lagh~t at thé foot of thé Saharan Atias. In thé marts of Ghadames, tberefbre, are
exposed merchandise from thé Sudah, thé Atlas,TripoU, and Europe, and thé caravaneers
of~enbrthcoastwhodp~ p.. are pot ~ar\Y'
tô be i~clûded among .th~Pfj!J):aé~re~tesf bëcause of its !ehgth and
dir~ctness than becaùse of thé amount of t['àmc it bears, is
a lihe of march lying eàst
of thé Chad-Tr~poii road. thë ~ast century it bas come to hâve somewhat
Withm
'more tmpbrtançe than j~rmerty, though thé Ip~ stretches of Waterlessdésert It traverses
wi!t prevent its ever b%n)g muchL used~ ''<~ question is that running south
froin Wagîtah to Kufra,~ Borku.
is It
at présent çhieHyfreqùëntedbyëmissarte~ trom thé Sidî e~-Mahdî ës-Senusi,
no~ résident atKufra, rather t~
j Thé tàstprim~ry road ~hiç thé Sudan from
deseh popMatioM t)tat thé AegeM M~nds~ye had
onGretee. t~ tempft~~"~dventu,~9U9" hatf-wayhouses
be~~Mndi~~antpo~nM,and~endtopMduce~~U,~
!~Denham,Oudtt€y,andC)appert~ v<r1.i. p;xl\'Ïii.

&ft.2.S;Ê'j~i~<
 t~argah, and caUed, H-om thé number of days takcn in traversing It, thé Darb e
Arba'tn, or "Forty Road." This road runsS. by W. to Selîmah,
a smal: oasis
where grazing and water are to be had, about'aoo rnUes from Ber:s, just south of
Hargah. Thence thé Darb ei-Arba'în strikes o(T S,W. across thé sands of thé south
Libyan Désert, passes through thé wretched of Zaghawah, and goes on into
Darfur, where itmaybesaidto end atMasrub.
Of thé secondary roads it need on!y be remarked that they fcrm a network of
convenient tracks between such inhabtted places as are not far removed from each other,
and which witt be mentioned brieny later in this chapter In connection with thé
dtstr!bution oftnan in Eastern Libya.
A few words mây hère be added in regard to désert trave!,since it is important
for thé reader to know something both of thé means by which communication
can be
carried on in Eastern Libya, and of thé rates of march.
Thesimplestand most primitive fashion oftraveUing in thé désert is
one which
is on!ypracticab!e for short distances, and which hard!y exists on anyextënsive sca!e
to-day–it is for thé traveUer to sting a across his shoutders a~d then trudge
aïong on ~bot.' If
a number of men share in carrying thé water, journeyssHghtIy
longer than those of which a s:ng!e man is capable may be undertakeh. Thé
rate
ofthissort ofgoing dépends largety on thé ground and thé time ofyear.butmaybe
said to Me between l~ and 20 mites a day.according toseason, footing, and number
of men. To carry water by animais is, of course, immeasuraMy more cônventent. Thé
animais used rbr this purpose in Africa are thé ass," bu!!ock,horse, and came!. Thé
!ast is not native to Africa, but was known to thé Libyans centuries beffore thé
irruptions of thé Arabs. Thé ass and thé buUock, under favourabte conditions,
can do
20 mi!es a day; thé horse between 2~ and 3~ A!t threeof thèse animats are
capahte ofadapMng themsetves to désert life to spme degree, Bedawîn horses, for
Instance, !earning to go frequentïy &r two.or evcn thrëe days wtthoutwàtef. Ohé
dimculty.however,attends thé use ofalt thrcë,<br even short jpurneys:
on
or or even where thé sand Is mixed with pebbîes, their icet su~er terrib!y; A
horse that bas corne north irom Wadai to Wag!!ah dr Sîwah usùa!!y arr~
thé fact that he is iair:yweU cared~br on theway.with his hoo~s split and tattered
so badtythat thé wretched beast goes !ame on aU four feet.
Between thé came~ and
thé other animais named above,there is,!rom thé point ofvic~of désert trave!,
no ',>
comparison jfbr a moment. At a pinch, a good came! can go seven days wlthout
water; It can !Ive onfbitter thorns, or
weight of two
stin~
(palm-scrub); it ca~~C~
(200 !bs.) for tbrty-eight hôurs at stretch and its eyes,
a,
nose
C. M. Donghty,
A
~t~ M vo].i*p.
sfngte m.m goe5 readi)y enough from ëarah
A hta) instance of this $ort hf tMfd
M S!M-ah with 9 donte~ whieh Mrr!M
h~herç
feecrdei!.
çwn anj itt dtivef's-
tapptietoffoodan<}wa[erfor<hreeday! X..L'
s por bu)!oc~9, cf. S. AtgasMtM, vo). xv:.
p. S:&.G~~M~
Aym~rj, t.~ ~M~. p. t )9 Ph. t8, taforphoMgr~phsofpack-bN)!oc)fS,ringed through thé
for
fr~v~Ilin$ti{
n<M< andin uae in thé S.W.
and cars are a!t wcnderfu!!y protccted frotn thé sand. ïn addition, thé foot of thé
came! is a tough and elastic pad protected in front by thé horny naits of thé two tocs.
Evep for kneeling on a stony désert ground, thé carnet is armed with thick câUouses
on his knees, ?nd a caltous pad on thé breast. In short, this animai so ungainly and
unattractive at drst sight, seems on further acquaintance a walking assemMage of
désert "points." Thé rates of trave! among came!s vary. A ~<
came! p!ods
ovër aîthost any road at about 2~ miïes an hour, or 2~ to 30 mîtes a day. A ~~& of
trotting came! of good breed, on thé other hand, can do 40 mites a day without
difHculty, and over ~o tfnecessary. Thèse paces thé camel can maintainforafairlyiong
march, if on!y it be we!t fed for whereàs it can go far without drinking, it must
be f~d with as much regularity as possible.

iV. GEOGRÀPHtCPoStTtONW!TH REûARDTOOOTI.VtNûREGtCKS–THKWEST:

THESOUTH:THEEAST:THENORTH
Thé areas which hayebecn out!ined asconst!tut!ng Eastern Ltbya présent certain
générât characteristics whicb difîerentiate that région as a who!e from those contiguous
toitJ WiththegreatE.N.E.-WS.W ranges of thé Atlas System on thé north-west
East~rn Libya bas nothing
to compare. To thé west, thé Sahara is dh'ersi6e<i with
larger habttable areas than are contâined in thé LibyanDesert,whiletothesouth!ie
thé fertile ranges of Tibesti and Borku, north of thé Châd district, and thé cultivaMe
tcrn~ories of Wada! and Darfur. Tothe ëast cxtends thé Nite Va!!ey, whieh is, of
courte, ofcxtraordmaryferti!ity,thrôughout itstength.
Ïn thc horth-wcst, Eàstern Ltbya is thé naturat goat of pcoples passing castward
thro~gh thé long Attas ya!!eys; from thé west It may be readiiy mvaded by dcsert
pëoptes from thc TassLti-n-Asgar or Aïr. ïn thé south!t!sonty thé présent character of
thé ~udanese çàttle-gr~zers that!eàdsto thé raids bc!ng from north to south, rather than
thë reverse ~or thé country is in that quarter guarded on!y partia!!y by thé Tibest!
range. ïn~eesst.EàsternLibyà hag access to Egypt through thé oases, which are
themsetves~~wever~~$OR1~5~da~t~ bedeba~,abl~gr8und~
jBroadty spM~ tt may besaid that it is mainly from thé west and nprth-
west that Eastern Libya, as a whôte~ is sut~ect to Incursions on a grand sca!e. For
a populattoh hemmed'tn by thcAt!as mountains and moved eastwards along vatteys by
pressure exerted m thç west is~
vit1ab as has just been said, Into thé East
Libyen Uttoratzpne~~ from thé west, nomadic tribesmen, therc inured to désert
!ife, ~ay wittY ease ëxpand in à direction toward thé east and north-east. On!y sévère
pressure from thé southwouid~~ Negr(),~nd negroid poputations of thé
Chad ~egi6n intô thé désert, as, once Started on a migration~thëy would tend naturaHy
to traverse th~W iapds df thc Sudàn in a ~ester!y or eastedy direction~ Thé

l
cuttivator of thé NUe VaUey agaih, as ts uSual!y. thé caseë with peupleshàbitua!ly
,Î\$rn~yb~$~~nin~~t!:ase~1
6 t~~I<'u1ah or:-J41bê
1
dépendent on irrigation, bas shown himself ready to submit to almost any degree of
oppression rather than take h!s liberty with him into thé désert. Thé one serlous
invasion which seems to hâve penetrated Eastern Libya from thé east is that of thé
Mohammadan Arab~. But not on!y was that invasion !n itself attended with many
circumstances which cannot be assoclated with racia! migrations in général, but Its
main course was no!, if
one excepts thé early raiding into Fezzan, denected
from thé
Mttorat zone, which it traversed to reach thé nch~r régions of thé west.
ïn thé north, to turn now to those régions fa< mg thé Libyan coast across thé
eastern Mediterranean, at one point Cyrenaica is but a short day's saH rcntôved from
Crète, thé distance betwcen Cape Krio and Dcrnah being but !~o mites.~ Thé position
of thé tsiand with respect to thé Libyan coast is indecd such as to attfact attention in
even a casuat gtance at thé chart. For a distance of miles it Hes east and west, in a
direction paraltel to thé trend of thé Marmaric coast. SmaU craft passing ~rom Crète
to Egypt sti!l generaHy ruh due south from thé is!and t8o miles to Ras el-Mtlh, and
thence easterly to Alexandria. It
was thé proximityof Crète to thé African Pentapotis
that led to thé administrative union ofthe two as thé single Roman province ofCr~-
C)/r~f or Cr~tt Cyr~f. Dcspite thé scarclty pf harbours on thé African sidc, there
areseveral small ports, such as Dcrnah, thc Gu!fof Bombah, Marsa Bahat, Marsâ
Tobruk, Port Bardia," and LImreyg, whkh ail lt~ Under thc ts!and, ànd Cret~ tt$etf has
As a hatf-way house betweeh Cfete
numerous smatt havens along Its southern coast.
and Egypt, thé western portion of Marmarica must hâve been visited by ships at a very
early period.
From thé mainland of Greece itself thé African coast is, of course, farthër removed,
thé shortest distance being 20~ miles, from Cape Matapan to Raset-Hitti!. As,how-
ever, earty navigators preferred aiways to hold thé !and in sight, and so take thetr
departure rbr thé African coast from some point on thé south coast of Crète, thé relative
pos!tlons ofLibya and thé Greek mainland are ofontysecondary importance. Thé same
remark appUes with even greater force to Asia Minor, distant some ~oû mites.
Thé western part of thé East Libyan tittoral, it
is évident at a glance,is<arther
removed from thé Europeanmaintand,thé Mediterraneanwidening in thé SyrticGuïts
toward thé south, and in thé lonlan Sea toward thé north. From Ras Mizratah west-
ward to thé Gu!f of Kabcs, however, thé African coast Ues under thé istand of Sicily,
wh!ch Is
WË~iCh
tzo ml!es nearer this
iS 1120 section of the
thissection
Malta and Gozzo lie in Une with Sici!y and thé Libyan coast, it
°'
1.f," thanit is to Cyf~naica,~
thé Libyan coast
being about ~o miles
1
from thé former island due sou~h to thé Airican main. But it is hdt with thé tripolitan
Malta corne mostctoseïy into relations with Africâ. For on
coast that Sici!y and
coming from theeast to Tuhisia, thé Libyan coast behds sharply northward for
about îhree degrees of !atitude, and so approaches not ohiy thé isîahds mentioh<}d but

po!nbtvott!(!)n~!rw<:a[her,b<:outof9!ghcpftandfof0n)yi'boutt0om!!<:t.
Cape Passera to Pong~i- 36~ ntite's, 'T'f!po)i Town M ~outh cpatt of Sicity,
“
Prom RMct-Tin to t~ehtittx! pfGaadf (Gau)i!) isb~t ~3'! 'n'!cs. A~e~) maMng thepasMgebç~eet) tht~tWC

abOMt <i)e9.
<
 Sardinia as wet!. As this bend !Ies northwards of thé $hott cl-GcrM, it is ontside thé
regipn which bas been designatcd as Eastern Libya but as thé connecting link betwcen
that région and Sardinia and StcUy it deserves at least passing notice. From Cape Bon
(N.B. Tunisia) to MarsaHa is under 80 butes trom thé same point on thé coast it is
und~r t~~ mi!es to Cape Spartivento (S. Sardinia), a po:nt which in direct (N.-S.) Une is
oniy !00 miles from thé African coast Thèse distancée are not such, at a tavonraMe
timc pf year, as to deter eveh thé most timorous navigators from crossing in either
direction, ît Is, thereiDre, not a matter for surprise to nnd thé wartike Sardinian pirates
acti~g in concert with thé East Libyans at a very earty period, since frcm Sardinîa they
could réach thé Africancoast In a short day, and thereaftër tb!tow thé Httoral either to
thewestortheeast.'
jThe chief ratures of thé îittofàl having [hus been touched on, it may be added that thé
région belongs to thé eastern and central Mediterrânean, being, as bas just been pointed
out, connected with thé central istands and.thewest by thé N.E. littoral ofTuhisia.
Except in Cyrenaica, thé Libyancoast présents no gréât attraction to invaders frotn thé
nortt), and, in fact, thé formation of thé coast is such as to encourage thé betief that such

Cyrenaica..
extraneous ethhologicat éléments as directiy entered Eastern Libya ~rom thé north came
In bywayofTunIsIa or

il.li,
VI. CUMATOLOGY AND HEALTH
Eastern Libya Hesundertwoctimatic zones–theMediterraneanandtheSaharan~
tThe district ofthe Mediterranean climate is that to which bas .t!rcady been app!Ied
thé term "Littora! fertile ~one." Thé région in question, not being at any point one
of gréât width, and not presenting any barriers, toward thendr~h, high enough to be
of cUmatic importance, enjoy$throughout its tength thé weather of thé southern
Mediterranean.
!rhe prevaiting winds along7 thiscpasta~ région, especiaHy in summer, are northerty,
whll< in winter and autumn therë is a high percentage of southerlies. In thé spring,
thé j~, or hot sputherîy sc!rocco,is ~requent,~ its occurrence being unknown in
summer, and its season, thërefbre.correspondingto that cf thé Egyptian
fbUowing titbte givës thé percentagespfthé directions pf thé winds tor thé four
Thé /w.
seasons,
based on thc pbservadbns recprde~ stt B-enàhai.i, in, centra! part cf thé cpast Mne,
duringthejfburyearsfromt8o~to~t~
R- Ha)), 0~ ~'M/<z~Me G~t'e, p, )8t ~erta!n]y, to my th!nHng, underrattt thesaiting <}oa!it;ei cf
eM!y~!ps. Thispoiat Mnhp!))ere bedebated at )<ngth, biit Ï haye considered thé évidence, and M
one fair)y~mi)i~r
whit ij'ng ~e~eh of stna)! tonnage, may say that ,t do not bctttve that there ?ract!ca) diSeutties in
were any grave
nav!gatngb<:tweenS!eUy,$ardiH;a, and Libya, otbetwetnL~ ~ndCret~, evcni!}-the ôld En.lpire.
C~f/<A'
ix. 7, <:0rrcçt!y statcs that, owin~tO thé innuence of thé sM. tht Mttora! ttimaM of Libya
ismof~e~Mbtethan that of thé intenor." G, Hi,ldçbiiiid, ~,yregaYka, p. ao6. 'p.to~.
 S.W. W. N.W. 'P[cM)tn[Win(h.
K. N.K. E. S.R. S.

.Winter t!.S t~ ~4 9° 7.t S..W.

t.t ~74
S~ing t.? S~ '~9 '-t-~ N..S.
~.7 ï.7 3.S

Summ~ 70.; 4.7 '.0 $.7 '4 7-7

Autumn z~t !.S ~3 7~ 3-S '°''

Thé rainfaiï in thé tittorat zone occurs annua!!y, thé wet season generaUy extending
from October to May, but thé amount of rain is very irregu!ar' from year to year.
Droughts may occur owing to slightness of successive ramfa!ts and protracted summers,
but they are not often sévère. In its distribution, thé rain ~al!s more frequendy near
thé shore, though extending so far south as almost to reach Sîwah in thé cast, and
thé Hamadah el-Homrah in thé wcst. Thé foMowing thé mean of thé rainfalls for
tour years at Benghazi :–

J~. F<b. M.r. Apr. M.y. Jnn.. Jnty. Sept. O.t.' Nov. CM.

mm. t3) 8; ;o ï 3 o o 0 t 9 'Oï

This gives thé mean yearly total of ~02 mm.–a mean of 8t mm. for thé tinter,
mm. for thé spring, of o mm. for thé summer, and of 5o mm.
of for thé autumn.
Thé rainfall at Tripoli Town for three years was ~7.6 mm., 662.8 mm., 22~.0 mm.,
givmg a mean of ~y& mm.~
Thé température of thé littoral zone !s moderato, verging on thé subtropical.
In thé highest parts of thé Gebel Nafusa and thé Cyrenaic Plateau thé thermometer
never nses as h!gh as it does at some points which are actually on
thé sea coast,
approx!mate!y !° C. of température being lost with every 2000 ~eet of ascent. Thé
average températures for four years at Benghazi were monthly as
follows :–~

t!
Jan. FA M~r. Af.t. May. June. Juty. Ant;. Sept. Oct. Not. Dec.

Degr~C. h~.ï' t?.~ t: !t.9° ït~ ~° '9* '9'°°

Th!s gives yearly average of 20.4.° C., w!th a variation of !3.8° between thé extrêmes
a
!2.~ (January) and 26.3" (August). This yearty average of 20.~° C. is near!y equa! to
that of Kabes (to.6°) or of Tripoli Town (!o.o"),~ though betpw thé annuat mean of
SouthernTunisia,awayfrom thé immédiate vicinityof thé coast (21.1°).~
G. Hitdebfan~, Cyr~ p. ïto. As proof of thh iffeguhrity. Me thé tab)c there given of thé month!y fainfaïïs
f&f t8q! to t~ inctative, it Bcngtax!.
~The9:month!,beingomittedduringoneyear,areaveragcdonthreeinsteadoffourTecor!b.
~G.Ayra,7'.r~<«~'m~,p.6~.
<G.Hi)<ïebrand,M.p.Z!6. e/p. ~p.
 Thé fange of température at Benghaz! (tg.~)is a good deal ovcf that ofMogador
(6.0°),' which, thongh practicaUy under thé same paraiïe!, !s more cxposed to thé
equal!z!ng action of a greater body ofwater than is Benghazt. It is, however, signi~cant
of much tess violent seasonat change than thé range of variation, for example, of
Me$opotamia (26.0°),~ situated to thé eastwards on thé same para!!e!. Thé seasonal
averages for Benghazi are as fb!!ows: spnng, to.2"; summer, 2~.6~; autumn, 2~,1";
winter, !3.7"<~ In thé above Hgures, thé intense heat whtch may for a short t!me
preva!! during a ~/y does not appear as a factor. It !s doubtfut if thé t~" F.
(~'J° ~-) recorded by one trave!ter as accompanying a was ever rea!!y recordcd,
but for thé thermometer to stand at ~o° C. for an hour or more during thé he!ght
of thèse distrcssing winds is npt unknowh.
In concïusion of th!s short treatment of thé Httora! zone, it may be said that thé
région is one we!l adapted to man–ëspeciaUy for primitive man !iving !argety in thé
open–from thé ctimatic point of view. Thé seasons, as throughout thé !ower !cve!s
along thé Mediterranean, are marked by thé winter rains and thé summer droughts,
and white not as ~trikingty di<ïerent!ated as in northern Europe, are nevertheless
accdmpanied by appreciaMe changes of winds and température.
In leaving thé tittorat for thé interiof, one passes af once into a c!imatic région
that extends from thé Mediterranean zone on thé north, to thé région of tropical
rainfa!! on thé south. Dencient as are thé data with regard to thé littoral climate of
Eastem Libya, thé sources of knowledge for thé intenor are much more scanty. Owing
to this lack of évidence, !t Is hecessary to base most of thé fblîowing remarks on
observations taken a number of years ago, at thé extrême north-westetn connues of
Eastern Libya.
Thé fbUowing tab!e of percentages Is approximately indicative of thé winds
prévalent d'jring thé year in thé interior western parts of Eastern Libya.~
––––––~–~–;––)––i––j–––!––r––~––T–––––)
N.B. E. SE. S. 1
S.W. W. N.W. PrtM!t=tWm~

Winter !).o )~ )~; tt.; t~.o 6.0 no N.E.,E.,S.E.

Spnng t~o t~~ ~o,< tj.g )o.t 3.T 6.3 !.3 R,N.E.,S.E.
iJummer t6.7 ).6 6.6 E.,N.E.,S.E.
)o.o zo.o ~o.t )t.~ 3.3
4utumn oo.o !} !o y.: < ~.o y.! oo.o S.W.,E. 1

In connection with this table, it shou!d be observed that c~ms are common in

Md p.
Thèse përcenMgcs
):
S
'H.Gorringe,CM~~j~]ny~G~Vf,o).]tii).p.
p.

t
j'9
August and t)ecember, whi!e Septcmber, October/and November are atmost per~cctty
windiess, about 90 per cent of thé days being quite so. From thé table g!ven above,
G. Hitdebraad,

htvc computed from thé tabtes puMished by H. Duvcyner, /.fj

pp. ti~,
ï*e~ <& A~~p. $t J~.

'i
It Is c!ear that thé prévient winds are E., veering towards thé south during thé
summer heats, and towards thé north In winter.
Thé hygrometry of thé désert parts of Eastern Libya is exceedingly variable. A
sudden drop in surface température owing to winds may, even in thé most deso!ate
districts, be ibiïowed by one or two nights of heavy dews.' Dew Is a!so Uke!y to fall
descend In certain parts of
on nights ïb!!owing showers of rain. Rain Itseifmay not
thé désert tbr pcriods of ten, twenty, or even thirty years, but it is safs to assert that
of no known région of thé LIbyan Désert may It be said that it is quite without
rainraU. Rain may, even in very désert parts of thé country, descend for a short
period with a torrentiat violence which is almost tropica!. Thus, in Nubia, which
partages !arge!y of thé désert climàte, terrine ïocat "cloud-bursts" are experienced
at intervais varying in length irom ten to twenty years. On thèse occasions, thé rain
descends in sheets for perhaps an hour, thé nat, thatched roots of thé houses are beaten
in, irrigated neids are turned to shat!ow pools of water, and thé ~or~, or gullies, a!ong
thé edge of thé désert become thé beds of raging streams which carry with them stones
and smaU boulders to thé lower levels. Beside thèse periodic déluges, rain may fat!
In st!ght showers in many parts of désert Libya–especlaHy in thé north and south-
west–at any time of year. But years may go by without thèse rains, and they
cannot thererbre be depended upon ibr agriculture, or even for grazing.
Thé températures of Eastern Libya in thé interior are generaUy higher than those
in thé Httoral zone. This in itself is of !ess importance than thé gréât range between
maximum and minimum. Thé sands and rocks of thé désert which during thé day
reçoive and renect thé heat, begin to cool rapidty shordy berbre thé sun bas gone
down. By midnight thé radiation bas practicaHy ceased, and thé température of thé
gebet is approximately that of thé coo! night air. There is a!so gréât locat variation
away from thé equalizing Innuence of thé sea, altitude being in thé désert a gréât
îactor in température. Thé ib!lowing tabte, based on materiats cotlected by Lieut.
J. Ayer~ in Tuggurt, contiguous to Eastern Libya oh thé west, is hère presehted as
oHering resu!t$ based on more ample observations than any yet taken actuatîy within
thé Saharan portions cf Eastern Libya itself.
}' "*t"
!j.)n.* Fft.* Mar.* Apr.* May. Jnne. J")y. Atf;. Sept.* Cet.* Nov. Dfc.
v.

.Degre~C. t; t7.6° ~.8° ~y )8.;° ~}.6° ~t.S' ~0.8° ~o. !l.~ )~'

Thé maximum température observed by Duveyrier in Eastern Libya was 4~.6°

(8th and 26th Ju!y) at Murzuk thé minimum –2.t° (i8th December) at TimeUu!en,
~P'e'aon&ïobi'crvatîon.
H. Duveyner, <
~7. p. ~4, where thé tabte from which thé mensua) means hâve been catcuhted wi!! be fbund.
ThMC mean~ mtritcd with an ast~risk (*) are based on four years' observations} thé rcst on three. Thé températures
herettMdweretakenatt.~OF.M,
In thc western part of thé Hamàdah ct-Homrah. Th!s give$ thé fange of ~.7~ as
comparcd to thé variat!on oi' t3° to !<)." in thé littoral,
Thc annua! mean, computed {fotn thc sa~e source as thé above mensuat avcrages,
ts therefore rather misteading–it works out to
30.2°. Thé mensua! averages dearty
show thé division into cotd and hot periods which are thé onty seasons !n thé désert
year. Thé cold iasts rrom December to March thé heat from June to September.'
For thé Eastern portion of thé tnter!or zone, valuable data hâve been co!lecte<J
by thc Egypt!an Survey Department at Dab!ah. Thé prévalent winds, as calculated
froM thé detatled report for tooS,~ are as follows :–

N.B. B. S.B. S. S.W. W. N.W. PrevAntWMf.

Wintcr 67~ ûo.o oo.o oo.o oo.o oo.o oo.t ~s N.,N.W.

Spnng ~8.0 0.7 oo.o oo.o 0.3 ~.o N.,N.W.
Summer 39.6 t.8 oo.o oo.o oo.o 0.8 ;6 N.W.,N.
Autumn !C.6 oo.o oo.o oo.o 00,0 2.6 6o.<, ,N.W.,N.

Thestriking rature in thé above table is thé absence ofsouthwinds. For ha!f
thé year, during winter and spnng, thé prevailing winds are northedy, bauting round
to thé north-west !n summer and autumn. Thé shift at thé beg!nnmg of winter !s so
strikmg !n thé above table that onc !s inctined to suspect that thé observations trom
whiçh thé percentages hâve been compilcd were takcn during an exceptional ycar, but

9'
further records are needed beibre th!s can be provcd.
Thé ratnMIs at Dahlah are so irregular and ins!gn!ncant that they cannot be
tabutated to advântage. Thé following list, k!ndly prcpared by thé director of thé
Heiwan Observatory,~ wtU serve to show thé nature of thé rainial!s :–
DATK. REMARKS.
tqo~ Feb. 2 Rzin ~M $ mm.
Qet. !& ;t afternoon slight.
Nov.tï “ fbt-hours,beginning8p.M.
t~oô Feb. 7
“ inthemotningis~ght.
x
“ n1
“ fbryhoursinthemorning.
'4 siight.
t<)o8
“
May f8 “ <br s minutes atnoon;stight.
~09 Jan. “ stight.
27 “ “
x
May
~S
t6
““ (brio
“ minutes xt 3 p.M.;shgh:.
t~U Jan. 26 “ ~'rM~mm.
H. Dnveyrier, n<, t. tp6.
EgyptianGoven)ment,Af<MM'o&~<M/M'f~~j)0~,p. t8!f~
Mr. B. F. E. Kee))ng, towhom t am greattyindebted abo for vatuabte adt'!t< on severa) points connecKj with
this chapter.
 Thé monthty températures tbr t9o8 at Dahhh,
Department, are as

DegrMsC.at~p.M..t'7.-t'
rMbMM~T'7~?' ~7-?'
foUow$

JM.
:–
F~h.

'8.
M.r.

!34'
Apr.

~94°
-i"i'f"r'
May.

~-7°
Junt.

34-7°
Ju)y.

3!°
as recorded 6)r thé Survey

A.{.

37.'°
Srpt.!dct.

3°-~°
Nov.

~S. ~.6'
Dec.

~-7° 3°-°' ~° '7-°'

This gives yearty mean at 2 p.M. of 28.3% and a yearly mean of daity means
a
of 22.3°. Thé maximum recorded above is 37.!° (August). Thé !owest ~o/M~
mmimum recorded m too8 was oo.o" for February. This gives a range 37.1° for thé
2 P.M. monthly means as
opposed to ~.6.7° In thé west, or 13° to t~° m thé north.
Thèse ngures, rdating to three widely separated portions of Eastern Libya, wilt
sufHcetogivesomeideaofthectimateofthecountry.
Even so short an account as thé présent one of thé East LIbyan climate woutd not
be justined in passing over thé atmospheric phenomena of thé désert without comment.
Solar ha!os and mock-suns are not infrequendy seen, and lunar hatos are common,
especiaUy where thé désert approachcs thé tittoral région. Rainbows may occur dunng
a shower.
Thunder and Mghtning are fréquent accompanimentS of thé gréât periodic
thé point of being painful. In
storms. Thé sunlight In thé désert is intense, even tp
conjunction wtth thé heat, it eSects mirages, which are somettmes of extraordinary
ctearness. Usually, however, thèse take thé simple fbrm of a sheet of gîttter!ng water
seen in a distant dépression,
thé image being more clearly visible to one walking or
ctose to thé ground than to one mounted on a horse or came!
To concîude this notice on thé présent ctimatology of Libya, it may be said that
thé désert ctimate h so distinct from that of thé Mediterranean zone on thé north,
or from that of thé tropical zone on thé south,
that it may be prcperly regarded as
Saharan, and continenta!. It is marked by two seasons, thé hot and thé cotd, which are
indcpendent of thé rainfa! but vary greatty~ with altitude and remoteness from thé sea.
For long periods no rain may fati in any given îocaHty It may then descend in a
torrential storm, or In showers coming at any time of thé year. Both thé hot and thc
co!d seasons are accompanied by thé same minor phenomena, a tact which deserves to
be noticed, since it tends to tessen thé seascnat din~rentlation, thé efFects of which wIU
be spoken of tater in this chapter.
It bas recently been maintained that Eastern Libya has, within historié times,
been subjected to a marked c!imatic change, but thé évidence thus far brought forward
to sustain this theory is not conc!usive. It is indubitable that in many loca!ities thé

E. HunungMn, ~<?~ 0~
vo!. xtxvi. No. 6 (Dec. )Q)o),p. 73:
voi. !X)t~!i. No. t (Jan. t~tt), p. to8
~C~<<- C~ /j'
in ~G~, Sept. t~to, rev!etve<n Tt<'
See ~tso H. J. L. Deadnell, Mr.
C~ 7~~
Diodorm S:cu)as (iii. ). 4) notice: thé occurrenceor'miraget as espcc!a!)y frètent in thé Syt'ca Reg!o.
C~/« Ow7~ ~7;
population bas dec!ined, but th!s appcars to be due to thé advent of an ignorant and
shifttess Arab population, rather than to any ctimatic osciiïation. Thé ahnost if not
entire absence of récent vegetable remains in places which supporters of thé theofy of
desiccation maintain to hâve gone dry within thé !ast two thousand years, thé
extraordinary préservation of thé mud-brick tombs of thé Christian necropoiis at
Hfargah, thé présence of cisterns along thé Marmaric coast, where there Is a heavy
winter rainfatt–this and simUar évidence suggests that there bas becn no very gréât
cHmatic change in Eastern Libya within récent times. In thé Western §ahara, it is
true, such changes seem to hâve taken place. Without going into thé complicated
question of thé ctassicat Nigir River, thé fact seems to be sumciently estabMshed by thé
nnding of neolithic camp-sites alpng thé borders of thé now watertess Wady Igharghar,
thé dry bed of which runs through thé Wcst LIbyan Désert to thé Shott eI-Gerîd.
This cannot, however, be adduccd as évidence for thé défécation of Eastern Libya,
since. as thé ctimate, thé gep!.ogy, &nd thé orography of thé Eastern and Western
portions of Libya are now différent in many respects, it is but ~air to assume that they
wereasdi<ïerentancient!yasto-day.
Thé healthfutness of Eastern Libya as a whole is exceptionalty go'3d. This is due
to thé dryness, to thé tact that oniy in a few places humanity is crowded together, and
to thé intensity of ths sunlight, which even in thé towns bas a déterrent efîect upon
infectious disease. Malaria and dysentery are rare, and hardty known cutside thé fertile
areas Some of thèse latter, however, hâve a bad name, owing to thé prevalence of
sëvere ma!arial fevers (" apricot fever," )' t~argah fever ") at certain times of year
many of thé nomad Arabs wiit not enter Sîwah in thé autumn for fear of this sickness,
which is then rife. Ophthatmia and syphilis are thé two most wicespread diseases,
thé <Drmer being extremc!y common. Plague and choiera hâve at mtervals nearty
depoputated thé towns, but, owing to their mode of tife, thé nomadic population is
protected from thèse épidémies. Widc, clean spaces, strong sunlight, simple fbod, hard
physteal work, and a cHmate which, while hot, is dry and bracing, hâve given to thé
greater portion of thé modem inhabitants of Eastern Libya thé same physique which
excited thé admiration of Herodotus. Having described thé native practicè of cautery,
thé 6reek historian says that thé practitioners themsetves aver that snch is thé reason
why they are so much more healthy than pther men. And indeed," he adds, "thé
Libyans are thé ha!cst men 1 know." 2 Of thé same ténor are thé remarks of SaUust,
who described thé Africans as heatthy, swift of tbpt, and ab!e to endure fatigue.
Most of them," he adds," die by thé graduai decay of âge, except such as perish by
thé sword, or beasts of prey for disease nnds but few victims." S
Thucydid<;s(H. ~9) mentions ~n cpidsfnic bfptaguc in [hetxtremëcast of Lit:y~.
Heredotmiv. tS?, ° $a))ust, /<~«r~, xvit.
 VII. FLORA: FAONA
Ofthe Flora and Fauna ofEastern Libya, it i$ hère sumcient to mention oniy such
plants and animais as chieny afïect thé habitability of thé country.
Thé soi! of thé littoral zone produces most of thé fruits and ccreals found m Greece
and thé Levant, whi!e even far in thé interior,' thé cases are wonderfully fruitfui
throughout thé whole area. Wheat and bar!ey are cultivated along thé littoral and thé
latter is even found in thé oases, where, however, thé more usual grain Is that ofthe ~<
Lent!!s, peas, and beans of severat varieties grow readily in ail thé fertile districts,
as do aiso !ecks, onions, and a
small sort of thé tomato. Numerous less important
plants hâve a!so been found usefui for food. Such, for example, are thé leguminous
~/r~ thé which bas an edibîe root, and thé of which thé root L prepared
as food by men~ while its spinous
leaves afîbrd forage for camels and asses. Numerous
varicties of gourds and melons are cultivated In a!! thé fertile districts, and grapes are
found not oniy cultivated, but wild. Lemons, ngs, and oranges do not thrivë, except
in thé northern oases and atong thé coast, though thc prune, thc apricot, and–more
espccially–thé pomegranate are found in almost ait thé oases of thé interior. Among
thé fructiferous trees which may be mentioned as especiaUy belonging to this région–
at least In Its northwestern districts–should be notëd thé /o/~ (L.), thé Z/x~
s!ight!y acidulous fruit of which bas by some enthusiasts been identIAed with thé
Homeric lotus. Ànother candidate for this distinction is thé fruit of thé
which is smaU, pleasantly insipid, and which bas a stightiy stimutating enfect. Thé
oHve is we!i suited to thé ciimate of Eastern Libya, thé trecs now cuîtivated in thé oases
being, though of str~ggling growth, conspicuousiy good ones, and thé o!d Greek trees
in Cyrenaica having maintained themsetves tllt thé présent practicalty wlthout cultivation.
Thé most important of att Libyan vegetabïe products is thé date-pa!m/ Its rôle
in désert Ftora is comparable to that of thé came! In thé animât kingdom, and Mke
thé carnet, thé date is of foreign origin, though now cuttivated throughout thé tength
and breadth of North Africa. A volume might be written on thé uses of this
extraordinary tree. Its fruit is eaten fresh, 0:- dried, or cookcd, or brayed an intoxicant
Is made by fermenting thé fruit, or fron) fermenting thé sap of thé tree itsetf; its
teaves serve for fuet, thatching, carnet fbr4o< parts of camet-saddtes, or, when thé tender
head is taken and boUed, for human consumption. Thé naturalty reticutated 6bre,
which at 6rst envetops thé leaf, is used for stumng pack-saddtes, or for weaving gôod
rope. Thé bark strippings serve as fùet, thé togs, sptit tengthwise, as rafters or ptanks.
For more detaited bo:anicat notices for Eastern Libya, thé reader is referred to H. Duye~rier, t~
p. j~
for thé wtst to G. Hitdebrand,
/~<&<
Xe, <<i' p. 80
C~~i~j c/'f~ ~w/Mf
~)~,f~
<
~M~,
o'r&w.
f/ ~<. p. 2~0
/M!! D. Viviemi, ~'&M~ j~M~~ ~'M!M
M C~M/M
vo). ii. p. 3~8
A. Rainaud,

/Mf~, p.
Qe«/
E. Cosson, ~)~f~<M

F. Woenig, D~ ~~z~ «f
Thé /). ~M< and Erer< M~'p< are a)so caUej
<
M«(M
/ra<!
PM<~& «;t!N<<~
for thé north J. G. Wi))[inson,
~fr'
~y~< fer thé east.
and are both Nsed <or food,
N<~
<M'?<!MM <s Cy~M«'<! it G.
and
t

j?r<?~ M/ <M~w~. A'~<!rM ~<<)!'<< (Deaf.).

~/y~o (L.) cf. G. Maspero, P~a'~ yC/f~'x< p. ~7.
 Thèse are but some of thé services rendered by thé palm, but they are sufHcient to
show !ts importance. When it Is added that a tree demands comparatively little care,
bears after its nfth year,and,when mâture, yieids 200 to 300 Ibs. ofnourishingfbod

ofAfrica..
which is excellently scitable for désert travel, thé reader witi reatize thé gréât déférence
its introduction and dissémination must hâve brought about in thé économie condition

Thus far,only tbat part of thé nora has been glanced at which an~brds man his
fbod. Befbre passing on to thé question of t!mber,!t should be remarked that many
non-edible vegetables in Eastern Libya, a country wherein everything with valuable
properties, either real or supposed, is sure to be used, are employed chemicalty or
medicinalty. Thus, thé bark of thé shrub,' and thé fruit of thé tamarisk~ are
used in tanning leather and esparto/ tough grasses, are used for making mats
and ropes, both of fair quality;~ while many instgnincant'hetbs serve thé nomads for
simples,~ or savouries.'
'Thé trees usefui tbr timber in Eastern Libya are found chieny in thé jnorth. It Is
a question of gréât interest but, at thé présent
date, not to be solved, if thé trees
suitat)le for shipbuilding and thé construction of houses were anciently to be fbund
much farther south. It seems probable that thé local desiccation of some places, as
parts of thé Syrtica Regio, for example, may be due to ancient defbrestation and thé
habit~bility of a very considérable area may hâve been anfected by reckless timbering in
ancieht times. In thé south, thé palm Is thé wood chieny used for planks and beams.
Thus, cven at Sîwah, doors are made of palm-planks, houses are timbered with halved
palm-logs, and graves are in some cases covered with quartered ones.
tn thé same oasis, thé helves of mattocks and of bill-hooks are made from
pomegranate branches or, more rarely, olive. Yet in some northern parts of Eastern
Libya, good timber ts to be fbund even plentifully. In Cyrenaica thé cypress~ occurs,
as do aiso two varieties of pine,~ and, frequently, thé Levantine
juniper. Some of thé
wadys in thé Gebel el-Ahdar and thé Gebel el-'Akabah hâve, fïont thé tbickness of
thé dark tanks ofconifers standing along their sides, an aspect perfectiy European. Thé 1

sycamore, tamarisk, and carob occur, ëspeçially In thé west, while thé mimosa and acacia
are more evenlydistributed. AU thèse trees yield woodsuitable to greateror less
degree fbr building purposes, but pnly in a few localities are thé trees fbund in enough
numberstomakegood timbering country.
Except, possibly, in extent of fbrestation, there is no reason to suppose that thé
Flora of Eastern Libya at thé présent day seriousiy dISers from that of ancient historié
times. thé palm was undôubtediy Introduced at a very early period, and thé vine and
'X~<A~M(Wi))ct.).. ST~<'<'f~'<-e&7'&'M,?'MfMP~?'
S ~<T~/M~M.'WMM. Z.~«/!t~r/«M.
ItischieHy for )n?Hngp9per that they are exported.
E.g. ~M (Ee~f~«t ~'t</M~, t..), used aga!nst snahe.-b'tes.
'E.g.(~<«'f«j/~ff~<'j,Sch!echt.),which is put in
C«~~J ~~f<rM.f. 7'<wj ~~)MW, P. /)MM P yM~J /'<i"M.
tN<!tM.~J~
 olive both nourished !n thé Mttoral zone in thé days of Herodotus. But one interesting,
p!ant, thé most famous in ait thé Flora Libyca, has become extihct–none of thé
numerous attempts which hâve been made to show that th!s or that modem ptant
represents thé ancient silphium (<r~tof) has been convincing.' This remarkaMe planta
which from tts représentations upon thé Cyrenaic coins Is known to hâve been a:varlety
of umbeiïifer, deserves mention hère for its historicat importance and former économie
conséquence. Its ancient habitat tay in thé barren steppe country south of thé Cyrenaic
ptateau, from thé vicinity of thé Gutf of Bombah to 'that of Bueb Bay. It had a
var!ety of uses thé stalks were va!uaMe forage for cattle it was introduced into fbod
as a savouring and from incisions made in Its sta!ks was obtained thé highiy prized
juice (<Mrot <rf~<of, ~f~), by trading in which thé Battiad kings of Cyrene attained
to their gréât wealth.~ AIthough both artincialîy cu!tivated, and existing naturally, it
has now disappeared.
Thé Fauna of Eastern Libya numbers among thé domesticated animais at thé
présent day thé came!, horse, ox, ass, sheep, goat, and dog. In communities cpmposed
ofan Arab or Arabizcd population, thé pigeon and cock are atso fbund, though among
thé Bcrbers ofEast LIbya nelthcr thèse nor any othcr birds are eaten. Of thé animaîs
named above, thé camel, as has been said, Is not native to Africa. Of Asiatic origin,
it Is not fbund depicted on thé Egyptian monuments betbre thé Saitic period, and did
not become common in Africa until thé time of thé Persian ascendahcy in Egypte
Once introduced, however, it rapidty ùsurped throughout a!l North Africa thé place
ofthe other animats used for désert travel. Thé horse is atso ofAsiah origin, but fbund
Its way into Africa befbre thé camet, suddenly appearmg In Egypt at thé beginning of
thé New Empirer and nnding Its way to Crète, before this time. In thé Early
Minoan période Thé ox, though now rare In Eastern LIbya, was neverthetess known
anciently.as is shown by thé représentations of four of thèse animais at thé plough. In
thetombofPe-tutatSîwah."
t Tha (o))ow;ng tBây beaotejM thé eh!ef pub))cat!onson th!s subjeet J. P. Tknge, C~~w~ p. }0t
p. S 7
r/M~.
S. M~rt!n,
j~
~x ~r
wherc thé ch~ica! noMes hâve been coHected; R.M.Smith and E. A. Porcher, R~ory c/f~ DA~M~ oi' C~af,
N/~Mo, idem, A~~ ~y &
ï!!
AfM?f. C~~r~f. vot. xci. p. 23 t~V., /)r~M
~M
~a~,
&a~ Ct~KM in thé .BeF. C~A-.
P. Asch~dn, Dy-M~ < ~~a~ j
p.
G.RohIfs,D~S~<x~sA.Aainaud,<.p.t)&j~
!t possiMe thM,as eadyas Minoantimes,9i)phjum formed an artide ofcxpnrt trom Liby:i to Crète. A. J.
zt; j~.
Evan:, &r~)M A/MCf?, vot i. p.
<r~r~)
Thé carnet (C.

?9~
bctong to Persian t:mci. Fo- conadfranonofthis qaestion. pM? G.-B.-M. Fiamand, Dt
W. Ridgeway, ?~
/M)t
existed in Africa in quaternary times, but its historié introduction seems, as stated; to
~~Me.
~or~, p. ï)6 j~. Ridgeway advocates thé Libyan origin of thé thoroughbred
ndinj; horse, and in sapport of hia thcs!: bas co!)eetcd much materiat. But he has not cxptained (o) thé absence of thé
horse !n O.E. Egypt or (~) why atnocg thé Libyans of thé invasions horses
K'ere so scarce or (f) how it hâppen'i that
thé horse was known in Crets before Itappeared in Egypt.
A. J. Evans ajdaeed on th!s pont a )ate M!noan Mat-impression in whteh a horse !s see~bcing carriçd in
a one-
ma9t«lvesse). ThisMene heinterpreted as thé nrst !mportat!on ofthe thoronghbred horse from Libya into Crète–-a r
fourMd assnmpt!on ror whic t there is no support. As a natter of <act, a sea) ôf thé Ear)y Mino~t) Period, with horse
a
engravedonit,wasafterwar<isnotedbyC.H.andH.Hawes,C~c/'Cf<p.3.
G. SteindorfF, Cer~
thé oasis.
.& Z.< ~'&~ z&~ ~«M/Mj~, p. )oo, fig. 7$.
Theyhayereceitdy been re-introdccedbyH.H.thé Khédive.

~l.
A short timc.ago, tt~e wefe~~oxett in
 very fine breed, and arc more Lt harmony with
The asses in Eastern Libya are of a
their environment than any of thé other animais in use, excepting only thé came!. Of
thé wild animais usefui to man for their skins or for food, the addax antelope, mohor
antelope,orix, and moufllon (two varieties) occur, as do also the gazelle and, though but
rarëly, the wild ass.* Among the smaller quadrupeds may be mentioned thé jerboa,
hare, and rabbit. Thé commonest of the carnivorous animais are thé hycna, a small
wolf, jacka!, fennec-fox, a variety ofpard(~/M/&~A!), thé wild-cat (f. M/~J),and,
rarëly, thé panther. If the classical sources are to be believed, the interior of Eastern Libya
shared with thé anclent Moghreb a bad name on account of the number and ferocity
of thé wild animais it contained. Herodotus gives to a whole district of the interior
thé name A<~ e~t<&S~?, or Wild-Beast Libya." 2 Of birds, the ostrich may be
mentioned as the largest and most useful. It has recently become extinct in thé Httoral
zone,~ though it once existed as far north as Marmarîca,and its plumes, a? will later
appear, formed one of thé distinctive features of Libyan dre~. Bustard are found in
the neighbourhood of the desert while in thé summer and a.utumn the littoral
zo~e is visited by vast migrations of quàil. Wild doves occur in thcse districts having
clufs and ravines to shelter them, while water-hens, ducks, and namingoes are found on
thé ~o~, c

Along the coast the 6sh are extremely numerous, and in many places sponges,
wh~ch are to-day extensively fished for by thé Greeks,~ abound.
Ofnoxious anin~àls,'apart from the carnivorous beasts, snakes exist in all the
habitable areas, and even in the ~/M~. Thé cobra is rare, but the almost equally
deadly cérastes Is in, many places so common as to be a menace to grazing animais.
Scorpions of several varicties are found in places not too far removed from damp soi!, as
are also cehtipëdes. Poisonous tarantulas of large size Uve in most of thé oases.
OcbasionaMy, flights of locustsruin thegraznig and thé oasis-gardens,~ and cause
damage that is ilt-atoned for by the tact that, on these occasions, these insects are eaten
by botb men and animais.

The wild ass occurr~j till medisva) t'mM as far north as nef thé Egypt~n Oeses. He'cdotMt'.
W. H. BrowM, 7'A ln ~-<M,p. )6. B~awhe remârted that "near the few springs uf waMt" on the w~y to
~tf~e/p.
Sîwah, "thé tmksoffhe ante)ope and ostrich are frequentlydiscoverable. G. E.SheUey, ~t; J~~has
coD~cted évidence this topic. Citing 0. Finsch and G. Hantaub, Ost-Afrkrrr; Shet!ey
some en DM p. ;97, cotes
the présent extinction of the ostrich on the et-Moghrah p)ains between Cairo and Suez, where Bnrckhardt saw these birds
in t~io. Prince Ha)!m B~hatestined that he had found freshly diMurbed brceding-placés ofthe ostrich a t~w days'
journey nom Cairn. în Pocdck's time the ostrich was fbund in the hilly gebe! S.W. of Atejnmdna Sonini often saw
frestt traces ittthe désert abaat Batmrîah; and Générât Minam)i,on Ms way from Atcïandn: toStwah.obsen'cd Nocb of
from ten to nfteen.. It may be added that fragments of old ostrich-eggshclls are found in thé vicinity of ~argah Oasis.
An jÊngtish writer has therefore committed
a serions blunder in addacing thé soathern (Stdanesc)habitat ofthe o~tneh as
''tvidehcc in support o!'one of~his hypothèses, as has beenpo!nted out (0, Bates, Dr. G. ~M5f< $mM «f~~ ~~M~
~)-
C. W. fur)6ng, G~/< f~ N~i! p. 20 j~. A brief popular a:co~nt of this industry will therc be found-
thcpntyredeemingfeatareinanptherwiseworthtessbQok.
° Jutius Obscquens, Df~~w, 28, and P~u)us Orosius'v, t for an account of the dévastations caused in Cyrenaica
by ]ocusts ~«M! B.c. Aho Ptiny~ x!. 20, where the me'thodica) eftbrts taken by thé Cyrenaeansto combat
this pest are mentioned.

~t
 In conclusion, it may be said that the wild Fauna of Eastern Libya is not, at least
at thé present time, a very numerous one e!ther m species or !n humber. It contains
many animais, which, since they have adapted themsel~es to their environment by
taking on desert colourings, etc., are of interest to natur~ists but these wild animais
cannot be said to form a very important factor in the life of thé inhabitants, as is thé case
in tropical Africa, where thé animais are much more numerous, or in Arctic countries,
where the Flora is economically almost negligible.

VHI. MAK–DtSTRtBUTtON: NUMBERS RELATtONSOFMANTOHtS

ENVtRONMENT tN EASTERN LtB~A

The modern population of Eastern Libya divisible into'two main classes which.
Is
may be regarded as cultural rather than racial-the sedentary townsmen and the
nomads.
The towns of Eastern Libya exist as centres of trade or as agricultural viUages.
The former are found at junctions of the caravan roads, or in small oases along the lines of
march. The latter exist in the more extensive fertile areas, which in some cases have
also the advantage of being well placed with regard to trade. Centres of the former
c!xss are those such as Murzuk on the great Chad-Tripoli route, at its junction with
roads from Ghat in the west and Wagîlah in thé east Ghat itself, on thé road from
Aïr and the Niger Territories, with Ghadames to the north and Murzuk to thé east ¡
and Ghadames, with Ghat to the south, Tripoli Town to the N.E., and tothe west,
Warg!a and Ghardayah. To this category of trade centres must also be added Sohnah,
between Tnpo!i Town, Wagîlah, and Murzuk. Towns that hâve grown up at the
ha!tmg-ptaces along the gréat desert ioads are sometimes of considerable size, as Gatrun'
on the Chad-Tripoli route. The agricultural towns are as a rute much smaller than
these harbours of the caravans. They lie chiefly in the Syrtic littoral zone, as
Tatahu!n,Misdah,"8ongem"(BuNegem),Zellah,Abu Naym,ctc.,or in Cyrenaica,
as Merg, Tukrah, Tolmeytah, etc. Thé latter pair, were they now practicable ports
as in classical times, could be reckoned with Tripoli Town, Benghazî, or Dernah,
as owing their impcrtance partiy to trade and partly to agriculture. This double
source cfprospenty is actually enjoyed to some extent by two of the larger oases, for
Wagîlah, besides its palm groves, has the good fortune to be placed at the intersection
of the Sudan-Kufra, Benghazi, Murzuk, and Sîwah roads, by the last of which one
passes eastward into Egypt; and ~argah is both rich in itself, and important as a
station on the Darb eI-Arba'ïn. From tjfargah it is but à short journey to Esnah
theeastores-Siutinthe north. In general thé agricultural towns lie to the north, in
in
littoral Tunisia and Tripolitana, and in the oases; the trade towns arescatteredàbout
in a roughIyN.-S. direction, west of thé Libyan Désert.
1 To turu
turn from the towns to the habitable
thé tOWI1$ portion. i,m"t.~r"be
habitable portions of thé desert, it mustJfirst be
° `"
 rcMarked that the nomads are not so independent pf the permanent centres as is usually
supposed.. Throughout, the §ahara, the material and moral existence cf the nomads is
onty assured by the means of sedentary annexes in the centres, or at the peripheries, of
their districts.1 Therefbre the area to which each tribe is limited almost always
contâins, or is with:n reach of, some permanent settlement. These latter not only
ser~e as markets for indispensable articles as, for example, all such as arc made from
métal, or for dates, but are atso the only places at which the nomad comes m contact
with fbrms of life digèrent from his own. They are the centres from which he derives
most of the simple ideas he possesses, and are the sources of his religîous enthusiasms.
It is to the towns that he goes at certain seasons to meet other tribesmen, with whom
he exchanges news, and whom he joins in planning raids, or discussing the rainfall and
grazing. An example of these annual visitations may be seen at Delingat, in the
western Delta, a town to which the Aulad 'Alî repair in grëat numberj every autumn.
In the desert thé nomad moves freelyaboutwtthin the tribal area, passing from
one grazing ground toanother with his camels and goats, in winter "~bilowing the rain,"
and in summer temporarily exhausting oiie ~~M~ after another.
OccasionaMy, if far enough removed from European influence, he joins his fellows
on long raids into réglons outside the tribal tcrritory. The object of these raids is
gcn~rally to obtain slaves or camels, or to plunder the homeward bound
caravans from
thé south. These latter, if he but feel himself strong enough, he will rob without
compunction, though in his own district he protects them for a substantial con-
sidération against similar raids frorn without.
Ofhis visits to thé towns, of his periodic foregatherings with his fellow tribes-
men, of his camel and goat grazing, and, rarely, of thé raids just mentioned, the life of
~he nomad Is largely made up.~
The numbers of the present inhabitants of Eastern Libya, counting both
sedentartes and hotnads, cannot be stated without great réserve. Nor can one fcel at all
sure that, once an approximation bas been made, one is provided with anything but a
veryrough indication as to thé number of thé ancient inhabitants for the Arab
irruptions of the seventh and eleventh centuries, and thé subséquent collapse of the
Libyàn prédominance in the east, both tend to complicate this prcblem. It seems,
however, certain that the changes to be reckoned with are all such as would tend to
reduce ratherthantoincrcase the number o the population, Thé Arabs, with their
genjus for destruction, nnishéd the work aircady begun by thc nomadic Libyans, when
they captùred and sacked the now ruined cjtles ofthe sedentary Africans. Theold
centres have manyof them remained uninhabited,orsubslsted as mcre hàmlets,s!nce
thé Moslem invaders clove their disastroMsway through..the most bopulous parts of
< H. t)n.veytter, ~M ÏTB~ ~« Nord,
p. :~7. Duveyner dr's pot cxaggerate thé importance of the towns when
heca))sthem~~j~j~<&pM/)! des tri8ai. `
< No more vivid accouht of nomadic life, wh!eh in its essentiats varies little with tisit
or p!<tce, can be read than
th~~C.DoMgkty,
·~
'J
A
-p.
-'O,
North Africa. Even !n cases where a sequestered geographical positon bas favotired
continuous occupation, one finds évidence of décline in the population, as in the now
abandoned but fertile oasis of Abu 'Ungar, where the sole vestiges of mun are the ruined
walls and mounds of debris left by former occupants.' In the oasis of Hargah,
évidence is to be seen of the decrease in population in the excellent préservation of thé
ancient masonry, which, had the number of the inhabitants increased, would hâve been
quarried more cxtensively for building matinal. When these points are considered,
and with them thé questions of deforestation and the consequent encroachments of the
desert sands, the number of the modern inhabitants may be accepted a minimum as
below which, at least during the period of the Graeco-R-oman occupation, the ancient
population did not fall. The relation of the modern to the pre-classical total is more
difficult to determine; but as Graeco-Roman occupation tended to increase the popula-
tion, the number of the East Libyans before the advent ofthe Greek colonists was probably
nearer the modern ngure.
The fellowing approximation of the populatior. of Eastern Libya at thé present
time is made without reckoning In the inhabitants of the Fayum fcr it is uncërtâih
as to whether that district was, during full historie times. in the
possession of the
Libyans for any considérable period. Therefore this district may be dismissëd with
the remark that Its present population isaboutt~7,ooo.~

M~manca"
EasternTunista(ShoMe!-Ger!dtoTnpotiMna)~
TripoKbma, Kufra and N. Fexzan<

S!wahan<!Garah"
B..har!ah'
Farafrah~
t~o.OOO
t,000,ooo
8,000
6,000'
6,000
550

Hargah~
DaMah' · ',700
7,85.)
Kurkur"
ToM) Jt,t8o,!00
_J=*
~j_L-–
Or,inroundnumbers,8o,0oo. --0–~–– C"
If this latter figure be taken to represent approximately the numb~r of the Eastern
Libyans, m thé pre-classical period, or rather before the XXVIth Dynasty and thé
expansion of Egypt towards the west, ît is possible to arrive at the number of fighting
one-tenth of the total population'was capable
men they could have put in the field. If
of bearing arms- a low percentagë among a primitive peuple–thé minimum
fighting total would be tt8,ooo. As it is not to be suppôsed that thé Libyans were .e

!c i!!nncerta!nofwha:penod. On intelligence (verbat) receiYcd from Binb~h) L..V. Royte, one ofthe two
EnropetM who have visited [lis oasis, î indine to b6!t<evs the rn!nt to be Copt!c.
~Egy{)MnGovernmcnt,M~,t9tf,p.tt<). l~~t~isthenumbertheregivenfcr~o~.
~Esnn)ate<ionthebaHtoftopef9quarem!)e. <A.H.KMne,<M,Vo!.i.p.t~O.
~Egy{)t!anGovernmeht,<<-<7.p.ttS,g!~MMa''iut,eM.,9t78o;. 'AftefpersonatobsMMtiont.
1ns.

'J.B~tMJH.L.Be~nen,MO~p. .sH.J.L.Beadn~),P~M,p.
*H.J.L.BM(!MU,~MAO~,p,t.t. MJ.Ba)),A'0~,p..t6.
"J.B~H,y~/C~0~&«r~,jfbrthi!~M.
;<"?:?~
 well enoHgh un!tcd to draw at one Urne upon all these forces, they may bc better 1

exhibited according to areas of tnobittzat!on, thus :–

Région. Popttbthx). FightmgMtti,

fE.Tunisia t50,coo t$,e~?

LTheLittoraNTripoittana 00,~00
t,ooo,ooo
t.Marmanca 8,000 Soo

<,<i,ooo "5~
S:wah and Garah 6,000 6oo
Bajharîiih 6,000 6oo
II. Thé O'~es FaraMt 550 5S
Dahlah ',700 ~o
Hargah "7~50 785

!rï 22,t00 2,0

tTT~/
IH.W~ernpart.
fE.TuniM ~0,000 t5,ooo
,,000,000 .oo.ooo
t,t 50,000~ tt 5,ooo

.––'
/W. Tripolitana (hatf). 500,000 50,000
ÎV.North-EasternJ~ ~00 Soo
pz (.S:wahandGarah
5,000 500
_5t;~oo0~j_5',300

From the above tables it is clear that the bulk of thé Libyan strength-in-arrnslay
in the west that thé oases must have been always subordinated to the littoral, and that
the Libyan invasions of Egypt must have derived their strength from as far west, at least,
~yrenaica. Another points deserves mention the smaUness of the population of thé
as
oas~s,
their fertitity, and their position between thé Egyptian power on thc east and thé
chiëfseats of the Libyans on the west, must have made them, until late Egyptian times,
ac~usefbrcontentioaandhostilityb~tweenthetwopeop~
It .remains to speak o~ the effects of régional environment to which thé modern
inhabitants are.subjected. As It is by thé nomadic part of thé population that thèse
e~Ïects of climatic and physiographic factors are mqst clearly evinc~d, it need only be said
of the town-dwellmg ~~ers or agriculturists, that they exhibit in varying, but lesser
degrces, àccording tô cirçumstances of race ahdgeographical position, the physical and
1 temperamental pccuilantiss of thé aomàds. Sin<:e, moreover, it is with the anccstors
of ~he modem ~erber-spéaking indigènes, atid not with. thé Invadmg Arabs, that this
ess~y deals, thei~owtitg rërnarks ar~appÛcableto the &rmer cspectaHy as they have,
for longer period than the Arabs been innuenced by thé nature of the country.
Thé physique of thé nomad. Berber clearly shows thé effect of his environment.
As more will be said on this topic in discus~ng the ethnography of the ancient
inhabitants, a very few brief remarks will here sumce. The typica! North African
nomad is ta! spare, and wiry. Like all spearmen he carries himself erect he is !ong"
iimbed, and in his movements dignified and grave. He walks with long, slow steps, as
if sulting his pace to the stride of a camel. He is hardened alike to cold and heat,
is ncrvous!y strong and indefatigaMy enduring. He eats and dnnks sparely by necessity,
though prone to over-indulgence when an opportunity presents Itself. He displays,
despite his present religion, a fbndness for intoxicants when he can get them.~ His
face is either round or oval,, with a broad forehead, clean-cut tips, high cheek-boneS,
and a firm round.chin. If bearded, it !s generally but slightly, and with straight,
black hair. Bronzed by sun and wind in early life, he is, even by European standards,
white at birth. The eyes are generally dark and piercing in the younger men, though
sun-glare and ophthalmia almost invariably take the lustre from the eyes of the older
ones. B!ue eyes are rare, though not unknown. The women, n~ticeaMy smaller.
than the men, are often handsome, with a beauty which is European rather than Arab.
Men and women alike have small hands and icet.~ Like his forefathersin the days of
Herodotus, the modem, indigenous nomad is conspicuousiy robust, having accom-
modated himself to an environment severe, and desolate, but invigoratihg and healthful.
In his mentality, the Berber-speaking nomad shows even more cicarly than in his
physique the effects of his environment. Centralized communal life on a large scale is
an impossibility in most parts of Eastern Libya the resources of any one locality sumce
usually only for the needs of a few families. The noniads would therefore be by the
nature of the country speedily reduced to a state of mere nihilism, had they not instinctively
preservedthemselves from this condition by maintaining their sense oftribat ïoyalty. Thé
rights of each nomacic family are respected onîy because they are upheld by the tribe
of which it forms a part, and which bas its own places of resort, and âts own rights of
watering and grazing. The nomad bas an appreciation of his interest in the tribe, and
his loyalty to it is one which is not easily broken. This sense of tribal community he
exteinds also to the confederation,by belonging to which the tribe itself is protected
against foreign incursions on a large scale.
Other factors to be considered are the monotony and loneliness of the desert the
dimculty of existing in it the great distance which often lies between one habitable
point and another the absence ofmarkedseasonal changes ofclimate, and the
quality of what, in cIviHzedcommunIties,wou!dbeeaUedpuMic opinion.
The monotony ofthe désert is a thing not easily conceived by those who have not
1 Tha:, thé B<;rber-!pMHng Wag!hn:, Magabras,and Siwans consume large quantities of
~A~
& tgs, <
a mild intoxicant made
f<ûm ferménted dates or palm-sap. J. Hamilton, M Nortb ~/r/M, pp. i8g j~
/r/~ of~< Thc
Agh!eb![e futert of JC~ruan were'nôtoriauslyhard drinkers. V. Piquet, C;M/M<!<MKJde du p. 86.
Intemperance mcre than one.: cost thé Libyans de~. Thus, the Carthaginian Imilco exterminated a body them after
theyh~conaameda qnm[)tyofw!ne,druggedwt[h mandragore, which ~'ehadattowed to fall intotheifh.mdt. Polygenus,
Strategtm. v. to, 'I~Axmf <?[!<; Tm)' At~N)' T& ~~on'of, KïA. Cf. infra, p. ~3~, for the (oM, from K similar cause, of a
victory by the Nasamoncs, ~H~Duvsyner,?.
.M-
 experienced it. Its effect upon thc nomadic peoples te seen chiefly tn their extremety
limited range of ideas, their minds not being stimulated by natural suggestion. Thé
gravity of thé ïmùshagh is almost as proverbial as their bravery, but is largely due to
the fact that their minds are setdom stirred except under thé stress of physîcal excite-
ment. As a converse of this, the nomad, whose mind is $o stiffened that he will regard
his ~rst locomotive engine with a d!gnt6ed stolidity that masks nothtng but an inability
to grasp anything beyond the visualized fact, will display intense kcenness and anima-
tion when tracking a gazelle. In the former case he passively accepts the prc&ence of
something outside his désert expenence, and so a thing for which hc caMOt coacc!ve
any use in the latter he is dealing with a matter w!th which he bas been familiar from
his childhood, and in tracking his food he displays a craftiness and ekili born of intense
and practised concentration many times before directed in this same channel.
Thé loneliness of desert life tends to increase the sense ôf!iberty and personal free-
dom to which thé nomad is born heir. For days he marches from one ~~M~ to
another, without perhaps seeing another human being save h!& own immediate com-
panions. Such as it is, he is master of the !and beyond thé reach of government, a
conformist custom rather than law, he, yet bas wit enough to understand the value
to to
of h~s freedom, and prizes it highly enough to fight for it–one of the few abstract posses-
sion~ outside his religion for which he will give his life.
Despite the difficulty of his life, the Berber-speaking nomad bas, according to his
own code of hon6ur, a regard for property. The Arab is his inferior in this respect,
though living under much the same conditions. The Imushagh may collect together
and !aunch themselves across five hundred miles bf desert on a desperate carnet-raid
this is war. On the road, they will pass and leave untouched a load of goods jettisoned
agaiost recovery by some un!ucky cameleer to take the forsaken bâtes would be dis-
gracefui theft. To steal by trickery is, among the nomads, naturally a more senous
ofFe~ce than among a sedentary people. For the latter are surrounded bymanysuper-
nuo~s things, the loss of which would be no more than annoying to the owner the
property of the average nomad, on the other hand, is of such vital sort that to deprive
him ofit is tantamount to threatening,his existence. Yet to a nomad who starves peren-
nia!!y on milk and dates, the temptations to which he dôes notoften yield are jf~r
grea~er than those before which thé morals of a sedentary often give way. The very
seve~ity of his life bas bred in him a rough code of honesty, which forbids him to
plunder those with whomhclives.
The long marches to which thé Libyan nomad must be accustomed have the enfect
ofi~stilling in him an indifference to distance quite beyond the expérience of sedentary
peoples. A native of the desert thinks little of walking 6p miles in two days on a
handful ofdried dates, if he is reasenably certain of finding a puddle cf water half-way
on thé road. With equal equanimity, he will face ~60 miles with a carnet provided
f~ hisfbad does not !ead through hostile country.

\'<
 This indiSerencs to long journeys is partly due to a very vague ccnception of time.
h is always with an effort that a desert people, in reply to the questions of a European,
try to estimate the time required to reach a given point. Almost invariably they
understate it but this is usuaiïy the result of mere ignorance, and not, as many travellers
have unj~<!y said, of a deliberate wish to say the pleasing thing at the expense oftruth.
A caravaneer who may know every well, ~M~, wady, and wo/~r along a line of march,
may quite honestly be several hours out in his reckoning each day. This uncertainty
exists even in dealing with years few tribesmen know their own ages, or, certainly, the
âges of their children over six or seven. These peculiarities are due chiefly to the lack
of incident m desert life, and to the absence of markedly dinferentiated seasons. The
cold winds of winter cease, and summer comes in at a stride, to be again succecded by
the winter cold without any season of marked change intervening between the two.
The personal quality of public opinion mentioned above is due to the isolation of
nomadic families. To the simple laws of his family, tribe, and conrederacy the nomad
is in most cases forced re!igious!y to adhere. But, whereas, in civilized communities, it
is mass-prejudice that enforces those regulations which make for the public good, with
the nomad it Is thé opinion of the individuals of his family and acquaintance, Tempera-
mentally nervous and sensitive, the nomad is always susceptible to ridicule and mockery,
and he has the same hesitation to exposing himself to the sharp tongue ofan o~J woman
that a European would have to rendering himself contemptible to a city full of people
with none of whom he was personallyacquainted. Nomadic laws, to be effective, cannot
be as complex a;) those governing a community in which every man is policed by his
neighbour. This explains why public opinion among the East Libyan nomads does not
censure the immoraLty of women until after marriage, when questions of paternity and
inheritance are involved. The /t'A- ~/K)~~f obtaihs in a~ pfivate quârrels but though
opinion is not strong enough to prevail against protractëd private feuds, it checks these
Indirectty through the remarkable institution of the ~o~ or extra-tribal brotherhood.
Several of the factors just mentioned combine together to encourage in the North
African nomad that highly-developed personal bravery which, did not thé same (actor$
deprive him of a spirit of discipline and of organisation, would make bim, even to-day,
a most formidable element in modem African. politics his !one!y life makes him
dependent upon himself and his own ski!l in arms-not to handle well his gun, lance,
sword, and buckler Means, in an encounter with an enemy in thé désert, that he will be
kiiled. He has !Ived for too many generations in an open country, where cover is
scanty and trails are casity followed, to seek Instincttvcly to hidc from ah enemy. It is
not long since he spoke contemptuously of firearms as weapons of treachery thrëe
thousand years ago his ancestors raced without ninchtpg, for six hours, the deadly rain
ofarrowspouredinto their wild ranks by thé weU-trainedEgyptianarcher~2
To this bravery, it follows as a corollary that the Berber nomad is fairly tfuthfuL
'H.Du"cyn<:f,r~.p.3S3.. ~~<f,p.!t7.

f." "l' a i..

 Even if he seeks to éscape the consequences of some act of violence, and be taken by ht;
pursuers, he may conress his guilt, though the admission cost him his !!& Once he
bas given his word, the chances are hcWIll fulfil it, cost what it may theTftpoHtan
merchant, who bas no love for him, will yet entrust him with money or merchandise to
bedeliveredtosome trader in .far-awayBornu.
Like almost aU desert peoples the world &ver, the Berber nomad practises freely,
when occasion presents itself and he has the means of dispensing it, an open-handed
hospitatity. The desert guest to-day enjoys the semi-sacred character, and suffers the
same insecurity, as the Homeric traveller. Yet of that treachery which sometimes
sta!hed the annals of his sedentary kinsmen in classical times, as when Bocchus cold-
bloodedly betrayed his son in law Jugurtha to the Romans,2 the Libyan nomad
i$ sometimes guilty he does not hesitate to use treachery toward an enemy, or
tôw~rds one whom he considers as such. Hence it, is that thé Roman talked of
sh~fty or turncoat Africans.~ He is, however, loyal towards his guest nor will
he, having harboured him, plunder him at a short distance from his tents, as can
happenamongtheArabs.
A conspicuous point of difference between the African and the Arab is also found
in the former's almost European treatment of women. This may be due to the fact
that the matriarchate seems to have been established among the Libyans at an early
period, since other circumstances apparently traceable to that institution exist in
Northern, as in Central, Africa.
The indigenous nomadic women enjoy a degree of freed~m unknown among their
Semttic sisters. A girl of the Imushagh refuses or accepts a suitor as she pleases
she may, before marriage, have à lover without suffering those penalties which,
in most cases, wouU be visited upon an unmarried Arab woman under the same
circumstances and she receives, after marriage, much of that consideration which
amopg civilized people is paid to the mpther of the family. Custom in Eastern
LIbya ~tIH pays more regard to maternai than to paternal filiation in dealing with
~uestioMofInherItance.*
WhUe it is unnecessary to ~ccept in all its enthusiastic details thc somewhat
rhet~rical description of Berber charâcter given by Ibn Haldun, this topic may yet be
concluded with his surnmary, which, even if it présents only the brighter sideof thé
pict~re, has yet its basis in fact. And thé reader is reminded that the little-changingcon-
ditions of desert life, which have preserved their main aspects for thousandsof years, assure
us that neither in character nor physique has thé indigenoustribesman had reason greatly
,\1
'H.D<tveytter,p.3S;.
S~Uust, /<~&~< < t<
S Fifmic'~ Matt*nu9, Af. i. G~ ~A' &MJ C~M', ~'< ~Mn S~~ S~vii)s ~t~-
~«. tv. 7: ~M'<J <w.Mj~ But cf. yt!<M ~)~< O~u D~M, A 62, where, speaMn~ qf L)by~ WMt
of Eg~pt, the Wfiter remarks «M~ est M/<& f~M ~M)'M ~MM, ~'MiM'M, et ~'M.
H. Duveyrier, ?.
p. J~. T)}i9 question ofmatfm~hat 5t)rv!vat among the Libyan peoptes ts one of great
comptexity, and M far from being settled. ~')~ ~j/)' p. )tt
to alter since prehistoric times.* "Thevirtueswhich do honour'to man, and which
have become for the Berbers a second nature," says thé Arab historian, are bravery
and readiness in defending guests and dépendants faithfulness to promises, pacts, and
treatics patience in adversity staunchness in great agiotions gentleness of dis-
position indulgence toward the faults of others aversion to taking revenge kindness
toward thé unfortunate respect for the old and pious eagerness to relieve 'the
downcast industry hospitality charity great-heartedness hatred of oppression
courage shown against the powers which threaten them there," he conctudes, is
a host of titles for the Berbers -titles inherited from their fathers, and of which
the exhibition in writing ought to serve as an example to the nations of future times.2
T. Mommsen, ~~Mr/{<' <?~<M~,vol. v. p. 6~ Die (Y'f'«!Mfr~a ~'rf~<rr~<?~B K'fr~< </<f Berbern Mf~
a'M die ft&M der O~f <t~ Sand der ~a~. Desert peoples are admittedly among ~he most conservative in the
world.
Ibn HjtJun, Kitab f/& Trans. McG. de Slane, vol. i. p. t~g f~. It shoutd be said that Ibn~atdun is here
speaking more especially of the Atlas tribesmen of the west. In addition, f/~ H. Duveyrier, op. <'< p. ~83 In
regard to Duveyrier's account of the character pf the Imushagh, it tnust be said that he bas deserved thé censure which,
for his ~<MJ< t<! peu y~cA//< pour ft'y/t<j «Mf~, he bas received from E.-f. Gautier, M<M<< ~«, p. ifjy.
Thelmashaghareannepeop)e,buttheyare6nebarbarians.
 CHAPTER
ETHNOLOGY AND ETHNOGEOGRAPHY

THE origin, whethe" European, Asiatic, or African, of thé Hamitic race-which, with
the Arabs, now shares that part of Africa which lies north of lat. 10° N.–yet awaits
solution. A host of théories, a few of them plausible, none of them sumcicntly
suppbrted, and most of them in direct contradiction to each other, have been launched
as solutions to this problem, and have but rendered it more obscure. At present, and
until a great mass of new and scientincally gathered evidence sha!l have been collected,
oniy one main fact is indisputabte– that the so-called Hamitic race has absorbed a
number of fbre~n ethnic éléments,' which it has not succeeded in whoHy assimi'ating
physïcaMy, though it bas imposed upon them this or that Hamitic di,alect. Thé
original pure Hamitic type seems to be that found among the Saharan Berbers–a type
tall, spare, tong-Umbed, and dark (~r&~) hair black or dark brown, straight or v/avy
head dolichocephalic, orthognathous nose slightly aquiline or straight eyes dark and
piercing, set rather widely apart mpufh well-defined facial capillary system slightly
deveiopedr~ovenients generally slow and dignified. ïn the west, between the Wady
Dra'ah (" Wed Draa ") and the Senegal, this type has bécotée fused with the Negro
éléments from the south, the résultant type sharing the physical peculiarities of both
progenitors. Thé same thing appears to have happened in the case of thé various
Hamitic peoples of East Africa;
The most important extra-African éléments among the Hamites are the brachy-
ceph,alic Berbers and the blonds. Both, as one would a ~or/ expect, are found in the
horth. Thé brachycephaîs are, almost certainly, invaders, since they form but a small
grodp near the northern seaboard ofthe dolicliocephalic African continent. The blonds
are t~uch more numerous, but are even more clearly of extra-African origin. Various
theofies hâve been advanced t0 account for thé présence of this xanthochroid élément
in ~frica, it even having been asserted that the blonds owed their origin to thé
~Cf.H.WeisgerbM,<J~'i'~p.8:
Cf. Lucan, iv. 6~8, At& MtW~j Nemesian, Cy'M~. t6t, ~~<e' ~~s~.f f<'f~M~ h<:rt M !n
~Mf<&~
Mditjial x. 68, <'< .E/~w] H. Schirmer, De M~w~~&~)!<' ~~i ~A'~ f~c ~e~ p. y~.
For this type, H. Wei~érbM, p. } ) J~.
 Vandds. This is, however, not only in itself incredible, owing to the number and
distribution cf the xanthochroids in the fastnesses of Morocco, but is even <Iat!y
coniradtcted by thé ancient evidence. Whatever may be the true signUicance of the
word Tehenu, which some would have to mean ~air or bright (J~7. U people "),~
évidence of a more satisfactory nature is to be found in the Egyptian monuments. For
whereas the Libyan in earlier Egyptian art is regularly a ~r~, !ater representations
exist showing Libyans not only blond, but even with red hair and blue eyes.~ Classical
notices of blond Africa.ns also exist and though they are few, they are explicit. The
Greek colonists of Cyrene are mentioned by Callimachus as dancing with the blond
Libya,n womcn–~cre ~a~~t At~p~.s This passage may be compared with that
of the P~r~/M, in which Lucan speaks of the blond Libyan and black Aethiopian
serving-women ofClecpatra :–-
Haec Libyces pars Mm~a~M gerit altera crines
Ut Mt< Caesar Rheni se <<M< in arvis
Tam rutilas vidisse comas; pars sanguinis usti
Torta ~& ~~t~M~~ gerens a/M~ M~M.~

Thé geographer Scylax says that the Libyans about Lake Tritonis are reported to
be fair and nnely built.5 A passage in Pausanias might suggest the presence among the
Libyans of blue or sea-coloured eyes ~<n/<to~ (.
o~~x/fou~ .).~ The presence of
blond natives in the west Is mentioned by Procoplus/ and from these notices it is clear
that, for nearly a thousand years before the advent of the Vanda!s, a xanthochroid
element continuously existed in Africa. This blond élément was not, probably, to
bc found far from the coast, the interior being occupied by the brun Hamitic type,
and, a,s to-day, by mixed Hamites and negroes in the oases. The presence of thé

~~j jer l'antiquité, p. ~i~f'

C~r~w
F. Chabas,
~<! ~S' voL ii. p. 78.
t8t P. )e P. Renouf, Who <f~<' the p. 60! G. H. Brunch,

red eyes, eg. W. M. Mti))<:r, ~f< vo). ii. Plates xiv., xvi., xvii. <
This is not, to be sure, alw.t/9 quite conclusive, sinçe paintings do occur in which foreignen are represented with
But cf. p. t~. note z,
where thé author has justly ob.erved that while thé ~r~ Libyat) type M thé only one portrayed in the Old Empire, the
Mn'hoehro'dsprejonun.ttein the New Empire représentations,
!C!tt'tmachus,~<t~'ii.(~FM/)8;(!tw!))bere~emberedthatCaU!<nachuswMhitnse!f9Cyrenean):–
*H ~X"P'! ~7" ~e!~3o!
<!<rT< fmn~pM 'EfffoCs
B~/)<! Mp~~K~Te /MTO
~B"'t AtjSM)'<r~
Te~<t( t~ <~f Kap-
M(~tS ~Af~ *)(M.
/yM.?~, t~6.
Lucan,
Scy!ax,< x.no, oTrot ya~ r~TM A~t! A~o~.t. ~~o~~a~T.; Ka:K<~t<rTpt.
C. Mehtis. Die A~
Pausan!a9 i. t~.
p. 37, and C. Müller, ad Seyl
On thh passage
(C~. C~ ~M. vo). i, p. 88 co)'. B).
Procopius, De ~/& ~t)~ ii. )~. Procopius had this information from a native Muree.it being conveyed to
him by a Moorish chief, OrthMas," who told him that beyond (west of) thé desert

~af9of.. were to be found a peopie who were

not dark !!ke thé Moors, but who were- of white countenance and rair-haired–o~ <ii<r!r~ oi Ma~to~tOt~Aa~coOt,
K~ ~tWM ït ~KH' TM <r(.~«To «et! TK! tfojna!
 1
last-named element explains how, !ti Greek argot, black hydrias came to bc called
"Libyans. 1
That the xanthochroids were Nordic invaders, as was long ago supposed by Broca 2
and Faldherbe,~ seems, despite thé ingenious theory of Sergi to the contrary, indubitable.
Sergi bas advocated the African origin of the xanthochroids,claiming that, because the
mass of them are found in the heights of. the Atlas/ they are autochthonous indigènes
whose pigmentation was modined by their mountain environment.~ To sustain this
theory, he cites an Interesting piece of evidence from an Italian military anthropo-
metrist,~ who found in his examination of the recruits that the majority of those who
were blond came fro.m districts that were over ~.oo mètres above sea-level. This, of
course, is not evidence on the African xanthochroids for It is not shown that thé
Italien blonds are not of Langobardic or of earlier Germanic stock, who, themselves
Nordic invadeis, found themselves mdst at home and survived better in the coolcr
mountain districts. And again. If mere altitude could make blonds, these would not
be la~king in either the Rocky Mountains, or the Andes, where every, altitude, and all
conditions ofclimate and latitude, are to be found. As neither they nor thé Himalayas
and thé Hindu Kush/ which reach by stages from hot moist plains to enormous
altitudes thé Abyssinian highlands,wellover a modest ~.oo mètres nor the orographie
systeni about Victoria Nyanza, hâve yet produced a blond people, it may salely be said
that ho more so hâve either the Apennines or thé Atlas. And since this is the case, and
thé AH-Ican xanthochroids are found at the end of a road which was ibiïowed in historie
times by another blond Nordic invasion,* is only reasonable to suppose that the xantho-
chroids of thé Egyptian monuments and classical notices were invaders in a country
prim~rily peopled with autochthonous blacks and bruns. One may, as did de Quatre-
~ages~ say truly that the origin of the African blonds Is as yet unknown,~ but it is, for
the reasons just given, sa& to say they were immigrants.
Thé presënce ofthe brachycephallc and of thé xanthochroid éléments in Africa
naturally suggests that, since among the North Africans generally classed as Hamitic
are a. number of sub-types, some of thes~ may have had their origin from yet other
foreign immigrations. This i? of course possible, though thé differences between the
sub-types are not such as to necessitate such an explanation. Thé preva!ence among the
~am~tes of dolichocephaly,for example, and the great similaiities of bair and of skin-
colour seem to point to their common indigenous origin, varlousmodl6catlons having
Hesychius, in f~. A~M* T~ jMÂ<ttfM Mjo~ M T«~ ~<!<~< Tt6~MMt;. The true home of the Negro, anciendy
as to-<}t)r, WM Ctatt~t Africa and the Sudan. Cf. Firmie';$ Maternu~ i. t MMM in A~M~M ~n and
âhost~fothefhoUces. 'P.BroM.T-Mf~&~tf&j~Me~~M~~&~Mj.
t.. L. C Faidherbe,
'.i87~,t).6o~
/&f~ /f~/i'~~r in the ~«/ S~. ~f~ P~is, tnd s.enes, ~ii.,

'p. Tissot, Sur <«MMt~~ ~~AM/~a~fj~t/~M~ ~\M~"< But, as thé c]as;)e~ notices above
citcd ehow, they were distribuKd ~fr~t no matter where the bulk of thé Mond popu)at:on was to be found.
° Serg!, r~ ~~r~~a p. R. H" ~M~n'.< m< pt, i. p. 6s J~.
'Thé one possible exception may be thé Yeshkhans of Dardistan, who have been rcported to have red hair, etc.
'theVanda)$. 9DeQuatrefage5,f~M~M~~MMMM'p.~S6.
taken place owing to fusion with the negritians of the Sudan, or with the xanthochroids
and brachycepha!s of the north. Such a modification !s now well established in the
différent in aspect from the
case of the Trarza Moors, a peopte at first sight very
§âharan Berbers who are known to be the result of a fusion between the latter and
the Negroes of Senegambia.' a Other évidence, of a Ilingttistic nature, exists to prove that
an ethnie sub-stratum of autochthones of a'single race existed in
North Africà. From
the Mediterranean to the Sudan.'and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, dialects oi the
Hanutic family are yet to be found. In many places they have given place to Arabie,
or, as in Abyssînia, to other Semitic tongues; but everywhere the
linguistic survivais
testify to the former prevalence of Hamitic. Among the western Hamites, again, can
be found evidence of their having once been called by a common ethnic name~ This
force of
name may be radically represented as MZe or MZGH.3 ahd bas at present the
~c~ or "yh'f (-f~7. "people "). It is seen as i-Mu§aGH among thé Berbers west
of Fezzan in the Air district as i-MaGIGH-en a
a feminine form îs applied by thé
AuweHmiden of Adrar to their dialect, which they call ta-MaSeGH-t thé Berbers of
the Maroccan Rîf, Atlas, and South Atlas slopes call themselves i-MaZiGH-en/whiIe
those of the Aures Mountains use the fbrms 1-MaZiGH-en, i-MaZiR-en.~ The
times as MaZiC-es,9 MaZaC-es or MaZaG-es,~
same generic appears in classical
MaZY-es," or MaXY-es,~ and is also seen in the Libyan inscriptions forming personal
names.~ It is not therefore surprisicg that thé Berbers of mediaeval times should hâve
thought themselves descended from a mythical eponymous ancestor named MaZîGH~
and thé wide dissemination of the name zs an ethnie, and its long employment,~ is

~?-<
'Cot)ignonandDe'iiker,f~Af<!tf~j</aSM~H.Weisg.*rber,<f~.p.t8t..
° t[ has been thought that such a name was to bc seeh tn the wor<J ~r~, and until rseentty
1 personally

suppotted by C. TM9ot, <<

inctined to this view, which 1 abandoned on reading Sehirmet's bnUiant study on this question. H.
Thé use of ~~ff as a generic name for the Hamites was C~f~/t
Schirmér,
vo). i. p.
op, rit,
)9S ? V.

especiattyp.ïo~
de Saint-Martin, p. ~08. Against these, vide H.Schirnief,
~Modinedvanous!y,bntatwa~in~ccordancew!ththee<iu!va!enç€Snoted/)!/r<t,p.7S~.
-Il-
<
and `

< LeoAfncanu9,A~r~,p. t8. Thé native Afncan tangent M there ta))ed~«~

)t~ The real reading should be~tx~-="tnbe"or"race<?fth!:A'nai:igh,"thename, not pf thé language, ,°
~M ~<M~, vot. i. pp. <}}, and
but of the Berbera themselves. ride R. Brown, P~f~'M of ~<M
tb8,note!8. °H.Duveyrier,p.7. 'Btssue~O~.p.~o. n
'C.deFoa<:au)d,~<-M~w~p.)0.:
Ptolemy iv. § M~M«s Aethicas, CM~~f~M, p, SX, M«z'w oa/
'Cf.E.Masqueray.iC~~P.~oo.
c~ Evagnus, ~<f<. ~~f.
i. 7, p. ï~o; Nicephorus Calliatus, .E~. ~fM/. x!v.;6,p. !tS6; Phitostorgim, ~uf. F~J. xi. S, p. 60~! A}ionymus,
~~M~~<~<!<)«<?,p. t~; C/viii.~86;Amm)9naBMMcettinusxxiï.;§t7.
'°Cbudian,M/i.3;7;Lucan!v.68t;and,doEbtfu))y,SueMaiu~,JV~30.
Hecataens~.SMph.Eyz.~f~.Ma~M! `~

HerodotGsiv. t?!. Cf. thé MaXY-taniof Justin xviii.6. Aformw!thXast:)emedia!~b:tantmaypefhap$be.

seen in the place-name Jtf~ Ma~A~ in Ptotemy iv. § (cf. < iv.
~J, § ~M. tl<t~<t(a)=
s
3 7 3
PMnyv. cf. 4.

i. pp. 7$, !t8, t;!t, t, t;t6t, ~0; L. iL. C.

Vic!orVitens!s,~H~rM~~<&m/,i.;§6.
MaSiK, MaSiR, MaSaK, etc. Ha!evy,
'bnHa)d~n,~t~<7~,Ttan9!at.deSlane,i.p.t8~.<.

'“
Faidh<rbe,<'?-~&~M~p.'ttetc.
~ggest~ith grât teserve that the name of the
>.
For !M existence in Ëgyptian t!mea, M~ M/ p.~6M. 1

MMoi Aethiopians,of wh)ch thé Merdgtyphie form wa~,

t !j ') N
t! Copt.' MATOt. 'n~ bë ope more
-a'\& tN) -R~.l) 11.1
oftheie Hamide MZGH namea, and that the n9me of the Hamitic-i~egro A~~abo may bs surviyal of't.
t,

,u-.
 PLATE I.

e
LIBYAN TYPES FROM THE EGYPTtAN MONUMENTS. z~
strong testimony of the underlying racial unity of the Berber-speaking peoples through-
out North Africa. Thé name MZGH was undoubt~dly employed ~s a generic term
by the ancestors of the modern Imushagh and the!r various branches, and it is they
who must be considered as the modern représentatives of the old Hamitic stock which
was }dvaded by the brachycéphals and xanthochroids, and which in sotne cases bas been
modined so as to takc on a negroid form,
In fegard to this !ast potnt, thé Egyptian monuments show that there aïready
existed negroid Libyans by New Empire times. The pure western Hamitic type !s seett
in Plates î., II., and X., and is characterized by having an ortho-
ghatt-ious pronte, straight or slightly àquiline hose, and pilous system
mod~rately developed. Thé eye is often represented as digèrent
frotn that of the Egyptians, the upper lld being longer than thé
-1.
lowe~andhavingatmostwhatclassical V
archaeo!og!stswpuM Uterm a "Scopadean roH"
(cf. ttg. a, Egyptian,' and Libyan). This peculiarity often exists to-day among thé
cerbers, as seen tn ftg. 2, a, (modem
Kabyle; cf. c, d, modem Egyptian).
Thé bodies are sparc, well-knit, and
long-Umbed. Types of negroid Lib-
yans are shown m Figs. and The
degree of negnsm is
u~n.~uiiie~nam not high, but it
iam.'tuigll,uut M
Is el~arlyVI marked by the platyrhmism ând thick lips the example shown might well
be c~mpared with thë "Garamantic Type" of Duveyrier.2 Thé fusion which pro-

duced this type probtbty took p!ace in Nubi~ ûf in; thé 5outher~ Egyptian OascS, as it
wm.befbre thé conclusion of this chapter, De pointed ont that thé Temehu probably
*[nFig.t,<t,the~~ripe(cottynHm)exagger.itesthe!engthçftheeye. ï.
H. Duveyner, e~t p. i!8? p!s. Xvi., xth); Thé ",GerM type" ofCotHgnon doss not appeâr to be t
J!xe<)rssM)tofHegroadm!xturt. H.Weisgerber,<<p.;y.
occupied both these districts.' The intrus!ve xanthochroids are represented on the
monuments, as already mentioned, but do not appear before the Xtith Dynasty.
The repartition of the Hamitic race in modern times is displayed in Map 1. The
great divisions, there noted by Roman numerals enclosed in circles, are as follows :–
C<M~M of Canaria.-Extinct or fused with Europeans in recent historie times.
II. Atlantic /~M!–More or less fused with Negro stocks, as in the case of the Haradn
Berbers and thc Trarza Moors. !n thé north (Marocco) containing a marked xanthoçhroidelement
of foreign (Nord!c) origin.2
111. Mediterranean Hamites.-Fused with various foreign elements-Nordic blond, btachy-
cephalic brun, and (which appHes also to H.) Semitic Arab.

tV. ~~<<M /~w~.–Siight Negro and Arab adm!xtùre, but pttrer and more typicat thah
any other Hamitic people of the present time.
V. P<&–A mixed race, containing Berber and Negro elements, and a Semitieinfusion
acquired in East Africa, their original home also a later Semitic strain due to contact with the Arabs.
In th!s connection !t is perhaps worth white to call attention to two pMsage! in which thé Libyan typ~ !a tonfused
with thsAethiopic.
Adamantins (Phyriognom. ii. t~) confuses them,
<!ÂV et ~)'A~ AMM~tf ~otot.
e!
Carefut classical writers are explicit in distinguishing betw~en the Berber and Negro types, but
A'j8ff! A~o~tf ~K'(o'. Cf. Po!emon, f~e~.i,
It is bardy possible that a vague knowtedge 6f the existence ofiSgroid LibyaM
lejtotbisconfusipti.
Cf. the position, laid down on the authority of Ptolemy, of thç ~ettcaethiope~ and Meianogaetnti on Map Ï-

OM!iiusi.ï§8i!<f;M~M~<;<
These descriptives are good eridence of thé ancient opposition ofwhitea and M~eks.it) the SahM~, and of their fusion. Cf.

~J~~
t
f,
 VI. ?M~.–Dark Hamites (?) showing several pUMHng ethnie pecuHaritMS, but probaHy a
fus}onofIV.andSudanesenegroes.
VII. ~p~/M/M.–Arace mixed since very early times, having strains of IV., NHot!c Negroes,
and. Sémites.
VIII. ~–ApeopteresembHngVI.,but,perhaps,w!thagreaterdegrEeofnegn$m.
IX. B~.–A fusion of IV., VIÎI., and Semitic stocks.
X. Abyssinians.-Thesame, with Negro admixtufe.
XI. D~~Tf.–Thé same, with higher percentage of Semite.
XÏL <y~<M.–Thé samc, with higher percentage of Negro.
XÎH. Crallas.The same with small Sémite admixture.
XIV. Masai.-A strorigly negroid stock, perhaps containing slight Hamitic, and
a an old
Semittc strain–thé ethnotogy of this people is doubtfu!
Thèse fburteen
groups may be thus subdtvîded :–
). Western or HbyatiHamItes.. f
Guanches.
Atlantic Hamites.
Mediterranean Hamites.
,) Saharan H».a.,s.
5-a.ha.-an Hamites.
T:bbus(?).
2. North-EasternorSenuto-Hamites.
Egyptians.
Begas.
Danakils.
w 3.EasternOrAeth!optanHam:tes(KHsh!to-Ham:tes).
Abyssinians.
Somalis.
Gallas.
Nttbas.'
~.MtxedSouthèrn Hamites.
Masa~~).

\l.
~~hs.
It is with a portion of the Western Haoïites that.this e~ssàydeds. In, antiquity,
nat~rally, it wasthe Mediterranean Hamites who, owing to their geographical position,
we~e best known to thé Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; and whereas the
western
bra~ch ofthis division of thé Hamitic race a$sumcd
an importance in later times, It
is t~e less known, but byno means insigni6cant, eastérn portion that is here considered.
J Thé Eastern Mediterrahean Hamites–more conveniently, the Eastern Libyans–
pf~he Egyptuan period wërë known to the inhabitants ofthe Ntle Valley under
a
variety pfnàmes. These.na~es were insôme cases thôse of tribes, in others they
were
tho~e, pf fegional groups of tribes, It Is, ûn~brtunately, the given data, not aUvays
on
ppS~Me ta disting~Ish betwcen thé tribes and thé régional groups, bat provisional
a
division hasbeenmade~ thé jbilowinglist:
'Onthename,ff<y)t,p.2,n.t~
Ssâ'~
 GROVFS. TiUBES
Tehenu..
Temebu.
!mukehek(?).
~ehek.
Rebu. Keykesh.
Meshwesh. Seped.
Esbet.
Ekbet.
Shai.
Hes.
Beken.
Thé grounds on which the above division has been made are noted below..

T~M
'===' §
~iS, Thnw.
GROUPS

(The country, g~~C~i Tbnw).' Variants,

*) T h n w/ etc. Both the ethnie and the geographicalnames were employed by the Egyptians-
habitable'
until the time of the gréât invasions in a very loose manner to designate,the people and the
Therefbre the Tehenu are
countries to the west of the Nile Valley, north of the Negro zone.
mentioned in a, general way, together with other foreign nations, as with Nubians and Asiatics," or
in antithesis to the four eastern countries." 4 They appear as the typical people of the west,'
and the
frequency of such
extent of their temtories and the number of their divisions are attested by the
6
phrases as thé countries (plur.) of the Tehenu," thé chiefs (plur.) of Tehenu."
Temehu ~Tmhw.' Variants (the country, ~jc~]Tmh); ~==~
T m h, etc. The Temehu appear'to have been a more
clearly defined branch of the Tehenu."°
That they were themselves made up of more than one tribe is clear from the extent of tbeir
territories. That the Te.nehu appeared to the Egyptians to hava been a well-defined group is shown
by their being tisted with such ethnie groups as the Irtet, Mazoi, Yam, Wawat, and Kau Negroes
of the south," etc.
Rebu j ~1 R'bw = A~M! This group, seated in the north, comprised a number
of tribes, just as in chss~cal times. This is borne out by the fact that'the Rebu were so extensive a
people that their importance led the Greeks into bestowing the generic term jË~M upon the
indigenous North Africans as a whole. The Egyptian records, moreover, speak of the Rebu as of
invasions. Furthermore, the name survives in I~armaricajtt
a powerful people at the time of the
tirne– el-Lebuk (3 houfs south of Sïwah) Mongar Lebuk (to'ng. 29° E.,

~M~).
the présent
lat. 30° N.; ~=M=K)). The Imukehek may hâve been a tribe of the Rebu, $ince they dwelt
in the north,'2 and since the tribe called the ~ehek was associated with the
Libyans at the time ~f
v"
the invasions," The Esbet also for the reasons given below, may have been a tribe of the Rebu.
Meshwesh. The Meshwesh were a great and

'H.BrHgs<;h,C~r~vo).p.y8,!tndP).xx)).f3;.Cf.Pt.hMviii.}!.
2 A. Erman,
<BAR!.§6;
j~w/M C~Mr, p. t~.8. BAR i. § ~!3 H..
eBARii.§8~Md,p)agiari!!edtherefrom,iii.§tt!,tv.§~7~a/t~.
eBARii.§~'3,iii.§~. ~BARiii;§t~. 6H.Brugsch,p.7<)andr).X]f!i.2t°.
s 7~. p. 79. The TetMhu do occasionally appear ta have been named in the gênera) sense of
"Westerners,"
BARiv.§~t.R~mes<:t)n."pro[e<:tingagainitTemeh,"etc.;cf.{v.§§~3,~9,;8~
MBARi.§~)t. "H.BfugM:h,<p.7'~andPt.x]fii.2t'3'
"BARi).j~. "BARiii.§s88~ MH.Bmgs<;h,f<p.8o,PLxx!
t~
PLATE !L
powerfut group of aMied ttibes, who were ab(e to overpower their eastern neighbours, and even event-
ually to obtain the Egyptian throne.' It !s unreasonaMe to suppose that they were merely a Mngîe
tr!be, since their numbers and force point to a different condusion. The name Meshwesh is but
one form of thé generie Berber appellative which has aiready been noticed abovs MSU- betng the
equivalent of M Z G H, as seen most clearly in such classical forms as MaXY-es, MaZY-es.~ ThM
does not neeessarily mean that the Meshwesh were in very fact the ancestors of the Herodotean
MaKyes, thaugh such a statement is probable enough, ard bas recently been repeated by a scholar
of Mgh standing.'a Rather, the identincation means merely that thé Meshwesh were of those who
used the generic Hamitic designation t/hich bas been alreadynoted as made on the radical </MZ~.

TRtBES
Imukehek. ~j6M ~") The Jmukehek appear but once !n thé Egyptian annals
(XVIIIth Dynasty), but as they were a northern peop)e/ and the ~ehe!<: were Rebu, they were

X~ ~rG~)
probabÏy themsetves a small Libyan tribe.
The ~ehek appear to have been a fa!r!y numerous tribe, since they
supptted the Egyptians with mercenaries." They do not, however, appear as independent adversanes
of Ëgypt, but as allies of the more powerful Rebu,' of whom they may be considered to have
fbrmed an important part.
~~Q!) ~1~1~')~ This "s
that either of a small tribe or is
spelling of I~ehek.~ It is found in the tist of Rebu and Meshwesh forces defeated by Rameses III.'
's'
'o' ~ë~ 'S'~l A small tribe, ônly once mentioned. The hame at once recalls that
t .7~ -EE~ ) ) )
of thé Asbystae, who are foundt in Pliny as the Hasbitae, and in Ptolemy as thé 'A~Srat or 'Ac~rat*
Thes~ lections might be due to thé error of a eopyist but the occurrence of the $econd in ~~Bt~Ta<
itself may be due to the change of one lingual mute before another (as ~Te == ~S-Tf), thé original fbrm
of thé name having been made on the radical consonants S-B-T-T. With this form S-B-T-T
is to be compared the name $eped, §-P-D, a tribe once mentioned in the records.~
JE~ )) '~&
-Bc~ ~'r t
A tribe but once mentioned in the records." Possibly a misspeHingofE~bet.
M~< (perhaps M< ?). ~M f)û The Shai appear but once, in conjunction with
the ~sbet, ~ey~esh, Hes, and the Beken, in the invasion of the Meshwesh and Rebu, defeated by
Rameses II!.
rû~)
J'E-~ )l U <
Mentioned once," with the Shai, etc. Cf. the S~A Hassah, a modern
Arabo-Berber tribe of Cyrenaica."
~M. ~j&t l i. Mentioned once, with the Shai, etc. This name may possibly
't<p.tz9.
For the change of to H or U, p'<& infra, r. 7! and cf. the équivalences of Garth- ==Hort-; Guillaume=
William, etc.
81. H. Breasted, ~M/ p. 466. Previously, Petrie had, upon this identification, built a fabric which is onlv
parallé;led by his identificationa of Syrian ptaK-names. 'W. M. F. Pétrie, T/H~, vol. iii. p. ttt and ng. t?.
"M9pbftnb69,"etc. (Th6Synanname!arcMbefound.vot.n.p.3ï5.)
'BARii.~ï. ''J.H.BreMtcd,f<f.p.t77!BARiv.§~)o.
<BARHi.~8S. ~BARiy. ~BARiv.~0;.
Pliny v.
"BAR .§70.
Ptolemy iv. § 6. iv.
BAR
"BAR!v.§t~.
§ 'bly again, iv.
~t, PoMibty 4o, and note d
"BARAf.
Af. nf.

G. Haimann, C~~M, générât map. This ideht!n<:atio<( is ma Je ~!<h the greatest resetyc, ~r (") thé ttaMica)
link !t Jacking, and M the Hassah ~ay have corne into Cyren~!<:a with thé So]eyn)-B<n-M<n}Hr in the eleventh tentury.
Cf. Ë. Mercier, ~~Mr<<'M~et< P,
t~. ~BAR~
 bere~eseat~d by the Greek ethn!e B<<KaA~ since L and N <u'e d!a)ectic cquivaisnts in Berber that
m!ght warrant the !deat!5catton of Be~eN vith BJKoA-e~.
Thé bricf l'st of Libyan ethn'c names to be fbund in thé Egyptian texts being
conctuded~ the question now anses How were the owners of these names distributed
geographicxlly ?l The question can be answered onty in the most general manner, and
m thé map (Map IL) iMustratmg the ethnogeography of the Libyans during the
Egyptian period, thé reader is asked to consider that the positions assigned to such
ethnie groups as are given a place on the map at ail are oniy approximative.
Thé whole of Africa west of the Nile was, to the Egyptian, a ~cm! M~m'~ which
.~tretched away from the ~amIUar haunts of men to the realms of the dead.~ To this
unknown country the vague general term ~/M- "thé West," was applied,
either to s!gnHy the country itself, or the imagmed soul-land that lay in or beyond it.
Withîn it, as the Nite dwellers came eventually to know, lay the oases, and various
tribes of foreign men. These men they designated by such terms as Rfj~Tf, "bar-
barians~" or by ethno-descriptives like Tehenu, picked up frdm, or first applied to, near
neighbours, and then gradually given a gênerai signincance. Thèse ~'barbarians" m
early historié times occupied not oniy the oases but also the Fayum, for by the position
of the Libyan scènes in the Sa-hu-re temple, it is clear that the Libyans held country to
the south of Memphis until the Vth dynasty/ And since the oases were not subjected by
the Egyptians until the time of the New Empire, and were probably unconsidered~m
the days of Sa-hu-re, the orientation of the Libyan reliefs in his temple must refer to
the Libyan occupation of the Fayum.
Thé Libyans also held some stretches along thé west bank of the Nile~itself, above
the First Cataract. The archaeological evidence on this point is reserved ibr treatment
in an Appendix (ï.) to this essay, but part of the textual evidence may be introduced
hère. Among the many oSerings made by Rameses III. to the temples, we read in thé
Papyrus Harris of his having given two "Tymhy stoncs of Wawat," each weighing
'H<:fo<iotu:iv.t~t,v~f.K<~S<iA<?. ~A.Erman,M~M~p.g~.
~BARiv.§to6; cf.Herodotasii.t;8. Otherwise the Libyans were grouped with the JVM~~a'~of the ~Mw~.
BAR ~M~
< L. Borchardt, D~fG~&&):j A' y~< vol. i. p. 17 jy.
iKtmid', M early as the XIItJi Dynasty, visited the land of the oasis dwe!]ers," BAR i. § From thé Paenire
:nscnp<iott it is .cteM that the oases were nndef foreign chiefs, who sent their tribute to Egypt, BAR ii. ? ~8e,' <86.
Later, !n the XVHÎth Dynasty, we heM ofaehief of "aU the oasis country," BAR ii. §§ ~6~, ~ë~- This title may have
been an honoraqr one, for the "tribùte" taken from Tehenu by Hatshepsut was almost ce!tain)y, by its nature
exacted from the oasis dweMcrs,BARii.§~ Under Rameses IH. the oases were permaneitly colonized by the
Egyptians, and phnccd w!th vineyards, BAR iv. § 2*3. The Mannier stela intbrms us that, as at présent, the Oas!s of
Harph was used as a p!ace of banhhment, BAR iv. § 6;o f~. Even in )ate times the inhabitants of Dah!ah ~ere Liby-
Egyptians, BAR iv. § 72; cf. Ptolemy, G~r. iv. §!t and to this day Shvan Berber is spotten at Manshiah tt-
'Aguxah in Bahar!ah. The o~ses were, in later times, thus named Hargah–~w ~<, or
'l,

DaHah=~*°) *~)~ ° ~M~~f! C~Q

Swah, <btfa]iy=~&
t/f-rff, "Oasis of the South;"

"Fi~ds .fP<)m TrMs."

Farafrah, perhaps-

Cr'. t.
Damichen,~
O~a~
¡

~<fw ~r~ G. Parthey, Der 0?- and <& 0~~ <&< ~a<M/.
 ;} ~h~t The Wawatwere a negro or negro!d peop!e~ we)t to the so~th, but ~ot
probaMymuchabovethe Second Cataracte The name"Timbystonc"at once Mggctts,
as it did long ago to Brugsch/ Temebu. The stones wouïd naturaUy be ca)Icd
Temebu stones if purveyed to thé Egyptiahs by the people of that namè, just M
Carchedonnn stones were so called because, though fbund in the intCfiof of Libya,
they rcachëd the Greeks through the médium of thé Carthaginians. And that thé
Temebu were !n reatlty the northern neighbours of the Wawat is c!ear from thé
Harkhuf inscription (VIth Dynasty). Harkhuf, going for the thtfd time on a trading
joumey into thé Sudan, encountered "thé chief of Yam going to thé land of Temeh,
t<;) smite Temeh
as far as the western corner of Heaven. 1 went a~ter h!m/' adds
t~arkhuf, "and 1 pacined him/
~ince the Yam were ctose neighbours of thé Wawat,
ahd it is not probable that the negro chief designed to attack the Temehu in thé distant
Egyptian ôases, it is plain that bis enemies were either in Kurkur or Selîmah–both so
smatt as to be very un!ikely objectives tbr such an expédition~–or eke on the NiJe.
If tt .be supposed that from Berïs, the southernmost of the Egyptian
oases, the Libyans
';M!owed thé S.S.E. dépression whichïeadsthenceto the Nile about Derr, and that,
~henthey arrived at the river, and found no such strong opposition they woatd have
ettcouhtered bctpw the First Cataract, they established themselves as
among the Nubians"f
In groups pfincipally on thé west bank, simple hypothesis is arrived at which futnîs
a
att the data, both archaeologicaland textua!. This hypothesis becomes something more
than theory when it is found that, in classical times, the Libyans were established,
thôugh stitt as intruders, farther to the South.~ Strabo,the best classical authority on
thé Sudan, who was himself as far south as Philae at a time when, because of the recent
pilnittve ëxpeditian of Petronius/ much new information was to be had, makes the
Mtowing remarkable statement "Above Meroe is Psebo, a large iake, containing a
weU-inhabited island. As
the Libyans occupy the western bank of the Ni!e, and the
Aethiopiansthe country the other side of thé river, they thus dispute by turns thé
possession of thé islands, on
and the banks of the river, one party repu!sing the other, or
yieldingtqthesuperiorttyofitsopponent.
S
Ii
< It wou!d thus appear that the Tëmebu of the time of Harkhui, thé traders in
Timhy stones," had moved southwards,6nding in that direction !ess
resistance to their

BARi~389. – ti 1),
.expansion thafi in thé other, but still remaining an unabsorbed and f~reign élément
SBAR~.J.
Etse~eshôutd not ~n~t Uni, in thé time ofPepiI-~TecruitîngmerceoanesfromtheiU.
.t H. Brugsch, < f<f. !). p. 78; cf. LP iii. !:9 f. A~inst Brugsch's tiew, t*M~ BAR iv.§ not<& ~t.
li BA!33;.
Br;asMd's objection isnow,Ibe)ieve,overrutedbythé Mwàrchaeo]ogi<:a)eTidence.
thé
J.G.M'!pe,~y~~</t'r~f'~M~p.t<forthîsexpe<:Ht!on.
Rortran
~Us!ng word mitsgcograph!at sensé.

Str~o 9;tn, p. 8:!

cf. what !s sa!d by the Mme wntM, xv! p. ~86, "Q<t <~ teft (west) of thé Ni!e )<Vt
Nubae itt Libya, a popu)oùs nation. They begin at Mem5 and extend as far a~ thé benjs. they ~tt. aot ~abJMt to the
AetMopians, but
tive mdependentty,being disfributed in several sovereignties." Thèse "NubM" were pcThaps parth'
ne~rbid Libyans. Ptolemy ~v. 6 § ;) gives thé Libyan Garamantes a southea*:er)yextension to Lake Nuba (Psebo ?)
teJttT~r°P*T~S'TM~ToCBmypaSa~oT~oS~);Y[w~~t~T~~
.léfit~iç.
among the older population. Under these circumstances, it is not str&nge that there
should occasionallybe found on the Egyptian monumentsLibyans of slightly negroid aspect.
That the whole body of thé Libyans of the Egyptian records lay property in
"Eastern Libya," and was not so remote from the Nile as some writerswôuld place it,
~-–––––––––~––––––––––.––-––––––. 1

ts clear fromthe' f~ct that the Egyptians invaded theRebuand theirnetghb&ufs,'ànd

from the fact that the Merneptah invasion arrived in Egypt apparently about three

<
weeks after starting. Twenty days at even twcnty tnUes a day
With allowance for halts, etc., this gives roughly ~60 miles,
ts only àbont
Cyreaaica to
~<?0 mneâ~
Egypt.
 The àncient ethnic area of Libyans in general having thus been
the, Eastern'
sketched, the distribution of thé various tribes, ofwhich enough is known to place them
on the map, may now be taken upin suçh détail as thé data will allow (Map II.).

t. ?~–Gênera! désignation for easternmost Libyans (i.e. immediately west of Egypt)~

By exe)us!on, probably in the (earty) Fayum, and the northerh
oases, and between the Egyptians
~nd the Rfbu.'1
1 2; 7~<.–As cxp!a!ned above, probably in the oasis of Hargah, and along the Nubian Nile.
3. A~.–Khown after ~r) and (2), and so west of them.~ Probab]y in the Gebel et-'A~abah
~nd Cyrenaica. For they were attacked by the Meshwesh," who came from we!t to the west-
~ard.and were historicaHy associated with the, Sea-Peoptes from the we!-t/ to whom Cyrenaica,
from its fertility and northerly position, would be thé part of Eastern Libya best known and most
access!Me. Atso, the mention of the "Red Land" in connection with Libya suggests the famous
~M~ of Cyrénaica, mentioned by modern travellers and well known to the Arab geographers.'

~–For mâp.
4. A~~w~.–West of the Rebu, and thé iast-menttoned Libyan people of importance in the
Egyptian annais. In an unsëtded.state, moving frôm west to east from the time they first appear
untit they setded in Egypt. Their weapons atid assodatioi) w!th the Sea'PeopIe~ suggest that they
tpok a littoral road.a~indkatedby thé arro]v-!ine on the
the reasons given above, introduced, with reserve, in the place later occupied by
thëAsbystae,asapartof(~). `
6. ~M.–Introduced, with yet greater reserve, in the place later occupied by the Bacales.
~.A'f~.–Front their number and association with the Rebu, placed with reserve in thé
itterioroftheterritonesofthelatter.
8. ~M.–Tentative!yintroducedinthep)aceofthemodernHassah.
il 7M«~ M~t.–Omitted. So, too, with the ~~< Et~, and ~)'~A, if thtise are not forms j,

pf thé and ~~mentioned above.

ii Thè Libyan ethnie names on the map are printed in Roman, the other names in
~alic,etters.
In classicat times the earliest detailed account of thé partition of thé Libyan tribes is

t
~)ùnd in Herodotus. According to the historian, Ltbya began west of thé Ni!e/ and ran
the Àtlantic,~ being bordered on thé south by the land of the Aethiopiàns, who were
btack and woo!ly-haired.Within Eastern Libya, which the Greek historian character-
Med as nomadiç,!ay thé fbHowing tribes:–
t.r~f',
.;P!yhus.b/'
'ASu~/M~tf.–Fromthe Egyptian Detta wesiwards to the harbour caUsd Port
“
j 2.G:M~,rt\M,–FromPi!yhusasfarasthe)s!andofAphrod!s!as."
Cf. BAR iii. § ;79. The chi~f of the Rebu is there said to have attacked the Tehenc.whiehhe mustih~'e done
jfr~îu thç w~st. Note that the Mme of the Tehenu became early known to thé Egypdans as a gênera term for Westerner
wh!cht€stt6estothe!rear!ygéographie position the Libyans néarest the Nile.
"C~BAR,
~70.
as
'.SBAR!v.§8~.
BAR i)i. § ;S8 S e)-Ur!s!, CA~iii,
00
Cf. J. M. Hartinann, ~~M: p. joo ;)<,K k,
.'?,ii:~tv.6.
fSeetheeautjon~f~p.i~.
Htr~o~
JL M
~HefodqtNsii.t~iv.tpti ef.iv.t68.
t6.8' Ptynus is ptaced by Scyiax two Jays west of Apis, ffr~j, §!o8 <=."Port Bardk"?).
Htf9dp~SMe~);c!t!n~adKgthetevtnasfarMstasAp!sanJ )\¡larea, the population yt·as Libyan (h .18).
j HerojotNs iv. t&o. According to Scytax, anj ptotemy, !v. § y, Aphrodisias wculd seent [o bc the
.Sh'arkiah~brHainmamïsïanJs.
..i! ,'l" :,?, -.). ,(,
 3. 'A~Mrrct.–West of (2), in the vic!n!ty of Cyrene, but not reaching the coast,
whichwashe)dbytheCyrenaeans.'
~Mf~/M~, A)!<T~;t'Tai.–Just south of Barca,and reaching the sea at Euesper~s(=Benghax!).
On the east <)nt!guou$ to the Asbystae.' The same people, apparentty, as the Ausigdi, Â~fyoM,
mentioned by CaUimachus~ and Hecataeus/ The Ausigdi had a city called Aus!gda.°
F~M~, B<tM\es ~a~. Ka~aX~.–A )itt)e tribe–o~of ~fo!~enc!aved Jt)y the Auschitae,
touching the coast at Taûcheira.~
¢
6. A~~we~ Na~a/tMM~.–"A nutnerous peopk," according tô Herodotus,' the (south-)
western neighbours of theAusch!sae,whose terntories extended from thé coast into thé ihtenor,
where they dominated the oasis of Augila (~Wagïiah). Perhaps originatty ca!ted ~M~CM~
Western boundafyat sorte; uhdeHn~d point itt the SyfttsMajof..
7. Pj)7/<À\ot.–Th!s people had, in the days ofHerodotus.Withdrawnfromthetréarlief
seat on the Syrtic coast," their fands there having passed into the hànds of the Nasamones. As,
however,thePsy!)istit!cx!sted at a later period," they are placed, with réserve, on thé map iilus-
tratingt~'rodotus's repartition of the Libyan tribes (Map tll.).
8. A~M(!«n.–Ontheshoresoftheg!'€at€rSyrt!s,westoftheNasamohes.
9. ~?M~~M, rtfSai'–Adjotning (8) on the west. This name'* appears to he.ve been that of
an in portant division of the Lotophagi. For the latter descriptive name was a!ready, in thé time
of Herodotus, applied especiaHy to a community Hving en a promontory in thé terr!tory ôf thé
Gindimes,"and tended to supplant, among the Greeks, to whom it had become tradit!ona))y famuiar,
the indigenous name. The fact that besides the little group of Lotophagi mentioned by Herodotus,
other tribes, like the Machtyes,~ made use ofthe lotus fruit, woutd encourage the spread of thé term.
t0. M~M, M~?.uc?.–Westof thé Lotophagi, as far as the river Triton~ in the Lesser
Syrt!~ Foundtater as the Ma~)M; in the same position.
,c,
11. ~MMw, Au<rec! (~er, AC~ as in ApoUodorus ~).–Like the Machlyes, from whom they
were separated by the Triton river, thé Auseans lived in the vicinity of thé Latte Tri:on:s.~ This is
i.he last (westernmost) tribe of the <MMM~&' Libyans of Herodotus,~ but it )5 eonvenient to mention
here the threefbiiowings.sweU:–
Herodotus iv. t~o.
u, In!and position ofAsbystae, con<!rn)ed
~«nj)rttpotT<Â~oWtf,KT~cf.Nonnus,DM~jMf<!]tiii.)~o.
~Herodo[usiv.<7t.
~CaUimachus~.Steph.Byz.MS'Amrtyoft.
by D!onys!))s, ~~<«t, 'A~~Tat ~r! T~crt

'H<eatMus< ;<;<< A)c.=fr< 300. in f/~G.

The inKfn'ed!~ryform 3;tween AYS-X-tS-m and AY2-[-r-A-otis found as AYS-X-' T-at m Stephanns Byxan_[!n!)S

~Herodot~s,
Mf~. Thepermmitt!onofSahdT-DinBcrberMn)<;sisj;ener't).
77~.iv.)~;cf.t! Cf.Scy)ax§t)t,Str.tboxv!p.836,P)!nyv.
Pliny, A< Popular cïasLtcaï dymoïogy re!ate<i thé name ~'j~~M~ to ~M'os-n~o?, but thé ffèquëncy of
;t
Mes- as a 6tiat!ve prefix in Berber dtscr~dtts this denvatïon. Thé name has !n modern times been often àhaïyscd as
im«-'c;, "men ofAmon (first hy S. Bochart, Gfe~. S~M, col, t8t, ). !t Mf.) and as
S f\ )) i] "thé
South~.<'ners(orNe~roes)ofAQpn"[!].
Part ofwh!ch wa. called in earlier t!mes by Hecataeus thé "Psyi)ic G)))f" Hecata~us, fM~. jo~, in .FHC=/<<'c,
~.Steph.Byz.Mf~AAot ~~AtKo~ffo~fros, tf Tp At~K~ KoA~rtj).
Ptolemy tv. t § 6! Strabo ïyi. p. ~~Ctc~
&
M Herodotus iv. i?). )' Ptiny v.
t~
~°"
Herodotus iy. Cenfirmedby Scylax, Af. f<f. ca))cd by PM)<my iy. 3 § 6 o! SfpTtTctt,
M&ctf and misp)aecd ?
"nd. M Herodotus iv. t~6, S[ephaniisByzantinNs,Mf~~rt~~<s,~osA(j8t;K~ÂmT<fyw,ftTA..
L.

SyftisM!nor;cf.Scy)a!,§ttOj,Strabo][vii.p.8.
M FromthetimeofHomer, O~.ix. \M HerodotustV.
~Fprthëposinonofthe)akeandnverTntonts,'p<t~,p.m)~
.t~ )~ ~y,
Hcrcdotus !v. !y~' T~c promontory, by a prôcess of cxhaustion.appçarsto h~vc b~n %arx!s, of Z~'rh!s, ncaf-thc

'~MM'.&f.f<7.
PM)cmy iv, } 6, MfscaUed Ma~ts in Stephanas Byxantinas w M~. Ma~M;. Cf. /x/r; p.
°'Apo))odorus,f't.pQ,!nf~G. ~Herodotusiv.tSo..
t!. < j
,iv.;<<))~
 t2.'A/t!~)'M,MttfMt.–NexttotheAusMns.*
t~. ~/<MM,or~f~,Zftt~M!Z~wM.'–NexttottteMaxyes.
t~s~rt!~T€Z)~ttyT<°–NexttotheZaueces.

]
Thus far thé coast bas been ïbtiowëd in a direction from east to west. To turn to
<

J~
F)f~. C~
Herodotu$asbpingtheresituated:–
thé
thé !n~crior, the positions may be noted of thé following ethnie groups mentioned by
r

mtenor, tea days west of AugUa, and so in northern

(Feàzan), l:aving a populatitin of iroglodyticÂeth_opiansas neighbours.'
[*r<t/t~or<tfTK].–South6fthëNasamones,mawi!d-beast région. A power-
!6ssand degenërate ir ibe. HerodotuscaUsthem Garamantes, but he -describes them as feeble and
c
ignorant ofarms, anà not knowmg how to~defend themsetyes.~ This is ~at)y côntradtcted later~

t
'~here tlheGaràman~ appear as a warlike nation ofstave-hanters. In thé second passage, more-
the aramanies are iytroduced 'f(or
theSrst time, Thé text, there~'re.is corrupt; buf
tl~cutty becomes dear from thé later eviderfce.~
e Meta and Piiny, dose!y ifbUdwing Herodotus,
<
Scribe thë~Mkhess `and ofarms
caHedGarhphasantes~by~htchth~ fô be restored.
just mentioned, not to thé Garamantes, bitit tQ a peop!e
is

it~
t
) *? He~pdotus, /i'f. and iv. t93.= Mentioned trst, by Hecataeus, fr~. 30~, in ~CG. The M<~MS of Steph. BjT:.
'S~~a}m~c~M~M~
T'o/jm~' 'E~TaM; if')Y~<
"TE,r6.~t1.4â~VE$~ OÉ

j
regiari as etc., but cE car. Gyz-an2ians,
m. Steph. Byz. «t f~
eM ? ~<t! ~fet
Th~ <orm
"t
M"~M; Kat ~r</)0t J~tf;.

Z~~m~
'v~
be copyisj's ertor
Y
For Ma~tf;

~M~g!–
'J,iht~
t.)
Zvg-attians.
for Bt'~t-, seen

ef~ p 5~.
tajra;

't "tfefprm
:r;
<
Z~
HeM~otus m. r
that
~rodotusiv.~S3
çsed~iïY
94
Hecatâeus
.~c~ Lucïën, De
Apo)!onium Dyscotum, XMviii.-fot thë Mriant~ t~ prece~g note
Eudôaùs Ccidius
(np. Steph:,Byz. itt poc.
3 z..
6ipJadrbrïs,
Zf~-H'/tM.
'Herod~fv. t?~ ~7~. iv.'t'
L
J Mdai. 8,
Ptmy~ ~'hë name, maybe femarM,sMms cdUneeted \y!th thMof P.~ZMta–Gittn-~u~-tes.
Y'~het<~Hp!!o~9fHc~~ is ~c l:a,t al early as EnsEachWa ~r~.
~1)7), and Steph. By~(M ffrA). Cf.
]~aft!tMM ~apelja, D~ ~Pàilo p- ~t (!M-)-:
~e hame thért appeer! as ~4~o,f<!)! Çap<))a
 t ~~MCMMMJ!, 'A~/tMMo<.–Sedentaries of S!wah Oasis.
The above data are embodiea in the map of fifth-century, Libya (Map II!.). `
Thé next writet who contains information on which asatisfactory partition of the
East Libyan tribes can be made is the geographer Scylax. Scylax doës not treatthe
cthn!c divisions as minutely as does Herodotus, but mentions the position of thé
following large groups :–
t. ~<~n?Mf~</«f, 'A8[;~<t~~S<n.–Nextto Egypt, not on the coast kself, which was Egypttanized
as far as the town of Apis.
2. jM~w~ M<t~ta~at.–West of (t), and extending across the interior 'cf Cyrenatea
almost, but not qu!~e, to the Syrtis Major. This is the first notice of this people who were in
later times so well known, and who bestowed the name Marmarica upon the région they inhabtted.
The Marmaridae comprised undoubtedly many tribes '–among them, perhaps, the Giligamae of
Herodotus, since the latter are not mentioned in later times (except by Steph. Byz. in and T~
not independenttyof Herodotus).
3. A~~wc~ Nfttr~m)~.–In thé eastern Syrtis Major, soùth-west of Cyrenaica (2), and
extenditig west~ards to the Philaenorum Arae.
4. AfaMf, M<tm;t.–In the western Syrtis Major ~rom (3) to the Cinyps river nearly to(<
the modem TripoH).
<––––!–––––––t–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––-––––––––––––––'––––––––~––––––––,

l
Z-c/ep~ AmTo~~ot.–Under this descriptive, Scytax désignâtes those coastwise Libyans
between thé Cinyps on the east, and Gichthis (on the main opposite Gerbah Island) on thé west.,
Thé name served to embrace a number offribes, such, for example, as thé Efëbidae.~
6. Z~<!K~, Zu~fTe;.–About Lake Tritonis. This people would appear Mbe thé Gyzantes pf
Herodotus, who are by the earlier writer given a place somewhat nôrth of thé pos!t!pn assigned
them by Scylax. There is certainly some confusion as to this ethnie name. Thé simple tnetathesis
t)f the rt~- of Herodotus to the Zt~y- of Hecataeus causes no di<nculty in the Greek transcription or
a barbarous name. When one considers the large body of evidence which indicates that thé région
inhabited by the peopte in question was ca~ed 2?yMf~M, ~x~«~, or ~2<& thé suspicion at
once arises that the true form of the ethnic was neither Zuv- nor rt/but B[~ r, !t !s hardty
*HerojotuetV.'St;cE~3!
ThelaîefMarmardhe mayhave included some Semitic nomads froth S'nat~ofArabta. At all events~Agfûetas,
jR'<f. t)nfHG,ment)OtHaneponymous"M~!nans"sonof''Arabs," l,“
? Phi)istus,fM~3,inf~fG.'Ep<~f~at,;<f/)osAMTo<~ay<!)c.
Hecata':us<S[CF}).Byx.Mf~.Z))Ya)'T~;=f~}o6inMfG. ~Cf.Pto)em/tY.)§6.
 hëcessary to remark, is a diatect equivalent of B M Berber, and it may therefore be said with a fhir
degree ofcertainty that M the commonest form of the ethnie name was B~xr~ (~) a tocat
variant was r~afTe~ (c) while Z~yTe? is another variant by metathesis.

Thé d~ta drawn from Scylax are exhibited in Map IV. Thé date of Scyiax has
given rise to much discussion, but may be taken as ~~320 B.c.
Thé distribution of the Libyan tribes made by Strabo, some four and a half
centuries afterHerodotus,is,!ike that of Scylax, based on broader lines than that of
thé historian. Instead of treating the LIbyans tribe by tribe, Strabo is content to deal
y~iththem in fbHowing ethnie groups:–
t. Af<<<, M<t/)/M~8<tf.–Westof Egypt along-shore to Cyrenaica,~ <.f. as far as the
~Çatabathmus Major ( ='Akabah es-Soltum). It was in the west of this district that the bulk of the
'-Marmaridaë;weretobe<bund,and they extended south to Ammonium.~
2. TV~M~MM, N<to-~o)M;.–West of(t), across the South~!ope ofthe Cyrenaic plateau" to
~he A!tars ofthe Ph!!aëni (=approx. Muhtar) in thé bottom ofthe Syrtis Majo)'/
g. 7'<, ~uX~ot.–Strabo mentions this people as sharing the Syrtis Major with (a).~ As
~he tatter came west, as just hofed,
to the Philaenorum Arae, tt t$ to be supposed that the Psylli
~xtended from that point to the Cephalae promontory (=Ras Mizratah), where thé L!byphocn!e!ans
:)egar).~ It is therefore tooseîy that Strabo catîs thé Psylli Cyrenean/ t!i connrmation of thé
)osition just givën thé Psylli, is the order in which they are mentioned.with other Libyans by
)tt-abo/
~< Z~~M, 'E~T<tt A~M!.–Thèse are the only Libyans to whom Strabo gives
tame, whom he places actuaHy within <ertile Cyrenaica.~ They were, of course, caUed Hespëritae
a
~rom Eubesperis ( = Benghazi,near which, in the vicinity of the Lethatus ( Lethe) "river," they dweit.
~~)' =
'A<~9u<rT<te.~PIaced west of the Major Syrtis, between the Psylli and Byzacii, who
< ix tehded to Carthage. Strabo has here faUen into a serious confusion'which it is not possible to
tnfahg!e, and which, happily, is not usual to him. Thé posidon of the Asbystaeis rectified
on
Map V.,the!rposition in Strabo bemgcer~ainlywrong..
"6. ~'zacH.BufcMOt.–See(c).
11',
~<AM~ Atj8u~MM?.–Under this général descriptive, Strabo désignâtes thèse
tribeS ofthe littoral which extended from the Cephatae Promontory (–Ras Mizratah) to Carthage."
ir'he pâme is significant, and may be compared to such terms as BA<t<rro~oH'MK, etc.
j §. ~o~~<, AmTo~f~ot.–This descripdve bas been noted as apptied by Herodotusto a
group witMn the territories of the Gindanes. Strabo, on thé authority pfArtemidorus, mentions
~tophagi in Western Li&ya, intheintërior, and adds that Lotophagi are reported toexist even as
far east as Southern Cyrenaica. Such an 'extension of a t!t!ë merety denved from thé praetice of
~ating afruit isofnosigMncance.&om Strabo himself tt !s dearthat thé Nasamones were the
lation southof Cyrenaica~ When this wnter, however,spëci<icaHysaysthat "there are others also
t~ent Lotophagi who inhabit Meninx, ~ë of thé Jstands opposite to thé Lesser Syrtis, his state-
:al[edwarrants
oùrp]ac)ng" Ldtophagi on thë map in tJte position~amed. Thé term Lotophagi
)e!oMgs to that unsatisfactory dass of descriptives of which Crioph~gi, Àeridophagi, Ïehthyophagi,
~c~Mi,etc.,aree!!amptes.
'')'<'Straboi!.p.'J' ~xm!;p.8~S. S/<<A
~S.*7~W.xm!/p.6~6,cf.i~~
?/)[~i!.p. ~~M.xnt.p.S~S.
sj~.ii.p.~t. 6~j[y;p. IR.
"7&'kxiv.p.6~.
/)j.p. t3). /& xvii.p. 83;'MAiii. p.J;?; ifvii.p. 829. c~ V&ui.p. t;?. M
 9. Caf~/MM, rotïop~ot.–Beyond the Psy!)i, according to Strabo,' and, it miy be added, awsy
from the coast, lay the Gaetu!'ans.~ The Gaetulians covered a vast area, occupytt~ the South Atlas
stopes,~ and the moutitainous tracts south of the Hbyphoentces.~ Their eastern extremity was in
th<:iong!tudeofthcSyrt~Mt']or.~
5
tO. G~~m~oyM, ra/)~<€–South of the preced!hg/ with whose territories those of thé
Garamantes lay paraUe!, r~nning as far to the east as to be t~ days* journey frcm Ammonium'z
(/.< approx!matetytot'ielongitude of thé bottom of the Syrtis Major).
t!. Z.M,nam~not otherwise specified.-Lastly must be noted the Libyans setded above
Meroe, on the west bar.k of the Nile, already mentioned. (Not shown on the map.)
These data are summanzed in Map V.

Another reparution of Libyan tribes made at about thé same time as Strabo's,
though with less care, is that of Diodorus Siculus. As one wûutd expect, blodOrus,
here, as usually, de6ctent in geographical sènse, is content to outline the main masses bf
the Libyans maverygençrat manner. Ofthc divisions he makes, the following are
tobenoted:– a
r. A~<mt!M~!f.–EgypttoCyre)Miea,*astnStrabo..
2. ~M~<M~.–South-westernCyreMica.~
3. Nasamones.-Eastern part of Syrtica Regio,e belôw Auchisae.

'J.
?
4. Macae.-Ir. the western part of thé SyrdcaRegio.'
Z-M~M,–Hetd numerous towns along the coast~extendtng.ohe~maysuppose, as far
to the east as Carthage, as tn thé case of the Liby phoenices ofStrabo.
~Str:boxtii.p.8~8.
Cf. < i). p. t~, !tEd 9)! other evidence ot, this people, wh!ch nevef est~Mishej itse!fon thc coast,,
xvii. p. 826; cf. Eustathius, D& P~ :t~, where thé Gaetu]i are spoken pf as the greatest of the
~Smboxvii/p. ~T;~
Lihyanpeoptcs..
'xvH.p.83S/
~/&W.i!.p.)3t,ïv)i.p.82~.
P!<?-!ornsS!c)t)M$iii,).
M. /][ï.
'ii.p.t.}t,![vi).p.83!.
 These tribes, as s!gna!izëd by Diodorus, are shown in Map VI.

i~enturyA.D.,
At a period a little after that of Strabo and Diodorus, but still m the first
Pliny gives further geographical notices which again atlow thé construction
&f an ethnie map. This writer has based his description of Eastern Libya on that of
Meta, tb whom he added such new details as he had derived from accounts of thé
~.oman military expéditions. The author of the Historia Naturalis mentions in Eastern
tjibyathefol!owingtrlbes:–

t.JM~In the vicinity of Lake Mareotis ( Manut).'

2.)'Between(t)andtheMarmartdM.'
=
l,
~33.\M!M<!n~f.–CatabathmusMa)orwestalmost to Syrtis Major.2 Rea]Iy in South-eastern
CyrenaiM.'a
i)

~–Between(3)andtheSyrt'sMajor.*
j!JV<!MMoaM.–Easternlittoral Syrtis Majora
6.<M~(=Asbystae).–Erroneous!yp!aced by Pliny after (~. west of) the Nasamones,
~ththe MMae.' Perhaps the référence shoutd be interprcted as meaning that the Asbystae lay
t brth pf the Nasamones, the Macae west of them, as is indicated by the other évidence.
7. rc~–PtacedbyPIinyinthebottomoftheSyrt~s Major with the PhilaenorumArac
asthëireasternboundary.~ Henee.toofartotheeastwards.
8: M~.–Westofthe Nasamones~ptaced along thé western UttoratoftheSyrtisMajor.
Ii'
;'9.C~–WeStstdeoftheSyrt:s~ "J;
,II
to. Z.M~InByMcm~~ to thé Syrtis Majors
,.I!Plil)yv,6.
1 &J. h and v the latter place,
V
the~rmMif'ae art<:arc)ess!yM;<:)
r
to attend a!) thé way to the Syrtis.
tut from thé phtasçimmediMe)yfoUowmg,itappearsthat the Arara~ and the Nasamonea intervened.
~Cf.Pto)emy,iy.S§<
s.
Thé Kaj!hg~orNo.~}s~Me~J,vM.AM~M't"'tthe fbnn gven above seems to be
PHnyv.
tt)epu~e9t.andisprese~vc~as'A~pM~<S)'ApM'ftolemy i~¢ ~$ 6.
s Pt)nyv..t. /M~"M [~~r/m<]&« ~to~~M, ~M
'(A~iântofMachroasi~MJ.) In ptaeing the Machroes(=Maehr)-es)sofMto the
M~n!M'<! ~.tr.

j s /&
4uhtheLotophagi, P)in;rhascpmmit[edadouMeerror.. <
The:t e)[ten[ ii
/~v. S.
there shown by the cities saM
east,aad:~co~!ng
to tMwith!~ the!.r t~nton~.
~v.
~y ï!
them

<"<

,I.>'
't(ieMh9!f-breeds. .–~
·;
 [tt. M!t~r)~.–Confused by Pliny with the Lotophag! as noted above.' Thé notice can be
taken only as showing that the Machryes (~Ma~)M!=M<t~XM;)were known in Pliny's day, their
true position about Lake Tritonis being made clear from the earlier notice of Herodotus,~ and thé
tater one of Pto!emy.~1
)2. C~</<Mf.–Spoken of as in the interior of the SyrticaRegio,' and atmo$t certainly t0 be
ptaccd around Capsa ( = Kafsah).
The following small communitics~ (Nos. t~-2ï), some ofwhich lay slightly to
the west of Eastern Libya, are mentioned with (tz), but are not entered on the map :–
t~. A~< (Var.A'~M)~&M,M:<«t')
ï-t.AftMK~Mt.–TheMusu)aniofFIorus"~theMusu]iMofTacitus.'
:j;. &~<r~(~~MapVI!L).
16.r~/f.–în the west. M
17. A7fKw.

JMdy<<~t..
t8. ~WM~M.
Cw~<.–About Lake Tritonis.
20. A/.M«m (~~ Map VU!.).
2t.
22. ~r7~f.–CoMtdered wrongly by Pliny as an extensive people, whôm he errofeousty
places half-way between Aethiopia and the Syrtis.~ It may be, however, that thé Augilae (Mf.
Augy!ae) had penetrated as far south as the oasis of Kufra, and that it was this which Pliny wished
to express.
23. 7'!)7A.–Forme rly, says Pliny, the Psylli were above (<
south of) the Garamantes.~ This
extraordinary statenMnt cannot be accepted to mean more than that the Psylli were withdrawn froth
the coast. Thé story totd by Herodotus of the battte of the PsyUi against the south wtnd appears
to have beoi a native version of the account given by Pliny, to the effect that thé F~yUi were nearly
exterminated by the Nasamones, who then took possession of their territories. Thé same writer
gives indirect testimony of the PsyUi's having originally been seated on thé Jittorat, when hë says that
"they received their name from Psyllus, one of their kings, whose tomb is in existence in the district
of thé Greater Syrtis." From this évidence thé Psyi)! have been entered on Map VU. ,tn thc
interior of the Syrtica Regio.
21. G~M~MK~.–Piaced by Pliny twelve days' journey from the AùgUae," in the interior.
Their capitat city is mentioned e!sewhere as having been Garama, which is doubdess to be identifted,
withGermah; Ta!gaeafd Debris atsobelongedtothem.~ g `
2~P~Mx<–In a region which he taUs Phazania, and locates south of thé Syrtis Minor,

/v.
Piiny places a natio or ethnie group calied Phazanii, to whom he attributes the towns of ÀMe,
CiUaba, and Cydamus. Thë last-named town can bê identified with Ghadames,~wh!ch, although
it lies to the west of the modern Fezzan, was within thé district denominated Phazania by Pliny. >
This is borne out not only, by thé evidence of thé names," but by the fact that Phazania was
P)!nyv.f'T~r<?,?.;7,e. ~Herodotusiv.tyS,n
spto!em)'if.3§6. < Pliny v. t. sAiimentioned/Af.f/f..
L.AnnMusPiorus,~jf.iv.tz.
Ta<tus, ~M~i;iv, tf.C.O.CastigHjn!,J)~'<!te/
~AitmenuontdbyPHnyv.
.~ar4'«'Bdf~p.
*Herodotus!v.
t)~.
Pliny y!i. Thé iitto-~t position oftheFsy]]i may te responsiMe for thé fact thatN<)nhus,)n Te~tingthc stMyof
their M-arag~nstthé South Wind, says that the e.tpeditionwasanava)one (DM~MM.ïiii. ~8tf~.).
"P)!nyv.t.
Cf. PmeopitK, De
Fczxan. was
~H, n. cf. de Saint Martin, Le
early adopted by Arabie
PP.")'9~. Cf.J.M.Hartman.n,7m~M,p.t36~
wnters,bn Ha)dun,
~<<'<K~<, p. t)6.
f/y, Trans!. de Shne, <'o). j.
)
 ~V<
pnmahiy a Garamantic country, and as such -would, like the modern Pexza~Jie naturatty under 1

D/
the Syrtis'Major.' in the triumph of Corneii'us Batbtis were exhibited thé Garamantic cMea
of FhMahia–TaïgAe,Debris, and the capital, Garama. In thé
same triumph were etso dt9p!ayed
thé <ive following nat;ones, which are listed in a north-south direction and are rot entered
on the
n)ap :–'
26.
27. Bubeium. Cf. the ~M ~K~ of the JVo/</M Dignilalum.'
28.
li

30..MM/Mp.
29.

<?tM/a/–Thé
t
;i' 3!. Gaetulians are vaguely Placed by Pliny in the interior, corth of the L)by-
r"' –––––––––––––––––'––––––––––~–––––––––––––––––––––––)

.?/
E~yptiahs,' and south (presumably) of thé Garamantes.
The!r true position havmgbeen a]ong thé
"orth-we~ Sahara, and not tarther eastwards than thé G~rataantes, thé; have
not
bef~ ënter~d on thé map te thé position erroneousiy
~~3 (/.t~M ~<).–The
'th~tetTttorie~
assied to them, bat at the eastern Hmitsof

G~ otherwtse unspeciCed position.*

Liby-Ëgypti'tnsHebetweentheLeueaethioptansand
pn the'!nap theywiU seen oeeupy!ng thé ËgyptMn
.~s, shee th~y&rebyP~ placed south of thé N!tr:otaeof thébemodéra Wady Natrm.~
thé

') ~y '9
Pt<')!my iv. § ro, whetc thé
!w"L sptaHng oftheGaramantes; Dion~tas, ~t6~Prht.hn, /'f~-

;C~<îi.
?
iiot:.

~M
'6~~
M~f«, ~~M
venants are 'Â~~<t and tafam, and where, thongh spMt:)r~ of the Phii~nsn~
ptopte tve~ of thé N!)e, he notes Gtnxca and other Phazaniaa Tbtvns as Garamannf.

etc., p. !66. v. Cf. C. 0~,C!<st:g):on!, <

CM .AgMhemefBs,

p; M~. ~~f&~ ,s <;ert~n!y no:

'P~v,8~
t6~e)'e!9tedte~L)9sC:i5:!g)ioMs<igMete<
,<Cf.NMa:itnjQfw~)! 3a., ~PmtemY.tT~~t~
 /~Mf'< (f~<«-e~~~f<).–Thé \Vh!te Acthiopians are placed by Pliny south of
(;î). Thé )oc«nQH is too vague to bs of value geogr.tph!ca)!y, but thé arme bas a distinct
Md obvMus value as anthropotogica) évidence. These Leucaethiopes of Ptiny may be the Libyans
ofthe XuM~n Ni)e.
This ends thé tistof Libyen peoples mentioned by Pliny, anc. whose relative
postttonsareenteredinMapyîÏ.
The following repartition uf tribes-that of Ptoiemy–~emands a word of préface.
Thé A!exandri:m writer was, it should be recalled, much more a mathematic!fn than an,
ethfiogmpher. His tendency is always toward giving astronomically determined !oca-
ttons to the sites and peoples he deals wlth. With him, even when placing nomadic
tribesa,it is always an aHa!r of rectangles. This bas led often to thé cbmnuss!on of really
serious errors, and f'om a map constructed on Ptolemy's data alone it would appeaf that
in his time there were a number of Libyan tribes existing in districts which are sheer
desert!i ït is, therefore, necéssary to correct or tô confirm his S)atements,When
posstbk, by other evidence. It may also bc remarked that Ptolemy, because he Is
treating his subject mathematically, tends to deal with small tribes rather than with

larger ethnic groups–<.< tus interest being in fixed points, he tatls ns.turally into the
habit, when dealingwith divisions of a race, of trcating them !n the smaitest possiMe
ethnie groups (cf. Map VIII.). This, while it leads him thto cxaggeratiohs, has yet
its value from him may be learned, for example, c'f many tnbes in Affica and As'~
which are eisewhere unmentioned, and their names are not inrrequehtiy ofsome
phHolog!cal signincancc. The fb!towlng.are those ethnie units which he m'entions
as existing in Eastern Libya
!§)!
Pitnyt'.X- t'M!emy, if.6§6,pta<-e! a groupofLeuMj'thiapMin thé west. The "Whit<'Aethitp!a<i9"aM,
pfttum2My,thc~fM~tt~Mf/<~mTofOn)!ius
 i. A~w~,Mt~<MT<t<.–Thé population ofthe modern Manut.' As in the case of (2), (4),
(7), (t2), (tp), alid (30), the name is reaiïy iocative and not an ethnie. These, and ail the othcr
tribes bordering close upon Egypt were undoubtedly much fused with thé inhabitants of the Nife
Va)!ey..
2..M/rM~c, Nt~(MT<tt.–Inhabitants ofthe modem Wady Natrun, west of the Defta. Piaced
too far south by Ptolemy, in thé northern Fayum.~
f.<At~tttt~~Tto<.–Thispeepie–amixedoneasshownbyitsname–Ptotemytocates
~'esf ofthe Nile Mthé Middle Egypt.2 As the onty habitable areas in that region are the cases.
~argah, Dahlah, etc.), there can be no doùbt but that this descriptive term is an equ!va!ento~ or
comprises, the Oasitae, under which designation Pto!emy speaks of the oasis-dwellers. Ptolemy is
therefore slightly in' error in treating the people which bore both these names as two, instead of
asone.
0<4<Oa<rmM.–TheOas!s-dweUers(see(~)).~
<?oMM~<r<ix'MT<M.–AlittteN.W.oftheMareotae.Nototherwisekn~wn.~
6. A~a'M<taTTr<M.–. West of thé Mareotae. South of~theGonMtae.~ Notothermseknown.*
ii' (Prosloditae, noo<7oKT<tt.–The correct reading should almost certainly be n~~&rM-~t,Prosopitae,
r~terring notto a Li')yàntnbe but to thé inhabitants of Prosopis in the Western Delta. Therefore
o~mtttedonthemaps.~
y. Ogdaemi, 'O~'Sat/tOt.–South of (6), -in the vicinity of Mt. Ogdaemum; *0'y&!t~of e~o!.
Qtherwise not known.2
8.«4~ 'Pot'nStT<tt.–Givenan impossiMe position by Ptolemy, west cf the Ltbyaegypti.~
~ot otherwise known.
9. ~Mt!f, 'ASuD/tcwSat var. 'ASuD/Mwratetc.-This old ethnie group seems still to have
e~isted in the time of Ptolemy, who however places it N.W. of (8) and S.W. Bf(?) in an utterly
uninhabttabte region.2 From previous sources already noted the location of thé Adyrmaehtdae is
t~ lie rectified by putting them north of the site allotted them by Ptolemy, aincost, but Dot quite,
oti thé coast. It is probable t&at thé Adyrmachidae included some of the smaller tribes mentioned
b~Pto)emy,suchas(~),(6),(7),(!o),and(t2).
j tO. ~~pM~A~ve~~ot.–Piaced impossibly S. by W. ofthe Adyrmachidae.~ Otherwise
uhknown.
il. 5azMM, Bof~f! (var. ~aM-tM).–PIaced N. by W. of the Adyrmachidae,*and so, perhaps,
oh thé coast. If the form of the name as hère given is correct, they are otherwiss uaknown. j,
¡i
13. C~fMM, X<tTTafo~.–Ptaced by Ptolemy west of (12) on
they~retnthevici)utyofasma)ttown,ChRttaea,XtTT'!t'o.
the
t2. Z)'~M~,Z~–Onthecoast,~bythehamtetca)!edZyg!$,Zt~t~andsocorrectIytocated.
and correctly, since
Z~ Zt~~T<K.–Next thé ChatMni, and, like them, correctly p!aced,~ being in the
yicinityofthësea-townofZygris.Zt~~KM/t~ Cf. No. ta.
t~. ~<r~, 'Af~T<nvar. 'A)'e<~T<tt.–West of the Zygritae, and on the shore~ of the
Oe.tabathmus Major. Otherwise notknown.
Ii

}§):
Ii
'fto)<mytv.S§§~,t:,ment!9nsthctt!str!<:t. Forthepeop)e,P)!ny~.S.
S Ptotcm~iv.
/M.<t. Atn~eofthisnamea)soappMrstoAethiopi9,Pto!emyip.y§i6~
<Possib!ytobeiden)i6edwiththe.Ma<rT)~ofofPh))ist)ts,ff~oh,m~ffG.
For §
Zvy/)!s KM~t)), Ptolemy iv. 3. An old, but still current, enot of ideMtSeïtion~ coaceming the Zygritae,
.Chattani, and f*toso(p)it~ may hcre be noted. By G. Unger, C~)!<f!g& <~f JMfmf~, p. ïtS, thèse tnb~ wefe
)dent!6ed w!th thé Z<Khhir~,6M~'«~M,Md fe~fa respeet!vtty!,Thèse peopl;~–m teaRty thé She~e!esh,Sherdett<tt<d
Pt!et~t(àce)s,Sard!nians,endPh!)!5t!ne!)–Ungerbe)MV<:<!tohayebM:<th~L!byitnadefe!tte<!byR<mxsM!tf.
'je Pto!o))' iv, § ta.. C. MiH)er, <~ su~Mtsas < possibiiity ttat thé name is it :!et!c.<! CMrupuoa fbt
<' *A~!Ta~c6nnMtthgthu!th6ethnicwi;hthephee-MmM*A~A&A~&Afa~&-
 t6. Zj~;Wt~<}f, At~t'<f~n<.–Wcst of (t~). in the Gebet et-'Akabah, and atoncshût'e.' Other.
wisc'wtknown.'
t~. &fAt< B<t~<r<T<« var. B<t6-<r«~Tat.–Piaced by Pto!eniy south ofthe Aniritae.' But
C. Mn)ier sugg~tcd thatt as Zygenses, Chattan!, and Zygritae were associated with the towns of
Z~gM C~<tt)'tt, and Z~M rcspectn e!y, so too the Bassaehitae were grouped about ths town Af'MM~M,

&f<t<rm~. The frequeoey of~=~ equivatencesm Greek transcriptions of (breign names renders
this at least possible. The frequency of A~ as Berber ethnic prefix and the resemMance of
*~fm<r<r<t~T<!<ta the ( ~/MZ~ ) names ment~oncd at the beginning oftMs ~hapter ra!se thé poss!b!!)ty to
atikeHhood.
tS. ~'e~Af< 'ATero.ufTat.–S.by W. of preced!ng in an un!nhab!tab!e région.~
9 Otherwise
unknown.
t~. A~f~< A&fM.–PIaced in nearly the right latitude, but too far to thé east,* being south
of(t6)and(f8).
G
ao. A~<?~~<v, Xa<r<t~S)'–Hopekssty m!sp!aced south of (t 7), ahd almost due west of (to).
2t. &fM~!< BaMTOf.–Piaced south of (19), and almost west of (20).~ Tribe othèrwise,
unkjMwn,un!css the namebe a scribal corruption ofBa<m\K.
M. ~MfAfM<At''<~t'Ta~var.Au~T<tt.–Misp!acedsouthof(2i),south-westof(20).~
23. y~4<~<TnTrttMTot.–Adjotningprec€dingonthe€ast,soutt)of(2o).*Unknown, y
2f. A~tf~îo~a~~ot.–PIaced!mposs!Mysouth of (to), and west of (8).~ Unknown.
a~. Of~f/A?f,0<~tM'.a<.–Southof(2t)-" Unknown.
26- ~M~XctfTtTM.–Adjotmng(2~)onthewest." Unknown.
27. Af~of–In the far south, below ('6), (t8), (22), etc.~ Unknown..
28. ~far~~n~f, ~[<Mp!S<M.–Not located, but the Marmaric Nome is extended inland to
an absurd distance from thé sea/ southerly from thé Gebel e!Akabah.
20. ~4mMMi' 'A~a~u~Xc; var. 'A~iyarnSe;. (Agroetas has 'A~<n'~a<c~[Xtl!' in ace. sing.~)–
This Mme bas already been seen in PImy's list. Placed almost correctly by Ptotemy,° but a
little too far south, in sojth-eMtCyrena!ca.
~o. ~rf<Mf,B6[~<I-tMvar.B<yx~T<t[.–TheLibyansaboutBarca. R!ght!yp)aced."
g t. ~f~)/ 'A<r~Sï<tt var. 'A<r~,at.–Thé name has been already discussed above, in
connection with the tribes in Egyptian times. The variant 'A<r~T<:n comes nearest to reproducing
theotdfbrmJE'~A PtacedbyPtoiemymthesouth'westinsteadofintheeastofCyrenaica.~
32..M!M/KA~,M<M<tToCr<M.–P)acedin thé south-cast corner of the Syrtis Major, apparentty
correcdy."
(.. Ta <Tr~X<M<t var. Aa~<tM<m<' etc. Ptolemy places thèse "caves of thé
7Mf AtM-~M~M~
L~sanici" ~eU in the interior, in the vicinlty of the Psylli, the latter being on the same parallel,
farther to the east.~ It is impossible to say if thé Lasanici were a people extant in Ptotemy's day,
or what was their true position. In the Antonine 7aMr<!ty a point Lasamices is found between
Semerus and Cyrene, and it has been conjectured that this was the site of the Lasinid/ and that they

p.J~~fa~?M~<
~j?
PiM)]emy,&f.f. C. MQ~er, observes, ~~y<MY~~ yM~n~ P~o//<s Cyr~f~~M~~o~M~
j~, At~My? M't <~tt~rtTttt ap~ (û~~yj. /'f77~ [:w. ~.] xt~) [in (~. Beruhardy, Gff~r~~ Cr~~ Af/M/vj, vot. i.
/f
Ncc M ïx; con~~cd ~:h thc At~<? of thc Pecrïc Papvr~B, qSecrs !n charge ofthe a~rs oft~e Libyan
NoîB~, w~o ~cre mî~gna~ "~cyïths," whosc bîrth ~K~ them to assume thé oNîces in their districts performcd by thé
~&J.P.M!th.y,p.t8t,gt<6.
Ar~afc~tnthcift.
<
Ptûicmy, f~ and ï' C. MBUef, ~~f.
Pto!e)ny&f.ff/ C.MB))er, 7Mj!;&< M C&«~!<<e&m<tM G~r~Mm X~A' Tab. XXV.
~Ag?octa~jF~<in~7~Giv.p.2Ct~.
Ptoiemj iT. ~S~' Apropw of No. ~t.d.m Phitisrws (Fr< 30 a and in f~G) intend thé Asbystac or AsbyMe
/p,~2(/p.~o, C.Msï!e~~Pto!
bytbensme'EA~eT'TM't? <i.'
 Were Thé évidence is toos!ight 0 a)!ow of an~tMttg
to be found m what is now the Wady ~erayb.'
likecertaintyonthisquestion.)
33. Ay/A, ~~<–South of (29), east of Augilae, and so out ofpface.~
34. A~M~o~MMSto~['/)T?r<nvar.o~Ma<aMf2t~~T<H.–Southofthesouth-ea&tCM-fter
of the Syrtis Major, toc far in the interior.'
35. C'<«, Kff~tof K~t/o~ in ace. pi.–At the bottom of the Syrtis Major,' and so too
~r to the east. For these people, from their belonged to the fertile about thé Cinyps
name, area
Rivér near Leptis.
36. ~M, 'Ë~oitMM!.–Betow the Cinyphi).~ This position, that in whLch later
found the Seli, leads to the suspicion'that the are to be
name is r:ght:y '~MM~, but pfthisthere is no
conclusive proof. It is sa~er to suppose that the Elaeones
were a part of the Seli, as were the

iMacomade:
37.
same name are placed
4

N~~M.–S.S.W. of (36).5 By confusion, a people with another <brm of the

in Aethiopia.~ The Nygbeni are placed immediately north of another people
eaHed thé Nyepii, N~mot.' That Ptolemy bas here registered- the
same people twice under slightly
dtSerent names seems quite certain. FB~Kn, and the-HX.ttermfnation is theBerber p!urai t
th~ Greek N~~Mf is the more Graecized form, as shown both by the introduction of the

38.
(unknown in Berber), and by the purely Greek ~brm of the piurai
(Se<:37).
39. ~W~fM, ~a~~tof
in -o<

var. Sa/M~MMt and in ace. p!ur. Sa~~xM~ (by /t=~)._A!ong

thé west Syrtis Major, between thé Lotophagi and Cinyphii.'and
so probablyreaHyoccupymgan
intra-Syrtie position. But It ~ay be remarked that the Notifia d~afM~ placed in the Syrtica
Re~io the Mamucensis //MM." Also, at the bottom of the gu!f )ay the In Berber
-y ~ëcomes easily prenxed to personal names, cfl F~ town
~br ~e~, m S?wan jegend. Hence,
thé. variant S<t/w- given above may be related to the town-name, and a betfg un;ifenat!y
équivalent in North Afr:ca–[S-]aN~B~-=~~f-. -As, however, them
Elaeones to have
occupied the scanty space on the west Syrtic littoral in the days of Pto!emy, anj appear
the evidence
jus~ cited cannot outweigh that which puts the Samamyci: between the Lotophagi as
and the CinypM:
.,the~'hâve,'withreserve, been given an intra-Syrh';position on the reedRedmap.
~0. ?~w, Tt!~f<rt0tvar. O~tee,
etc.–South of(39)." Unknown.unless C. MuHer's
t.
em~ndationof 'KeSai~wtof, people of Cidamus or Cidame, be accepted. The p~usiMe Ti- preSx
see~nsagainstsuchaeorrection.
Dolopes, d.\o~ var. À.X<a~?.–South of (~o)."
4t.
E~
42.
A)so far in the interior."
'E~3~.–South of (4!)" and wrongly so. For this tribe
Lotophag!,Màndhasbett)p!aeedae<:ordIng!y!nMapIX.
Unknown.
formed part of the

J43. Z~<M<Ep<Mr<tMK.–West of (39)." Unknown.

44. Z.c/c~~<, AmTc~-yot.–Ôn the intra-Syrtie coast," and so a little too far to the east.
!4~.A%<<, Nt'<.–South of(44) between thé Syrtes." The name A%~ C~~f~
(~~)~~ y~P~MM.suggests thatthis people are rightly placed in the interior, but
"F.
th~theyoHghttobe put more to thé westward.
?' and H. W. Beechey, F~~f'M ;& p. (''Wadyjer&~°~
'<M,
~Pto)<!tny,A<
the
*7~iv.3§<S.
~~< M~«. Th~ n~meA~samv~-m
~or~fnt CMjt 569.

M<~M&f,b~. Cf.H.Foqme),Z.M~~rj,p.)~'e.
~/f; 7. The Nuy/3~Juîrar AéBfoass.
§
ngmc

89.9. fhe nanie survived m the Syrtica RegioM~tf

~</r<f« ~'M, p. !0;. ~'wr. ~ofM. p. ;o (f,fm. p. 6;, ?)..
!7~
Mt~~–
Ar~Mc geographica) nomencbtttre~

J.M.H~ttm-H).
M Ptolemy. Af.A and C. MB))e~
u
~PtokmT&fmr
~~«'f~.
'~Hnyv. Procop~ aEd~cïirvi.
~Stephaa.Byz.Mt~Ë~~tC~
Ptotemy.&f.fff. M 7~iv.6§6. 6. M
&c.
~~pos ANSO~niywr, on tne, ;\1I.t!lQrlty QI' Phitistet:
~~h.
r~a"
~F)to)etny,&i'<

.r
1:0)
.:rJ
 46. ~?f-«n~, 'A~T~xp~c~.–South of (4~), west of (39). The position agrees well enough,
though a little too far :o the north, with that of the ~Mm ofAmmianus.'ahd perhaps the
Astacurcs are to be identified with that people, who were variously and confusedly known.~
2
4.7. Cinilhii, Kt~MM var. K:~t.t, K~<, K~~ot, etc.-South of the eastern shore of the
Syrtis Minor, only a t!t)!e east of what seems to have been their true position.~ The Cinithu have
bee't already met w!th among the East Libyan peoples enumerated by Pliny, and they Sgure in later
t!mes as one of the main divisions of the Libyan race.*
48. Q~pM«, 'OvtTrXmMDotvar. Sc~t~Xo~tot..–Iniand from (47) and so, according to Pto)emy,
to the south but pérhaps to the west. Unknown.
49.~<<f~<M,'A~<tt~<'M;var.'A~a;t/tOf€–South of (48).' Unknown.
~o. Me/K~~M, Mo~o~yo~e; var. Bouro~vo~e?.–South of (49).~ Unknown.
~t. Afw~~K.Mo~ou~otvar.Mot/~cfoMot.–Southof(~o).~ Unknown.
~2. A~f~'M, Ma~)M!.–tn the elbow of the Syrtis Minora and ~y both position and the-
phonetic equivalence of the name, to be identified with thé M~XM; of Herodctus (\=~)," thé
M<t~M?!, of Nicolaus Dimascenus,' and the Machroas of PJiny.~
-53- C~MM.r~chvar.r~M.–Southof(~2).~ Unknown.
H. Mimacef, Mt'/M~e9.–South of ()3).'° Unknown, unless they are to be identified with thé
M~ta\<M, e'~0! AtjSuKOf cf PhttistUS."
t/2~ 0~\a;.–South of (~4).~ Unknown.
(~z~f-–Ptotemy mentioning the district called Byzacitis, B~MTtt ~<t, it is fatr to assume
that the Byzaces were stil) to be found m it. He places it with (air accuracy thé north-west of
on
the Syrtis Minor.") &
M~
~6. Machyni, M~urot var. M~woe, M.ot.–Jn the northern part of the Byzacitis
-)~<A~~MM~.–Thé mixed Berbers and Semites,who were probxolynumerous
~7.

/CK~<IofTtOt..
whe~soever the latter had colonies :n North Africa, Pmlemy confines to the district where,
to be
sure, they were to be found in the greatest number-viz. north of Byzacitis, hear Cœ-th~gë.~
(The following tribe~ also appear on Map VIII. tn thé !oM)ittes assigned them by Pto!emy.~a n

~~f,MtS~var.Mf(r~o~Mt8~ot=theMwS<af€?ofStephan..Byz.t).
/M;<, *MtSt8t«t, fM- C. Mù))er.
A~~&M, Mou~oufot = A~Me~, lulius Honorius, p. ~4.
(yi:y-M, Sa.~ot~a~~? aho in interior, Pto!. iv. 6 § 6–~ot~Sot~-o~e!.
/M~A\M~<M.
j ~M~Ma/oiVâr.M~~ot.
t -M'~<MoTO)frot~):06Y&r.MttTOUTO)~)tOt.
C'fr~~Kt~O~.lMt.
O~K~'O~oSTat.
The names of these tribes, as bordering Eastern Libya ou the west,
are here given without
other detail.)

AmmMausMafCe))!nusnvi.4.tj[v!ii.6.
5 ~6).
~?~ M,~ and
p. 68
~P[o!emyiv.}§6.
~rM are also found in Aethiopia('AordKOtpOt, Ptolemy v.
notes. The

C~mf. f~ vo). i. p. ;A~

6.
M: ~o~~ fM ~rrt- NtjS~~t, K~ No~~s, Na<ra~(SM;, 2aim
(&rXM<cot). Cf.vo!.ii.p.!o:M</M~M~
5 Ptolemy,A~fA.
rit. 'Her6dottt!iv.t78,t8o.,
Zf~~C~JV~
'Nico)MsDâ.nMcenus,nf~.t
'P!inyv.4, t./o!M,p;;7 B. 5. Perhaps=~M~ofiCprippus,yo~.ii.4)oand.V. de Sa!nt.Mwm,
~A'p.themodernBerbermbeof:heJ)~/?~Jti~t.
~P[u!cmy,~f.
cit. MPto~my~A!M:nth6.ntenM-,?~y.6e;
Also in
"Ph!stus,f/33;n/WG. ~Pto)emyiv.~§6:
 tribes just reviewed make at first sight an imposing array. It has appëared,how-
The

ever, that Ptolemy has in some cases named the same tribetwice (as in
the instance of the
and A~~K), that he has placed almost all of them too far to thé South and east,
and that în many cases he gives thé name of a tribe of which nothing is elsewhereheard.
In the'rect:ncation of his map, therefore, it is only m the ca~es of the best-known ethnie
groups that it is possible t6 assert with anything like surety that they occupy their proper
––––––––-––:–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––.

places. Many tribes are omitted or. thé rectified map (IX.), and almost all have been shifted
to accord with other ancient notices or with the necessities of geographicalposition.
In order 'to form an idea of the repartition of the East Libyans in late Roman
t~mes, shortty before the Arab invasions, it is
necessary to draw on a variety of sources.
Some
of these need to be deaït withcàutiousiy, since they are rootcd in a common

II
JS'M ~or~n'
or
tradition~ as thé fbHowingparaUeIspIamIy show:–
Liber CtMMfMXtf.?
1>.
C~-M&m Aœ C~. > » _t
O~ga ~MMm GMtr&
~M~ ~MM ~~M ~<M~MffJ ~f~M, ~JMMMM, JM~nnart. ~tr~,

\<
'Thé 2~ ~~MM< M!- A'<!MMM~,Afi!-
M~, ?~«MMM~
TaaMMM. JVaM~oaoy,
MMa
Ta~M-

rotations of thé eart'M soarees, pw!ng M thé taboue of Det)efsen,d'Avezâc, C: MaHef, ete~ are &!r!y nreH
t.MbKshed~ tn[heear)iMFar'ef't!ttbaptertheyhay<bMnteeogni~ tbo~$h.not discussed;
'<p.<'(=C.Fr!ct,C~mM~~M,voLi.p/1~2):
J a[nC.Fr!c&vo].p.M. <~a~.voLi.p.SS. ~ln<vo!p.tï9.
ttThisform translitérâtes charactensdcat)ythé ace. pt.of thé t~ Greek original *T(n"¡"l'atQ~,
 Other late sources than these exist, but they are none of them very satisfactory, and it is
hard to determine how far they represent the actual ethnography of the period to which
they belong, and how far they depend on Pliny and Mela, or on other carlicr writers.
With this preamble, thé following groups may be noted :–

t..M:~MMf'<~M.'–!n their old easterly position.

2..M~w, Tt~x~–Throughoutthé interior parts of Eastern Libya they bordered on the
Austuriani in thé west," are heard of as raiding m Cyrenaica, and in the Egyptiait oases.~
5~?M<–Thé reader has seen that Ptolemy located a smalt tribe called by him Bao~T<tt or
Ba~<t~T<!t"in the vicinity of Barca, from which town this people took their name. Oneseeksin
vaitt in Herodotus for a native population called after the town B<~K~, thou~gh the h'Stor!an
mentions the district about the city under the term B<t,o<t<tM,' and bas a gentile adjective, Bo/MaM)!,
by which he regularly denotes a Greek citizen of Barca. But in Roman times an ethnie formed on
the place-name was used to designate thé vanous remnants of the native population surviving in
neighbourhood of the city-a developmerit which may have been fostered by the fact that throughout
the
its history Barca itself was strongly Libyan in character.~
e
As early as Vergil one hears of the latiqtie furentes B~MM," a phrase echosd long attef by
Corippus in the line
~rr~ ~c curant MfE~r<?~fi?/v.~
In Byzantine times the Barceans were regularly spoken of as a distinct ethnie group. Thus,
F~MM A&Kn Libyae (var. Libyes) in Vibius Sequester." Many writers, howeveF, ignore them, as
is eonspicuousty the case with Synesius. Despite this, and the fact that thé Barmans were not a
homogeneous tribe, but a conglomerate, they have been entered in thé map !n the proper locality
(MapX)~
4. A~MMOMM, ?~?0~–Often noticed m their old position in the east Syrtica Regio."
5. Seli (~M/M ~/<).–In the south Syrtica Regio.M This people would appear to' bc none
other than the old Psylli, returned to their former iocatitles ~t Is hardty necessarv t6 observe,
is a sound unknown in Berber !anguage, and it seems that in this laté fôrm Seli one is confronted
with a fairly correct spelling of this ethnie. The particle SL ia tribal names was common–
e. M~Z~<,Af~M~Z.-<,A&Z.-<!M,~Z.-f<!M<<Z-M.etc.
Flavus Vopiscus, f<-Mfu, 9; Çonppus, yeAjMA, ii. tj8, iv. to~, )t6~, v. t~7, ;o~, ;6;, ;7~, 66~, t'o6,
ni. '69,~00,38!, ~27, ;}t, 636, 6~7; 0.-<NaM~Mn'j,&f.SidottiusApoU)nans,Cofc.v.~8
i. ,.).<); iv. 724, tozo, v. t6~, ~;o, 600, vii. 30;; Nemesian, CyK~t. zft; Ciaudian,
~-MMf~,MM.i.3;6.
° Corippus, y~M/f,

~P)u)osMrgias][:.8. ~AmmianasM'arcetiitHEïxni.t,
'i
5 Johnnnes Mosthus, /~y~ Patrum, x. ;t:, in F~r~M ~<t/w, vo). )xiu:. cet. ~6 cf. another notice in the
De pAu ~~M, iii. )<)!),
~!f.J~<tK.Ï.
&
vo). lxiii. col. So~. Evagnus, ~&~ J~
i, 7, etc. ttt gênera), cf. Conppns, y~ f
Ptolemy iv. 4 g 6. Steph. Byz. in verb. Ba/)K~ gives tte genti)e name as Bti~mtaTat.
Cf.
note in ObMJm's
VibiusSequester.p.~S;. Herodotus iv.t7)/T~?<~T~BM~a&M~
~~<~tK/f<pp.t77<t,:30~.S,fB.3. ~Vergi!,A)!.iv.t.
MConppH%y~t~3. Cf.~M'r.;o6. "VibiusSeqnestcr.p, Y~~
The popahnqr of the name c~, Barkah, in ~e ÂMbie authofs Ûistnet of Bafeea haS
as a désignation for the

.j-
perpetuate~then~meoftheregIon.andthus.indifectÏY.ofthetown. J b
~T*hts)atter6)rmtS~ban(itntbe?~&<M!Seg.vn.
f~
C~~f. vo!. ApoUtMt!
p. ;Q, :i. p.
t0! v.
SidonnK
;~3,6o!,t-i.t6;<o,vti.i7~:C.Fnc<[,C~~&'«~~M,Af.n/<;te.;
Cdrm. 338 Corippus, y~M~, v. tc)8, ~;t, ;So,"
M Two Syrtic towns ofthe Seli appcar in the TMs& f~t~n~, Seg. yii. Thé
')
PsyUi a~ ~ntiohed by Sidon!u9 °
ApoHin:n!,&f. '“

f
y c .I,~ ,f'.
 6. M<< Me~nM.–Th!sethnie is but a variant of the earlier A~:M~, M~<t<, and as there is
good evidence of their acdvity in late Roman times they have been entered on thé map (X.) in their

'––––––––––––~ ~–––––-––––––––––-u
oïd sèat in thé western part of tjte Syrds Major. The Macetae are mentioned by SyRestuS* as
having been àssocuted with the Ausuriani in raids into thé Pentapoiis. By some taodern Wj-iters
they have been coofased w~th (2), but thé identification Is very uhcertau!, desptte the'geograpMeal
prox!mityofthetnbes. `
7. A~~«~.–A tribe on the Syrtis M~or.~ From thé name and thé
west tittoral of the
position, one suspect that thèse peopkwer~theSam~of Ptolemy. r~
·I, 8. Z-CM~M, Afs~<H,~ yar. A~mf~)~ Ae)/ea~ This name M of interest, SM~e !t bas been

,).
SeonJectured'that, denvedofits terminadon,it présents a fbrm of the old ethc!e<A~M!, tôr AeMe-
s
=Af~- (by theequivâtence, espedally in the t!me of Justinian, off=:–
BaxSt~M regahriy for
Furthermore.thenameandits vartants have bëen he!dtocoanecttheLeuathaewitha a

;A~va9- (by
tribe wh!<:h figures, prominentîy m the pages ofÇorippus!–thé7A~~&aor Z~<<MA~(many vanants).
M=~)< of which dte BerbeF~maseniineptorat would be
~=7/~(«).~M. The variant lecdon Ae~f~- (=Z,)~jL<(e)~ s
*7-
form approached, though

Thç were
probab!y~omsoniescrtbatcon~SMwxtii Gr. 7~uxds, bF th~var. -levKdBaF.
<
itt Byzantine tunes spread over a large portion of TnpoIItana, as !s deaf
Irroni thé AraMc notices of this pëopie ~nder thé name In Map X., hoyever, theyhave
been enterëd in thé vicinity pf Leptis, because there is exp!ic!t Byzantine évidence of their havmg
~eeùp'edithattoeal~ïn thë timeofJustinian
?
t9/7~–ht
fair with
the interior of TnpoHtana.and from their na~and place, ~be td~R~Sed
with a Je~ thé Bem I~aren ofibn~aldun ai~d other Arabie writers.

'r'
'Synes)NS,it~.7t~f.' ~f~
~~M~m~/M~,p.8~/$,6mes Yide sufru p 6; and n..9,
'~P[oc~!u%~Ht.s.
-H.m,Y!.t: ~Mein,jO'<)!.2t,tS.
'<
~j';j ~P.~M~mccheni/Çonpp~y~t..t~(noKsp.
~For~MB~ e
~o:
~).0!(/~e~Ka«! 7t.%e~, <~ Mr.
i.')~, ~v.
seeCoriPPas; Î`
tv. 797 (t/o~e-t~f)~
S;, 6:§,
~:r,
ti).
i~°.t' r~ 3;
St;, v. tM, v!.
~T.' t66 (<7/i~r<t~e~t,f),;
~ot.

.\f~
~r~~P~P~<~ii~t~
y~
~~p.~77~"j, Cpnppus, !'3, 'T.
`'
~t, vu. :~o, 6~8.
.s gf.McG. Je Stane,A~ ~Appen<Sx i.
 ~M/M' ~KJ/M'MM' Autre~tafo~ a pre-
tO. ~f<.Mf:<Mt, *AMotptaro~' var. Au~M~«tfof.
datory people of the Interior of Tripotitana," neghbours of (a) and (9), who in eon~pany with the
Macetae or the Mazices harried the Pentapolis. The Ausuriani are one of the two native peoptes
mentioned by Synes!u$.'
i A~f<–PeriMps the old Ma~M!, and in their locality.8
ta. C:'<n'~H(cM~Kf~o<).–StiUextantinIatetimes.'
These twelve main bodies of the Libyans in Byzantine t!mes arc exhibited in Map X.
The following tribes are mentioned in the later literature, but are not entered
in the map because of the unsatisfactory nature of the evidence :–

) j. 7'twAtM<!f<, *TouTa~K!K)f.–Mentioned as a Syrtic people in several related Latin chronictes."

The variant Tautaniona is found in one instance."
t~. C<!MM<!«f.c.–PresumaMy in their old position, if not mentioned in a spirit of literary
réminiscence.~
ig. Caf~A'.–D~
16. ATt~~r~–A Phazanian tribe, presumably located in the vicinity of the river
Nathabur."
ty. Z.f~c~–PresumaMy in thé Egyptian oases.
S}nesu.F,
ConppM,
Conppas(~.f:Aii.7S,v.
y~ 39)~0~1~)?
~f'A 11$
u.
T~)- A[T]<r[o]ty.at'~
20~,
~oAc~oc. s phitostorgics,H~. ~ff~. xi. 8.
iv. S:6, vi. <8~. May not a variant &f ~Mi'er<'f be see.l in the ~~«-~ of
F
AmmMnas Marce!tmusxni. S. ïxviii. 6,
~Pnsca!PamCM,fr~.)-t.;nf~fG.(n'.p.§8).
fLET'af,t. A`~a7s w-a`` ~A~~perv oiro` véf`.ov: a` w:
Po~Hon assigned br consensus of evidence and by the expticit statement pf Phitostorgius, &f.

Wbethefor not the Au'tinMt are to be regarded as the same people as the ~rxe~ of OroMUS and others 0'
A~mpMfo!

a
pt~jA p~.)-< on which a word may be said here. The various lections of Ausuriani are given abov?, and thé consensus
seems to indicate some such form as *AUS<t)UR as most closely representing the native ethnie. The name *z<<fM V
CïHMf5 thé variants *A!ijjgis (~M~< in abl. sing. in Sidoni'ts Apollinaris, Cafm. v. 3}8), *ArEucis (~ze~'in gen.
plur. ),!t Orosius i. 2, § oo, where the best lection is ~rx~~), and the adjectivc form *Arzugitanus (/)rm'MfM~
~M~&x~!a gen. s:ng. ;n S. Aaretias,CMn&r. M~. vol. iv. co). ~7, cited by P. Mazzacfhe)!i, note ad Corippi y~)!.
ii. t.t:, p. t~t). The consensus hère is plainly for some such ;vord as *ARZUG but the initial AU- of~Aaxagis is
not quite to be disregarded, because of the treqaency of this prenx in Berber names. Thé diffeience between G and R ?s
termînationsof*Arzag and *Aus<t)ur can be explained readity enough as due to dînèrent renderingsofan ongina) :he
equivalence of ~x- and Aj- offers a more senous, but not insaperaHe,dieeulty. tt is not
easy to' escape tKe feeling thé;
thé two names denote one pcople, !fmth the passage already cited <rom Ph!!ostorg!us be cqmpa-ej the rb))ow:ng:a
OrosiiS i. § c)o, rr~MM ~M'&fM, ~<M< St~x~M p~/ f~M .~T~M! ~<'<;r, e~ ~<)f «~<' ~f;~ est,
m~~fM
~rn~~f~r ~M! Africae &~<'<i-~ ~tf~~r M~Mer (Para!!et in r~M <M desciiptio, éd. Baudet,
p. ~).
S, Aaretius, Ar. r<<. [A !etter sent in A.B. ~!Q to all the Mshops], per /h<f&;)!! ~rcMX<-M!- ~);Zt!~M~ ~ze~M~. (Hence
thés.. <HstTtCts were continuoas, as was noted by Morcet)!, ~-<M C~n'~MM.vo). i. p. 84. Thé "Anugitan tract"=the
M/&f ~x«~ of Corippus, y~~M. ii. t~8.) Coincident location, Sna))y, leads
one to suspect that thé Aasunam or
Ar,'ngMmaybethe'A<rTa<ot'/)fsofP[otemyiv.j§6.
~Conppas:i!)o.
~~t~e~r~Mmf,C~if.C~On~&
]t
O/&My.,
M
bis 3~
Sdotm!!ApoUina~,C<:f~.v.;jy..
Aeth;em,
&<<
'C~M~&.wt.ii.p.io:.
p: <?<MeM~~Mn.6< '°..
Rtudet, j). Conppus, Y, toS V:b:Ns Sequeater,
Ior. cit.

M Sidon!nsApo))iMns,& Vibius Seauester,p. 34. C~~ -L;byie; Cor;ppns,v.

to~. It is t?
be renKtnberçd that nnder thé name C<:f~, as under the modern misnomer ?!<
werè comprised many desert ttibes.
<

Tbtx, P!!ny mendom ~w~<-C.~(v. :) and D<r~-G~~ (v. t). I[ mayweUbe that m hter timei thé ethnie namM

wriinyt.
J~
ofspec!6cgrottp*snpptanteJ~emore general des!ghat!oh.
AethtcM, &. ~r.var. Orosius i. < §00, A~~w, var..W<MM~, A'~«erM, etc. A Gactu.lian tfibe(f).
MOros.usi.tg~t.
 t8. Z.<~M~M/w.'–ThenegroidLibyansofthejMuth.
!M~~w~–Thts tribe must hâve had some importance in the eyes of Vibius Sequester,
since they are among thé six Afric' peoples h: !!sts. They are otherwise quite unknown.

The names cf various other tribes–several in Corippus–1 omit attogethcr,

there being no evidence as to whether they inhabited Eastern or Western Libya.
The ethnogeography of Eastern Libya at tbe time of the first Mohammadan
invasions is complicated by the confusion of the Arabic sources. Thé Moslem ivriters
arc not very explicit, nor do they always discriminate between those indigenous tribes
<ound in thé country by the early Mohammadan
conquerors, and those which afterwards
~ame into it from the Moghreb in the train of the Fatinute invaders of Egypt at thé
end of the tenth cent'iry A.D.'
8
Thé literary opinion generally current among the Arab writers acknow!edged
several lines of descent for the various groups 01 Berbers, each group being referred
to an imaginary, and usua!!y eponymous, ancestor. Among these ancestors two-an
elder and a younger–by the name of Lua ()~) ngure prommentty~ Thé
younger
Lua was regarded as the father of Zayr, and (through the Ïatter) of numerous Berber
tribes known under the general designation of Luatah (&)tj)): a name in which it îs
~asy to recogmze the Byzantine ethnie A~<~of. Ït is the Luatah who must be regarded
as thé prédominant branch of the Berber stock in Eastern Libya of the seventh century
~.D.–theZenatah and Huarah probably came in
on the heels of the Fatimites about
tooo A.D.
° I. Z.!<~M~, ~.–This name (representing, as hasjust been mentioned, the iate Greek An~at)
s~rved thé Arab writers of Eastern Libya, much as thé
as a générât dss:gtMt!on for all the Berbers
c~gmte A~</M had the Grcek historians ami geographers. Thus, the Luatah
appear in the vïcinlty
of Tripoli Town~ in Barkah,~ and in Egypte
2. Z~M~ ~–Atribe of the Luatah established in Egypt along the western edge ofthe
elta. They continued there until dislodged by thé Mamelnks, who drove them into Barkahs
whereanothergroupofZenaraha!readyex!sted.~ <
[Ël-Makrizî notices thé following tribes of Luatah living in Egypt
as
Thé Benu Ballar, the B.
Baïain ofIbhHaIdun], who were divided
it~to the sub-trtbes of the B. Mohammad, B. 'AJ!, B. Nizar, and B. Thantan–ih the province of
Behnasa.;
OroMtts §88. p. a Vibius SeqaMtsr,
and Obcdin, ~.i)t. p. Aoc s5, Af~en ~~&
°S.L9ne;;PooIe,~M<<M~&~j,p.eF~m;te:n<:un:cn~
< Ibn ttatdùn, Kitab (tr. de Slane), vol. i. p. !<t jy.
5 Cf. Ibid. (Ar. text), vol. i. p. t (=tr. de Stane, vo). i. p. tgy jy.).
j vot. i. p. Abu 'i-Mahasm, ~m~, p. S~ Ibn 'Abd d-~am, p. J6-
3oz Ibn AM 'I Dinar,
-~°' }.
Ibn P-
~-At!r,
AfriCMUS, .~if~
A'
et-HrM,

~n~,
C~«.. § et-Bih~r!, p. "thé T.a.<~h Berben of t~c counny of B~hh
i)i.~a, wheK- :t :s stated that the LuM~ Berbers eïten<!e4 ifron) B~ah to Sas; cf Léo
vi. p. o~O~'MM ~~MM, vo). iii. p. Soo.whe~ thé Luatah a~ mtnnQ))~ M ~~nding
to thé cast as far as Egypt.

~< ~r
LMAfr!rftnus,~A.itf.R.Bass<:t,tfDM~f~<S)fmt!<p.
~?S~~°'°~
{'s !bn ~)dun, (<r. de Stane), vol.p. !3~. ~Ac<:ord:ng to tbn Haldun, the ZeMtah had beea dr:Mn
-Et-Yi.'kBM.~n-fM.p.~o.
<
 The FM<f Afj~M~ JtJ~ in the province of G!Mh with part of the B. Thahlan, the
S.!kharah, B. Abu-Keth! and the B. e!-6e!as.
The &~Ht /i':< .j~ the most powerful Berber element !n the §a'M.
The ~< ~A, comprising thé Maghaghah [who by Ibn Haldun were reckoned
dMce.tdanCsof the elder, but not of theounger, Luah], and the WaMtah.
The B<w ~cM?~, ~tJu.

r
The ~f~ <Mf~, JLt A.
The M<rz«MA, < .,<, comprising the B. Warkan, B. Gheras, B. (~emmaz; B. et-~akem,

The ~fSM
The
~< <
B. WaiM, B. et-Haggag~ and B. Mahresah.

~0~ <<M, ~t J) )!
The ~f/!« '~M~,
The ~?~.< ~j~ J;.
The Benn AFeoA;r, ,M tJb.
The last 6ve trtbcs, el-Makrîzî remarks, were mixed with Zenatah, Huarah, etc.,
and were located in the province of Manufiah. None of thé above tribes" have béen
entered on Map XI. on the authonry of et-Makrîzî, since their presence in Egypt
before the Fatimite invasion is uncertain, and is significant only as on~nng an historical
paraUel to the conditions prevailing in New Empire times.~]
,}. -~MA!St,<-–MtxedLuatahBerbersaboutPtoIema!sinCyrertt!ca,*andmWag!Iah.~ 6
ZM~t/aA, S'J..–Mixed Berbers about Ptotemals perhaps not found in Barkah until after

r
thé Fshmtte invasion.

f.~x~)j,.–D/t~
6. Hassah, ï~&.–AnArabo-BerbertnbeofN.E.Cyrena!ca,ofuncerta!nong!n.° Il
Huarah, ~w< t*–A great <Hv?St6n of the "race ofLuah," con)pr!s!ng many
tribes, the bulk of which were to bc found in the west: It is probable that !n the sevehth century
"j-
<

Thé B. e!-W<sush=t!.e S~ of E)-Y~uM (~. p. ~), or the T~M~ of Ibn Hatjan, as R. 6~~t
(~. p. <r. ~) has pointed pnt. Thèse LaMah M6 [hose also who, te<crs thé 6<tecnth tentuty A.p., had taused thé
med~!eYxtn~meofthec)~S5;c~Ammoninm[ochangeAomt~/ar~&ju~,to~<?/S~).,

1
Fotwh!chseee)-MaMd,t/f~y~O! ~~S!j)M<'o!~tf'a)!&rtM<!ft:MSM~O!p. 33
~C<<f,pp,!t6,o, *Êt-Mr!si,&f.nf. <R.B~set,nt.p.t)!.t.
7~
x.p.
~o&r~p.
K<
 A.D. their easterty extension ended in the Gebet Gharysn, though later they were found farther
east.' A small body of Huarah existed in the vicinity of Leptis Magna (==Z.A, and ~),
Mpther south of the Syrtis Major.'
8. ~M, 7/«~< ,–A small division of the people of this name, the bulk ofwhom
were to be found in the west in the vicinity of Tlemsan, was to be found in the eastern part of the
,c, Geb* Gharyan.
9. Yafusah, ~–In the mountains of Tripolitana stIU called by their name, and stiU
inhabited by their descendants; also in small numbers on the sea-coast of Sabrata. (~ ~r~, ~).*
This ethnie may be related to that of the 'more prominent tribe of Africa Minor called .M~za-n~,
S~.
v;) ~Near Tr:poli Tocvn.
~.7~–NearTnpotiTown.
10. B. L'axrun,
io. AsmaHgroupnotenteredonthemap.
A small group not entered on the map.
tt. A~~w~, ~–A group of thèse Zenatah Berbers, so strongly seated inthe west,
appears to hâve existed in the seventh century immediately S.W. of (io).4 The name has been
compared to the ancient M~w!, M~\M?, possibly nghtly." Not entered in the map.
Demmer, ,~J ~.–A tnbe in the vicinity of the Shott eI-Gedd, comprising the sub-
!2.
tribes ~M~A, s,)~ Urghmah, «~~ and t7~M, J~
Not entered on the map.
A few general déductions may now be made from the maps. It is quite clear'that
some of the naaies to be found on them–f. Mazices, Marmaridae–areethnie names
ot a general rather than of a tribal significance, but this does not prevent one's seeing
sèmerai important points.
In the first place, the Libyans along the seaboard either got pushed back or ceased
t~exist as significant ethnie units, or became fused with extra-African invaders. This
!s seen in the decav of the small Cyrenaic tribes, and in the existence of the mixed
Ltbyphoenices.
il
Secondly, it may be noted that tribes in.the less desirable areas tend to show a sur-
p~ising degree of ethnie stability the Nasamones, for example, continued to maintain
t~emscives from thé days of Herodotus until Byzantine times–< for about a thousand
y~rs–within the same area along thé East Syrtic littoral. Even the Adyrmacbidae,
d~spite their proximity to Egypt, continued to exist until thé time of Ptoiemy.
Thirdly, in conjunction with this ethnie stability it is found that thé names, if hot
the pure stock, of certain tribes survived for very considerable periods. Thus the
Egyptian Esbet appear in classical times as the Asbystae or Asbytae, and the name of thé
Ëgyptian Hes possibly survives to-day, after three thousand years, in thé name Hassah,
b<~neby groupofArabo Berbers of Eastern Cyrenaica.
a
Fourthly, it is évident that thé gréât gênera! movements of the Eastern Libyans as a
w~ole were anciendy in a west-to-c~s(erîydirection thé invasion of the Meshwesh was
from the west (Map II.), and in t$e period preceding the Mohammadan conquests new
p~oples liké thé Ausuriani and ti-te ~~ices are seen raiding into Cyrenaica and Egypt
1!
1 E. Mercier, Histoire de /'cMMn<mMf der ~~S'~mj /?-<~ f~cM-MM~,p. ~t' and Map r.
Ibn et.Atir, et-Hr~i, Af. df. Ibn d-Attr, /<f. ftf. i Ibn AM'1 D!n~, Af.
E. Mercier, ~p~tS and Map t, Ibn ~)<}un, ~<~ ~'7~ (AXteït),w).p. '33, J'. (=tr. deS).tne,
'i.p.!)o,iii.p.8). ,5Butt,M,6.).)t.S.
~E. Mercier, <w.{\~7.
from thé south and thé west. As will be more evident later, it seems as if in ancient
times any prolonged political weakening in the Nile Valley was the infallible fbrerunner
of invasions from the west. Even after the Mohammadan conquest of Africa, the old
west-to-eastcrty movement was rcpeatcd in the Fatimite invasions of Egypt, though this
last of a long series c'f similar movements was counterbalanced by the east-to-west in-
cursion of the Hillal-Ben-Amar and the Soleym-Ben-Mansur in the eleventh century A.D.
The reasons are not far to seek the Eastern Libyans were not pressed from the Nile,
but from the open oasis country to the westward. The actual cause of pressure
cannot always be stated but that, given the opportunity, the Libyan tribesmen should
ever have been ready to install themselves in the fertile and easily tenable Nile Valley
goes without saying. y
 CHAPTER HI
LANGUAGE AND WRITING

DESPrrE the modern prevalence throughout North Africa of Arabie, the language of
conquesi: and religion, there exist by survival from pre-Is!amic times a number of
directs of that old indigenous Hamitic speech which is called Berber. The Berber-
speaking peoples, as a whole, having never arrived at that stage of civilization in which
they would have fixed their tongue in a literary medium, the number of dialects is large.
Thus is fbund, with fundamental similarities of syntax and vocabutaries, a great variety
arnong such dKïcrënt branches of Berber as the Zenatah, Shawîah, Tamashek, Zenagah,
etc., and–a: coroHary to this instabUity of the language-it is also to be observed that
r~any loan-words from the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Negroes, and Arabs have
c~cpt into Berber speech.
Thé origin ofthe language is problem.atic. Recently there bas arisen a fashion of
sbeaking of Berber as a "proto-Semidc"tongue,* but it is worth while, to recall in this
cpnnection that so great a Semiticist as Renan declared that Berber, though having
traits ofresemMaace to thé Semit!c languages, is profoundiy different from them.~
Thèse dISerences are the more important, because one of the most striking peçu!iarlt!es
the Semitic tanguages is the extraordinary likeness of the various branches to each
bther, two so remotely separated tongues, for example, as Tigré and Assyrian being
n~ore nearly 'allied
than is any branch cf Berber with any branch of Semitic. This
p~int must be remembered both in connection with thé daims of those who call Berber
~"prpto-Semitic" langùage and with a slightIydiSërent suggestion, MX. that Berber,
i~ common with Bisharîn, Bega,etc.,had a remoteArabian origine Thé int~resting
a~tempts which hâve been made with a view to connecting Berber with Basque* and
\~ith Etr~scan 5 are not very conclusive, nor hâve they all
helped toward the sett!e-
H. Weisgerber, ~&~f ~r~, p. t6t.
i E.Renan,<HA?~r<idem,~tffmr~~j&~Mf~f'f<~M,t.it.p.8t.
A.Efman,h~CrN'sm<p.t,§tA.
t., Cèze, /)c ~~MCJ r~e~ entre langues ~f~t ~j~; G, von der Gabe!entz, Dit ~ra'~<)!r(~<~
2)~Mf/{~M(/jB~r~r~~)!MA~j<
f~)"
b. G. Brinton, ~~<&~ ~&MM
TT!*
vo). xxviii. C. de VMY, La
c/
~a'M< ~rNJM~J, P. ~N. f~. $., vol. ï!~).; Oo
t~~Ar~ef, <yf., tntrod. p. Yv.
~~jMe
Br!nton*s.theor!:s are there summarily
ditmisscd.
ment of the question of the origins of proto-Berber. Still less convincing is the elaborate
essay in which Bertholon has sought to prove that
Berber is a fusion of IItyro-
Pelasgic," Turso-Petasgic,and Phrygian elements cast in a Semitic mould.' Like
the ethnical origin of the Libyans themselves, that of the language they hâve spcken
since the dawn of histcry is yet unknown, and all speculation on this head is best set
aside until more evidence has accumulatcd.
In its general character modem Berber is à very simple language. It is con-
sonantal, and words are mainly formed upon triliteral radicals. There is no dennitc
article, properly speaking-the word ales (Tamashek), for example, signifies equally "a
man" or "thé man," according to the context~–this want being partially supptied by
a
démonstratives. The personal pronoun takes a special form according to whether it is
isolated or affixed, and in the latter case serves to denote possession. The verb bas but
one conjugation, and that of the simplest: the verbal
thème, composed of one, two,
threc, or four radical consonants,~ at once gives the second person singular masculine of
the imperative. Apart from the imperative, there is but one time, serving alike for past,
denote
present, and future. A numbër of particles serve, when prefixed to the verb, to
whether completed, present, or future action is intended. Thus, in Tamashek, the
triliteral radicale, LKeM means to follow <f~,
1 hâve followed <!<f~,
1 shall follow." 4 The persons in the conjugations are regularty marked with prefixes
of the usual marks of
or with suffixes, or with both. Qualincative verbs lose a part
conjugation. The factitive, reciprocal, passive, habituai, etc., sensés are imparted to thé
verb by adding, externally or internally, special éléments to the primitive verbal thème,
and so producing ten separate verbal forms.
The formation of the feminine in nouns is very simply and regularly accompllshed
in a manner which serves a!sd to mark a diminutive. The plural is either externally or
internally marked, or both. The adjective follows the' nOun it qualifies, end is subject
to thé same formative laws. Some particles and most of thc numerals
hâve b6€h
reccntly taken over from the Arabie. The construction of phrases is reguJar thé verb
stands at the beginning of the sentence, and is followed by thé subject and its complé-
ments. In North Africa to-day are some forty Berber dialécts
to which thé above
general remarks are applicable, and which, according to their phones:s,are classed as
"strong"or"weak."
As already stated, Berber being a language unnxed by literary usage, thé diS'ercnce
between the dialects is marked. As the vowel and consonant cqùlvalences thëy exhibit
important in the study pfthe significance of ancient names they are here tabulated.
are
L. Bertho!on, Colons <& jex~ européenne, part ii. Of~M«~rm~<<M& & langue ~-Mft.
~A.Hanoteau,GM~&&~Mfjm~<f,p.!8. SR~r(;))r<!v?ors'Y..
'A.HanoKaN,<;7.p.,6~

~t
 Ï. DENTALS

D~D. Mzab)-aget)id (Zuawa), "k;tig"; anebdu (Zuawa)~aneHM

Cf. ageUid (Ben;
(Ghadames),"summer";ten~!d(Zuawa) =ten&;d(B.Mzab,Tama9hek),"thou
hast killed."
D = T. Cf. )~ (Zuawa) = it (Bougte), night."
D=T. Cf. adbr(Ghadames)=:tbir(Zuawa),"pigeon."
D=T. Cf.iudtf(B.Menaser)=!ut€f(B.Mxab),"heenters."
T=T. Cf.ten~id (B. Mzab, Tamashek)=ten~!d (Zuawa), thou hast kilied"; teSeZ
(Tamashek)=te<ïez(Zuawa),"tobechew!nghab!tua!!y";)ggat(Tamasbek)=ikkaî
(Zuawa), he béats continuslly."

II. DENTALS AND PALATAL5

D~G. Çf.adugil(Ghadames)=agugtI(Zuawa),"orphan."
D = G. Cf. agedid (North Tamashek) = agagtd (South Tamashek), b;rd."
D=G. Cf.admar(Ghadames)=agmar(Shawiah),"horse."
D=Z. Cf.egdem (S. Tamashek) =egMm (Zuawa), "to eut" tadevvot (Ghadames)=tazabat
(Tamashek), "ring.
T=S. Cf. taseti) (Tamashek)=sasem(ZH<.wa),"tobejeatoushabltua)!y."
T=TS. Cf. tin'tmun (S. Tamashek) =t~imlmun (S. Tamashek), a piace-natr.e.

111. SIBILANTS

S~S.Cf,esek(Ghadames)=Isek (Tamashek), "horn.

S = Z= H. Cf. erges = ergez (bothTamashek), "to wa)k sund == zund= hund (a!tTamashek),"as."
§=F. Cf. asuta~(N.Tamashek)=afu!a~(S.Tamashek), "goat."

III, ÏV. PALATALS AND SIBILANTS

6 =K. Cf. iggat (Tamashek) =tkkat(Zuawa),"he beats contmuousiy."

G=s~G. Cf.agenna(TamMhek)=agenna(Ghadames),"sky."
K=TS. Cf.utrik(Zuawa)-ufrits(B.MMb),"she<-p."
K~T§. Cf. nc~ (B. Menaser) =nck (Zuawa, Tamashek),

K
G=§. Cf,age!l)d(Zuawa)=aseUtd(Ghadames),"king."
a
G=§.Cf. amage~=amase~(both Tamashek), man ofthe Imushagh."
~=S, Cf.t~ed(Zuawa)=esed(Ghadames),"ashes."
~=~.K. Cf.nt~er=ne~er~ KabylPO; I slày hàbitually."
(~=Z. Cf.akgu~(Zuawa)=akztn(B.Menaser,Shaw!ah),dog~

'At. V. PALATALS AND AsptRATES, ETC.

= âysum (B. Mzab), Il Ilesh."
i

QG=TfY.Cf aggur(Zuawa)=aiyur(Tamashek),mQO)). °
G~=YY~Œ (B. Mzab, S?wah) = iyèn (Tamashek) one."
G=H. Cf.agugtt(Zuawa)=aguh!!(Tamashek),<)rphan.
t!~=~ ta~at(Tamashek, Kabyle~~=tehaç (Ghadamesj; "goat" (fem,}.
 Yt.t.AMAM
B~ C& ~XaMa)=tuwt (B.M~b),
"heh..<sc€'me<"
"door"; !bbo~ (Xu!)wa)~iu~t (Bougie),

B=F~ C~!<aeb~u~u~~)='McMu(Ghad!)mes)t"summer."
B~ C~<;tx~at~TanMshe~)=tadevYot(Ghadames),"nng."
tï~V. C~eM~(TMMshe~)=evod(Gh:)dM)M),"Mght."
VIt.LtQtftDs
L.=R. C~!daM=!trmi(bQthKaby!e),"as~ras."
L=D. ŒHh(K~y!e)=tddt(M~rrocanR!f),"hewM";eiH=c!di(both Kaby!è)," to open."
N=M (ander inSnenee of following htbiat). Cf. tanfust (8. Mzàb)=tamfust (Tamashetf),
"to.ry."
ADD
U = G = B (undcf mSuence of tbttomng <f). C~ u urgaz (Bougie) = g urgaz (Mulen) = b Urgaz
(Zu~t~a), of thé mM."
B=Z(byssamt!attOa). Cf.abzug=azzug(bothZu~wà),"moisture."
A&~t~fM&boftenf~und. ŒsnfTn(Zuawa)=ak~fa!(Tamashek),"mitk."
A brief study of the above permutations will convince the reader of the fluid state
of the Berber language as a whole, and of the great difficulties attending any attempt
at maLking comparisons between the modern vocabulary and the surviving anoent ttàmes.
Thé reader will appreciate also that whereas most ofthe permutations are well known
MtA)rTaftOfSemit!cIanguages,someaj'eratherunusual,s=f,!=d.~
is wctt to begin the consideration of thé language of the Eastern <,Libyans of
Ct
ant!qp!ty whh the statement that no textual specimens of their speech exist to-day.2
It !s certain, however, for reasons which fb!!ow, that their language was aproto- >
Berber longue, which may sa~e!y be regarded as the ancestor of the surviving dialects
not on!y of the Gebcl Nafusa, of Ghat, and of Ghadames, but also of the sequestered
comntuntttes farther east, as Wagîlah, Maradah, Sîwah, Garah, and MansMah c!-
'Agu~h in Bahariah Oasis. This hypothesis is supportcd by the tbUowihg facts.

t. P~ACE-NAMES AND ETHNICS WtTH T- AFFIXES !N ËASTERN ËtBYA

ïn Berber, the feminineis regularly màdefrom thé mascuttReSubstahtive by thé

preS~ing oft- and the suffixing of -t, ~/7
(masc.), "pstrich,"~em. (Tamashe~).
Dim}nuttves,as alreadynoted, are similarly :[brmed. Words of this sort appeàr ~equentty
M modern Berber place-names, ~j. T-ua-t, T-uggMr-t,
T-a~n~.T~~ CtG;: ~'I'hdo
6na! -t,
however, is often lost or sibilated, e.g. fbr (tamashe~), ''CQW~' ~Bë~fing

*'ThtbtMfhMittpzf<!)tt))tM<f/M'=&<<
Bat note A. Hotti, Af.MMW< E. SchiapMe))i M thMe Mid ? <)at<: (ot)nd it papvrt)9 c<tnta!n!ng "Kehet.
wsr-~ogt !n thé Libyan hngta~e,tran«:nb<:d in hieratic." Since <t)00 n<~ more hM beenhMfj afthMtemarttaNe'
tl!<Tot'tq')t!OfhMDf,Sc!)Mptrd)itondefcendcdt9amwcrmyenq!<ine9Concerningit.
p
 th<S in mind wc <nay recognizc Old Berber ~cmimncs or (!im!nut!vcs M thé ~M!<yw!ng
East Libyan hamcs of the Gracco-Roman periûd.
l'laces. Tubactis '}
Tatatatus
Tabunte Forms with both prefix and suffix,
Tat).tbrasta
Tabuinatis
J Tacape J
Tanchiae
'Taucheira Forms which have lost suffix.
Tetgae
Thuben
~MM. Tapanitae. Both'a~xes (?).
Tidaménses, Lost of sibUated suSx.
(Stephanus Byzantinus remarks in regard to a nbmber of African'ethnics that
ttat,-[Satire fa voufiteLibyanterminat)on$.')

il
'A II. NAMES MADE ON ~MZc
In thé previous chapter it has been shown how widespread among the modem
Berbers are the various this radical as a
ethnies having base. The ancrent occurrence in
ïastern Libya of.the following names is therefore sign!6cant.
JE'~M'M. Mazices. 'MaZiC-es.
Maxyes. MaXTle<(~=U).
il MasucHi. Ma.SuCH-;i(Z=S,~=~).
Bassaehtfae. BaSSaCH-itae(M=Jt},Z=S,.=~).
Mazyës. MaZY-es(.~U).=U):
jP~M. Masuehis. MaSuÇH-is(Z~S,~=~).
Mazaei)a. MaZaC-i)a(,=C).
III. CoMPAMSON OF 'rHE Pl-ACE-NAMES OF EASTERN AND WESTERN LtBYA
Ït
has long been weti established that thc ancient pÏace-names of Africa Minor–
Such,that !às
werc not Pun!c,Gr6c!or Roman in thcir origin–werc Berber. If,
t~re~r?,~ ctose r~semMance between native
Rames of the west and those of thé
east extsted m c!~ss!cat times, the th~erence that proto-Berberwas th*! language of

'r- 'f~"
Âfrica from Egypt t6 thé Atlantic becomes much he!ghtcned..With this in mind,
we
maycompârôthef~Uowmgnamcs:
rpayç911)~are,th<;J~11o~lngnarnes;

~GM~))~J~~
.Darnis~
~)~ 'Dyrin~
.L.
-~Ardah(~
Ca.b<)a;'(StM-) c!):bba
~Steph~MS
c~ A~TO~aÀaKa,
Byzantinus, <? 'A<r~&, Atyf~opo! <'t <t/t~; cf. ~deta, M

'l'
*Aj6«Tt!
'yK~<whcr<:AeKendmgsM<:spqkenof'as''Ae~
'i'.ii" 'i'< .> '>,
 /MA4<~MA t.
Ge<-(-as);Ger(-€at!s) Ger(g!s)
Lac(-ci) Lac (-a)
Magru Macri
Mara(-bina) Mara (-zana)
Minna Mina
Musti Musti
Tamaric(-etum) Tamaric(-iuM)
Thagut(-is) Thagur (-a)
Tinct(T.Ausari) Tingi(-s)
TanabrasM Tenebreste*t
indispitably a still more intimate connection than that
A closer anatys.~ provc~
indicated by the above list. Some striking difrerences are seen–
the total absence
in thé East of place-names compounded with the initial element RM-~–but thèse are
due t&diatectic variation.
IV. ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS EAST LtBYAN NAMES
If what has thus far been stated be correct–MX. that the evidence points to Old
Berber as the spoken language of Eastern Libya in classical times-the analysis of the
place-names should confirm this thesis. Carelessness and inadequacy of Greek and Latin
transcription render this analysis difncu!t, yet the following words, upon examination,
appear to be made on, or to contaiti, roots whîch survive to-day in a number of
Berber dialects.
~«~yM, ~a/< The initial etement ~Ma:- ni thèse names, which be)ong to stations
on the great westerty-eastedy Libyan coastal route, is made on the radical
\~UZ,with the sensé
"to stop" or "M hait." Cf. ~t (Zenaga), "to hatt." Thus, ~M«/<="the désert hait," or
the high halt," from </UZ (~ ~r<!) and ~FL, as in (J<! <e/ (Zenaga), "high up," and J'~
~/(subst.masc.,Zënag~),"désert." (Cf. Ar.)J~=both"moUnta!n"and "désert.")
~ZM, "thé place of assembly," from ~/DU or ~ZU, to
march," to
corne together,"
as in .j) (Zuawa, Warsenis, Bougie, Zenaga, etc.), aorist, j~ /<& (Tarudtnt), "to go,"
"to mMch"; ),!t MM, aor. )j.) <'2M~ (B. Mzab, R!~ Gerba, etc.), "to go
and ~.)~z~,
aor!st~M~t!(Zenaga),tocometogether."
~M~ yM~M~<), "o!d,"from ~USM,"to be oM,"Mih
(in the hame y<w<- or
(B. Menaser)=~( ~M/- (Harakta, Bougie), "to be old." ?'Mf-<, TM~ (cf. y<~) is
derivable from ~NS "to slay," as in ~uj ~,(Tamashek),"slaughter,kiiiing,"fr6m ~)
(Zuawa,etc.),"to kiU," "to s!av. The full name ?y~ ~M~ there<wou!d tnean
"thé old place of slaughter," as we might say "Old Wateness." (Cf. ~K~r m the west="Qtd
Town,"as)nArabic!z~.)
'0,Ba[es,fy-M<<w~wheretheabovccy!dencçw~s<!Mtpresentcd..
~Hcm,A~<?''<<?'M~ I<BMMt,t~patt ii.;
Idem,
S.
For the Berbcr
~y
B!af0~ Le DM~<~
thé ofth!s ch.tpter,s<:e thé
radieah in
& ZfM/M du ~!M~,
~0~y~&,
Mma!cdef
~'0~~&
pp. ~op
< de /'0~ foU&~ie~:
E. Ma5qUeray,~M<MM~&-<eM~
Cahssantt-Motyiins):),Le /)M&~ berbèré <)i'f. It may be
noted that'many Berber words of appearançe rathef formidable ar<: rca)]y formed on very simple nx)t9, <!Z~~j'
(Ttt!tt),"ro!n),"ha!thebi)i[<:nttJzX!
<Cf.C. Ti69ot,C~M/f").p.6,foratta)tejrnati~ei!tn~C.O.Cast!g)!oh!,M~M~<
~<p.)'Q,~oranimpo&s!btee~pïanat!oh.

~.t'
 Darnis (the modem ~j, Dernah), "thé mountains," from ~/DRR, "mountain," M in
~J) adrar, pl. MwM (Tamashet?, etc.). The town called A~ff; )ay at the mouth of
a deep wady, the high walls of whict) are very conspicuous beh!nd the modéra town. Hence the
name, thé (irst R being sacrificed to euphony, as in the transcription Ap~c, given by Strabo'as the
native liame for the Atlas. Simitarly, ro Ay~ f~o;" appears in Marmarica, the word ~c? being itsetf
connrmatory évidence. (Cf. in the west the name 'Pct/~oe~e~ = Rhysaddir < = Rusadder," where thé
jiameroot, </DRR, is seen prefixed with the element RUS-.) Thé s&me radier), with the same loss
pf an R, and permutation of N to M, appears in the ethnie Adyrmachidae ('A8~/M~<)
~"mountain men," from ~/DRR (ut supra) and. ~KK "to corne from," ~'to be," as in
< aonst ika (Zuawa), "to corne from," "to be," with M prefix, by which
nouns of
agent, circumstance, and habitude are made from thé verbal thème;" *~="those who are
trorn." Hence 'A8w~~M<n== ~DRR + M + VKK, ~~y-<M~~ + ~<M = ~/< ~MA~M = thé
~ountaineers." (In allusion to the Gebel e!Akabah f)
Afa~ (cfMacri in thé. west), "thé o!d," or "gréât," from ~M~R. "old," "long
~tab!!shed,"asin~)~e~(Shaw!a),"chie~" (Zuawa), "o!d"; ~<~7,~(B.Menaser),
'~togrow gréât' ~J /<(Zuawa), "greatness, etc. Hence, Afa~="the chief
j~ace." (Cf. also the ethnie M~\M!= = M~thé great tribe ?).
Thagulis (cr~ Thagura in the west, and Zagylis in Eastern Libya), "shefter," from ~CL,
as in ~J~e'~«/M~(Shaw!a=SemIticizedform),"hut." (Cf. Sudanese J.~orJ~
and Latin
/i~~w.)
= T~ ~LG, "we))." Cf. <A~, "weU," as in (Warg)a)="we))," "shatiow
~U.
'il r~</KB,"summ!t. Cf.</KB~asihC~K!(Shaw!a),"mountain-top"
to put
~RS, as in
down
ers, aortst
~(t (Wargt.t),
j-pitch
tria
a
(B. Mc~ser, B. Mzab, Boug!e,<tc.),
for tents (~ = to pitch ").
to descend,"
Hence, A-~M
eamping-piace," tenting-place."
The abiove wcrds m~y~be taken as giving fair specîmens of the relationships
between thé ancient t place-MLmes of classical Eastern Libya and words in daily use
~oag the modern Berbers. They show, in conjunction with other évidence, that
~erberwas thé prE-tstamic language of Tripolitana, and add force to thé remark of
St. Augnstitte, who emphasized the great variety of tribes which were to be s~en in
I~ôrthAfncaall~peaking thesametc.ngue." That Berber,orpfoto-Berber,wasthe
tanguage of Eastern Libya not only in Greek and Roman but even in pre-historic times
~ilt be made clear by thé ensuing évidence from the Egyptian sources, which connrms
s
f~l!y thé statement of Me!à/" who says that the Libyans of his day, thongh Romanized,
p~eserved a tanguage which had been that oftheirancestors.
Thé Libyans at thé timeof the great invasions of Egypt used certain ethnie names
that hav~ ~readybeen hoted as current In later times. There are, moreover, certain
'StraboXvii.jp.S! Cf.P)"iyv.t.1,' SC,TM.<t,<vo).i.p.3S6,
~~M. p. (~. p. ~).
Pto!emy iv, § }.'
j ? B.am-fn,fnehd/'frdm<n, ''to!ove'
.C.f.6r.yaA.La(.yM~ .Çf.Lat.~M~
<
ftOtt)
Pjiny, ~<. Ar~. y. ).
~tobe assôoaMd wth"(Ta,aash<):).
.A"S"Mn~Cf'F~wtf. in Rfriea brrrbarns ger~fet iu uua liuguaplurirnnr nnvimux
M M<)a S. H~tv~M! (' <S) who says thitt. [h< it)ha6tMn(s of tYcn Marct and Apis spo):e a non-Ëgypthn
~h~Mge.

r.
Libyan elements In archaic Egyptian, and both thèse facts tend to show that, while the
ancient Berbers may never have occupied the Nile Va!Iey, they were at least cohtiguous
to it from a very remote and for a very long period .of time. Thé ethnie names just
mentioned are those of the Meshwesh (,.I~I~M'I~)~')t
thé Esbet
~~M~.).~Rebu(––J~~j),andtheBeken(~j), wh:ch
in the preceding chapter have been ccnnected with the Mazices (</MZ~), the Asby(s)tae,
thé Libyes, and the Bacales respect!ve!y. To thèse ethnies may now be added thrce
personal names borne by leaders in the invasions and a further note on the ethnie RBW.
M§KN(~persond name, The initia! dément here, M$,is the
masc.
0)d Berber fitiative A~
as seen in such names as A~M-jy/t, Af~-M~/t, Af~KM~, Mas- A~<
~M, -MM-/MM/ etc. The second élément </KN, is easityrecognizabie as ~/GN,"sky," as in
~j ~M (Zuawa), "c!oud,")~'<M (B.Mzab,R!f,Tuat~"sky,heaven." The name,
therefore, means "sot- of heaven," and occurs in classical times as A~'M~w~, a name borne
i)tthe\YestbyasonofMasituss:t.
KPPUR (Uo~ 'tS')' personal
name, masc. suggests ~KBR, the B being a natural
équivalent of the Egyptian PP. \/KBR as in a~oM< pi, ~U~, ~~n'~ (subst. masc.,
Zuawa),"c!aws,ta)ons. Hence, the name would have thé force of" thé render."
MRY(U) (~
1
~') ~)- The initiât element hère, MR, is that seeh Jater in the
North African names as M~~Mn~, M~M<
etc. In the Libyan inscriptions of thé west it
occurs€[therfre€,MR,~orredup)Icated,MR-MR,'orincomb!natio<iasabove,MR-W.
RBW (~~J~'j~j)- I" regard to th!s ethnie name, although its persistence in'
Graecized form has already been commented upon, its survifàt in one pat-ticuiar ptaçe-name. is
especially curious, and may be hère noted. The name is Leptis, the earlier form of which was -o~
LBKI=LBU, t!'e U being marked byan equtvatent K. The reading LBKÏ derived from
the legends of the Puaic coins of thé city/ seems not to hâve been quite forgotten eveh in Roman
times we have, at least, one inscription giving ORRA VERNA L~C/T~JV~
Apart from these and other names connected with thë LIbyan invasions of Egypt,
there exists a pièce ofisoiated évidence aSbrded by a steta ofintefî.~ On this steta thé
k!ng is represented with his hunting dogs, thé animaisbearing foreign names. Thèse names
are transcribed in hierogtyphics, and of thé Eve one Is certainly, and anothcrprobably, Old
Berber. Thecertainoneis ~B!~R(~J~),whichrepresentsthe Berbère
J. Hatevy, ~r~~ (~<~&M~ /m~<;w ~~), !ugge!tcd thtt by L=N th!t Mme might be
connected with thé c:hn!c Cubâtes. prefer the expt.tttation given above) and the reading BaMes (Herodotustv; !?!).
Part i. p. 99, No. <t
i p. t88, No. t97. s ?' No. !bo.
< C.L. Ma)!<:r,A~fm~a'«~<<vo),i). p. io. ~p:itwasaSidQn!aufouhdat!on(Sa)!ns~/«~
78);butSetn!MphiMogyhasnotsat~façtof!)yexp)ainedthenamcofthetown. `, eiu
L.RenÏer.KwNo. ForK=Tc~P.Schrader,mzw~p. C.A~ Eirrleitung in
s
%<j~-<We~r~M~j~N~){,p.$o~Nps.7),y~7~.
Dyna~tyXI. R; Basset, C~xj~ .XM' in~M~,vo). i. tS~, pp. 87 j~ e~p.pp. 8~-gt. M. Bur'thardt,
/)/<M~~M~ ~~Af~
No. !0;tï) f«~ G. Maspem,
this ]ai.t an attempt is
de .~<
made M identify a~:h!rd
~<
~~<w~, vo). )). No. ). Fpt other titeratureot) thissteta (Cairo MN~eum
name,
<f., to) i'i. p.
T~RW,
Hem, Ay, fo). xïi. p. ';)6. tn
as Berbef. G. Daresty,Xr. vç). xi. t889,
~~Mf~<'<§xviii.pp.79,8o.'
 ~s in ~) <7- (Tamashe)~), "greyhound" =~'
abekur (AweHmmiden). From
~hese tateresting fragments, however, it is t!me to turn to
a more important considéra-
tion-that ofthe Libyan element in the Egyptian language itse!~
It is well recognized that Egyptian, even in the earliest stages at which we know
tt, contains a proto-Berber etement.' This Berber element is ofaa very deep-rooted
characte,r. Despite thé Semitic nature of the Egyptian verb,~
even that important part
of thé language bas some features in common with that of thé Berber. Both languages,

'r
~irthermore, hâve cognate pronominat radicà!s, and form their
plurals and abso!ute
~roncuns by the same process both families form their feminine plurals in closely
a
In each :$ used as a sign of the indirect genitive 5 and in both,
abstracts and collectives are treated as grammatical plurats." Besides connection of this
s~rt/acotHparison ofthe Berber and Egyptian vocabularies shows that the
two
lahguages hâve in common a number of primitive words. No careful cômparison
ofthe two vocabularies has yet been instituted thé Marquis de Rochemonteix
d~d n6t live topubMshthc one he projected, and the indi<îerence which Egypt-
o~ogists and Berber scholars have corne toteelso ïargety toward each other's
r~searches has discouraged the comparative studies in which de Rochemonteix
made
s9 inspiring beginning. Thé citing of the following Egyptian and Berber parallels
a
ntaytherçfbrebeexcused:–
O},Ji 1 ayth~n;fote be excused
1
ECYPT.AN.. Bi:MM.
Hiefoglyphie!). Pnmitive Pnm!t!Ye
Roots. Values
t.uu<!s. E~m?)~
Root!).

~<~ F~ "toberewarded." FK ~j) (Zenaga),

'"to~gtYe,)'
(Zuawa),"togtve."
'N FG(T) "reward."

\Y~.
"tOgivebirthto."

~P"
M~ ~) (Ze~ga),
.tobea.r,togtve
'-Mrt'i~to." '~t.
.:bt:ve.C~O!d
Berber.<i!iat!vepre-
/<;x,MES-

I .C~~ "R<pntc)x, ~r y, 1,* tA,

r~MM~
tamarkek; p,
~W~ Idem Die Flrxion der Ngyptiirkcr. f~'tr6uRU, P ~rrfitas.

17 A. Ermait" ~9gyptltciieGrâmm~tik, p. 5 5
:!A.Han°~yit. ~p x6, 27; A;~rman! op. rit.'pp, 6+~ ~S, ~1.37-139' 117.
p, no.

Y..n
A.
°A.HanotMa, ,p. J':rman, op:'ra, p. 8, tz3. 5 S
 EcnFTIAti. BtMEX.

Hi~yphic.
Hieroglypliies, Roots.
Vatuc.
Values.
Primitive
c.
RoMs.1E~p~.
~< MS(K) "to pluçk oIT."
to snatch."
MZ (Dubdu),
"taSe!ze,totake
away." Cf.
<?<!(War.),"ogre."

t'
~JM var.
~ë~*
J~ MT "todie."
death."
MT
(Cf.A~)'n'fM<Tr<t-
~)
'–~<aof. t~j
(Hafakta,

t~
Boi:g:e), "todie;"
tammettant
(subst, fem.) (B.
Mzab, Zenaga),
"death."(Cf.Semit.)
Jj~~ BT "togo." BD f~(Zehaga),
"togointo." "toarrive."
j]~~ var. BS to enter."

jca~! 1 B5 "tobedrenched." BZ(I) ~(B.MetMsIr);

to pour out." "tobedrenched."
~~=~<=> "LM~ §WR
SWR "todnnk."
to drink. su
SU ~M,aor.~
e~

y", sïi, aor.1ey~ .rui t

(B. MMb, Nafusa,
etc.)"todnnk."
'M ~cp!).from

qaT
M "water."
,w.

'th~
"'ake." ~ost
d~tects),
't'~)'
'"w~ter."(Cf.Semi-

"< (Ta~s~
~T(F)
l T father. T ti
-~y
B~
t~.
G§ ~~(~bst.
:'°°"
~B~'
"knife."
"dagger."

"car.
"<'kMfe/
Ka

~t~
'~m.);(Kaby!c),
a

MSDR
~U~~R~;
MZ~.

'Harawa.,eJ:c.),"ea.r.
(subst.
Hiemgtyphtcs.
H' b'1
ECYPTIAX.
T
Primitixe
Pr!m!t:v<;
Roott.
v-),
VM"M.
Primilive 1
Roots,
RooM.
iB~MR.
~zampl~,

Exempte..

LI)
"!ord;master." MS ~~<.w~,(~)
H naster."
n~f%~ §R "prince." ZR aor.
"eMef." (xz<!y-(B.Menaser),
"tobethe first,"
'to précède;" ~)
M~~ (B. MMb),
"at6f5t,"(oftime);
A<'1~(~
awa,HMaLwat),"pre-
ceding," "an-
tenof;"),L~/<t~-
(subst. fem.)
(Z-mw.t),pre(!om!-
na.ice."

t'
,hnf1Si MSS "belt."
"g!rd!e."
BSS ~'<(W.Righ),
"be!t,g:rd!e;"
'(J~ aor.

7=
<~<(Wargh),"to
g)rd one's self
(wkhabeit).

J~~O MSR "evening." MDR ~<~(~bst.

fem.)(B. Menacer),
.evening.
~=, R "at;to;nto;" R (~)~r-(~-)(She!tM),
"towafd." "at.(Theterm)na-
~ve .tjof.'jis
?: ~CmphMc.)

.a:
.<==>
"N

It
.stgn.gen.t.

sign.~mphatic.–~ R
~ost~diatects),
/s!gn.g<:n!ttve.'
~(~(~)~(Zenaga),
intensive
'The'j.is~not~pa.rt
particle.

"pfthcroot.

1
 Thecommon éléments in thé Bcrber and Egyptian vocabularies,1 of which speci-
mens have just been given, and the striking grammatical similarities of the two
languages mcntioned eartier in this chapter, make it clear that thé relationship between
thé tongues is an intimate one. Just where, geographically, the fjsion took ptace,
whether in the upper or lower valley of the Nile, cannot
now be determined but
thé evidence points to there having been in Eastern Libya continuity of language
a
from prehistoric until modern times. Even after
so cursory an examination of thé facts,
onc is justified in sapposing that the Berber dialects surviving in the €~st_in Manshîah
eî-'Aghuzah, Sîwah, Wagïtah, Maradah, etc.–had their origin not in
any mediaeva!
Invasion, but are survivais from the speech cf the.Eastern Libyans of antiquity. This
being so, a carefu! study of these eastern dialects would be essential
to any further
attempt to reconstruct the language ofthe Temehu and Teherm, thé Rebu and the
Meshwesh. Unfortunately, material for such investigation bas hot
yet beenco!!ected,
and is fast disappearing. Basset, with that geniüs which bas ptâcëd him in the foremost

tobcdone there and in other places.

A brief discussion of the question of writing
r
ranks of Berber philologists, bas made a painstak:ng collection of the Sîwan words and
paradigms noted by travellers who visited the oasis betbre !890,~ but m~ch sti!t remains

among the Eastern Libyans .maycoh-

ctudethi~ chapter. Themater!a!sfbrstudyingtheprob!emareexc€eding!yscanty,and
it may be ,said at the outset that no Libyah inscriptions comparable tô those found in
Algeria and Tunisia have yet been reported from Tripotitana Western Egypte That
or
exploration will eventually bringsuch documents
to light in thèse regions seems
assured, for an inscnptiun of thé usuàt West Libyan
type bas been found as far east as
Sinai/groups of Libyan letters, inscribed on rocks, hâve been recorded in Cyrenaica,
Marmanca, and the Cases, while at several points oh the
western border of thé
Egyptian Delta hâve been noted traces of inscriptions m what appears
tô be a local
Libyan script. Ever since the discovery in the seventeenth
century ofthe famous
bitingual of Thugga,~ speculation has been rife concerning the drigin of the
North
And conseqaendytn Berber and Coptie not only in ono.inatopoetiç words such
as "M ApRp. &pRp6T- (S.).
b.i!" VFSR-)Jn~.rb. “ ~) B. M.b). but aho jn old sub.tanti~uchMMA~T-fB)
(cf. ~BR (L.t.
MOpT-(M.),"b~<(cf. VMR(T)inB~rM~fcm.sub.t.B.Mzab,W.R!ghW~gh)
thewords and ~J;gm. thercin
cottec[edm)9to,whichlhopeshorttytopub)!sh.
To

~°' ~~7~~
C.pt.!n C. St,n)eyand t have'addedf.ir!y).,ge number,
contained V.

h!,nga..t(th<. attende ce:t

~~7
(pp. ~8, and p). x~. “ ~6).6!L.b~n acurious in.cnpti.n oh a
Greek, unpubfished) agate from Dern~, <,Mt reproduccd in a n.Me by v'. de Bourvi'k
d'age &~ (with plate). This inscription, which isp~r rendenng, se~!ng)y f~
~w~
'<
original in the Cypr.oM syit.b~, .9 ecrta!n)y
not Liby~ although P. Berger, p. 3! “ n6t a)oM

~P~.t~
mrm'tngrepeatedRoboud'serrQr.
<
The "P."°'" from C'
J.Hatevy, ~~<<~w,p. too.insenp. No.
(Vicus J~eorum) phMi.hed by W. M. F. Petr,e;
Irraelite
/v~ C~, p. 60.
not~~n.
Appendix II. of tl>i..tudy.
6 Phoenicran and Libyan. Naw in the Bnt~h Muscum. Reproduccd in~eboud, ph. ~iii,
!~),t~)~!Fa)dherbe,7~M~M<<p).nq.t~ xix h~

->1,
 Âfrican alphabet diversely called Libyan," "Numidian," Berber," or "Libyco-Berber,"
and of its descendant, Tinnagh. Interest in this question has recently been stimulated
by the discovery of the early scripts of Crète, and by thé indiscrétion of those who
recklessly have given phonetic values to the owners' marks occurring on ear!y Egyptian
pottery, etc. In discussing here the or!gin of thé Libyan alphabet !t is not, however,
necessary to consider the numerous théories which hâve recently been woYen about tt
it jis enough to say, in regard to that
yet been provedo!derthan the fburthcentury B.c.
no inscription in Libyan characters has

Thé origin of the Libyan alphabet has been variousty ascribed to Bgyptian,* Greek,~
~andalic,~ and Sab~an or Ethiopie~ sources. These unproved contentions, and that of
LHtmann, who endeavoured to connect Libyan with the Thamudenean and Safaitic
scripts of northern Arabia,~ niay be passed over; and with only slight modifications thé
s~atement put tbrw~rd by Ha!evy over thirty yeàrs ago may stil! be accepted.~ Halévy
compared the Libyan alphabet with those ïbrms of Phoenician found in North Africa,
This c6mpàrisonresu!te(! in his finding that six out cf the thirty Libyan letters had
fhoënieian prototypes rëpresenting thé same sounds, as fol!ows:–

j
Libyan.
~1 <
Phoenician. Va]uM.

.f' T
M

W,
)'
'L~
N

X.+" ~.X"~
S

fïalevy, beyond th:s, suggested that the Libyan forms 0, 0, and n

might be derived
from the respective Phoenician equivalents ?~ ~,and A. Thé Punie ?,f,it may be
aHded, has sometimes a form approaching that of the Libyan équivalent ~Even if
tpese latter points bë Ignored, hpwever, the relationship betwëen thé t~vo sets of letters
t~ not easity to bëput by, eventhough majjority of the Liby&n letters w~~

of
Phoenician Or Punie equivalents fbrhids the~erivation of the Libyan alphabet as a whole
frotn à Semittc source. That thé ~r~si.notcd by Hatévy do not resemble their
Ph0enicia't phonetic equ<va!ents bym~re accidenta but because ofthdr dcnvat!on, !s
$ade yet more certain by thé geogMph~ thé Libyan i.nscnpt:ons.
Atthough they exist outside of À!geria and Tun!sia, it is certain!y true that those

Kt.deSautcy, Q~MM~int)te~er~jM., t$~thstnes,fo~~ii.p,7~-

6i,J.W.Hat<)in~King,S~/}~M Tawareks, P..3r9
sQy.
Thish
$: This inoalidàaed,by the Thügga
obvioustyin'àiidMedby
is obviously theThug~bU Cf. MoVatiefiusMMimusi.
bilimgual. CE, `tôo ValeriusMaximus i. t.~t, E.et. i,
r, 2 i, ;E.y/. wherç lltasini~ca
i.where MM!nis«
issattttohavciMcnbedsometusbs~~f~
'0~§~u,r~'ft'
~W.M.~u)!/t,
~'dr'~w
Mttwa~n,
~!pirabet.
This th~
~J.H~vy,<p.S~.
b<)!<;v<&yU[tn)irnnh!ms<)f,!iyMhdd
 régions are richest in these inscriptions-that is to say, they are commonest in those
parts of Africa which were inhabited by sedentary natives living within the Phpentcian
sphère. The comparative infrequencyoftheir occurrence outptde this area is in itself
an indication of the connection between Libyan and Phoenician writing. The non-
Semitic part of the alphabet is composed mainly of those signs which, from their distri-
bution, might almost be caUed Mediterrantan, and which are seen in the C~ltiberian
and Turdetan alphabets of the west,l in the Cypriote syl!a'~ary, and even in' Minoan
Crete.~ To ascribe to one people or period the origin of thé non-Semitic éléments
ofthc Libyan alphabet would be at présent -extremety rash; still more rash is thé
assumption that when thèse simple figures occur singly or in groups 6f Out two or three
on pots, etc., they necessarily represent phonetic values. These facts, and the considéra-
tion that many of thèse sighs hâve been in use in at least one portion of Northern
Africa (Lower Egypt) for as long as five thousand years as simple marks of identification,
make it reasonable to suppose that at thé time Halévy's letters were taken ovcr by the
Libyans from thé Phoenicians a number of simple marks, of a type widely diffused,
were pressed into service to make up the complement of letters necessary to form the
alphabet. The same thing seems to have happened in Spain,.where borrowed Greek
and Phoenician letters were usedwith"promoted"marks to thé same ends. This is at
!ea$t a supposition which it is casier for science to âccept than any theory which would
give phonetic values to the Egyptian pot-marks or to the barréd pebblesof Mas
d'Azil; and which would assert that aU the Mediterranean scripts were derived from one
parent system, more or less well de~ned at a period when man could hardly have felt
the need of writing ataH. Fromwhat bas been said it maysafely beconctuded that
the Libyans.borrowed from the Phoenicians a few tetters and thé idea of Writing, and
that they added to the borrowed letters enough owners' marks to make an alphabet,°
rude,butsu!tedtothe!rs!mpteneeds.
The alphabet tbus evolved, as seen on thé monuments, consists of thirty letters,
which, with their equivalents as determined by Halévy and Letourneux/ are given in
the following table.
.A, Hein, MMM!~ <)<j f~~m, p. D'A. de Juba!nvi))e, CfA<'j t/M, in
~M~«~~)y.,tS90,p.!)g~P.Berger,<f;'<.p.jj;j~. TheTHrdetana!phabet,asfMasp)'e!erv:d,isapnmitifeon~,
thé Campt. ~'<<<

desp)[eth':f3ct[hatS[raboourcam(ti).p.t39)thattheTardetanihadawritten)iKrature,
A. J. Evans, $r~/<! ~A'~M, yot. i-,
E. Px;tM, ~f~ C< pp. 39, 89, and hitf~yp~ic, Nos.
~/<'r;'A <~ ~M'~ f~~x~ !n~{. Yii.'pp. 386 and
t~, t,
~cr~~
~z, and p.
o~
9t..
~w, !;)
xvi, p. < Amongat thé ~Mpporters ofe)ftr'ne)y ~n<etj( writing it M not ?')tpr!s!ng to 6nd G, Serg!, ~f ~rr~<
~p.t§6<<& < In thë c<~aivatent9 given above 1 wou)d su~est, anic~tg
< H~Mv)', p. yX C. Tissot, ~7. vol. i. p.
rêvera! slight changes, that the absence of the Sound P in modem Berber dia!ect!. jtMtinetthc cônfining pf thé vatue of
~to~orF.F.
 ( itBYAK. E;<C[.)SH.

Vet!!c.)),
<'
H~nzonte). Ha~vy.' Letonroeux.'

A A
t A" N
) N $
0,0 0,Q R R
O.Q On B B
r,i.r.i,7. G G
+.X +.X T T
? .T, .1.
-L V,U
V, 6
? -t- 'A(~) 6
==
'A'(~) GH(~
? = H GH(~)
)'<) H(~) H
t =T K(~) H
[I U U
==
== L' L
n c.l D D
".E n s s
D U M <'
M

>
~?~'
>
~<
H.I RW
T(~) 'T
TS
F

K
.rT!. TS
m LU z TH,DH
1~
.S' .c.
Z .1 t
=
<=,&=~ -K
X.8 X.9.6 TS(:!) T
X Xt P.PH.F P
:.w.$.m, /s(.)"" s~-
"'A(e).
..s- 'A

Origtnatmg in thé Pnnicized régions of Africa Minor, this alphabet became in time
diisemtnated over à tàrgo part of indigenous North Africa, the script of thé Guanchesof
Çanaria bëing closely' aUied tp it, ând the occurrence of à Ltbyan inscription, as bas been
Of the two sy~m')th~t pf Hf't~'y's th< i'ce~rfKc. My ?wn System of tr'9hs!!ter.)t!<n will be found in thé
mjraJucdontbthe~ff~M~Xf~~rx~more
shortlY t4 be pti~lished.
 remarked, having been noted as far east as Sinai. It has, morcover, a modem descendant
in thé Ï~Mg~ alphabet, which is still occasionally employed among the Imushagh,
a writing of which traces have been found from the Egyptian oases to thé Atlas, and
from thé Mediterranean to Lake Chad. This latter alphabet presents some différences
from its prototype, which may be accounted for by the,.usurpation of character$
unfamiliar to thé Imushagh by marks of their own or by abbreviations, such
as the regular substitution of (or j or – by the influence of Arabie and by the
development of double letters (ligatures). The Tifinagh alphabet, as generally °
employed by the Imushagh, is here set down for comparison with its Libyan prototype.

TIFINAGH (AzGA~ AND AHAOOAR).

Namc. F~rm, Value, Namc. Form. Value.
Taterit a,i,u u M )) i
leb [B.O b lem m
let + t len )
n
led n,A,U d
lek k
leg 1 g
Ia)c it
lez ]~ z 1~ S C
X.~
led d M a
!er
les
Ieg
D,0
S,0
.t.)' g
r
s
Ï~h
~d
ïak
3 'd§
h

'kk
~g X lau' ''u,w
!=:JC f ~y~ ''y J

The double letters are:–

lebt <e maLnd+ bt Ie!t t-~ )) and.j. = d
!Mt + = zt lemt t=} = -). = mt
lert B
=

= D
“
+ = rt t +
Mt~<s ja.+~=
<
=
M"
~t
lest
ïegt
~gt
4{D
T
= Q

T
“
+
+
+ -~t
=
st
gt Ienk t ) = nk
= X!
1
A comparison ofTi~gh and Libyan shows the following more obvious paraHets
:–
TifiMgh.

+
V~u..
a,i,t,
b
\(
L!by.n.

~Q
Va)m.

b
Pt.nic.

y
x
A
Thi. name may prcsc~e a memory of thé Scm!t:c ,n~irat!.n .f thé I.,b~n wnting. For by thé
m~at:c.nof~t.ve,i.f<n.,ubM.of~t.w-. Çf.A.H.Keane.M~of.i.p.note't. r
 t,
Tifinagh. Value. Libyan. Vatue. fM!e.
n d n,c,3 d ?
0,0 r 0,0 r
)) 1 )),= t
3
) 'Mm ~.U

't'roï<t),=s
m
n )

c.
u,w u,w =<ttII
Libyan inscriptions are read from below upward, beginning usually with the right-
hand column, rarely with the left. Very rarely letters are in horizontal lines, to be
r~ad from right to left, as in the Thuggà Inscription. The derived Tinnagh may be
~ritten to be read t, or even In. a spiral or circle.
<
i Of such remains of Libyan wr.IMng as are known in Eastern Libya it may be said
ttiat early in the nineteenth century traces were reported in Marmarica~ The following
inscription ~was the nrstnoted:–
>~ à "'P~
l, + n /iR)r o)
'<~
As copiedit cannot be read, and the presumption is strong that one bas hère a
niumberof tribal personal marks, grouped together by thé coHector, and so published.
or
traces of Libyan inscriptions are reported by Hamitton~ as occurring at Safsafin Cyrenaica
~though it !s dpubtfui if thèse traces are more than masons' marks, since owners' marks,
some of which have the fbrm of Libyan letters, are in use among thé
modern nomads of
~astern Libya.~ Signs of this sort were collected from two côlurnns of a ruin at I.ïamed
ôarushm the Major Syrtis by the BritIshAdmtfaltyExpédition in !82!-i82?~ together
with thé namesof thé tribes to MembefS of which' they belonged. Such sighs also

signs:–
<tccMf in Western Egypt and in the Egyptian ôases.~

thèseThé following, coHected in toto from Marmanca, will serve as examples of

~AM 0
~t
».
#`
> (b) M
(a) "J(b) <
(a)
>
(c) €
t t.NMrMarsaMatru. 2.NearSMtBaran). 3.NearB!re)-Kanays.
A, Schotx, J!w/« C~w~Mr. ~&« f~~M~, ;), ;6, M~ J. ~M
pp. :7 E. PachQ, royage la
Y e J.
J~~oM~,<p.i~.Hamilton, 2+, ·: 'V.Reboud,p.t7.dp).![x.no.tt6. Af[erJ.H.A.Scha)z,<<7~.
~6. Y. R,Cb,C¡\l,d, op.tit., P,+,7. a!ld pl,' xx.nQ, 14,6" Aft,cr J. H, A, 5e\1Q,t;¡;, loc(. (,¡If.
sj.Hamittdn.y~M~.p.yô..
p.
< V, de Boarville, & tir. De Bourvttte'remarb that such <!gns w~re t9p<:c!a!)y tommoK among those ~nbts whtch
~ave the BerbM Ctiative ~) or c..t, insc~cf thc Ati'b!<: <~ or b~<n th~r n~es. Thty n,~ )?e Mcn in Reboud,
"pi.!t][.~°.'tt7* Beeehey, ~~<
.d~Ce))~F. W. a~ H.

Persona) observation
W.

in' Mariut, about Mam Matru, and

~ft~~ CM~

Sid! Baran!.
~M, p. '6t. They had'been noted ear)«;r

The scarcity of these marks at Sfwah is

e~traordmaTy.bntmaybedoetothepoo''Mo''e. Theydocccur.
Tr
 o
M ?
o 0+
==

Near Bîr d-Kanay$.

~c~
B!r cs-5taM (desp eut in mouth ofweU).

'3 ~0
'? <~ cb
6. ï~atthh Gerbah. Tattooed on hand of an Au!ad *AM.
Of thèse curious signs ai! to some extent, and (3) and (4) especially, recall either the
Libyan or the TiSnagh letters.1
Were it not for thé meagre traces noted above, so much space need hafdly hâve
been devoted to this 'question of writing. Thé very $carcity of material, however,
a!though !t is safe t~ predict that it will be increased by exploration, is significant it
teacÏs to show that in classical times the Eastern Libyans were at a lower stage of culture
thaa were their more sedentary neighbours of thé west. Among them the needs of
writing were doubtless fewer than among thé more advanced natives in Numidia,
Byzactum, Zeugttana, and Mauretania Caesariensis. White in thé latter areaS it was
not uncommon to inscribe tombstones with simple epitaphs giving the name of the
(fcce~sed, in the east, but for the Sinai inscription twice referred to above and due
probably to some wandering caravaneer, and but for the Libyan letters signalized by
modem travellers as being of general occurrence in Cyrenaica, MarmaHca, and the
Oases, it might weU have been doubted whether in ancient times the Eastern Libyans
evefpos5essedaknow!edgeoftheartofwrit!ng. `
From earliest times, it may b& said by way of summary, there has been a continuity
of Bcrber speech in Eastern Libya, now represented by the disappearing "strong'''1 ,j

dialects of Sîwah, Manshîah et-'Agùzah, Garah, etc. the Eastern Libyans can be shp~n,
on !inguistic grounds, to have been in contact with the inhabitants of the Nile Valley
at a very early period and they had at a late period some knowledge of thé Libyan
script which was developed in thé west, and from which the writing of the Imushagh
tak~itsorigin.
Sctat of th<ae Ngns, ic Mbut Mf to state, Kern to itpproxin~tethose of thé tate North Sem!t'c atphabets rathet than
tteMbym. EtpecMttyMth&thccMewithNo.
 CHAPTERIV
ECONOMICS

ÏN the discussion ofthe relation of man to his environment in Eastern, Libya at the
présent time, something bas been said of the dependence ofthe nomadic population on
tnc permanently inhabited
centres. The present conditions seem to reflect wïth fair
apcuracy those which existed anciently, despite the Herodotcan characterization ofthe
Whole côuntry as "nomadic."1 At a!l even:s,the degree of nomadism was not, like
that prevailing among the Romantes of mediaeval Europe or the Solubbi of modem
Arabia, quite unrestricted, for it h~ been shown in thé chapter on ethnogeography
tpat the Libyan tribes had f?irty well denned boundaries. The Egyptianized

Il
Adyrmachidae,~ the He.11enized Asbystae~ and Auschisae/ and the Bacales,~ therefore,
c~uld have been nomads only ~h a limited sense. This is true to an extent even greater
of that remarkably stable ethnie group, the Nasamones. These last-named people may
bd taken as typical they had their main seat on thé Syrtic shore, whefe they left their
herds in summer, while they themselves went up-country to Augtia for thé d&te crop.~
Similarly, the Aulad 'Alî of western Egypt àt the présent day leave the coast after
sowmg their cropsin the autumn, and return to their harvest and pasturagein the spring.
The Macae, unlike the Nasamones or thé Aulad 'AU, frequented the littoral during
the rains. In win ter they lived along-shore, their flocks being connned tn pens but, !n
sommer, when there was scarcity of water in thé sandy coastal zone, they moved aw~y
ft'om thé sea into t.~e mid!ands–presumably"into the fertile Gebel Gharyan.~ The
n~madism pf the Psylli must have been restricted, s!nce they had permanent wells,~ and
the wandenngs ôf part at least of thé "Lotophag! could not bave beea very extens!vc,
Stnce they were Ctrcumscribed by thé confines of a peninsula so small as that of Zuchis.*
Thé j~achlyes and Auseans both inhabited the region contiguous to Lake Tritonis,~
,Wh5!'e thé !atter heM a ye<tr!y festival that bcg~n w!th a procession aroand thé Iake."
~Herodot)]!tv.t86<i'<
ldid. iv, tyl. 186 e,' alibi. t/iv~SS.
lbid lar. 16g. ~7~t<t~f.'
j'M..iv/t7!. "7&i&f.Mf~
~P'
t'
°
>
Scytax § to~, !re~!t.T~f
~¡:tdV<><
&~)T~/t~t toS ot<WT<~ t~! S~TtSo! ird~o~oBtTt~ o~ M<!t;<M
)!~t&))'ïtt, Ta! ~oM, ~)r<K\fnr<!frm)' TMf ~TM)~, o)rt\<t~QW T& ~<xrtf~nra
~tf
".MMK-tyt,tSt..
Ibad nv, t~s, t8a.
~r! SttA<TT~
fh ~«roymmf <!f« ~<
j.9HeM~{v.t~/° !v.t~ et
M~f'v.)So.
c
This festival was primarily a tribal one, and not of a'general character, as, for example,
that of the great Moslem Moled of Tantah, or that of the Easter Flanie at the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The participants, therefore, like most, if not aH, the littoral
tribes, were not nomadic in the widest sense of the term. There existed, also, far in
the interior. such purely native towns as Garama, Cydamus, Boin, etc., and permanent
oasis-setttementsin which the indigenes, like those of Sîwah and Wagîlah at the présent
time, dwelt in houses built of mud and rock-salt.1 In fine, despite the distinction of
Herodotus, who says that to the west of Lake Tritonis live the sedentary agricultural
LIbyans,~ ît appears that the Easterh Libyans, at least those of thé littoral zone,* were
most!y conHned to smaU areas, and had within their boundaries either permanent centres
or regular places of resort according to the seasons. Probably the bulk of the people
lived in a state which is to-day paralleled by that of certain Bedawin in Syria. There,
at 'Arak el-Emîr, the Arabs have houses in which, during the winter months, they
dweU as cultivators; in the summer they wander about; living in tents, as graziers. Thé
case is a suggestive cne, since these Bedawîn were, a generation ago, purely nomadic.4
It was in the barren interior, if at ail, that tribes anciently existed in a condition
compteteïy nomadic. The Gamphasantians are loc~ted by Herodotus only in general
terms, as being above the Nasamones in the ~juth.~ In those regions tribes probably
f

moved from place to place as do the modem fbUqwefs of the râin in the deserts between
the Nile and the Red Sea. Sine ~f/M <:f sedentibus, says Mêla, speaking of thé désert
Libyans, ~<M.HM 'u~ habent ~~f/M~ terras quam ~<fa~ The same writer, in terms'

~<? <
which admirably characterize the frec nomadic state, says of the up-country Hbyans
7~/fr/~fj w< <M~ vagi ~<'cr< utque /&;gw/~
~M ~t'cw~ atque ubi <M dexcit ~M <~&
The reason for the difference between the nomadic habits of the coast-wlse and of
thé up-country tribes is obvious where a regular rainfall and suitable soil eticouraged ·
agriculture, the Libyan forsook his wandering life to take advantage of thcse conditions ¡
eisewhcre, he perforcc remained in a nomadic state.
It Is instructive to note thc cultural stages which. thé Eastern Liibyans <nay be seen
to have passed through in historie times. In the X~Xth to XXth Dynasties they were
stiîl capable of relapsing into a semi-migratory state, thé impulse which caused
thé great invasions of that period seeming to have been due to a racia! ptessufe in
thé Moghreb. A thousand years later, in thé times of Herodotus, thë migrations
have been stilled limited nomads occupy thé arable coastal t-nids, and thé lessfortunate
1 Piinyv.s,Di!<MM/fmM~«jjeM<ff&ff«~<'eM~Mf.' ~Herddotusiv.lM,t8~t()t)~<;&'M.
$ Even thc
Evcn
asçvidcnce.
GacMtitn! had their
the Gaetuliaas

G. A. Sn)![h, noM !n
~Herodotm!v, )/.)..
ihcir pcretiancnt

/'<t<w
permanent ccntres,
~~Ar~'f~
~e~,p.;}..
if Vergil's phrasc,
centres, if'Vcrgil's phraM, G~ff~ «rbCS
Gaeltilae

~ffr~ ~<'<'MM~, xxxvi), (O~t. '90;))

M~j (Rcn.

*M<~Ï.
p.7.
(~M. iv. t!).
;z), iei9 to

). 8, Net even a people like the Garamarites~ecn~to bavç had regular s~asonaî movctn~ts, ?py they we?c
to bc admittcd
adtnittcd

wont, about the winter <o)'tice, to go

(Loc!an,/)<~<~<§:).
the remoter parts of the interior for the hunting, atter which they returned
 tribes wander vaguely about thé interior. Less than a thousand years later, the East
Libyens of thé tittora! had largely settled down as town-dwetters Marmarica,
Cyrenaica, and the Syrtica Regio are dotted with towns bearing native names–Getu!lu,
Auzui, Tinci Ausari, Zygris, etc., etc. But the !ean and hungry tribesmen ofthe
désert, now'that their northern kinsmen have left their hardy semi-nomadic life to grow
soft in sedentary communities, fall in upon them and harry their lands. The Ausurians
overrun thé Pentapolis, but before they can themselves become sedentary villagers,
theMohammadan Arabs launch themseîves across North Africa and deprive the nomads
of those lands in which they cpu!d have developed into settled tillers ofthe soit.
The first économie factor to be considered with regard to the Eastern Libyans
jtfter this glance at the general conditions under which they lived is hunting. Wild
animais were Tairty plentiful ânng the northern confines of the desert,l and the pursuit
~nd capture of game had an origin. of course, much earlier than that of herding catt!e,
the cultivation of the soil, or the practice of trade by bartcr. There bas already been
given a brief outline 'of the physiography., the Fauna, and the Flora of the country, to
~vhich in the présent chapter only a few détails need be added. The main outlines may
~e found in the opening chapter of this monograph.
Herodotus remarks~ that in the régions occupied by thé romads were tobe found
antclopes, gazelles, burFaîoes, and asses, not of the horned sort, bnt of a kind that
~eeds not to drink also oryxes nigh thé bigness of an ox; foxcs, hyaenas, and
porcupines, wild rams, jackals, panthers, ~)~/
land crocodiles,~ about
thé length of three cubits, very like lizards, ostriches, and little smkes, each with a
cingle horti). 6 There wâs, in fact, a fair variety of game in Eastern Libya, though the
'j;tag and the wild boar, the latter of which was known in Africa Minor, were not fbund/
With these animals inhabiting their country, it is not a matter of surprise to learn
·
that thé Hbyans used the skins of wild beasts, as well as those ofdomestic cattle, for
~lothing,~ nor to find that, in the XVÎIIth Dynasty,~ the tnbute "–" ptunder would
)erhaps be a bettEr word–taken by Queen Hatshepsut f~m thé Tehenu contained
many panther skiris of five cubits along the back and four cubits wide. Further-
Herodotus ii. 3%, whcrii tt it said that "Libya is full of ~Yi)d b~sts" above thé littoral zone. Hence this
~istritt M characKftMdby Hérodote )} Af~ ~M< ~W<
Fron) a passage of LM<!an (De § t) !t appeau that
hunting was carne j on in the wintcr even 'n thç far interior. The Gr~)t rhetorictan, drawing ap~aMXt]}' on a good source,
~tates that th<Gar.tnta~s"):~t<)a!n)yb)'thécha~ jH<iv.)~. AfK-M~un~own animal.
<B~M!,unknownsnima). The n'on~oniMfds,which occur also in Nubia. ~C<r<u~~rnAj~).
Herodotus, TheMstont,ni!wr~t<gMregards boar!: until a few years ago they existed in the Delta and
n thé Fayum, and they a~rediMyrepO]-t:obe still extant in thé fcedyshottor the WadyMa~arah. CespiteMostcm
~roscriptio<)theboafMe~tenbytheBerber9o~cAt)M(A.H.Kcane,r~,vo).i.p.8t).
J Mela i. 8 Strapo xvii. p. 6.!8 Aelian, ~M/, ~<f. xw. t6 cf. Hippocmtes, D~ «'o-f, jt. p.
t ° This tttHstbt rega'ded~ Lib~n
thé e*r)iestefiderK;<:on hunting. L..He)txey, T~o ~JM~MM~~Ma, phtcs
!v. and < and Maspem, T~ S<& ~<~ JV~&M, p. y6~, reproduce an trchaic Egyptian s!ate fiagment which the latter
~titM entitle: A Ttoop of Libyans Hunting." But th<i figures are Egyptians, wearingthc tti!t and having curiy hair,
and Ming a type orbo~seeooit~e cf thé'H!eraconpo)t9vases (J.E.~ufbe)), /yA-r~parti.p!aK xiï. Sg. );à
~f. <&'< part ii. ptaM xxviii.). Thé jatter représentation, on th.e verso of the ama))er MeraconpoUs pafette, though
~on-L!byan,a~rd9anin~re9tmgpara)!e)totheTe)!-?aghag)yph~
BAR ii, § ~ti eK W. M. Mt~er, ~w~
p, 91"
'}; 'nd note t.
~jh. Y0<- P. Thé same tfibute
more, the great use of ostrich plumes among thé Libyans as personal ornan~ents must
have necessitated the incessant hunting of the bird, unless it is to be supposed, without
other evidence, that the Libyans succeeded in domesticating it.I
Only two pieces of testimony, but those of a very interesting sort, have been
preserved in regard to the actual methods employed by the Libyans in the chase. 'Thé
evidence !n question exists at Jo. "1~
n-t in Fezzan, where
Teli-Sagha e nthe
~.e

explorer Barth found and copied some pre-historic rock-glyphs, over

6fty years ago.2 One of these drawings, here reproduced in Fig.
shows large .'nimat of
a some sort apparently walking into a snare
or p!tM!. Were it not that most désert an!mats do not drink,

thé giyph
thoiaght that the
thought
0" ––– –––––
glyph represented anan onager
-––
but get what moisture they need with their food, it might be
or similar beast at
pnager ors!mitar at water. At aH ail
––
events, Barth's curious explanation that the drawing shows fM R~ <f </M~
eîn ~rf p</fr 2?~ ~/f/isscarcely acceptable.
A second scène (Fig. 6) is of far greater interest, and capable ofdeSnite explanat'on.
It is eut on, a block fallen from a cti<F-face/ measuring about l'zo m. by oo cm.
Barth was at great pains to relate this
monument to Egyptian mythology or to
the "Gar&mantic Apollo," but its real
signincMce is much simpler. In tha
centre, between the two other figures, is a
buffalo. His position, a little h!gher up
thM that of the oth~r figures, and his
sm&)t sîze, m~y be meant to indicate, by
one of the most universal conventions of
pnmtttve art, that he is in the middle
distance" of the scene. From left and
right approach thé hunters. Thé one on
the left wears a skin, which, as hc advances
runnmg with his arrow already Sttcd to thc string, Mows out beh!nd Mm. Ônh!s
head he wears the head of a gazelle with the horns still att~chçd. other
hunter is wearing thé skin and mask of what appears to be a doe-gazeDe. ~e hoids
bdbre him a bow with which he has justshot the quarry/wbich faces hi~~
coaMme~ ~ho":vor~an<i ~ootu.< This ~)!ght t~j to thé ~uppM!t!on that H~ pitpthef-~in? wcre tf~e4 from th~
Ma[h,&tttthet~ngmt~of[heoMi9k,)MCf!ptionpub)hhedbyMt!)tertna)f~th!atpfobab)e.

Tett ei-Amanta painting (N. de G. Davier T'ke Rock 7'M)~

(Thé tgp weM piob~HyHown, like those o<:cit9)ona)!y
c/
< The onty potsiMe evi&ncc of domestication is the apP~raMe of ostrich egp among othef Libyan ttibute in q
~~fM, fo). tf. P), tx.), but this i< not conc]usive..
found in thepre-dynastic Egyptian graves.)
H. Bi<nh, ~<<f)f,vo!.i, p. fttosqq. p. !t6 andcut.
/pp.!0~to<crAegenefa) position ofthe gtyph~ahd thé cotoored plate faciagp.ïto. For theacMc
<“

~Ot!nin<!g.6,p,tto~.
~Theh&fn!Mgg<tC«~~<& 'Qtt<hieUatwh!chthcbu~)otharge~(f).
~<
 What Barth, therefore, mistook ibr a rd!g!ous r6prcscntat!on !s in re~Hty a hunting
scène. Such pictures dre very numerous in prin!t!t!ve art, and the practice of hunting
in antmat dtsgu!se has many parattets.*
x
A thtfd glyph tt Tdt-Sagha (Fig. ?) shows a herd of wild cattle a natarahsdc m
mànner. Despite the scantiness ofthe evidence, both the nature ofit and thé conditions
under which the Ltbyans Hved assure us
tMt thé ancient inhabitants of thé country
werecapabisandpracttSedhuttters.
Pas$tng from thé question of hunting to
that of the domestication ofanItMats, one
enters a SeldofLibyan économies concerning
which more évidence exists. The herds and
noëks of -the'Eastern Libyans-at least of thé
môre nomadic élément
among them–fbrmed at an early period their principal weaith,~
an< as far back as thé VthDynasty évidence exists of their having been breeders of
cat te, In the ~M?M~ Sinuhe, a taie of the Xtith Dynasty~ Sesostris, in his cam-

j
Living
paign agâihst the Libyans, is said to have taken–~
Liv!ngcatt!eoftheL!byans,
Anda)tcatt!ewM)outtimiit.<
Mërneptah took at one time as many as J~o~ head of cattle from the

il.'
camp of thé
invading Libyans~ and the Papyrus Harris boastfully states that Rameses 1H. spoiled
thé Libyans of "cattle mnumberlike hundred-thousands.6 In clàssical times, it was

.t.
gereraHy known that ât least part of Eastern Libya was rich in nocks and herds/ thé
car iestGreek notice being found in thé 0~~–
,11
;J' Ka~ yüP
AtjSut~, ~~s
~aT~Sï*ya/t /t~\(tK6~cto!
T~TCtcî~ttp TcAe~pMTt~
Tc~efr~Mfc~s ~m~rof.~
TlICTEL

The earliest évidence as to Libyan cattle Is that aSbrded by the Vth Dynasty
reti:f showmg the Tehenu suppliant to Sa-hu-re." The four middie registers of that
moimmeatcontain retiets ôfkine with long horns (top),two droves ofass€s(nextto top),
and two pf goats (bottom two). All thèse animats are mentioned in the Egyptian
notées of thé New Ërnp!re;goàts, for examp~
part of the bootytakm by
f t-~en!ker, r~ a ° .–
~~t" ~'c"eQ~o~ palette (J. E. p.Quibe)), op. part ii. plate xxviii.).iB ttt jaeh)'~sMa
"<
1~9. Cf. thé human figure dressed aad p).ty:ng: p!pe pn thé
K tegrettaHe that R. Basset,
~f"' ~P< 'n h:s ~~r~~f ~r<%m~~ ~~M, p. tï, a great
Btrth's erroTit) Kg-trtt to thisglyph to the extent
î
~?~°~ °~
.<f.~<n~Eg~t!a'RtnNttcn.c.~ n these 'co,
e~jnv.tT,

Cr~
A~Ji«n,
"t!<rt'f <5KKrTOt efmvp'tofT~ K<t!.eÀf)!)o.t.'
i.8,&~ .m~
pro&f in se~m)

't BAR').~4~
}.
~ût«:ts;
'?; M~ M~

~rn~M,
'.Meta
idèm, ~?uadaru, .8',>>lmv.Dt~Fartuaa,volE
i,ü, z8.
BA&.Hi. §;Sp.<
cC"
e BARn'o$.

..the_)~Ho~r,0~/iy.8!
~;t. Bo~hat~ C~JDioChry~ostom

't!'tJ,!t}~i,?t'5~'1o,Yh;:r:~¡~ne;regi~te(~
<!gs.tt,
ü, p.
t!. Th~nMr ~gdrcsho.vs (b~
thewhotctdief,
wh()l~ .~Ii~f>
Merncptah,' and appear ear!Ier în thé Libyan tribute shown in a XIIth Dynasty tomb-
painting at Bcn! Hasan.~ The Libyan women used goatskins for garments, and thèse
animais are mentioned by at least two Greek writers in connection with Cyrenaica.4
Oxen were captured from the Libyans by Merneptah and by Ramepës Hî.~ According
to several classical writers, the tribesmen of the interior had a breed of oxen which,
on account of their long curved horns, had to gràze backwards,~ although otherwise
they were like ord~nary catt!e, except for thé hardnes$ and thickness of their hides.~
Whether this were the case or not, the Egyptian evidence for the presence of large,
long-horned cattle is conclusive, and is not unsupported by othefclasslc&l testimony.~
Sheep, although not specifically mentioned in the Egyptian iists~ or seen on the
monuments, were numerous in Eastérn Libya. Strabo mentions their existence in the
intcrior,~ and the Homeric passage which testifies to the fitness of the country for
sheep-breeding bas already been cited. The epithet ~\oT~o~«! was applied to Libya by
the Delphic oracle," and in Byzantine times sheep were still plentiful in the country.12
Asses, which appear in the Sa-hu-re relief, were also taken from the Libyans in
thé XIXth Dynasty.13 If they were of thé same breed as those found to-day in Umm
es-Soghayr and Sîwah Oasis, they were of a very good sort.
The horse was unknown until its introduction from Egypt. Thé earliest notice
·
of the horse in North Africa occurs in thé reign of Merneptah. That Pharaoh
captured horses which bore the fallen Chief of Libya and the children of the Chief
of Libya, carried off alive, pairs twetve. But although unknown in early
tirnes, the horse became very common throughout Northern Africa, even before the
introduction of the came!, which soon followed. In the second Libyan war of
Rameses HL, 18~ horses and asses were taken by thé Egyptians,~ and by classical
times the horse had corne to be so extensively used as to be employed in thé interior
andfarwest.~ "Thé breeding ofhorse~Says Strabp,"i$ most<'arefuUyattefdedt<)
by the kings (of the interior) so much so, that the number of colts, yearly, is
calculated at one hundred thousand." Herodotus mentions the horses of the Asbystae,18
BAR!ii,6~8~ P.Ethfewbçrry,F~<!M~,part!.ptat<x)y!i.
HeToJotus! )8~. Cf. /)/, )v. t8y, Or!b~!u9, Cf~f/. A~<f. xtv.fpf thé n)ed!ç!t)<) H~ efthestittepfgoa~
in Libya. *P~~n!as!e~,Synes!')s,tJt)Y!pp.t8~-6.
~BARiii.§;S~. 'BARiv.gttt. The)istg!v<-tn~{+x)bu)h.
7 Herodotus iv. l8j. Na modem traveller bas reported such cattle in Africa. There are, however, several
ancient notices of them outside Herodotus. JS. Alexander Mynd. Athenacùmv. 20, p. !tt R; Pliny,viii.
Mela i. 8. It is probable :ha[ this story onj;!na[ed from the sight of tong-horned cattle graxing backw,ard, the fanciful
exptanat!on bcîng a !at<;r add!t!on.
Cf.F.Hornemann,yM~y)-~MA/f<MC~<'fe~JMe~2M~,p.x~
Synesius, lot. f/f.; Hermippus Athenaeum i. ~p. CowstfeM not Mteh,but their milk Ma probab)y t!9ed,
Hcrodotusiv. tSô. The natives of thé Upper Sencga), entertaining for their herds that re)igious sentiment which so he- <

7*
quendy dcvetops among a pastorat peopte, only eat such of their eattte as have died from natural- causes. Cf. M. Park,
M
gréât use !s
7~r ~M,
m~de of catttc. Cf.
p. S!m!tar)y, thoagh a çow-tabo? exista among thé NHert of thé Bahr e)-Gha!!t),
0. Bates, ~&< ~c~ m CS?, yot. Vt, No. €9, P' 3$
MSi~râbo]tvii.p.8};. ~.Hërodotumiv.i; ~S)'nesiu9,.E~i~.t~,pp.!S;-6;C~~j/.p.<o),
HBARiii.§;8~ MBARii).§;8o. 'eBARiv.gitt.
'asamongthefharusii,Stra~o!(vii.p.828. ~.Stuboxvii.p.S};. M,Herodot))siv.tyo..
".<'
 and the extremely high estimation in which Cyrenaic horses were held by the Greeks
is proved by thé epithets used for the country. Cyrene, or Cyrenaica, receives such
t!t!e5 as eMTnro; ~Trorpo~ot a~T~ ~Tro~oTo; xaA.tTTTrot.~ That the classical world
fecognizcd the good horsemanship not only of the Theran colonists in Africa, but of thé
indigènes as well, is amply indicated. The classical feadcf will fecaU thé
A~M! f))yMTM)' M/)/M!ïMf OrM/TaTat
of Sophocïes,~ and Lucan's ·~

fc~f~ara~Kf
/~K//t! Gaf~K&f equo 0

The horses," it should be said, were Httle more than ponies, but tough, wiry, and
neet.~ They were often so well schooled as to {b!!ow their masters like dogs.~ They
were ridden without sadd!es/ and usually even without bridles, being guîded by
a
Hghtwand.~ Though in some few cases bridtes of ruches were employed," the only
trapping w!tich seemsto have been in general use was a neck-stall of plaited fibre,
w~tT/<)\«t ~\t~ from which dependeda teading-rein.~
The importance of tbp horse, of course, must hâve dectinedto some extent
after the introduction of the camel-at least in the more désert places. Thé
came!, as has becn said, appears for the nrst time in African history during the
Saitic period in Egypt. As early, at thé latest, as the ~ourth cc~ttùry B.C., cameis
were known in Marmarica, and by Romah times they were common throughout
Eastern Libya."
Of other domestic an!ma!s it remains only to mention dogs and bees. The former
\vëre probabty,as at the présent time,to be found in every encamp-
ment in North Africa. The occurrence of a representation of dogs ,é
on a stela of thé XIth Dynasty. has been mentioned in the preceding
phapter, where it was remarked that one, perhaps two, of the anima!s
hâve thëirhameswntten in proto-Berber. Oneofthe dogs in
Question isshbwr. in Fig. 8, and thé fact that at the present time
~u~on~t. to ixiutvi- ttt ±t~. u, <tnu me ftH,t njitt .ttme uicbcm nme
annnats of his breed are used for coursing small game teaves no réasonable doubt
thatthe"ho<.)nd"wMaLhunttngdog. <

'PM#Y.:iCaU!mMhM~.Strabonemx.p.tSt)XY'P'837,Dtonys!as,<r'<f~
~D!onys!us,f~.tt~.
Sophûc)~, E~<M, yô! P~
~Opp!an,C~f<ii.:$3.
Lucan,
*Strabo!:t'ii.p.iiLuc!miv.66~– `
iv. 6~
~Ni«phori)sB)<n)t<yda,p.~o~.
Strabo xyi!. p. S~S. ~f.

~~a'~w~~jr~j~~y~~rjFC
O~Af/r.'eMiaoWM.ft'
'(,!f.<i~,<)yy,e//<M.
S.trabo, lot. ~.j
,7<f~!Oiidcm,f~îSf/MMM,i.2tj.().
J'
Lnean, toc. f;7:i Si)Mt ÏM)icm,PM;'M, i. t);
')"
Caesar, D~ ~«,h!Ctau~n
.Strabo'~rth "A'<Aet!an,ûcM<)<M'MMM/!tMa,](iv.to.
'M Cf. tht éa,rly Rpin~tt <:<)m of Cyren.e showmg a omet thé Te~erse p. L. MaOer, ~MM~~ef,
cff., yo). i. p. t ;i,
?9' R< on
M~'ef, M'<! to hav~ cotMe f~om Darfur,Jb)tt id~st t~rtainty from Tr!pp)!, notv in Cçnst'tntinop):
~ÂoM'~f.~t~g~S~
~d,âi~~P
S~·nesius, ~&
§ynesitts, E~irt. ))o,
30, To!; 9r~E~00LV
TOL$ t}~f T~
)r~<&(rtf v~Niw rb xxowEiv ~f âyexafaes
l~u, év Ka~ot;, év
~y<X<tht! aaüilaoes, ~). F:r,so4ç
f~ot~ ~o«jS<{<rt
~op,b"a"Q't
 Bees were probably cultivated, at least by the sedentaries, from an early period,
if weight is to be attached to the Greek legends of Aristaeus. That the Gyzantes
were bee-keepers is expressly stated by Herodotus, who adds that this tribe also
prepared an artificial honey.'
It may be said in conclusion that while the less civilized portion of the people
would be likely to give more heed to their herds, since the sedentaries were less*s
dependent upon them than the nomads, the Eastern Libyans seem in général to hâve
been well supplied with domestic animais, and to have' shown tnteUigetrce and industry
in breeding and raising them.
That such of the Eastern Libyans as were fortunate enough to possess themsetves
of the more fertile portions of the country should become agriculturalists at an early
period was but the natural result of the richness of the soil. The region about the Cinyps
was, according to Herodotus, equal to any in the world for the growing of grain,
thé yEelds being as great as those of 'Babylonia.2 The vicinity of Euhesperis was also
good for cereals, one hundredfold being obtained in the best years.~ Of Cyrenaica
Herodotus truly writes that a crop was reaped yearly at successive seasons from the
lowest, the middle, and the highest levels respectlvely/
The earliest nctices of Libyan agriculture betong to thé XIXth Dynasty. At that
time the Pharaoh Merneptah was recorded to have taken <'every herb that came'
forth from their [j~7. the Libyans'] neids," so that "no field grew to keep aiive" 1.

the inhabitants.5 That some of thé fields bore cereals is indicated by the statement
that the grain of his [the Libyan chieftain'sjsuppUeswas plundered."f
In the classical period, the fertile Cyrenaica was a!most entirely under Greek
or Graeco-Libyan dominion; the Cinyps région was Punie. Something is known,
however, of native agriculture outside of these régions. Thus, as bas been said, thé
Nasamones used annuaHy to go up to the coast of Augila for dates; and the inhabitants
of Ammonium and the other oases must, almost from the beginning, have been
cu!tivators.~ Herodotus observed 'that in northern Phazania thé Garamantes covered
satty earth with loam, and then sowed it." Grapes were probably grown anciently,
as to-day, in various parts of Eastern Libya, as in Marmarica, which
attained ~oan
unenviable reputation for the badness of its wine and m thé isle of Cyraunis, where the
ttï~. Victor Vitensis, ~<«'~
ii. q) j~iv. $97,
6.)nd6:Md~M,p.t6j~.
9<
~j!<&, etc. i. j Pt'fCOpiue, D< ~N) ~N~ i.
!t, )o6;, ))~ v. 83 t9~ vi. ~36, ~j!0 and ~M'i!tCoi'iBpU9,y~<MM/
'Ammiasus MfU'ce)Jinu5 ifviii.

)!f
1 Herodotus iv. '9~; Eudoxus Cnidius ap. Apollonium Dyscolum, xxxviii.
~iv.to8. Threehundrtdfotd' .7cf.n'<.
~«/. !v. t99 <f, J. R. Paeho, ~< </<?Mla ~r~~ff, /< Cy~M! f~ p. *3} i J. Ham!)ton, ~~n~,
p.
'BARiii.8. tntheAthribisSte)a!Cf,iii.6t!w. <'BARiii.§6tO..
7 Cf.Lucaniv. ~whërehesays–
~M))~
gua nudi
G<m'<M<tr~<
and)9t(:r(!x.<')ph<:csth~G~r<tm~ntc?intheoa9<:s.
Cf. O.P.Lyon, ?~<M/f,p.:yt,forth<pMparat!onoftheMhjys<)i!ofFc!!MH. 'StMbôit~ii.p.
 vine was cultivated together with the olive.1 Thé Lotophagi,who so extensively used
thé fruit of the\R~M~~ z~x~~ (L.=7!. nabeca, Forsk.), or some such trcc, must bc
regarded as partially agricultural, even if they did not actually plant these trees and culti-
vate them since they were so dépendent on the lotus fruit for food that Herodotus
amrmed that some of them !ived upon it exclusively, and that they prepared from it a
sort of wine.~ It is to some such drink, probably, that Mela refers when he speaks of
a j~M ~M/ as a Hbyan beverage ùnïess ~f~ is here to be understood as meaning
"dates," in which case a mild intoxicant like
`' /<
would be intended.~
For the widespread cultivation of the olive in Tripolitana in Graeco-Roman times
abundant archaeoîogical évidence exists in the numerous ruined presses of the /o~<
type still tobe seen in thé country. Herodotus mentions the culture of the olive in
thc Isle of Cyraunis,* and throughout the suitable portions of the African Pentapolis
to-day, the traveMer sces numerous olive-trees, perhaps, self-sown from those of a pre-
Istamic period.
Ofthe date-pdm something has been said in the chapter on physiography. It
remains to add that not only was the fruit used
as food by thé Libyans, but the fibres
se~ved for thé making of cords,~ and a wine calted M~~ (~u~TM) by Pliny, and
descnbed as beingc.yyKM~ was prepared from the fruit.
Little as can be gleaned in regard to thé présent question from classical writers,
it sumces to showthatthe statement of Herodotus to the eSect that th<; nomadic
Libyahsbetween Egypt and Tritonis lived on milk and ile.sh.7, and his implication that
only to the west of thé latter place werë thé indigènes tillers of the soi! are to be
ta~en, eyen on bis own showing, with considérable modincation. Probably of old as
at thé présent day,the inhabitants of Ëastefn Libya who occupied good arable lands
w~re targeiyagricuttural; those wIthpoorerËeldssowed them and left them till
the time of harvest s while those who couldcaU no arable lanaatheir own wandered
aboutâsgraziersintheinteripr.
From a considération of thèse questions of the chase, of herding, and of agriculture,

somuch importance both from the and

one dérives some knowledge of thé alimentation of the Eastern Libyans–a subject of
thé eu!tural point cfvtew as to
warrant
f At
its discussion.
thé present the
principal articles of diet in the interior ars various messes
of gram, naps of breild, dates, ngs, raisins, and such witd fruits as are edibîe, onions,
tp~àtoes, cucumbers, m€)~on5,€tc.,and a number of wild plants. For méat, thé flesh
yly l Herodotug:îv.tg5 C. Tissor, Gdograpbie eomparée, vol. i, p. 3ot
Herodotu~!v.)9S; Ç.Ti''90[,<~A~r~&~<<trt'<,Yo!.i,p.~o:f~.
,rgg.
js Herpdp;us!v. t~; cf.St~bo xy!
{)~
S<:y)a)',§«<where !(issa!dpfth<E:]"ri(-Sytt!eLotophag!
.J!Me!'ai.
~o~ffat.o'~ Ktt~~rt'
\j.<Hetodotus.iv.!t,
P)inyxni.3,MM~~MpM/MKM/<Jt/M~<feM&pM~&Cf. ibid. xvi.
Aw~

7~.HerodoMsiv.tS6.
~L~
~E'~THnyxu~t'
[
Ibid. iv. 191.
Likethe A")!"t'A)< tp-day. Thé actoa! process 9fsow!ngw~ probably mefe bH~h-harrowing,iimong thé Aulad
'A)~Mthe\~e~tMnL!byatsts~ent!pnt<!b)r9trab<<xv!p.,8jt,'j
 of camels, goats, and sheep is eaten, as is that of the mou(3on, antelope, and gazette
when these animais can be procured. Even jerboas and locusts are used for fbod,*
though thé Imushagh abstain from birds, fish, or thè big cdible IIzards.~ 011, butter,
fat, and milk are in général use in cooking. Mi)k 1$ cotntt~only used only aftef it ha$
curdled, and a dry food is made from it by evaporation. Honey is esteemed as a
luxury, and numerous wild plants are used as condiments. The food of the inhabitants
of the littoral régions varies little from that of the interior tribes, and is prepared in
much the same manner.
The alimentation of thé Eastern Libyans of antiquity was, as far as can be judged,
little different from that of the modern occupants of their country. Although Procopius
states tbat the Libyans had no bread, but lived upon raw wheat and barley,3 this is an
error which he himself corrects when he mentions a native woman's baking bread,
according to the custom of thé country, in the ashes,* a method often followed
to-day. The ancient people made great use of milk as fbod,° certain tribes, particularly
those near Aethiopia, even- giving it to their sheep. Anciently, as r.ow, a sert of
cheese was made from milk.7 Among vegetable foods, the use of dates, lotus, etc., has
already been mentioned, and what Strabo observed in regard to the Numidians, viz.
that they were eaters of roots rather than of mtesh, was probably applicable to many of
the eastem tribes.s The consumption of méat was, however, widespread, despite local
tabops on certain animais. The natives of the interior, since their wealth was in their
nocks, used the ftesh of wild animais in preference to that of domestic.~ The Gyzantes
were content to eat Barbary apes the
troglodytes of Phazania, perhaps owing to thé

<
scarcity of other game, to eat serpents. The Libyans living along-shore in the Syrtica
Regio sought eagerly for such fish as were stranded on their beaches by thé tides, and
probably the Libyan oysters" known to the Graeco-Roman world were also eaten by
the tribesmen. The eating of locusts was widespread. Among the Nasamones thèse
insects were « dried in the sun and powdered. This powder,"says Hefodotus,they
sprinkie on their milk and drink. The same method of preparing this c~f~ous food
exists in Arabia. The Arabs there mingle thé locusts, brayed small, with their often
only liquid diet ofsour buttermilk. In Western Africa, the locust powder îs bôiled
with milk, or the insects are-as in many other places–merelybolled.~ At Murzuk,

3
a 7.
'H,Duvt}'f!er,~M7'!)fM/)'p.o~
Procopius,
Ibid.
DF~)!,6..
Scrabo xvii. p.
ov"r~

S~
yép vdlc°ç ~v mat~eovo-LOL9
SHerf)dotM[f.t86iMe)ai.8;cf.St)'abox~it.p.S~.
Thé sheep were a~o given Oesh..
~<p,~Ç)~.
rovs ~provs ôrrrâoBae.

xvii. p. 833. /M.

\Me!ti.S,Mre~&rMH!m/~r</M,M~~r~M~jf&ei'm~Wf~rMM~.
Herodotus iv.
Mela i. 9, ?~c~
Ataratitians (Mela,
Strabo xvii. p.
"Herodotusiv.~z. S~S..
rit., ~<?~ ~M ofthe west..
c'~j~&'°Onba5ius,C~<'M~'<ii.;8.
L~ct~ of game. may have accou~tec! for ~e ycgetarîan!snt

"'C.M.Doughty,rM~M~M,tp).i.p.}9.
of~e

M. Adanspn, <~C< p. t6t.

macte!ntocakcs(SEraboxv!.p.~x).
Among certain Aethiopians, [he locusts wer< powdcred with sait and
 Fezzan, the toeust is dned, strippçd of its legs and wings, "drawn," and eaten raw.
If)
According to an early traveHer, it then bas a faveur stmitar to that of red hernngs,
butmoredelicious.1

The main streams of Libyan traffic flowed south and north, rather than east and
\~est. From very early times the Eastern Libyans must have been engaged in caravan
commerce, since they were controllers of the routes which, passing through their
territories, ran from the Mediterranean southward into the Sudan. The greatest of these
routes was, of course, thé fambus Chad-Tripoli Road, a line of march by which
merchandise have been exchanged between north and south for thousands ôf years. Thé
p~oducts of the Sudan have always sought this Saharan outlet in preference to the
rtver-ways oSered by thé Nile, the Niger, or the Senegal 2 and it was primarily with
a view of having factories near the northern terminus of this channel of communication
with the interior that the Carthaginians established their emporia along the Syrtic littoral.
¡: As early a~ thé XVIIIth Dynasty the Eastern Libyans appear to hâve been possessed
of commoditics which they had obtained from the Sudan. Thus, in the tribute
e~tracted from thé Tehenu by Queen Hatshepsut, mention is made of "ivory and seven
h~ndred tus'ks,"s which coutd hardty have been obtained elsewhere than in Darfur,
Wadai, or the Châd Région. In classical times the évidence of this ivory, trade is
ejcplicit, as in the fragment of Hermippus :–
At/3~ 8' ~.e~ofïtt tro~Af Tr<tp~et fcaT~ ')rpa<rtf.~

1~ is casily possible, therefore, that thé intermediary source of the ivory objects found
excavations in the ndrthern Mediterranean lands, especially in the west, may have
irj)
b~en not Egypt but Libya. This applies, for example, to an ivory pendant in the form
oî a monkey, and to some seals of ivory found at Crete-the probabiMty being hère
h~ightened if thé conjecture of Evans, who has suggested that silphiuin may have found
it~way from Libya to Minoan Crète, bc correct.5
,II
Another African product which came from Libya to Europe was the ostrich egg,
q~ which ëxampleshave from tin~ë to.time been found in Etruscan tombs.6
j F. Hornemann,<<7.p. tn cottMctio!tW)th the custom of eating insccts, adi~ustinghabit of the Adyr-
mtchidaeneedno[bement!onedexcep[byteference(Herodotusiv.)68).
~C.PerroMdt~w~W)P'H 1 1
< ii. gtt. Th~ kopard or p~nth~r sHM/ !n thé sa<t)e tnbttte mity b«n obM!f)<4 by hxnnng !n Eastcrn

9
BAR § hxY<;
Lt)ya !tse!f; ef, MOtef,
W. )M. )?cy~ vo). p. t~.< (N<;M' Kaf~st Obe)!s):, § <). Thé exMKnct !;)
an:!<'nt t!m<:5 of wild eiepjttnts in thc Mo~h~b is doubtfn), though tsidafus Hispatensu (~~o~M~, tlv. § tt) !$
Comicug',Phorm~phori, Fr'~g. i. 5.
(Man,r~ta"n,ia,Tingita,naJcd. Boihe IMi!! 'I1rturit,
on this point–e/iMMMN,<<MM~&M~<<[ManreMnitTingitana]~eM~&MM/~M
c)[}ti!:itHermippils
<Hern)ippnsComicu~f~fm~~n,FMg.i.S.<'<'f.C~<f.~<ed.Bo[he.
1
À. J. Evans, $m~ /~w~, vol i, p, :); As bearing on thé connccuon of Eastern Libya and Crcte, a passage of
Ptulostratus, ~f~ ~p//p/ !v. 3~ may be added tQ what has earhcr becn said~-of thc proxïm!t~ of thé island to thé
Arr!cah main, Ap~ppos of the temple at Lebanaeum, Ph'toiitratus eômm<;hts on thc ïtUmbef of L!byans wha v~ïtcd
)ro~Aot8e)«t!Atj8)?M~~mMfre~toC~T<tt,<;TA. îmt}'en)art that ih !0o~ tsaw.) )en(iscu)ar Minoan crystal intag)!«
it
<J.MMt))!t,t'~rf~fKJ~,p.<ô6.
9tM9M9SùMh,MMwhiehtOM'nitWMMidbyitsCrctanown<'rto)MMbMnfo))nd.'
 These evidences of Libyan commercial activity are, however, of slight importance
when compared with the evidence a<ïbrded by the Carthaginian factories mentioned as
having been established in the Syrtica Regio.' Thèse posts, placed along a coast not
attractive to a sea-trade and in some parts vcry barrcn, could have been founded only
with a view mainly to monopolizing and developihg the caravan trajEHc with Libya
Interior and Aethiopia. The staple exports of thèse Punie factories were in ail
likelihood much the same as those of the mediaeval establishments in Tripolitana. The
Venetians had in exchange for their merchandise dried fruits, oil, grain, salt, sheepskins,
ox and camel hides, native cloths, grass mats and baskets, horses, sanron, aloes, wool,
wax, honey, alum, senna from Fezzan, Syrtic sponges, aromatic gums, skins of wild
beasts, gold (both wrought and in dust), ivory, and ostrich .reathers.~ Thé ancient
commerce, in which, since part of thé products came from the interior, the Libyans
must have played an important rôle, dealt with most of thèse items,'and with yet others.
Ivory and hides found their way from fabulous Aethiopia to the coast 8 theexceltentt
rock-salt of thé interior, weU known to the classical world/ was probably carried to
the Punie factories on thé coast to be there exported or used in the pickling of
nsh.~ From the interior came also several varieties ôf semi-precious stonés in which
the Libyans trafficked. Thé best known of these was the carbuncle. This gem, called
<<~ by TheophrMtus~ and Mr~M
by Piiny/was called also, from those who
purveyed it to Europe, the Carthaginian stone,"–o K<t~S<!yto; \~o!.se was brought
to the coast from. the country of the Garamantes and the GaetuHans~ or from thé
Intand territorles of the Nasamones. From the Syrtica Regio came the syrtitis,
a honey-coloured sard (?) while the héliotropes which thé Carthaginian merchant
exposed for sale in Mediterranean markets had their origin in Aethiopia and Libya
Interior." The ebony of Southern Aethiopia of which Herodotus knew,~ and the
rhinocéros horns which Ptolemy mentions in speaking of that vague but sub-$aharan
region which he called Agisymba,~ were also probably brought the Ilang way north-
ward by the Libyan caravans. From the littoral zone, moreover, came the fampus °
thyon or citrus wood, for which the Romans of the Empire paid priées
so exorbitant.
Thé best quality was grown in the Oasis of Sîwah, but )the wood was found also
in Southern Cyrenaica.14 Finally, {rom thé south came the.thin but unending stream
For these
emporia, f<7.
C. Pcrroud, ey. and the C"r~ ~~r~ /'M'M, <)M<s,
~E.<ie)aPr!m9uda!e,~<'Z/r~?'r~~<p.)~
~Asintheextfemewe:!tattheAt)ant!cportofÇerne.Se)')M§t«,tf.C.P<tfoHJ,f%.p.t~).
<Hefodotusiv.tS',)!<,t8)~P)!hyM!7. 'C.Ptrf<.nJ,p.<
Theophrasms, Frag. ii. } cf. L. Marcua, ~fu/M'M dn 0'&J, p. t)6; C. Tisaot, C~M~ ~<t«.< .*<<
vol. i. p. 269
'P:iny![XïYii.7.
7- '.S[rabo.xvii.pp.830,83S!cf.F)in)r~ '1~,
Str<tbo xvii, p. 835, )} <
p &r~ T6!f r<MTot!A<.)f «yT:f TMy rap~a~mf yq )ra/)aAA~Aos tM~, BCff o:
K~))f!tM Ko~~ofTat A~o!. P)iny(~r.f/<.) sitysth.n carbuncles were fouhd among the Aetiuopiani and thé Garamantes,
and among the hill. of the Nasambnes. Thé last named people,believed them t0 be of divine ôrigm, and spught them at
[~
the full of the moon,–<MJo<~r the carbunc!e] ~e</JV<!M~Mjiu «tM/M~, «/ ~«~ <.<t~ ~'MM. ~.MVi~ ad
/i<rf~~&M<m~ '"PHnyxxxvii.tO. "So)inus,p.t~S.
~Herodotusiii. "rtotemyi.8§~. "C.Thsot.Toi.i.p.
pf slaves to bought of.their captors or nrst purchasers by the Punie dealers, and by
be
them sotd in their own or in foreign markets.~ Hefodotus gives somc indication as to
thé mannef in which the supply was kept up. "The Garamante6," he remarks, hâve
tour-horse chariots in which they pursue the Troglodyte Aethiopians, who of ait nations
whereof any account has reached our ears, are by far the Beetest offbot.2 The history
of the Chad-Tripoli Road, coutd it be written, would be, from preh~storic to modem
t!mes, a continuons record of obscure, misery and suffering.
Little direct evidence as to the imports for which the Eastern Libyans bartered the
products of their country and of Aethiopia exists. Like all barbarians, they doubtïess
set such store by the manufactures ofcivitized countries~ as greatly to reward those
Who traded to them/ In mediaeval and modem times the Venetians imported into

Tripolitana glass, corals, silks, and brocades, brasil-wood,wines, iron (in large quantities),
hëlmets and shields, spears and other weapons, lead, tin, copper, and mercury, planks
and wood-work.~ Somebf thèse commodities appear to have been imported in much
e~rher times. Thus, even on theAttanticseaboard,Athen!anpotteries and wine-jars,
Phoenician perfumes and gl$ss-\varc from Egypt Were traded to the Libyans by thé
C~rthagimans.~ ît seems probable alsothat the Eastern Libyans received their
botter sorts of cloth from overseas, as well as their weapons of bronze and, their vessels
o~sllver.
`
Thé means of African transport befbre thé introduction of thecamet have aireàdy
b~en touched on in thé nrst chapter. Burdens were either imposed directiy on thé
MM~~x~nordrav~natongbytheminwainsortumbrits. Saddiedoxenare shown in
thé Barrebi. and other petroglyphs o~prehistoric date (Fig. o), whUe similar rock-
d~awings at Anai in Fezzan show the ancient caravaneers marching alongside of their
/'i'"
~< C~ TCfence, ~«««~M, Act i. Se. Act iii. Se, 4 C. Perroud, i~. f~.p.
J ~C.Perroùd, i~.fA. p. <~9~. Per~budjuMiy observes: tM<;<'« MM

..<Çf,H,Ouyeyner,f;</p.8,<~f)!/wfM<m<fMM~r'
(?, Fitiasi, &e/i'' «~c< f~M < ~'y~Mf;, p. E..de la P~!mamdit!e,
~~M
t~ ~Krf/<
HeroJotus iv. tS~.
~M<M~Mf/o, ~f~fM

rit, p. )~.z,
Scy)ax § tt! cf. C. Perrot)d, f<<. Thé çommodities mentioncd werc cxeh~nged at Cerne for local products.
 tabounng cattle, which draw behind them c!umsy wains.* In Asben, the Chad regions,
ajad Kordofan, it may be remarked, porterage by cxen is stiU in vogue.
ïn conapction with the subjeet of §aharan trafic, it is interesting to recall here
Herodotus's famous story of the nve Nasamonian youths who adventured from their own
counttv into Nigntta, Atthough thé motive of their journeying was not trade, but a
dc$trc to !;n<'w more of the !ntenor, som~ idea of thé great distances anctently traversed
sa&Iy to thé mterb:' may be gamed from the narrative of the historian. Herodotus 3
was told by certain Cyreneans, who had visited the sanctuary of À)hcn at Siwah, and
there tatked w!th the local chief "Etearchus" ('ËT~~o; 'A~m~f.;)' ~Tt~eu;) about the
Nile sources, the following story. y
Some Nasamones had once corne to the court of Etearchus, where they told him
that somc of the sons of their chiefs had drawn lots for five of their number to explore
thé desert portions of Libya. Furn!shed with water and food, the nve youths traversed
thé littoral zone and thé wild-beast tract," and then, entering the uninhabited waste,
marched tbrward toward the west. At last they came to a plain in which were trees,
thé fruit Qf which they gathered. White thus engaged, they were captured by some
dwarfish men undef the middle height. Neither knew the other's language. The
capcors took the yocths across wide marshtands to a town inhabited by black pigmies,
who impressed the prisoners as being great sorcerers. After a space the youths were
retea~ed, and returned safely to their own land. The pigmy town, according to the
exptorers, sïood beside a great river which ran from east to west, and in which were
erçcodiîes. This stream Herodotus believed to be the Nilc but if thé statement as to
direction be correct, ar. d if the geography of the Saharan borderlands has not greatly
changed within the (geologically) short time of twenty-five centuries, it appeârs that
conditions were such that five adventurers were able to journey ,safely from the Syrtic
coast to the Upper Niger and back-a state of ~(îairs which prevailed only with
ti)!mtations in modern times.
The Libyan trader, however, both along the shore and in thé hintertand, was even
in pre-Ishmic times exposed to grave dangers. Caravan-robbtng and piracy by
wrecking were features of the life of thé Eastern Libyahs which the studcnt of their
e~onomycannot ignore. It could not hâve been long after the establishment of the
Chad-Mediterranean traffic before th~, !aw!ess tribes occupying the habitable areas
along the caravan lines began to take advantage of their position to pillage the rich
baHock-tf~ins which painfully wended their way to or from the S~an. After thé
introduction of the camel thèse raids probabïy became more fréquent, on account, on the
one hand, of the încreased communication between north and south, and, on thé other,
&f the fact th~t the fobber$<;ûttld more fapidty move from one peint to another, fall
upon a ~M by surprise, and escape across the désert. By Roman time$ highway
H. Oaye)nef, f.t. pp. ziit. Thcre were many oxen suitable <br!in)itar work amonj! thé Aethiopiatts

'HM~t~ti,
cf.
Htr~oM<i',tS3;f/r<St);utÏM)ic<)!<f~<<iii,ï9t);i)ndcf'.<~<?,p.t~9~
'Ofthe~eefthc~ccrtnothfngitMM.
 robbery in thé interior had becfme so prevalent that it was necessary to check it by
punitive expéditions on a !at'gesca!e,
The Libyan chieftains had stronghoids in which they stored thé super~uous parts
of their booty–r~ ~\ec<ofT<t <<t!
Diodorus, who supplies this information, adds
that the Libyans have neither rulers nor laws-a somewhat exaggerated statement-but
live by rapine, suddenly raiding in from the désert–~ T~t ~~e~–to which they as
s~iftty retreat.2. Sb seriously did these ~rays affect Roman trade with thc tntcfiof that,
as early as thé end of Caesaf's t!fethne,.t punitive cotuEnn was despatched against the
(~aratnantes.~ Later, in the year !8 B.c., A second and much more important expédition,
uhder thé conduct of Cornelius Balbus, penetrated into Phazania, and there subdued
many strongholds ând tribes of marauders. The account left by Pliny of these difHcuIt
opérations makes it cléar that they were undertaken because of the incessant ptundering
atong the trade-ways.~ The two remarkabte journeys of Septimius Flaccus and of JuHus
r~aternus to Aethiopia~ made at later date,"
a were probably both undertaken to prevent
c4ravan-robbing. The second of thèse expéditions is of especial interest, since Maternus,
who had marched from Leptis Magna to'Garama, there joined forces with the chief of
the Garamantes against thé Aethiopians.. As ât an earlier date Garama had becn one of
thé towns taken by Batbus/ it is cteâr that since the time of that reprisal the Gara-
rrjantcs had become sensible of thé benefits of the regular caravan traffic, and were
atixious to keep thé rbads open, even to the far south.
Ïn the littoral trade the ancient shipmaster had reason to dread not only the
oi~dinary dangers of Syrtic navigation but the wreckers with whom parts of thé coast
were Intested. The Nasamones seem to have been the most active of these Barbary
pirates" ofclassical antiquity. Their depredations appear to hâve been confined to
wrecking, their shelterless coasts arfording more opportunity for this ~brm ofpiracy than
for that practised by the Carian sea-rovers, whose harbours gave them snug shelter, and
w~o preyed on an establishedcommerce instead ôf on such casual navigators as those who
skirted thé eastefn shores bf the Syrtis Major. Thé Nasamones, howevër, must hâve
madc
thé best of their limited opportunities, to judge by the "bad eminence which
they achieved, and by thestrong measures which were taken against them by thé
Romans. Thé
r <<«r~f ~aMmeH, w<!(/tr~Mt'<
~<At<fw~t~~r<f<wf/Afrf~~<e
o~Silius Italicus~ 15 Inthe poet's mind withwrecking that he describes
so tMseciated

}.. factoh)y,w!th<tdetm)s, there

PiodortMSie«t"9 i'i. 49.
~L.A'"<Mu!F!o)'U5iv.< Thé M record~.
iii. !).

li Pliny v. F, Bef!.L)'i, C~<) ~M ~'N' r~e~«M, p. i0t Vtf~i) (~*«<J, vi. y~ j~.) is probaMy
reterringto the expeditiottofMbus in the phrase:–rrrper
Carar~arrrar
.fw/.<'rG'!row~f~M
-il

~'j!
L"ManMsTyr!Hs<Pto)emy).O.S.
fr~fn' ot
p.. ?
*P)stthey.)i'eaM~)m<Mtctrta!n)yhavebtennot!tt<!byPt)ny.
Ptin}' Si)it)!MitMsii).Ott.
D
even a Nasamonian chief în the Carthaginian service as
~K</(!~ <M~«<7« /~f~<7~ ~<<?r~ <'<'r<?~
An ''artier poet had already written
<WM toto fWMMrna m;M<&
~Va;</ra~<~VaMMMM Aa~<
The predatory habits of the Nasamones are further signalized by Quintus Curtius,~
and the very curious manner in which the tribe is said by Silius to have disposed of its
dcad~ :s further évidence, quite !rrespect!ve of the truth or falsity of thé pOct'S account,
that, in Roman opinion, the Nasamones were associated with the Béa, and in no
creditabte manner. Presumably it was in some attempt to regulate an'airs in the Syrtic
Gulf that two Roman quaestors in the time of Domitian lost their Hvcs~ For this là3t,
outrage a force under the ~<<'r of Numidia was despatchedagainst the wreckers. The
Nasamones took the camp ofthe~y~ but became so drunk on thé wine they found
there that the Roman commander, returning, feti upon them and crushed them. There-
after, it may be supposed, Syrtic trade was On a somewhat better footing, though the
barbarians continued to exist, despite Domttian's casual remark to the Senate that he
had forbidden the Nasamones to live."5
AM Libyan trade was conducted by barter until, perhaps, late classical times. It
has been repeatedly stated by a number of writers that the Libyans of the Egyptian v
invasions had money," an error which arose irom an early mis-translation of an item in
the Egyptian lists of spoil. It is needless to remark that no hîerogtyphic word for
"money" existed at the time ofthe invasions anymore than, among the people of thé
Mediterranean at that epoch, the thing itself. If any fixed standard of exchange, either
in animais or by weight of metal, existed among the Eastern Libyans in early times,
no evidence of it remains although in the dumb-trade carried on by the Carthaginians i
with the Libyans west of the Pillars of Herac!es, commodities were exchanged by
the buyer's offering gold for the goods ofthe seller until a bargain wasStfuck.~
There is no evidence that even in full classical times any of thé Eastern Libyans
had a currency of their own, except in one doubtfut Instance. This tsthat of the y
M~cae, to whom have been attributed certain coins in silver and bronze struck after
200 B.c., and bearing in some cases the îegend AtETHN on the reverse, together with thé
!etter M or the Phoenician o.~ Thé coins of the Syrtica Regio, however, of which
'SitiusMicusi.jj.og. 'Lucanix.t3tj~. "Q.Curtiusiv.7. ~SitiuiMicusxiii.~So~.
s JohannciZonaras, ~j< xi. tt) (p. 500) j tf, Dionysius, ffr~w, :oS :–~
K<?)'o" a! )rq)! ~/tor ~/tm~T<t ~An~io
M~~f a9~<r<t<t? <!?r~M~ Nw/'f~~f
At~ here = Domitian. For the
andtheDMiamffemcntioncd.
<
date,

Recently by H. Wcisgerber, Lei Blancs <

o~s A~T o~ <ïA.<yof?'<'s <!F~A«7'~ A~û~e
Euiebius, C~«~. ~~o. !t0t MA.D. 86, where the defeats ofthe NaMmone*
p. 20 and n. t. The
°
atightcst acquaintance whh thc eady history
ofnumismatic: shou!d have pfcvcnted this crror fr<?'!) haying ever been perpetratcd in the <!rM instance) or repeated tatcr.
Hcrodotui !v, 196. Gold having had a standard vatue it~nng thé Carthag!n!M9)th< At)an<!c Ubyan! with wh<Mtt
[hcytra~c~ musc hâve corne t~havd à roughapp~ec!at!onof!tsvaïue,
s C. L. Muller, op. vol. i. p. !}! j B. V. Head, .~M/~ .~MWJM~ p.
thèse are probably a specimen, càn hard!y be called Libyan, since they owed their origin
M the Phoenicians, the Greeks, or thé Romans.
In general, if one considers the trade of the Eastern Libyans from an économie point
ofview, it may be said to have bëen always of a primitive character. Thé exports were
natural products–sither luxuries l'ke ebony, ivory, ostrich plumes, or the fk'ns of wild
beasts, or coarse products like hidesor s~lt. The imports were arms and other objects of
métal, ~breign cloth fabrics, potteries, gI~M, and ail such objects as the Libyans desirëd
but knew not how to, make. Thé effect of such a trade on the natives can be on!y
roughty summarized. Those ofthe littoral became s!ight!y morf advanced than those
<;<fthe mterior.especiaUy as they came into direct ccnta.ctwith icreigners. The
~aravans to attd from theSudan !ed to the gradua! growthof trade-towns like
C'ydamus (Ghadames) or Garama (Ghermah), where exchanges could be made and
goods left in bond. The Chad-Tripoli road, atso, exeited thé rapacity of the wild
<TlbesMen of the irterior, who soùght to rine the passing ~/MM. This in time led to
thé institution which now exists of paying toMs for protection within a given area an
arrangement by which tho various tribes through whose districts thé
caravans passed
derived surer
a revenue than that extracted by violence.~ The t'rade-routes and the
stations which grew up along them must be regarded as civitizing elements in Eastern
~ibya as elsewhere but
as in modem, so too-and in a greater degree–in ancient
times, thé European or Asiatic products introduced into Saharan AMca aïfected but
Ùttle the great body of the people. Where to-day chief in Kanem bas an obsolete
t~usket, ohé of his predecessors two thousand years ago may hâve been the proud owner
~f a cheap Carthaginian corselet. Thèse enviable possessions then, as now, were beyond
the reach ofcommon tnbesmen. In thé trade-towns, a little more sharpness and Intelli-
gence, greater power of combination, and less of the ~M<-<7~ were probably to be
a
~und than in the gebel; and in thë north, thé Libyans of the littoral zone, aping and
t~ingling with the toreign çolonists, strehgthened their hands with weapons from over-

1 x
~eas, but became
to a greater extent softened under thf ihnuence of foreign luxuries.
Cf.-,¡" Dyveyrier,Ler Tot~ai·egdu ,Notd,p.
'CfH.DHveyner,~TMMr<y<&~r<p.:}9. )
>
 CHAPTERV
SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT

To form a just opinion of the sociology and government of thé Eastern LIbyans, it is
best to begin with a consideration of the famUy. After an examination of the evidehce
on this question, on marriage, and on the duties and status of women, thé problem of
government, in its various aspects, can be discussed more profitably.
Although thé modem Berber seems indi~rent to the marital opportunities
sanctioned by Islam, therë is no question but that his anccstors were regularly and
extensively polygamous. The, monumental testîmony on this head, as afforded by
certain ancient representations of Libyan famities~ may be set aside in face of the direct,

waters..
ample, and conclusive testimony of the Egyptian inscriptions and the Greek and Roman

Sallust sensibly remarks that among the Mauri, <.< the native Africans.political
marriages were of little value, "since every man bas as' many wives as he pleases, in
proportion to his ability to maintain them some ten, others more, but the ktngs most
of a!L Thus the affection of the husband is divided among a multitude no one of
them beco'fnes a companion to him,2 but aH are equally neglected." this gives force
he
to the answer returned by certain tribesmen to the Byzantine general, Soïomon, when
had written to them threatening their hostages. '"It is for you,"fetorted thé Libyans,
who cannot hâve more than one wife, to be concerned with the care of your children
but we, who are able to hâve, if we wish, nfty wives, are not apprehensive of !acking
descendants.4 This retort is preserved by Procopius, who in thé same passage mentions
the polygamyofachieftain called Medisinisas.~ Strabo states that the Libyans of thé'
interior (where the primitive marriage customs wonid naturally be best preserved)
married numerous wives, and had large famities.~ Me!a atso, writing of thé nomads,
observes that each man has severajt wives at once, and thereforëso many children and
relatives that the farnUy groups wetc by no means smaU ones.~ Each man of the

Sa-ha-re B<n] HM«; St~nt Kutptur~,

*«&M~~tf~.
~='
("0~n!'i'<"h<:re9b)0)t)MMinLivyxx'6,m<!0</<M<.)
!S9!)u}t,)M!<.
Sc~Mïvii.p.X.);
Stra~o xvii. p. 8); Me)ai.
7 Mela i. 8.:r'
<Pfocopia9,D<'&7A~M~ii.)'.
'°S S.'r
t.
~'j.-
"f~.&f.
,Nasamoncs,according to Herodotus. had several wives,' and further évidence as to
L[byan'po!ygamy is derivablë from Egyptian sources, Thé gréât Karnak inscription.
of Merneptah says that Meryey, thé leader of the, Libyans, was accompanied in his
campaign by his wifë (singu!ar) and his sons but although oniy one wife is here
mentioned, it is reasonab!e to infer~ if the record is to be taken literally, that the six
sons of Meryey were ait Mf~ and that thé chieftain had, or at least had had, other wives,
since for one wontan aniong a primitive people to be the mother of tix adu!t mâles is
e~ceptional in itself, and because it would be yet more extraordinary, supposing she were
so in fact, that she should be young enough to accpmpany her husband on a dangerous
and arduous mititar)' expédition. The real s~te of an~irs is made clear by a brief item
In thé Karnak list of prisoners taken by the victorious troops of. Merneptah f'Women
pf thé (alten chief of Libya, whom he brought with him 12 Libyan women. 4
Meryey's "wife," therefore, was probably merely the chief lady of thé ~a~ in which
sotneofhis six sons were born.
j In thé second Libyan war of Rameses HI., as in'the earlier invasion under Meryey
t~echieftainswereaccompaniedbytheirwomen. Kepper,s6nofDed,tbrexamp!e,had
hl~ "son, wife [sing.], and ~ami!y"~ with him in thé field. But, beside his chief wife
he, like Meryey, had also his~twb. références being made to his women in
digèrent texts.~ Three hundred and forty-two wives of chiens'were captured by the
Egyptians in this war, together withSixty-nveunmarriëdwomen and one hundred and
n~y-one girls. These latter belonged to thé chiefs* families, the male captives of which
nttmbered one hundred and thirty-one boys.' These numbers must, of course, incïude
the families of more chiefs than the six who were mentioned in the IIsts, but must
equaUy hâve beeh thé famUies ofmen of ran!~ as is indeed distinctlystated witb
regard
to thé three hundred andfbrty-two wives. The twelve hundred and five men taken
captive, as well as those slain, appear to have had no women with them in the field.
Further évidence be gathered frpm thé Serapeum Stela of Harpeson
(~XIInd I~ynasty), andmayfrom the PIankhiStela (XXMIrd Dynasty). The former
o~ these documents contains thé genea!ogyof Harpeson, who derived his origin from
a family of Libyan settlers m thé Egyptian Delta~ It is to be noted that in it no
husband isrecorded as having more than one wife–perhaps because the family, under
Egyptian innuence, became quasi-mondgamous, perhaps because only those women
tnrough whom Harpeson dëscehded were decmed worthyof mention. Perhaps each
!ady mentioned was m her tit~e chief lady of the ~'A~, and no other names were given;
Herodotu<;v.)'7t~.
iny~ttenMhcticect.

~r'
BA&U). ~~9, 6bt (Athrib!! Steh), cf.
–'
!L'BARM!.§sM,Cont!rm~byCa:MCo)Mm~~
< BAR i!t. Sot cf. BAR i~. § $t0 (t~ae) S<e)~)
'SBAR~~gto~.
iii. S9S (C~ro Co~umn), wt~re thé pr<~enc<:of women among thé

di. § 604.
"hh Womem wtt~ t~ea before his (MeJ*
~BAR'in.~6ot.'6tO.'
BAR iv.§ut. Th: Papyrus HarM.~e~Mngin bticfcr and more geneo) Mrms.saysmemtythatRitmese!f[t.
tôt captive thé wi vêt and children of the Meshwesh.
'BARiv,§7S7. tnt(evminaMncesth~MnMpfth<!w!f<appMn.w!~th<tefh<rhM!b~~
 At any rate, the Piankhi Steta discloses the tact that in addition to their chief ladies,
the Libyan dynasts of the Delta had other wives in their ~-&
Thus the chlef lady
of Namlot, whose overthrow by thé Aethiopian monarch is narrated in thé stela of thé
latter, was the queen Nestent. Visiting the palace of his vanquished encmy, however,
Piankhi "caused that there be brought to him the king's wives and king's daughters,"1

class.
who tried, though with poor success, to amuse the Aethiopian Pharaoh. This may be
regarded as summing up what 1s known of Libyan marriage relations thé people were
extensive potygamists.wlthin those ~r~
some one wlfe occupied a position of
pre-eminence much !Ike that of a first wife in a modern Mosicm ht'usehotd of thé
better
It is not surprising that the facts, being what they were, should have been grossiyy
misrepresented by monogamous Greeks or Romans who had only a slight acquaintance
with African matters. Even modern EuropéantraveHers have occasionally described
this or that form of group-marriage which they have noticed among some primitive
people as irregular promiscuity" although such a condition does not realty cxist m
thé world.2 Similarly a 'Roman writer declares that the Garamantes had no marf.iagc
Institutions and Herodotus, who bas been quoted as testifying to the polygamy of the
Nasamones, tells with regard to the, latter people much the same story. Thé Greek
historian states that thé Nasamones, in their intercourse with their wives, resembled thé
Massagetae.~ The marriage customs of the latter peopic he elsewhere characterizes by
saying that although each màn !s married, he promiscuously enjoys ths wives of his
feUowtnbesmen.~ Th!slspract!ca!!yplaclngatonestroketwopeopleslnastatewhlch
Herodotus Is hère
even among the most primitive savages does not exist to-day.
certainly wrong with regard to the Nasamones,and probablyaiso with regard to th?
Mai,sagetae. Of the Gindanes, Herodotus more credibly states that their women wear
on their legs ank!ets of leather that each lover a womah bas gives her
one of thèse
tokens and that she who can show thé most trophies is best esteemed, as shë bas been
sought by the greatest number of men.* This story may relate to some such practice
of giris obtaining a dowry by prostitution as that invogue among thé Aulad Nayl
(Berbers) of the present time. A third charge ofpromisculty i$ brought by Herodotus
ag&tnst the Auseans. He says of that people tbat they do not marry, but dwell together
like gregarl~us ànimaïs and that their children, when full-grown, are ~ss!gned by thé
tribal assembly to the parents' they most resemble.~ Hère, again, arisés thé tnitia!
improbability as to any society's having eyer been reaUy promiscuous ahd the dl<Hcu!ty,
supposing such a state to have existed, ofunderstanding what relationship obtained
between the parents to whom the children were assigned.
'BARiv.§8~.

T 7~.
°
s MMt!MU4Cape)h,DtM~M~w,iv.(P.),G~M~~
'Hemdatmiv.t~ 'i.n6.
iv. !8o! cf. Nicnlaus Damascenus, fMf.
Libarnians. At~pftOtshoaMbecmendedto-A~M;.
!J.DcniMf,<M~p.jt'9ndnctes;
vltalrlfi0rJ0fOClanlur.

m in MC, whére much

.<iv.t76.
thc same story M (o!~ ef.th<!
 With regard to these errors, which have been too reâdily credited by certain modern
writers, two more points may here be mentioned. The first is the absurdity of sup-
posingthat a promiscuous people shoutd hâve any consciousness of virginity, apart from
thé physical fact of it. What may be called the moral consciousness of virginity existed,
however, amohg the Eastern Libyans, as in the case of those very Auseans whose
marriage customs Herodotus so misunderstood. The Auseàn mock-fight, held annually
in hdnour of "Athene," was (~) supposed to be performed by virgins, and (~) if any
parttCtpant received hurts from which she died, she was therefbre accounted no truf:
maid. Among this people, who ~elt that an absence of virginity in the person of a
participant in certain religious rite would bc punished with death,'Herodotus would
hâve his reâders believe that thcrc prevailed absolute!y unrestricted intercourse between thé
se~eS Thé $econd is that the prédominance of~M~-cuttusthroughout ancicnt North
A~rica testifies to the existence of well-defined ideas of kinship ideas which could onty
h~ve existed
among a people which fully rëcognized some form
of marriage by which
blood-relationshipscould be casity traced.
L Of thé marriage
customs of the Eastern Libyans but few are ',known. The
Atlyrmachidae brought aU women about to be marricd to their king, that he might
cqhabitwith such M were agreeable to him. Among the Augilae t! was <ustomary
~br every bride toprostituteherself on her weddhg night to ail who paid for thé
priviieg? maugre which, and despite the fact that to have had intercourse with many
thereafter remained
men on that occasLon was deemed a gréât honour, the woman
~thfui her husband.3 Thé first of these customs, rëcalling the droit de <WM~' of
to
féodal France, may have had its origin in a religious fear of accepting the responsibility
o~denoration.* Thesecond seems allied to thé customs of the ancient Gindanes and thé
mpdern Aulad Nayl, mentioned above. Even obscurer than thèse notices is that which
statcs that among the Machlyes, when agifi has several suitors, the men feast with her
f~her and makes merry before
or a kinstnan~ and that thereafter each suitor in turh jests
t~e maiden, who becomes the wife of him who provokes her to laughter s
Bef~ leaving this subject, it is necessary to touch brieHy on an ailied topic that
of thé m~rlarchate, Many modern writers are convinced that this state prevailed in thé
e~rliest stages ofL~byan society, and it cannot be denied that indications that this was

h~d of thc ~mily is not thé father :he bas

thé case are Strong.ifnot conçlusive. That soclological condition in which the true
b been and yet is widespread in

;(-
Cf théStrong sensé &fvirgm![y among thé AtarantiMS ofthe Moghreb. Nicofaus DtmMcenœ,
'J~Hero~.v.
i < Deaoration before tnMnâge !< among Mtne pr!m!nvepMp)es
'Meht.S_ 8..
ff~. t~o in FHG.
an oMigatory act. Among the Bataks and Mtw
of the Phifippines, by the
~anders itispërfotn~e.i by {heparentt; among thé Bisayas matrons, mCan)bod'a,bythe
p~sts. TheAdyrmachidkmg9,U)[ethe.Cambodian
with impNMty. Cf. G A. Wi'ken.~MtH!~CM
..hote'L'Demker,'M).f&.p.o.
y~r~i'
pricsts.mayhaYeacKd as M~ed axnwh~ toa)d dMtroyvirg.n<ty.
p. !9t
G:~wd-Teu)on, Or.gw~ <w'
p. 33,

<- Nicohas DamasMnM, fr~. u6 :n f~C. This pacage ,ec<))..th&6 E.MpMn folk-tales in which Md M solemn
prmce~ b w.n by that ~t~ wh. m~ her !augh. For <Mmp!<.s Me P. C. Asbjamsen, f.).Y Fatry Tales, p. 269;
J/and W. ôrimm, vol p. For these Mfetene.! 1 have to thant
father, Dr. Ar)o BaK<.
my
 Africa. Thus, the matriarchate is known to have existed in Aethiopia,* as in the
Meroitic kingdom and there is no doubt that it flourished in ear!y Egypte Among
many Negritians of the Sudan thé matriarchate still persists among the Berbers of
thé présent time arc what appear to be matriarchal survivais. Thus the Imushagh
explain their abstention from fish, birds, and edible lizards on the score that these
(totemic) animais are "their mothers' brothers," a fbrmof expression emphatically
matriarchat.' Among the Imushagh, also, the laws of succession, as seen in the case of

~r
the Azgar chieftainships, are sometimes based on the matriarchal principle cf ~r/M
vèntrem a principle not in harmony with the t~uran, and therefbre probably
pre-Islamic in its origin. Those Imushagh whose laws of inhérence have the
matriarchal cast call their Institution for thé transmission of property thëlaw BenI-
Ummïah (~
~;), ~f. the !aw of M~
~7~-f/ and are themselves said to
be Benî-Ummîah Imushagh. According to the Benï-Ummîah ail property falls
into two divisions: (<!) that acquired by individual work, and (~) that acquired
by violence, and called f~f n ~f/M~, or "fruits (lit. '.goods') of wrong-doing."
On the death of the (male) head of a family, a!l the property of class (<!) is divided
equally among the children of thé deceased, without regard to pnmogeniture of sex,
The property of class (6) passes, without division or diminution, ~o MM of
f/f~ sister of the ~M~< This practice existed formerly not ônly amohg thé northern
f/
Imushagh, but also among those known as the Massufa, west of Timbuktu, and Was
therefore both widespread and of early origin. It is almost certainly a matriarchal
survival. In ancient times an Egyptian notice records that, on the defeat of a Libyan
chief, one of his brothers, in preference to a son, was installed in h:s place a Greek
writer records that a number of Libyan tribes had as a common ancestor a "nymph"
whom he styles Amphithemis and a vague story was current in Roman times to thé
e~ect that in Libya was a tribe, thé Byaei, in which the women were ruied by a
woman, the men by & man.~ The survival, even to a period as late as Graeco-Roman
times, of the matriarchate among the less advanced tribes would account for thé lengthy
and curious relation of Diodorus Siculus concerhing thé Amazons of North Africa.~
1 Nicolaus Damascenus, Frag. t4z in FHG.

intheMeroitictetiefs.
Cf. Diodorus Siculus i. 33, and the relative prominence given to the Candacae as comp.tred <o their ma!e consorts

<),
R. t. Frnin, Pf AftM~hw, etc., p. zo (X~MJM Btft!%)t! ~tfa~a; j9tMrt~t/
o! ~«pM~ ïai
t
y~a; ~ttf. Thé ~~M/. Fcf~M'(p. ogives B~o~t! ttfpt'~ «a! ras KïA. B~M~t!=Banetereh. Cf.
J.H.BMasM4,f,p.8;W.M.F.Petfie,M).).p.tt.
< E.-F. Gautier, ~<<~ ~~&x, p. t}8; W. Bosman, de G«M&,p. '07~. Cf. for Centra) Africa,P.du
ChaiUu,M/M~M~,p.t82.
E.-F. Gautier, ~'< H. Duveyrier, Lei Z<'Mr~ du JVff~, p. ~ot noted thé tabooi, but <:ou!d
exp~nationforthem..
H. Duveyrier, Thé
get no
Imushagh who are Bon! Umm!ah hâve an amusing' story to account for thé
'i
op. f/y. p. 393
origin of this custcm. It is well told by Duveyrier,p. ~9 but i~ unfortanate)y foo tong to be introduced here,
7 BAR in. ~s8~. s.AgMeta9,f~ih.F~G.–
~Nicohu!DamMcenu!,f~.))<)nf~C.,f~BMfeKA~)~[~m~/i~at'S~M)'~N<rtÀc)!ft,y))~c!yw~~
This evidence has beén adduced by D. R. Mactver a).~ A. Wititin (~<! JV~,
p. t
'< Diodorus Siculus iii. $)
f?.). in connection with the matriarchate, but theother évidence ishotpresented..
According to this writer, there dwelt in thé extrême west of Libya an ~fe!
itjMTo~Mfo' an Amazonian race, whëfe the usual status of thé sexes was reversed. Thé
'y'
history of thé A~azons, it is necdtess to say, is pure Dction thé very existence of a
hation ofnghting women and spinning men Is in itself an absurdity but the length and
nature of Diodorus's story point, in conjunction with thé évidence cited, and with thé
tact that both m Berber îegend and folk-lore,2 as well as in authentic history, women
(igure prominentty, to thé probabitity that thé matriarchate was at some early period
Widety established among thé primitive North Africans.
The occupations of the L'byan women are of interest from thé sociotogtcal point of
~iew, but the information on thé subject is small. The daity life ofthe female members
ofany ancient North African community must,however,have been muchwhat is tt
~t thé présent time, The women must hâve prepared and cooked the, food, milked the
~ocks, and, among the more advànced tribes, done thé weaying–the last a somewhat
taborious process even to this day among the Berbers, who do not, M a ~ruie, employ
{ihuttles. ~he basketsin which thé Libyan women represented in a Be~ ttasan
painting are Seen carrylng thelf children on their backs are doubtless thé work of their
~wn hands:' Of their care ibr their chHdren but one particutar is known–the latter
were in most tribes regularly cauterized when four years old with a flock of wool on
thé top of the head, or about the veins of fhe temple. "This they do," says Herodotus,
"to prevent them from being in their after lives plagued by a now ofrheum from the
head and such, they dec!âre, is thc'reason why they are so much môre hea!thy than
ôther men. 3 If thé child had a fit during the cauterizatioh, the native remedy was to
rinkle if with the sta!e ofa goat/ It need hardly be said that <inng, both as a
eurative and as a preventative measure, is at présent universatty employed, and in some
~ses with good resùlts, throughout North Africa 'and the Sudan. Probably most of
thèse opérations were in thé hands of the women, who would beski!)ed in simples like
~hewivesof fhe modem nomads.
The status of women was undoubted!y a good one. It will appear later that they
had a real share both in therellgloùs and in thé potitical life of thé people, and as
~epresented on' thé Egyptia~O~ohum~nts they were asweH orf~br personal ornaments
~s were thé men.s Ït is probable that the matriarchàte bequeathed to them exccptiona!
privilèges, and it is perhaps for this reason that the chiefs' women of the Sa-hu-re reliefs
ire portràyed aswëaring the~ a utetinctty masc~tiOe artlc!e of attire which
wlUbedcscribed in thé section on dress. One of thé Medînet Habu tiles also shows
i Libyah woman in ma!e dress, in this case thé kilt and robe, though from thé Slunt
sculptures and from a painting at Bcnt Hasan the truë féminine dress is known to have
heen a kirtie betted at the waist. This maSquerading in men's garb can hâve been donc
*Oio<:)orMSk'i)Msia.;}.t. ~H.buyeyner.p.~oo~. ~Herodotnsiv.tS?.
/f<7.; cf.Ônbasias,Ce//M.p.4;,whetethé LibyaM are
tOtt'tSMic.apractKe~t'itdbaYebcMfoUowtdbythcG~
Mi<} to r<:dH<:<: f<;Ycr< by the drinking of
phÿs~cian ~vsuor.
1:' 'BA~i~§s64.,for~i~o~!<.eoJ!'<w<')~)~n'!6~
.0
for but one reason, vix. because upon the wife of a chieftain male costume was a badge
of dignity. It is in préciser the same spirit that Hatshepsut appears on the monuments
of her reign in male attire, and that the queens of Meroë arc sometimes sculptured as
wearing beards.
After questions of the family, and the status of women, cornes naturally that of
government. Living in a tribal state, the Eastern Libyans were ruied by chieftains
whose powers scem to have ranged from tbose of the modern Bedawin sheykh to those
invested in some of the great sedentary émirs of Northern Arabia. The statement of
Mela to the effect that the interior tribes lived dispersed in families, without laws, and
without undertaking anything in common–M~/M//M~passim et .fM<* dispersi W~i'7 ln
cowMMt' fM.fw/~y~'–Is but partially true It is to be accepted merely as a testimony
to the iaxness of the social institutions of thé people.
The Libyan chieftainship was apparently hereditary within a family the general
practice seems to have been to bestow it on an individual who had acquired a réputa-
tion for justice butthe holder of the office might be required, if unsatisfactory,
to abdicate in favour of a kinsinan.3 This happened in the case of a gréât chief not
of a tribe merely but of a confederacy. As bas been said above, the Libyân em!r
Meryey, after his defeat at the hands of the Egyptians, was dispossessEd, and one of
his brothers put in his place.4
Thé chiefs both of tribes and confederacies were assisted in some, if not in ait, cases
by councils. Rameses III. caused to be brought before him the captivé tens" of his
Libyan enemies, these "tens" being counciitors.' Among thé Auseans a counci!,
apparently of a)! full-grown men, assembled every third month, /.< once in each season
of the year.~ Therefore what seems to have been an ancient usage bas to-day its parallel
among the Imushagh tribes and confederaciesofthe ~ahara.f.In thë BerbefS com-
prised in the Azgar Confederation. So distinctive and deep-rooted does the government
of the Saharan Berbers appear that it is advisable to pause here, and to consider for
comparative purposce its principal characteristics as exhibited in the Ke! Azgar just
mentioned.
The 6rst noteworthy point is that, !ike at! thé Imushagh, thé Azgar are formed of
two éléments (<:) the aristocratie or noble tribes, f~g~n' and (~) the vassal or servUe
Me~i. 8.
The Alitemnii ('A\tTo~wA~w;=the'AXtTa~o~ofPtolemy iv. 6 6, a tribe of Libya Interiot perhaps to be
related to the Hcet Troglody:ic Aethiopians' of Herodotus iv. )8)) chose 99 kings thé Béetest among thetN fo aid him
the tribesmen then elected the most just–T~ StM~TaTOf.. Nico)~ Damascenua, f< 138 in f//S. Cf. the
nt.
Atitemniancustom with that of the tall Atlantic Aethiopians, who choie their chiefs for their stature. Scylax § r.
a Pliny, v!ii. ~o, bas a curious story of a deposed king of the Garamantei who regamed Hs position with the
help ofan army of two hundicd dogs-anative fo)k-ta)e,obvi6u<)y,sugg<Mingmanypar:)Ie! <BARiii.§sS6.
§~ Thé word RMf% r!f)Q may
BAR iv.
G. Maspero, .E/f~j ~< nu Ln)) ~r. n
vol. il. p. to~
11 l, ~<<&<<M~ <)~, Sty/
H. Brngach,
mcan cithcr "councillors" or ."noHes."
p. 927
Cf.

That thé meaning hère''c<)und))6ft''it is certain for ferons given in BAR,/M.f~ note f.

toparcntB..
Herodotus iv. t8o. The object df thc meetings, according to Herodotus, was the assignment of children
? K'=;pebpte,~w.
tribes,7~ The latter pay tribute or service in various ways to the former, and tack
certain privileges in some cases, for instance, an ignoble tribe may not own carnets,
or.in others, bear arms. This division is explicable on the ground that the Imghad
peopte. But it is necessary to state emphatically
are thé descendants of a conquered
that thbugh the division into Z~~r~ and Imghad is so ancient that the Saharan Berbers
préserve no knowtedge of its origin, there is no textual evidence of it in the Egyptian or
classical records. Thé government of the Azgar is a sort of feudal monarchy,
tempered
by that deep-rooted spirit of communism to be found among ait Berber
tribe'elects from the members of its .ruling famity its amghar (pl. ~),
peoples. Each
or chief.

~),
confëderacy. In the case of miscônduct, the <
T;'hëse imgharen in turn elect from the members of a royal famiïy an

when he is deceased, the natural heir to the office, who must be confirmed by the
~~w, is not the son of the late
amenukal (pl.
or "king," to.rule with their help dnd at their pleasure, oyer the whole
is deposed,and in thiscase,or

king," but rather the son of the late "king's"

etdest sister. This fôrmof succession to power or property is the one usual among
t~e aristocratie tmushagh.
The Azgar Confederacy is thus made up: nine noble tribes, six of which are
composed of more than one clan, ~~r~.and thirty-two ignoble tribes,
Zw~< As a

t~ree divisions, thé Z~

typicat noble tribe may bc taken the

calts himself an
fw~<T~
Tegehe
of the
7' The ~~<M~M
and the
J~Mj~
are
made up of
n ~M- A man of the
(tribe), of the
(Confederacy),of the Ihaggaren Imoshagh (" nobleor"free Tuareg). The tribes ofthe
are generally not subdivided.~
Certain features of ancient Libyan government are clearly discernible in the
constitution of thé Azgar Confederacy. It has already been seen thit Meryey, like a
rnodern anienukal, might be deposëd, that he was succeeded, as would happen to-day, not
~y
a son, but by a kinsman on the
distaff side, and that there existed anciently, at least
~ong the Auseans, a council such as that which at present appoints the M~A~ Yet
itnother paraHet exists in the fact that thé chleftainships were anciently, as ai present, of
Binèrent grades. The confederated Meshwesh had an ~who is recorded in thée
man.2 But this
jriumph of Rameses 111. as: «Chiefs ofthe Meshwesh
head-chief had UBder his command subordinatechlefs,"leaders of the land of
~ïeshwesh, '<hls chiets, "chieftains ofthe enemy. G Among the Libyan dynasts
~f the Delta (XXÏH''<! DynMty), thé titles ofthe rulers show a similar variety. The
{king" Namtot, a «Gréât Chief of the Me(shwesh)," is styled "Gréât Chief of
Chiefs," M <!m~ Associated with him is another but !ess important "king,"
yewepet,' at thé head ofthe Detta Ubyans tindef their "Gréât Chiefs of Me(shwesh)
and Chiefs ofMetshwesh). Thé monumental sources a!so point to the Eastern Libyans
t À. HMOteM, C~a~
j
~BAR.§u./
.BARiv.S~
&~ r~f~, p. xv.
~BARiv.§~. <BARiv.§9~r''
for):h<: above oucline

'BAR.8.
ohhe Azgar government.
as having been in Egyptian time$ undcr chiefs of various grades–there appears to have
been a class of Libyan captains wearing but one ostrich-p!ume another which wore two.1
tt
was these di&erences in rank, which have survived to th6 present day, that led in
classical times to thc diversity of terms used by Creek and Roman writers in speaking of

(owM<~T<tt'*) rulers (.
Libyan chiefs. Mention is made of kings (~a~tX~
rax' /9o~~f ro~ ~o~T~! < ~)
~) of dynasts
and of etdcrs
(/'rwMrf~~). Comprised in a single work, the yo~WM'f of Corippus, are a variety oftittes.
Libyan chiefs are therein designated by the terms ~w<~7M, regens, rex, princeps, or
~)'r<7M~ 7 and in certainly one instance, and probably in many, these rulers were aided
or restrained in their conduct ofaSairs by a councit of notables or shcykhs (~ocfTM).*
Excepting in a general way, the duties and privileges of the Libyan chiefs are
obscure. In the Egyptian records they appear as captains in war, or ascouncinors of the
confederacy. In times of peace their authority was in many cases probably but slight,
although even then they enjoyed better food and had better gear than the average tribes-
man. Thus, among the rudest and poorest.Libyans, it was only the chie~ who had mats of
skins.~ The sheykhly office had its tokens in regard to which Procopius bas an interesting
passage. That writer relates that on one occasion the Tripolitan chiefs came to Belisarius,
according to their ancient custom, to be connrmed in their positions, and to receive
thé official Insignia–rà ~<.)~~<tT<t T~; o~?. These marks of office consisted of :–
A silver-gilt sceptre (.~f~Mo< Te n~'yucS ~<tTaxtY/)f<r<B/te)'))).
2. A silver-tissùe skull cap (~!Xo; <~yM)oC!) with silver fillets.
3. A white robe, fastening at the shoulder with a golden buck!e.
4. A white decorated tunic.
S. A pair of gilded sandals.
0!der marks of digni:y than these were the ostrich-piume or birds* wings and the long
ornamented robe which à consensus of the monumental evidence and a Rùmannotice~
show to have been marks of rank. Tattooing also, and the wearing of ceremonial tails, as
wU! appear later, served to distinguish the Libyan ruters from their subjects. As has
been pointed out above, the wives of great chiefs were sometimes dignified with mascu-
line attire.
This isparaUeted int*r'eoseofthencgrotr!bmaf!Ms<:enon[hemonq!nents,LD,!ii.p). 07,wherethe
1

great chiefwear! two fcatheri, his futtowers one each. Cf. W. M. Mt)!)er,
2 Cf. Eustathjus, ad ~'My~~ the Nasamones said
~M/Mrf~,
derive their ~t
vo). )i, p. m.1.
~o'tra~ros
where
Herodotus iv. t; 200, are to name Tt~o?
)~, )6~, )68. Herodotus (iv. t55) says that in the Libyan longue the wor<)~t!TTo! s!gn!HM"a
king." Cf. Hesychius, «' fAr< which cannot, however, be regarded aa independent efidence and Acesander, De C~
discussed word is unknown. Pliny viii. ~o C<r<;mo)!<eo! f.
f,r~. 5 in f//G=Mo/. <'x ~*Mt/. /')f/ iv. l, A~SM! ~a~)j8NTTm)S Tots ~<Mrt~t~ Atyot<rtf The origin of thi) much
Dicdorua Sic. iii. ~.9. g.
Procopius, D< Mo ~SMM ii.
~Cor!ppu9,y~333:J'Meh,Af.f/~
to. < Mc)a i. 8. 7
"Procopim.ii.D.
J. Partech, Z)M Ffy-j~,
"<i.
f~ p. t;.
M/r< p. )!Q
vol. i). p. ~S~ trït~K ~ofTf~

.); <
f<'&~<
cf. Eustathius,ad DM~w /<y. !0~, and Dio Chfysostbmus, Qrat. 7', D~ C~erM C'«//«,
Ttt!: ~t~N~<t!s <M, &r!rt~ N«<rt!~M~s
where [hcre seems to bc a distinction betwich a warrior of the cotnmon sort and a plumed chicftain
~M!M<)m<MA~/MM~.f~r~ iv. 07~ (fMMy«M ~<« .),
and vit. ~}
and–in rcference to the gen:ra)Nasamon!an custom–W<vi.;)0,~MmM/«t~/M.
Mela i. 8 ~n~f'M M~
~&,MX~
(.
Cf. Cofippt)', y~t.!?~ !v. 907

(. ?*<~r~ de
/MHM/M .);
 The ancient évidence suggests that the Libyan chieftainship was often, if not
regularly, associated with the priesthood. tn the Dabtah Stela, a document of the
XXHIrd Dynasty, recording à d?,spute in connection with a well among the haIf-Egyptian-
ized Libyans of the oasis, is mentioned the son of the chief of the Me(shwesh);
chief of a district; prophetofHathor; prophetofSutckh; Wayheset. The
prophet and chief
same Wayheset is more briefly termed in thé same inscription the
Wayheset," or
simply "thé chie(, Wayheset." 3 That something of the sacred char-
acter of the priest-king may be manitested in the Adyrmachid ~e// cuissage
bas been
already pointed out. A more certain indication of the union of saCMd and temporal
duties in the person of the chief is seen in the account given by Silius Italiens ofthe
~arrior-priest Nab!s, a Libyan in thé army of Hannibal. Nabis is described a~ an
Ammonian chief, splendidiy armed, who, fce!ing himself under the protection of
Amon, rides feadeSsIy through the thick of battle, shouting the name of his god.
From his helm depend the sacred fillets of Amon, and his dress, of which an attempt
is made to despoil him at his death, is that of a priest.~ Ietnas, a Syrtîc prince who
ngures in the y~~a~f of Corippus,~ a!so appears as a 6ghting chief and as a priest. The
leader, around whom the Berbers of thé Aures rallied to withstand the Arabs, was the
quéen-priestess el-Kahinah and although this and the evidence already cited are in-
sunjcientto prove dennitety that any sacred offices were regularly attached te the
chieftainship, the other instances in which such was the case encourage thé betiefthat
t~e Libyan kings had religious'as well as secular duties.
Little isknown of the way in which the conduct of the rulers was ordered so as to
difïerentiate It from that of the simple tribesmen. Dôubdess many little. observances and
r~straints marked thé chief as clearly as did his material jfnsignia. One curious restriction
observed by the Nùmidian chieftains is mentioned by a Roman writer, who says that the
native kings were not allowed to be kissed by any of their subjects because by this the
dignity of thé ruler would have been impaired.~
ïn CQttc!usion of thisbrief outtine of thé sociology and government of the Eastern
~ibyans, it may be said that thé ancient institutions probably differed in no vital way
~-om thoseof the more primitive Berber tribes ofthe présent day. Of course among thé
sfdentary tribes law and order, prevailed to a greater extent than among those people
aiwaysready for rapine and rapid incursions, accustomed to Uve by ptunder and blood-
s~ed, who dweit in thé interior and it must not be forgotten that, at the time of thé
invasions, thé powerofamalgamation among those Libyans who dwelt within striking

'J.
distance ofEgyptshoweditsetftObeofa veryfbrmidaMenature.
'EARiv.§7!6. !BARii%§7!7. spARiv.~8. 'S!)!us!M!!cu~v.6~
< Corippùs, yo~BMii. <09. iv. 667 it38,~o/<<<, J. Parbch,< p. );, notices this indication oftheocracy,
buthasnotbroughtothetevidenc~tobearontheqNestion.
From ~/WM.
~<'r<fr.voi.i.pp..t''<},<8.
~rt~M~.
!bn ~)~n, A'<~ 'r, tMns. vo).
j'
i. pp. t~, ~o; H. Fourne), Les

<j~/e<
Va)enut
~~<. ()a~~
Maximus ii. 6. '7:
<<!
? ye~
~/t< ~'A~ f)~~<t~,
/'M'Mm< ~m/« fn~ fMjx~~M,
~«< t!«M ~~A JM< M/S
[V~~M'M, tw«<f« ~w
~f«M
~xfM~ ~AmintanusMMCtttinnstfviii.t. Said of the Auscriani,

SNNtit~L. L.~
 CHAPTER VI

DRESS AND ORNAMENTATION

THE Eastcrn Libyan$ m générât appear to have been but scantily clad and just as in
Arabia even the kings of the Nabataeans wore only sandals and a purple loin-cloth,l so
in North Africa the majority of the inhabitants wore, even in Roman times, so few
clothes as to justify the phrases /w~' G~r~<~A~~ and Nasamon NM~~ of thé'
poet Lucan. The Byzantine general Solomon, exhorting his troops, emphasized
the fact that the Africans were practically naked and Procoplus remarks that the
Libyan dress consisted of but one rough tunic which thé wearer did not change witbin
the year.~ Yet snch as it was, perhaps because of its very scantiness, to ~jreign eyes the
African costume was distinctive. Herodotus, writing of the Adyrmachidae, observes
that whereas they resembled the Egyptians in their manners, they wore thé dress of thé
Hbyans.~
The simplest cloth garrnent of thé tribesmen, though by no means the commonest,
was the kilt, which in Egyptian representations is seen as early as the
XVIIIth Dynasty.~
A modern writer,~ to be sure, has cited as an early examp!e of thé Libyan kilt a proto-
dynastie ivory carving, which he adduces as évidence indicating the Libyan origin of the
Egyptian waist-cloth but as the ivory in question represents not a Libyan but an
Asiatic this conclusion cannot be accepted. The best representationsare those of thé
faïence tiles from Medïnet Habu (XXth Dynasty) shown in theFrontispiece. Thé
Libyan loin-cloth, from these representations, appears as a very simple kilt girdcd

Str~boxn.p.~X~
above the waist and hanging to a little above the knec. A detail in thé Thothtpes IV.

Knc-dw<:))<:rs..
Lacan iv. )3~

')).6.
cf. Luchn, Pc .P~<§ z, where the Garamantes are dcscr!be4 as an ~)e, ~<-f~</ tdbç of
'Lacan xi, ~:$. <Proeop!M,/)c~<'&<t'.
*Her«Jotu9!y.)68,

(~
The ivory, which Pe[r!< &r.
For another error of )d<:t)tin:a[ton, Ke idem,
'~TeHet-Amarnatomb:.
sW.M.F.Pe[f!<7'e~,Parti.p.t)~.andP).)fV)i.<tg.~o=P).Xit.Figs.l!,t3..
M)h a "g~m!ng-r<ie<i," bear: an Aaiat!c ethnie in architic hierogtypha.
/M, A'~M, C~, pl. xix. <g..), !t C. Serg:
p. 77, ~g. 2), however, who haa made the grossestof thèse ntisM~ea–he h~ feprod~eed as
typîc'tt Syrian head.
"Tamahu Ltbyan <
 1

panet, given in Fig. ~t, shows th~t thc kilt, at te~st when worn with the~f/~r~, wass
openin front.
Thé long robs,'which first appears in New Empire times, though not worn by thé
majority of the Libyans, was at least more common
than the kilt. From thé statement of Mcta/ ahd ffûtn
il consensus of the monumental evidence,!t '$ clear that
the long robe was a mark of dignity and fank and it
such'that ~ng robes, fastened the shoulders
was as at
tv!th golden clasps, were given out to the Libyan
princes by the Byzantines, when the former received
their annual confirmation in omce. The Libyan robe
ls mentioned by Strabo, Who describes it as loose and fj
~vithwideborder& and in !ate Roman timesMauri J
of Corippus are mentioned as wearing the coloured jj~
tunica or the ~~j~ Thé eut of these robes, as
~éen in the Egyptian representattdns, was obviousty ¡",
derived from the skin cloaks which were worn in
eîassical times. Thé cloth robe was essentiaUy an
~tongated pièce of stuff, eut wlder at the top than at
thé bottom, so as to Md arpund the shoulders (Fig. to, Pl. II. Fig. 3, and Pl. HL).
The prolongea corners (tabs) of the upper part werê often knotted across the chest as
would have been the fore-paws in tm case of a skin garmcnt.~ A more e!aborate form
pad
a rudimentary sleeve, and was ciasped across oneshoutder~~seenin the casecf
~he four Libyans in the painting from thé ton~b of Seti I. (Plate ÏM.).
The robes wereregutarly open from top to bottom, and ungirt,~ the belt of the
~heath or of the kilt being tnside. The stuffs of which'the robes were made were
~ometimes ornamented with coloured designs (Frontis. and Plate III.)/ and were further
'iecorated with applied pièces sewn to thé garment, generally in the corners (Plate 11!
B, D), or at thé wa;st (Ptate HI., B, C, and thé cross on thç robe of D). The robes
were regularly bordered, as Strabo remarked, though the Pgyptian notices show no border,
whtchcouldbecalled"wide"msomeçasestheywercî)-inged(cf.Figs. tï and 12).
In late tmies the tunic seems to hâve becn popu!ar among the more CtviUzed
Libyans. Two warnors on'a monument of late date, now in Constantinople, are seen

Meh i. X ~M~j
a Corippus, y~w.'ii.
M~H M&NM~

<Conppus,y~MMU.<3t''S'(~
t~o
dtt.)
etc.
Vi). )~ f~. i cf. Procopias, De M'e ~)!~(e i Strabo tvii. p. SzS.
6.

°Cf.theL!byanf~)enb<Math~~ qf the Qre~IChief, in Piste 1V,

° C~. SiHoa tta!!<:ut ~8 A!; however, thc poetitthefe spe!t):ing of the princes!) AabyM, he has prob~My
in mind the typicat AmMon.oft)a~ic ~rt.
Cf. dsô thé Libyan captiM ahown in t. Rosellini, MM~wf, ';o). ii. p. 9t (second throne from thc tcft).
À robe bordered Nith ftye))o\t stripe (tme Unes in red ftnd btuc) is shown in J. F. C))ampo))ion, Af<M<tf~
;vo).~PL)7(tnofaHenLibyah).
1'
 wearing garments of this sort--a kind of s!eeve!ess shirt be!ted in at thé wà)st (Fig. t g).
Two small Libyco-Roman reliefs of Christian times, discovered by Barth at Shabet
Umm ft-U~ab, show in one cace two date-gath6fers who are wearing tunics with

steeves or hatf-steeves (Fig. t~.), while in another two meft offank (?) seen s!tt!ng in
a small boat, enveloped in long cloaks (Fig. t~). These last examples, however, betray
1
too strong a foreign J'I III
influenceto be regarded<IIas
good evidence on African costume.
The question arises as to whence were
derived the stufïs of the Libyan chieftains'
robes. Cloth of good quality was not at any
time common throughout Eastern Libya, as
is proyed. by the extensive use of skin gar-
ments. Parts of the country, it is true, have
exported' as weU as importa cloth fabrics
ancient!y and m mediaëvat timcs; but it i$
not easy to believe that the nowered and
decorated robes worn by the chiefs were made
by a pepptewho, to a great extent, used !eathcr
tbr their garments, and whç
for whq have_ not, in
many localities, corne even to this day to employ the shuttle in weaving.~ If thé
Egyptiân repr~gentations may hère be trustcd in detail, tt might be inferred frotnthem
that the cloch-stufïs were obtained from the same quarter as that from which thé
1 Vopiscus, ~M« );i)., tf. Solinus xxix. For thé dy«t <)<ths of Men!n!< Me thé A~. /~r. Ow'
h;ii. cf. Pliny, //M/. Nat. ix. )6.
Silks and brocadc! were b.rought to Tripolitana from Italy in mediaeval timct, while wool:ens were sent back in
etchange(E.d<;hrrimau~ie,~M/<r~<?V~<«/w,pp.)29,)}t~.).'
Cf. Macîver and Wilkin, ~« p. 69 n.
~-< <
ë
~-<
s

M
 1
Ëastern Libyans seem to hâve received their metat weapons–viz. from thé Sherdett,
In this connection it :s interésting to note thé s!mt~nty betw<cn one of the dessgns
scen on thé robes, and t.iat incised upon a
fragment of Sardinian pottery, as shown
vin

:[t Fig. 16~. The histoncât relations between thé Shërdeh iind thé Libyans, and
tt)e g<:ogf.tpht<:al Rfoximity of the twci peoples, make it at least possib!e that thé
tbrmer suppUed thé tatter with theîr better teXtttes.~
Mention has been made above of thé resetn-
b]ance of the long robe to a garment made of the
undressed skin of an animal. That skins were
largely used for cîothing is supported by ample
tcsttmony. Strabo remarks of thé North Africans
in général that "they wear the skins of Hons,
pimthers, ahd bears, and sleep in them
and that the Libyan
"c!oak is a skin whîch serves also ~s a brea$tp!a~a This
last !aststatementrccat!sthe!tne!!OfLucani:–
~r
~M~r~tf i:'mK/~f</«f~ non ff~
~jh'~Mf t'rNfM /<m <y<r(r< /fWft.~

Me!9, hàvingmendoned that thé notables wear the .M~,adds

that the other Libyans of the intenor go clad in the sk!ns of wild
ojrdomcst!canimals/ TheMacaeregu!ar!yworCgoat-s!dn$:–
.AMM<'rM~~M~f~M~r<
~Nff~~
The same writer describësa typipal Marmarid as being clad in skins.~ Finally,
W. M. Mu))er,

StMbo~yii.p.St!
sLucan iv.66s
~A~<
J~
af,

tastinghisctoakovefthëbeMt'thead.
*Me)s i, 8, cf. ~ippoçratM,
.wt<),g'9't~'9)i!n!
~S'ust~)!cM!Ïi.t76~
"“
~MMf~, vo). p. )t<, state* bis belief in thé Libyah or!gm of the thiefs' robes.
M~iaattcMteoi'rMti't~oHngthattheytKnott-Esypt'

!). p.")~,
'r,:
cf. Pliny viii. tS, where'a Gaet<tt!an shepher~ s~to
have stoppa t <:h<rgws )'o« by

<<<'o~ ahd Ae!i~,

<<7~-
Hirl. JV~. ~v. t6, for

R ––
it may bc mentioned that the Libyan contingent in the~army of Xerxes wére dressed
in teather.~ The cut of these skin or leather ga.-ments dpubttess varied thé undressed
skin was probably merely hung from the neck, as amon~ the Bedawîn of Sinai at thé
work~ up into some sort of shirt
présent ,time 2 the drcssed hides were probably,
orjacket,suchasthoseusedamongthelmushaghto-day.~
The use of robes, kilts, jackets, etc., thus far described !n this chapter, w'iile broadly
diffiased among the ancient North Afncan peoples, cannot be regarded.as the most
characteristic feature of their dress. The garment wh~ch deserves that tit!e is thé
protective sheath for thé generative organs, cpnvenientty known to archaeotôg!sts as
thé/K~<M~,a!readyseverattîntes mentioned.
Sheaths of this sort are not peculiar to any one peop~e or period. Similar protec-
tions were worn in Minoan Crète,* and are used tô-day in South Africa.~ ïn predynastic

supposed that the word ~f)~

and protodynastic Egypt the~M/'f~~f was known/ tho~gh it was hot, as a tecent
writer has stated,7 a national garment in universal use. !t has been by some
fou~ occasionally in New
Empire texts, was the Egyptian désignation for these sheaths but thé word reaUy
mcans "ibresk!n," or "phallus with a foreskin," as Breàsted has pointed out.~
The earliest instance of the use of the sheath àmong historic Libyans is found in
the Sa-hu-re and Ne-user-re reliefs cf the Vth Dynasty. By classical times thé
~t'~M~y~f scems to have been largely succeeded by some less nottC~aMe ~orm pf
cov~ring, since thé Greek and Roman writers, who woutd hâve been impresfed by its
peculiarity, make no mention of it.
The form of thé sheath, as shown in thc Ne-user-re reliefs, is given in FIg. !y.
Like the archaic Egyptian ones (Fig. !8 ~), thé pfotectivecase dependsfroni a J
girdle, the manner in which the ûrgaa w~ insetted being clearly seen in thé figure.
Fig. to shows a similar sheath worn by one of thé Ne-user-re captives, whichdi~rs
from the preceding bylts being, passed up under thé belt,instcadoffaHihgoutsIdeof
it. In the New Empire, the ~w~isfeguiarly~fcpf~sented ashaving beenpassêd
up under the girdle, as in Figs. 26, 2l, 22. Onîy occasionally in the New Empire
Herodotusvii.yt.
C. M. Doaghty, ~'«~w ~r<~M,vo). i. p. 6~. ~fhe StMi Be~w! accordir-g M &oughty,~Mf"g~etiç
or oth~r skins hanging from the neck, which," a? they will, "they sh!f~)'~Mn<ïthetr bod~s ~s the ~in~ blow?."
G. F. Lyon, T'fwm'A M A~r? ~M, p. <!o. "A teathern kaftanis abo much worn, of their [~< (he

R. Dussaud, ~ff C/f~fo~MM /r~M<< ~j'

Imushagh] own mMM&çture, ~s are leather shirts of thé ttfins of <ntet6pes, ~ery heat)y Sëwed and we!) prepatred." For
sMt)!tshirt,~e/&'<p)atefacingp.tto.
!8, R. M. Burrows, Thp DM~~r~ ,Crw, pht~~
fig.
(~M~.), A (top fcpstcr). Cf. the ofthe KatH~. See W. M. Mj")!er, y<)<. !)/p. ftt, n<)te f,
J. Ë. QuibeU, ~r~f~ P~rt).PhteY))). iig.t-Pt.tte X. F!g. Piate yii). Sg. ~-PtaM Vn. ~~tch,
ï, !ow~

~L.
régler, nght-PiaM X. Fig. t. W. M. F. Petne, .P~e/M JP'<)/ PJate~. tewest r~!<tM,~B; Bertih M'tim, ]~0..
);oa~=A. Erman, ,Egyptian Religion, 6g. G. A. Reisner, ~~M/. S«rf~ ~A~~M,'vo!. i. ttitt, p. 6g. ~i grave.
7: f&yM, Pt. 66 b, !0. Cf. a)sû E, Meyer,
G. E. Smith, ?~<'a't< ~/)~~«'f., p. 77
C~f/h'~ ~rr«~, yo), ij part i'. '67 (p. so~
y:
Cf. W. M. Maller, ~!«; e~~er~,
§;87note<;iv.§;
p. ~StC, J. Capart, D/~J ~M ~~f, p. $$. BAR H~
::¡"i:

,;)_('
are there clear cases in which the sheath fall outside the girdte an instance is given
in Fig. 2j, Often, particularly in the representations of the Meshwesh, thé sheaths

carry an ornamental ba!! near the !ower end, giving to them a tasse!!ed appearance,
as in Figs. 2!, 2j, z~. In the last example, the sheath, it may be obsërved, is

secmmgty supported by a batdric. Th!s,if it Is reaUy the case, is a unique instance

it Is more probable that th!s~<w~<w~<' was hetd in place bythe belt,ahd appearsto
~'Ahrge'b~ad?i
 1
dépend from the baidric merely of the ardst's cardcssncss. S!mi!ar!y, from
because
Pis. 23 one might suppose that thc toop of thé gtfdte was feal!y part of thé ~/<H~
which passed down under the bett and was
< < < < < _J.
then tucked up under it. That &uch may
occasionally hâve been the câM MëMS not !m-
probable but in most instances thé loop was
independent of the shcath. Thus, in Ftgs. 2!,
22, 24 are scen clear cxampîcs of the (a&tening
of the shcath quite without any loop; in
Figs. t7 and K) the toop,frcm its charactcr,
is almost surely 'a part of thé belt; and in

the~
Fig. 2$ is shown à loôp (inverted !) without

Fig. 26 shows with great detail a sheath

either Libyan, or very ctpse!y fesembHng the
Libyan. This sheath is h<:re reproduced from
the 6ne XI~th Dynasty statue of a Libyan
divinity discovered at Karnak and now in the
111Vf111tr uww·a.la.u o a az

Çidro Museum. fn cross~ectionthis~'f~~is square, and is kept in

ptacebythegirdie~whtchïsttedûvefitwtthasq knot.
1 Thetypes of~M~~ shown in the 6gures?eemto hâve been
It
",1"'
auvent
auvent of
u"7'
cbmmon to chiefs and tnbesmen, and to al! Libyans alike.

tue Meshwesh
or the ivicsnweoti m
ia me Nev
the
~om an earlier period to tnake Safe
~t "6
bp said that thèse guards with ornamental ends do not appeaf untit thé
~~vy,,r Ernpire, t
an assertion that « they did not exîst
can c.n!y

Empife, thaugh there tS too little evidence extant 1

b~fbre that event. ~t at$o noteworthy that thé younger ma!e children
o~theSa-hu-rerelief (PtateVÎÏ.) donotwearthtsgarment; S.j'
m,e.nt, l'itt,'W,was
",e,a"r"t"h, i.5,"g"a,'r,
.a,.
tnerefbrëprobablyas!gnofadultmanhood.
theréforb probably a ,Sign of adûlt manhood.
Thé matefia!s of wh!ch thèse eoriousgarments were made are
known. That leather was in some cases used early in Egypt is
njot
certain, while m SouthAfricaboth grasses and wood are employed.
~rom thé ~brms of the Libyan sMaths~
~casionalty slightiy âextHe/which suggests. that' the former two
they ~ere

~aterMs, or~e bf them

.1' those ïn

..II.Libyapr tn Ëgypt.at any pew y' ~some c~ses :wÀ~

i~
s~<)w~ tn Ftg. aj is
If
tongttndm~
It :sat!east,certain
that thé c&ses~ërenot, asNavtUeFaË suggestedf2 madg of metal, either
In i'Â' "we, .o..e cotoured. That
th,ésheaths.>"ver~
Æe~l~e.a,nd,wbitç,tb,ball at the end
Cf.P~teJt.F'g. ;oMvrebfohwhere iscteM)yseen tobe quite ittdepenjeMofthe
latter in this instancé~eUÍar.kabl)"~¡~all.'
~<M~f~~A~4~
? E~ NtMUe. F~h'~ '& H. in ~Ï', ~X)t. p.
'1
68. N~He spMb of !.h<:Mhs W“ frw
being painted with the same colours, in concentric c!rc!es.' By their exaggerated
size and semi-ornamental character, these sheaths, it may bc remarked in conclusion,
served, Uke the chastity aprons of the Zulu women, not only to protect the parts
they covered but to emphasize the sex of the wearer as well.
Belts and girdles were, as has been seen, as common as the sheaths they supported.
The phrase ofSitiusttalicus–
7);M M/t7' Zt'~fM~~K/M~
has only a general meaning, signifying among the loose-robed, or lightly-clad, Libyan
pcoples." As seen on the Egyptian monuments, the Libyan girdles were like some
modem polo-belts, eut broader in the back than in the front. Just how they, were
f-istened is not clear but from the frequency with which the loops are represented on
the left thigh of the wearer, it woutd seem that in the majority of cases the bett went

more than once around the waist, the end being then pushed down between the body and
the girdle, and afterward again brought up and tucked in. It is possible that belt,
loop, and sheath were sometimes made in one pièce. In this case the sheath would be first
adjusted, the length of the girdle would be passed under it after going around the waist,
and the loop would then be made as mentioned. Thé matcrial of 'the belts was
probably usually plain leather,3 though this was not thé case with the ornamental betts worn
by chiefs of the Ne-user-re reliefs (Figs. !7 and 10). Here the loop is an ornamental
appendage to the belt, which itself was made seemingly of leathern thongs (Fig. 27, B-B)
laid together, the outside ones (~
a'-a') being larger than any of the others. At equal
distances along this belt, and at right angles to it,'were introduced in trios, little bars of
sheH, ivory, or other material (M- m').
The whole was fastcned in front (Fig. 19)
with some simple sort ofctasp. The loop attached to this belt was apparently ofteather,
either (like the belt itself) of thongs, or (more probaMy) ofacufvedstfiponwhich
thongs (Fig. 28, a-a', a", a"') were sewn, The spacebetween the thongs was covered

?).
with little scales (~ ~), which were perhaps sectors of shell like those found in a
Forexamp)esofcotoured9hcath9,c<t<i'J.F.Champo))ion,~wmW<<f,ctc.yo).i.p)xi.(~«MJc<!<'f)utect
in Mack, red-brown,and ye)[ow), Pl, XY'i. (red, btactf, ycttow), P). xeii, t (grcen !)Kd yeUdwi cf. 1. Ro9e))!n!j ~M~
vot. i. p). txnt.
SitîHsftaticasi!. 56.
Belts of coloured !ea:her are showf) in J.F.Champo)!ion, ~vot.i.ptate xi.,p)ate xvi.,p)ate xcii.~j and
J.P.oieUini,/M.~<.
 x

'> ë
t–<
5

CL<
.0
r*
\Z
ë
M
0
S
 "C Group" grave in Nubia' (Fig. 2~, <!), applied in the manner shown in the sketch
(Fig.29,~).
In passing from the question of belts to that of foot-wear, one remarks that, while on
the Egyptian monuments evcn the sheykhs and em!rs of the Libyans almost invariably
r_
appear bare-footed, £
this 1
seems to be1duc to1the indifférence
1 1"1'-
1 of thé 41

Egyptian artist. On one of Medînet Habu tiles a chieftain is

secn wearing sandals the latchets of which are clearly shown

Memphis
~1'A,I.t"03 .o
(Fig. 30), and it is recorded of Meryey that in his flight from
he left his "sandals
~nm.aaa in
m hastc behind him."2
IJ4~lÇ vcumu mm,
In the previous chaptcr has becn cited the passage of Procopius with regard to the
!h$ignia annually bcstowed by the Byzantine government upon the Libyan notables,
and the fact that g~t sandals were among the gifts has been noted. Corippus speaks
of the native foot-gear as cruda Af<?/M,~ and no doubt this simple for~r) of protection
was widely known. Besides sandals, some
J

ofTI.. 1 1

the Libyans had leg-wrappings, like

1 n

those of the Sardinian peasants of the

present day, made either of leather or
of woo!!en.~
Head-gear was certainly rare among
the Eastern Libyans as a whole, despite
the intensity of the summer suns. The
Libyans of the Egyptian monuments,
especially the Meshwesh, wear sometimes
head-shawls contained by bandeaux or
fillets (cf. Pl. II. Figs. 7, 9), and thé
skull-cap was not unknown, as is proved
by the example worn by the woman of
thé Medînet Habu tiles and the (f)-)
Libyans of the Thothmes IV. panel (Fier.
3t). Perhaps thc hats of the type worn
by the king in the Arcesilatis vase (the
Siïphium-weighing") is African. At
all events it is closely paralleled by the
hats of some of thé modern Imushagh,
which are beaufnuuy woven ot grasses and tt ts not (jreek m type. (The h:u of
Arcesilaus II. is shown m Fig. 32,
a modem North African hat, as worn in the
Sahara, is scen in the same figure, ~.) AIthough no classical notices speak ot Libyan
G. A. Reisncr, op. ~7. vot. i. Plates, Ftatc 70 b, t j.
!n this casc it must bc observcd that the s )e))-sectors were not
app!)'€~ t~ a surface~ but wçrt stmng w'th orhcr bei<ttsf Similar p!i!tc-bc.~s occur in t!)e Hgypt!.tn "Fun-Uri~'cs.
BAR § ;f! s Corippus, y~MAf i~trabo xvii. p. Sjt.
1,
s Silius JtaHcus It!. 280 ~<A~'w~ y~'c
 sun-hats, !t appear~ from a passage !n the yo~w'f that in late times head-c!outs
were
worn. Thèse c!o:hs were tied beneath the t:h!n, ~<7/~ A'/M<

rK-a-
The dress of the Libyan women was as rude as that of the men or even ruder.
Herodotus, after stating his belief that the Aegis and dress of the statues of Athena
were
derived by the Greeks from the Libyans, contmucs
For, except that the garments of the Libyan women are of leather, and their fringes made of
)Mthern thongs instead of serpents, in all else the dress ofboth is exaçtly a)ike.
For the Libyan
women wear over their dress goat-sktns stript of their hair, fringed at their edges, and coloured
with vermi[ion.'
In connection with this passage it may be observed that in some classical

1
*<
sen canons tne rore-tabs ot Athena's r-
repre-
< Aegis
depend from her arms ni a manncr strik!ng!y
paralleled in the woman's figure of the
Ghadames relief (Fig. 33) in other Greek
sculptures and vase-paintings the Aegis ~t!s
toosety over the back and breast.
JL The evidence of the Ghadames relief,
just referred to, also points to the use of a
long single (?) robe, thé details of which
cannot, unfbrtunatety, be made out from the
drawing of Duveyrier.
Apart from the data just presented, the
Egyptian monuments and the Slunt sculptures
give some further information with regard
to Libyan féminine attire,. In the Slunt
,¡ v vm"av
sculptures, though the men
men are
are shown with-
Conppus,y~ji.)~6,viii. <0!. In both passages iti5spok<:nofasa~here!tsortofsh.tw).
*Th!ssuggestsactothundergar,nen[:cf.Strabo,
Herodotus iv. <9~. W. R. Smith (Religion e/ ~<< p. ~37) infers that this thonged skif; garment WM !) sacred
dress, because Herodotus ccmpares it to the ~egis of Athena. This
scems hazardons, since (~ Herodotus is half-suggesl-
ing a Libyan origin for th;: Greek goddess bccause, M/i-r~/M, thc Aegis recalls the drcss of thé Libyan
general use the fringed girdle (thé modern r~/) and (6) because to-day throughout the Sudan and in Nubia women, who in

Lyon, <
common and purely secut~r germent. For the colour cf. J. R. Pacho,
)~;
p. t;; cf. ;W. p.
~y~ ~~j la < thé y~ is a
p. :o. G. F.
and, as an interesting parallel, the "rams* skins dyed red" which covered thé
t,tb<:<'n.i<:]einth<ti)<Jerness(~xvi.)~.).
out any discerntbte sort of dress, the womcn appear wsaring a sifnp!<: skirt or kirtïe
which, confined at thé waist, faits in simple folds to the fcct (Fig. ~). Th!s repré-
sentation belongs to Roman timcs, but in the Ben! t,!asan tomb-paintings the same
earment is seen worn by Libyan women the skirts there shown fait from the wai'.t to
thé ankles, and are so belted in that a sort of <pA~o; or fold is formed Jn front (PL V.
Figs. and 3). The bottom of thc skirt is either scalloped, or else the wavy line along

Ft0.3~.(AfterHa!mann.)

thé bottom is intended to show a vertîcat p!a!t!ng. ïn thé Ben} ~lasan paintings, thé
sk!rtsarecotouredrcd.
1

Since personal ornementation précèdes dress in cultural development, it !s not

surprising to find that whereas thé clothes of the Libyans were of the simplest, they had
evolved a number of such decorations as collars, car-r!ngs, armlets, etc.
The most characteristic Libyan ornaments were the ostrich-plumes, which are
atmost universally worn by the warriors of thé Egyptian rnonuments. When absent, as
so)netlmeshappens,ltis~broneofthree reasons the artist has sacnnccd them to the
exigencies of space they are made impossible by the d!tHctr!ty ofwor!dng in the round
or the subjects of representation are ordinary tribesmen who have no right' to thé
distinction. For a distinction It was, although; to judge from the Ne-user-re and
 $a-hu-re reliefs, one not known in the Otd Empirer A chief, except for thé jRfst two
rf'asons noted above, does not appear without the plume after Middle Empire t!me$
but he might appear with but one <eather (~. PL Il. Fig. 8), even, apparehtty, whe~
thé head pf a gréât confederacy. For in the Merneptah record it is said of Meryey,
after his defeat, that an evit fate removed his plume." The Delta dynasts, also, of
thé Late New Empire are characterized in the Piankhi steta as thé chie& who wore
the feather.3 At Umm Beydah, near Aghurm! (S!w~h Oasis), the prince kneettng
before Amon wears but a single plumer On the other hand, cases occur in whiçh the
wearing of two plumes (Fig. Pl. Ht., etc.) ~gnines that the chief so decorated was
superior in rank to those who wore but O~e each. This is paraHeled amongthe
Sudanese seen on the Egyptian monuments; the more important of thetn wear
each two teathers, wh!te their followers have but one each.~ Just how the Libyan

plumes were fastened in the hair is not clear, but itis probable that thëy were mereîy
stuck in the root of a side-lock." Among the Sudanese the plumes WCfe often held in
pt~ce by a bandeau, and so inserted as.to have their breadth in a Vertical ptane, in contra-
dtstinction to the Libyan fashion of inserting them with thé breadth right and left.
(Cf. Fig.3~vithFig. 36.)
Like most primitive peoples, the Eastern Libyans had ear ornaments, both fings
(f.j. P!s. I., H., VI.) and studs (c~ Pt. H. y, 8) being known. Vàrious types of thé
former, wh!ch were worn atwàys in the lobe cf the ear, and never, as so ~requehtty
W. H. Mt)t)er, ~j~M/ .~M~ff, vo). ii. p. )!; < t. Mu)i<*r rightly :taMt that the pluine h ndt a
tribal distinction but a permo) «ne. Hcfurthcr6ug~eststhateachjfeatherfttheto)[COofat!aintnemy,Mamongthe
Somalis and Gallas. This hardly seems poseible if thé consensus of the monumentalevidence ls taken into eonsideration,
thodgh it h <}ttiM possible that thé plume was thc mark of a tried <!ght!ng-man, tt )s worth notfng th~t the wearing of
feathen was especially associated, in classical opinion, with the N!tsamon<!9.jrh)9pMp)e,wh<'n theytfafe))ed itbfMd,
wort wings ()rT<~a)upnght on the head; a usagewhiçhitinamanner paNt)e)ed bythe AmefindUM of war-bonaets.
~f 0~.
~r~, p. t)6, t. t<, for thé citation from Dio ChtysoMornus, hjfii.} De M~~ vol. ii. p. <S<
(cf.Ea't<thin9«/i!oo). Thewearingoffcatherhead-drcsxsintheMrfyMediterraneaawMnot
Çf. thé Pelesel (Ph!)!~t!nM) of thé New Empire monument,'ahdthe heads of Sardu~ Patef
uncommon.
coins of Sardinia.
!BARiti~§6.o." /BARi~S~ ~'–
<G.S[e)ndor<M~2~~M~~ng.~j(,p.topMg!9tet',tight,t
on the Roman

~A:inthcscenc<hown;Lb,vp).iii.p).))~
Cf. G. A. Re!sn<:r, ~Mf~ ~rffj; vol. i. p. t°. fig. ïQ~grave 7:!SO/ This buria) (a H'omah) had
anumberofostr!ch-p)um<;$thfust!ntothe.hair, °
PLATE V.
 happens m modem Nubia, in thé upper edge, are h€f6 <-6prodHC<dffc.mthcEgypt!an
~nUtn~ts in Fig. 37, c, d, and Thé car-rjng shown in F<g. 37,
ohé act%ually preserved OM a crMium which :s apparently that ofa Libyan tt is of

couper, Th~~ar-ng shown in Fig.jy, cornes from a'proto-Berber grave tn the

Atgerian Sahara, and is hère reproduced because of its ana~gy to Fig. <
<
Ojf the ear-rings seen on the monuments, occurs in the Vth Dynasty and
!ater, whi!c the.others are of thé New Empire. Fig. ~y.fappears to hâve
be~p a simp!e twist of metal, while and have little bars or plates
att~ched to thé bottom. Fig. 38 shows thé car of a Libyan prince from a. reilef
at Beyt et-Wa!y. In this case not onty is there an ear-ring, but aiso a plug
so
ins~rtcd as to change thé shape of thé car. This is the on!y ctear pièce of
évidence in regard to thé use of eàf-studs of this type an~ong the Libyans, but
It is probable that, since thé rashion
was known, it was not uncommôn. Smatt <
studsareapparëntIyindIcatedintheexamp!esgiven,PLH.8.8.,
J Ofthe anecktaces and fo "C
pendants of the Eastern Libyans.the espec!aHy latter were
ch~racteristtc m design. In the Sa-hu-re relief of thé Vth Dynasty bpth men and
wotnen wearcoUars (P!YII.), which appear tp hâve been made up ofstrmgs of~at circular
be~ds such as hâve been fbuhdUt the prbto-Berbergraves of.the A!genan Sahara, and of
tittierosettes(f). In thé Medînet Habu tH€s,t\vo Ltbyansa~-eseenWeartngneckJaces
~~r~'f.), ohé pf which is eiaboratedwith attached bëads. Thé pendints,ofwhtch
mention bas bccn made above, are ~:îdom represented. Thé best e~rîy examp~s, irom

i 'l, 'u.
thé Àbu~rre!tc~, show thé curMus~r~ glYI'll in Fi 19- Il i" 7 and PLVIÏ. tt is
not
pos6tple,so '~nhke are thèse toBgypttan pectofa! ornaments, to
say de6nite!y ho~ they werc made: They are Mcnttca! in
.design with the pectorat ornaments somedmes ~een in repre,
\s6ntât!ons pf thé A6gea~trtbùtarles on thé Egypdan monu-
ments, atid ~et'e probably bf spherical
or tubutar g!azed beads.
Th~ part tttat went around the nectc seems to hâve becn tnade of ~at sheit beadssuch

1 ~M, p). xxv., anJ thereg'~ the cemetcry nNmbcrY~ No nten~on ofthe head
howc~er, appMAiK tte~ext'. A i~ter from A. C. Mace, w'ho assista in th~wo~at DioK)p)!~g!vcsme hitomnfon~
that
t~~ h~'t )s Coptie, betMse thé Mf-.ring s)ight)y suggests < troà. Tht! s)'g~ tvijcnce ~OYerbotne, t thin):, by thé sMe-
)ock(MeFig.)!bntt~ case must rcmain for ever doubtful fOI,lack!>fpropef"ecords,
 as those found in the~'C Group" graves of Middle Empire Nubia, here re.
presented so as to show thé original manncrofstnngmg (Fig. 39). Atbrmofpcctorâ!
o.rnament quite different is shown in Pl. V. 2 this pendant may have beenof nacre or
of metal.
Over the pectorats in the Abusîr relief pass the crossed bands which were so
common a feature of Libyan ornament or dress at aU periods.' The purpose of the
bands was probably to confine a skin cloak~ though they are
often highly ornamental in character, and are frequentîy worn '?
by Libyans who arc otherwise, except for the /<w'f/<w~ quite
nude.
The decorative character of the bands is well seen in the
Ne-user-re reliefs. The details of these bands are shown in Fig.
~o. Two rows of rosettes (a-a,
1
<II
to a leather strip at the cdges, white the middie zone was overtaidwith
1 <)
seem to have been applied
a "tI
oblong plate-bcads (~). Along cither side of the lines of rosettes run leather(?)
series ofje I.J

cords, as in the belts worn by the same princes. What seem to have been ptate-beads
m~y have
been such
nacre oblongs as are shdwn mPig.
These bëads,a!)'eady
mentioned as belonging to the "Pan-Grave" people of Egypt and the "C Croup
of Middle Empire Nubia, would, if applied to a leather
strip, give exactly the effeèt seen in thé Libyan band
(Fig. <).o,~). Ornamental in character are a!so thé
bands worn by the Libyan prince represented in the
temple at Beyt eî-Waty. The bands are therc ofteather (?)
cotoured as seen in Fig. 4. The Egyptian artist seems, hère to hafye copied, or at
least tried to reproduce.an original pair of Libyan bands, for the colour séquence tS
non-Egyptianinçharacter.~
Bracelets were apparëntly not as common among thé Libyans as theyare among
the tmu~hagh <?f modem times.~ It maybe,howeYer,that anctendythcyweremore
common than one would at .first glance suppose, and that they appe~r to hâve been
unusuat ontybecause on the monuments they were drawn in colourswhich hâve not i,
survived. Armillae and bracelets are indicated ori the arms and wrists of thé Libyans f 0
thé Abusîr reliefs, a~d of the Medînet Habu tiles (PI. VII. and Frontir.).
The princes of the Libyans wore, in addition to thé ùsuatorhaments, a cunôus
decoration which was employed as a mark of distinction by the Egyptianktn~also.
This was the animal's tai! which depended from the back of the belt (Figs. ~x and 43).
repcesaittations.r

ir as, that crp$s notcommoa fn ,t

Thts

bands,
1 w. M.
W. M4ller, op, eir. vo).
iVl. Mutter, ü, p.
vol. ii. p, statcs th~t the
a 5,sçates bânds «re
thé cr~s-ban~s are not cotnmcn ~'byan teprMentat'oK:.
üt T,,ibyaq This
error must be due to caretessncss, since about 70 per cent ofthe Libyans represented wear thèse bands.
'uands, Cf. F. D<:ni![er,~<Mje/A~M,fig. ~.S, p. )~,aFuegian wea"n~ a primitife niahtfe of ~eatsHn with efossej
"&
aG. Rocder, verbal communication.
*Thc)rafechar<cter!ttieoftheSahara))Bcrbers,w))09t[achac€remôni.t)imporfance[othem..
 Thé use of the caudifbnh appendagé is found among numerous primitive peoptes,' and
probably in Egypt and Libya had its origin in a desiré to imitate ths aspect of totem
animais, of from an archa'sm Wh'ch
~resëfved thé memory of the time
“
~vhënhuhttng-menworetheskins <~
ôf animals taken in the chase.~
Libyan tail was àpparcntîy

`
']Thë
Spmetimes weighted, and had an

~–
ornamented head that passed. up
~ndefthcbeIt(Fig~t7,t9,4.2).
Thé only mbnumëptatyj~~
évidente of the wearing of leg-rings is afforded by thé
Thothmes IV. pâhe!, Fig. ~t, where one figure wears an anklet on~the right ~bot.
Herodotus states th~t thé women of the Adyrmachtdacwfrë upon each teg a ring of
bronzer With a special, significance, as has been noted, the women of the Gindanes
Woreteathernan~le~s.~ `
It Is to bc presumed that thé Eastern Libyans, at least during thé !ater periods,
triade use of those semi-precious stones which were fbund within their territories, and
which they exported through the medium of thé Phoenicians'and others. No monu-
tpcntal or expHcittcxtual évidence, howeyer, exists in proof of this.

The Libyans indulged to thé full that barbarous foppery in regard to thé dre$s!ng
of thé haïr which is common tô s6 many primitive people. Strabo, speaking of the
~auntanians, makes a remark which the Egyptian monumëntat évidence tcads one. to
~elieve woutd hâve been in' general as applicable to the Eastern Libyans as tô the
yvestern:–

a
'.“.
Tbey [thé Maurusii] bestowcaré to improve their looks by plaiting their hair, trimming their
beards, wearing gotden ornaments, cte~ning theirteeth, and by paring their toails you would rarety
'see them tpueh bne atother its they walk lest they should d'sturb thé arrangement of the'r hair

Thë mode$pfdresstng thehairvanedamongthé digèrent tnbes,a',isc!~af bothfrom

thë monumëhtsand from Herodotus. Thewomen ofthe Adyrmachidae allowed their
pair tô grow long thé Macae têt thetocks "àbout the <.<bwnt)ftheir heads grow long,
~hile theycUp them do$e everywhereelsë/~making crest thë
~amongtheN~g~pfMan!pnr. ~J.Penik<r,c~M.°
W. !~[. MH)!~f, ~< p, 60 j~. i)nd 6g. 6~. MtHejr has! e.trefa))ynotej thé Vftrietie! of thèse tai)s !n Egypt, but
!Mket, perhaps, tû& nicé d!st!nct!<'As. He.âsMrts that thé )<!ngs' Mi)t cti<M whe~ they appear as hunters or as ruter~

~erodqtusiy.'tSS. ~;?~· f'

p.6o,a.t),andbe)i~veSthatthet~p!M)Ë~ypt!MMya)tai)wast~
fagrïu
I ~W.iY.t76. For)eather~m)))ae,tf.G.A.Reisner,Yo).i.p.<ig.3.t.,gr!)Ye7,u~.
<
(1'; 6+)"

''StMMJtVti.p.SzS. °Htrodotusiv.!68.
19·
'.?.iv.t~.
 Machlyes and thé Auseans both wear their hair long, but the Machlyes let it grow
at the back of thé head, while the Auseans have it long in front" the Maxyes "!et
their hair grow tong on thé right side of their heads, and shave it close on the left." 2
It is this last-mentioned manner of wearing the hair that is most frequently seen on thé
Egyptian monuments, which afford the ctearest, as wett as thé earliest, sources on this
question.
The earliest of this monumental évidence comes from the Vth Dynasty. The
Libyans of that period, as represented in the Abusir reliefs, wear their hair in a peculiar
tashion which is not seen afterwards. The hair, both of men and wc.men (Pl. VII.)
hangs below thé nape of the neck behind, and the locks falling from just behind the
ears hang to thé collar-bone. Thé whole is covered with a head-cloth, which is so
turned up over the ~rehead as to give, at thé first hasty glance, thé impression that the
wearers hâve over their brows each a smalt uraeus. The children of thé Abusïr reliefs
wear their hair short, but similarly covered (Pl. VIL).
Thé women of later periods have their hair done in fashions di<îerent from those
of thé men. In some cases, as in one of the Ben! tjasan paintings, the hair was drawn
back from the forehead, and curled at the nape of thé neck (Pl. V.) cr it was simply
drawn back in tressES which feit over the shoulders, the head being covered with
a
smalt cap (~p/). In the Ghadames relief, the two female figures wear their hair
in an extraordinary fashion, which is not quite clear
from the only drawing of the original which wc posse~s.
Apparently, part of the hair lay along the nape of the
neck, while thc rest, passing through a bandeau to which
was
attached a loose head-cloth, hung bushcd out behind
(~'g' 33). T~'s head-dress, it may be remarked, may
possibly have been not a regular one, but one peculiar to
priestesses.
The fashions of wearing the hair among' the men
of the Sa-hu-re reliefs, as has just been said, are not
exactly paralleled in the later periods. In one of the'
Ne-user-re reliefs, however, is sccn that dressing of the
hair which in thé New Empire is usually associated with
the Meshwesh.~ The mass of hair falîs behind the
shoulders, while a broad unplaited tress hangs from
behind the car and in front of the shoulder, over the
pectoral muscles
pectorat (Fig.).
(ftg.).
This closely.resembles the
Thtsc!oselyresemb!esthe
tre.itment of the h~r in the Sa-hu-re reliefs, except that it is not covered, and this
mode is seen in the three New Empire types shown in Figs. 22, z~, 4.3. By far

'HcrodotHsiv.)8o. "iv.)9t;cf.Macrobius,M/Mi.26.
LD ii!. 20), where the inscription miy bc sccn accompanyingthé figure, thc hcad ofwhich it hère shown (fig. 2t).
 PLATE VI.

SMALL GRANITE HEAD IN. CAIRO MUSEUM.

OF~H~MHEB.
F.c. ~.–REUEF FROM THE TOMB
 th6 most usual form of hair-dressing among the, Eastern Libyans ts that of the side-lock,
M shown in Pis. IL, III., IV., etc., or in Figs. !t, !2, This mode is that
aiways associated with the Rebu, and, rightty or wrongly, given by thé Egyptian
arttsts to rnost of~ thé Libyans as well, so that the s!de-!ock bas come generally to be
rcCognized by aH JEgyptologists as a Libyan characteristic. It will be secn from the
tginres that there are several varieties in this style of wearing thë h&ir. The lock
might be a twisted tress (as in PL VI. t, 2), or a plaited braid of several strands (as in
f~/M. A and PL III.), tt might hang behind thé ear (Fig. u), or in front of it (cf.
PL IV.). Aiso the rest of the hair might be treated in one of 'several ways. By one
method, the front of thé hair was brought to thé fbrehead in tresses, white at thé back it
huj~g naturaily (Pts. I;, IV., and Fig. 11) in another the hair was tressed both in front
~n<).bebind
1. (Pi.yî. 2 Fr~
.iu. PI. VL 3),
iq some instances thé tresses being frizzed
0
(PL I!). A double side-lock on..r one
sideoifthe head(Pt.IV.; Cf:P!.I.
~Ftg.o,and,tbrvanânt, ~)isseenon
t~o chièfs m a relief at Karnak, and in
some cases thé side-lock was worn on
both sides of thé head at once (Fig. 4).
In cohnecttôn with this it may be suggested
th~t Libyan, captives pften appear as wear.ing
bu~ one side-lock pn the left or on thé right
sidçofthe head,accbrdmg to which profile is
shown. Incidentally, thé htefogtyph for thé
"~est," iment (Fig. ~4.), the Libyan land, is seemingty a cap (cf. FfM~.), with a
pluime, and two pendants of unequal tength which appear to be side-locks. A parallel
is ~een among thé Imushagh women~ who sometimes braid their hair in two side-locks
!the nght and te& of thë hçad.~ GeheraUy, however, butone.~ide-lock appears to
on
haye been worn, ths haïr
on the side of the head opposite to tt being trimmed at
about thé level of the jaw'(as in Pl. yi. 2). An açtual example of 'the side-lock is
prëservcd bh thé LIbyan (?) cranium (seen in Fig. 4.~), whîch bas atready been men-
t!o~ed {h this chapter as cotning ft'om Diospolis Parva. Thé trcss is there plaited of
three strands, exactly as in a sman unpublished Libyan head reçently (!0!t) exposed
~br~sa!e"mCa!ro.
A dUïercnt and
~–
vcryraresty!cofLibyanha!r-dress!ng remains to be mentioned.
It ~showtt Inone~fthe Bënî paintings (Pt.V,~). The hair isthercseen to
Hasan
be connnedwtthsome sort of bandeau ornamented with what seem to be shells. It
esc&pesfromtheËltetand~rmsàbrushbchmdtheneck~
Ayntar~y~r~o~p! 84.. t
~Shop ofM Kyt!<;M. 'I-in)estpne head in round, provenance unttnotfn. Ht. wM 'a 12 cm.,)ower fece badly
damaged, traces ofredd)shco)our on face.
 The occurrence of thé side-lock among the modem Imushagh women bas been
tncntioncd. J'~win von Uarysawat Ghat three Kel Fadeh meh,"twoofwhom had
long, hanging tresses one even had on each side of thé head
little braidcd tufts which gave him an atmost feminine x air.
Occasioiially side-locks are worn among thé Amaz!gh of the Ma-
roccan R}f, white thé t\t!be or Fuiiths of the Chad-zone sometimes
braid thé hair in a manner which strikingly recalls thé Libyans
of the mo))U)ncnts (Fig. ~6). Lastly, in the Angto-Egypt'an
pudan thé scalp-lock called ~/w, or J~f~ sometimes ~y/<
recaïïs thé Libyan tresses.
Il
Thé reasons for the differences in hair-drejsing among the
Libyans cannot be definitely stated. That in some degrec they
~v
served as tribal marks is clear from Herodotus but other ideas
may also hâve bee associated with the wearing of side-locks. Among the Arabians
of thé Ncgd the men braid their long, manly side-locks with long hair shed in
thé midat, and hanging down at either side in braided horns, simply for reasons of
masculine vanity; but thé ~W7/</w/w, o)'~M~/ of the Sudan, which is worn by many
maL ~~)i!dre!i and adults, is supposed to adorn that part of the head which is first pre-
yentcd during birth (it is commonly situated in the right or left occipito-parietat region),
thé exact locality being carefully recorded by thé midwife présent at the time.
This lock is allowed to grow :–
f. During babyhood as the token of a vow made during pregnancy by the parents that should
it boy be granted to them they will not shave the Gambour until they have sacrifced to some saint,
)''iki, or thé like.
2. t~ the child it is preserved as a convenient handle by which angels may lift him out of harm's
wav in case of necessity.
3. !n youth, it may be retained sotety as an ornament.
!n later life, again, !t may be regrown as a token of a vow on the part of the wearer.
Some carry it as a safeguard against the heat of the sun.
&. Whiie certain Fikis and holy men wear it as a badge of office.'

1have quoted thé above passage M <<w«, believing that in this case, as in so many
others, modern Sudanese practice may aid in explaining ancient Libyan custom. In con-
nection with thé first reason cited above, it may be observed that anciently only men
appear with the side-lock, if one excepts the Abusîr women, who wear male attire, and
whose hair is dressed in the same way as the men's, though not with a true side-lock.
Reasoti second is probably of Moslem growth. With three should be compared thé

K. von Bary, /)f/< ~/)~r/ <y~< <'«r~~ ~xr /'0<~ de G< p. !;7 cf a!so p. )66.
S C. M. Doughty, ~f/f/fr~f in ~r~~M, vol. i. p. 89 cf. vol. i. p. 8;, Zcyd's Jshmae)![e side-locks f!ying bact-
M':irt)s in thc w!nd as h'; rode, This word is probably thé Arabie ~.9, "horn."
R. G. Anderson, AMM/ /'M<t-fj &j//y/e~ A'O, in ~W/f~~f ~j~r~! Z~ro/'w, ?~<f~ Report,
P.3".
 PLAT~ Vi).

~v,~t
UBYANS.~B~NASTY
SUPPLIANT V.
 presmt pr~ctice of thé Negd Arabs noticed by Doughty, and 3!~ thé Fgyptian lock of
youth (Ftg. 4.~). This lock is sec') )t Egyptian sculpture as à mark of infancy, ch!!d-
hoo< or youth, and is therefore often given to tïer-pu-krat (Har'
pocrates), who is tncst frequendy represented as a chtitd; or to
Hon$u, a tunar god who at Thebcs was also wprshtpped under the
R)rm of a'child. Similarly, thé lock of youth is seen m Egyptian M
rcpresentadôns of young princes, etc.1 It may bc that since the
assodat!on of this side-lock with the idea of youthfulness existed in
anci~nt Egypt, and in some cases prevails to-day with regard to the ~}i'~i
~<~w in thé Sudan, that à similar association obtained in Eastern
Ltbya.~ The fburth and fifth rcasOtts given for thé wearing of the
j/w throw no light on the Libyan practice. Thé side-lock of
thé L~L' n~L- secms to have been regularly
~ncient Berbers t <~ worn,~a and so coutd
-t~ not have becn
"redewed,"and tt could never have bcën anyprotecdoti against the sun. The sixth
re~S(Jn, ho~ever,
seem! to have a Libyan parallel for as only chiefs are ibund wearing
thé double side-lock (Pt. L Fig. o), !t is fair!y certain that that ibrm of the tress was
wor)iMa"badgeofoH]ce."
Thé Libyans of the Egyptian monuments, pften appear bearded, in which case thé
bear<}s are slight and neatïy trimmed, recalling thé statement of Strabb c!ted above (Pts.
L, IL, III., etc.). The words
.f~/M<<7.
Or<?wr«,
which SIHus Ïtaticus uses with regard to the
Macae are here tn contfadictiûh to the geographer
monumehta! évidence. Stight
and
a to thé mous-
Sternum taches also worn (cf. jFro~ Pl. 1Ï.
t~N~d t.FPl. III;,were
etc.), as !s tcst!6ed bythe Egyptian repre-
sentatior's.

The best,'early évidence ôfLibys.ntattoo!ng!s

Lower that afïorded byoneofthe pa!ntingsat Tell et-

-t~
tj,
Abdomen~ Amarha (FIg. 4.8).jj'y thé XIXth Dynasty represen-
tation of Libyan ch)€n$ tH thé t<)mb pf Sett t.

Habtt(F~). ~-–––T.0-
(Pt, ÏIÏ.), and by th~ g!9?ed ti!es of Medînet
The Tell el-Âmarna Captive isachie~ as !sshown by his wearing s.

'iOntheEgyptian~ndno~gyptHrt~msofthMeMeNMcf.~W~
to ~Lucian(N~i~iglt~ltr) M. Mullcr, ,ien and ~urDpayp. a98.
~j'Âccordingto
a ^i~ccording LucMn a
(JV~~) ait youths.,pf good b!rthwoMth<i
pgyptian yout)'«)fgocj
aai Egypt!'n th)~tthss
birçh wore thé thick t~ss ~ntÏt théy had fetchcj
untî! theyhad tèàchcd n~n-
man:
h<)oj--L~prat:t!<:ewh!chhe<'<'tt'itstsw!theM)yAtt!ccuatoat.

T
S lOMMiôna) Ëgypt~n r~p-esent~tiôtts ofWe~Mrners <Wearihg any form of side-lock exist front thé time of thée
Gebe)<!yare)ie~to thé New F.nipire.'Jn these tassa, ho'MVer, thé peop!e representedwcar thé Egyptian head-drcss af thé
period,on<ceout!tof(he:))di8ereneeofthe~mit.* 'SitiosMcU~n.t~-S.
two feathers. On his right shoulder is a simple design–a double wavy or serrated line
and four dots. On his breast and abdomen are six lozenges in a vertical row, below
which, and also vertically placed in a serrated line, are then four more lozenges.. This
tattooing is a little different in character from that of thé other Libyans whose orna-
mentation is described below. Upon examination of the poftt-MtS of the Temebu
chieftains shown !n thé tomb of Seti I. (PI. I!I.) it will be seen that ait four of thé
Libyan leaders are ornamented with marks of a dark colour on the legs and arms. AU
have in common an elongated, lozenge-like device above the instep of each foot, thé
points of each lozenge being the ankle-bones. In other respects there is a general
resemblance in the style of their tattooing.
In another painting (Fig. 4:0) a Libyan (Rebu) chief is shown, followed by a sword-
L- -t-
bearer, an archer, and t-'L- )~
.L~ bears no arms, and
--J a tribesman who
who is, except for a single plume and the ~w~M~, unclad.
It is important to note that in this instance only the chief
himself, whose decorations are very similar to those of the
TcmebuofthetombofSetiï.,istattooed.
The three coloured faience tiles from' Medînet Habu
(F~o/?~M.) show two bearded Libyan captives who by their
rich apparel are clcarly chiefs, although, owing to the
position thcy are designed to fill, the artist hâ$ had to omit
the double plume in order to préservethé isocephalyof the
ngures in the frieze where they
.< n
originally belonged.
< < T~ chieftains
Both < A are tattooed, butL
thé only marks on the third figure, a woman, are three horizontal strokes at the nave!,
here plainty intendec. to represent the abdominal creases found in many mature women.
In adducing these tiles as évidence for tattooing, one must add that not only thé marks
uppn the woman but others secn on the two men are not tattooing at all. Thus <! !n
(F.) the chief's eo!!itf and sandal-ties are represented !n the same dark-brown pigtnent
that serves to show his tattooing thé three marks across his fight w:ist represent a
bracelet. In (fro/~M.) are seen a triple collar, two armiUae (left biceps), and a bracelet
(îeftwrist). The other marks are designs tattooed 1 '.1pon the chiefs'bdd!es.
In regard to these représentations, it is ~rstworthy of remark that oniy the chiefs
are tattooed; thé followers of thé Libyan leader m Fig. ~o~ and the v/oman of
Mcdînet Habu, are without ornàmcnts of this sort. This suggests (t<) that tattooing was
in use among thé chiefs and not among thé tribesmen and (~) that it was employed by
the men, and not by thé women, ofthe teadefs* faciès. If this wasfeaUythe state of
an~drs it, stands in sharp contradistinction to modem practice, as seen,fbr example, among
thé Kabyles and certain tribes ofMarocco. Thé mën of thc former tattoD on!y for pro-

-r, 'I\)\i_f'
phylactic reasons thé bettef sort among them not'at aU.~ 'Amongthe latter thé women
Orpa!~t:<:d. 'Thc~nrksarcth''onghoutspokenofa9"tattoo!ng"~orthereasonsg!veobeïow..
'!H.~ti5gerbeir,t~«<p.68.
habitually practise tattooing/ and etsewhere in North Africa tattooing is practised by
Berber peoples, and without regard to rank or sex.~ A parallel to what ~ppears to hâve
been the early Libyan castom ic, however, mentipned by Herodotus, who says that
among certain Thraçian tribes tattooing was cstcemed as a mark of noble birth, and that
a lack of it was a sig~ of inferior origine
Thé units of design employed in ancien Libyan tattooing arc so simpte that it is
dai,ige, rous to try, as has been don9/ to feïate them to extra-African origins. In some
ca~s it is even doubtfui whether they may not be due merely to the imagination of the
Pgyptian artist, and onîy one or two éléments can truly be said to be highly specialized.
One of thèse is the rectangular symbot which has been identined with that of the Saitic
go~dess Neith, and its occurrence merits carefui consideration, both becanse it has been
ad~uced as evidence m connection with Libyan religion, and further because of the light
it'throws on the reasons for tattoo-
!n~ among the LIbyans. It is seen
on one of the
c~efs in the fbrtn
sh~wn in Fig. So, a on three in
thé form (once wlthout thé
upber antennae-like projections) 1
an<t once as given in c. The allied
fbtms < < and
&il" .& f
also occur.
Tt~ere can be no doubt that this highly specialized emblëm is a truly Libyan one,
"11

dépite the ingenic.us conjecture of Lefebure that the mark is' a brand put upon
captives who were to be given as servants to the goddess of Sais. For the Egyptian
text~ Lefëbùre bas adduced to support his argument relates oniy to captives as being
britndedwith the name of a king, and it is hardly crédible, evensupposing that they
we~e sometimes branded wtth thé name of a d<:tty/ that among all the foreign princes
represented none should display thé name of Amon, the chief divinity of thé Egyptians
at thé time of the Libyan invasions of Seti I., Merneptah, and Ra,meses III. Further-
more, !t would, in this case, be surprising that thé symbol of a Pcita goddess,
and no
bt~er, should
occur on monuments aU coMtng from near Thebes, the chief seatof
Af~on, and oniy on Ubyan,tothe exclusion'of Asiatic, captives.
The fact that there is no proof that the tattoo-marks here discussed were brands
applied to captive servants of Neith docs not, however, preclùde thé possibility that thé
syùibol seen on the Libyan prisoners is that of 'the goddess. Thé archaic form ofthe
J.i /p.t~. °
>
H.BM!n,<tw&<<'<M'W&~<?'
~He[odoM!6:cf.,fwS</th!ct3M9pu'g,Ckarchu!ofSo!),f~,8 in
0~ xA/ ~<'A«'<~ ~~«~ M~M
J,6F)fMbyH.BragMh,<MM~&
L. Beftho)on, du nord

In havtgtve~ to them [jf.

the Papyrus Harris. BAR if. § ~o;, the King esys (h~ captives] c.ipt.):nsofatchcrs, and
their wiv<;s and the!f chttdrcn were made
ch~f men and made into slaves, tmpressed with iny name
tnbes, branded
of the
Uk~wise." In note~, ~/w. Breastedshows that the5c capt!ve5g!ven te A<t)on probably served in part as temple neatherds.
Refugeesatsomesactedasy!un)s)nÂrab!abecame!€po~Aotandwe~with sa¿red,marks. W R, Smith,
jR~Mf~P. '~S.n'ote.,
h!erogtyph,' as scen in Fig. ~t, «, is practically identical with thé tattoo-mark shown in
Fig. ~o, while Fig. ~o, e, is tike it, savc for the lack of the "antcnnae" at the ends
of thé rectangle. To the !ater form of the hieroglyph, Fig.
(which came eventually to be written as in c), thé tattpq-marks in Fig.
So, and c, correspond exacdy. Fig. ~6,~ lacks :he "antennae."
Thé marks, Fig. ~o, f/, f, y, may be variants, e!the:' accidentât or
significant, of the hieroglyph but there can be no reasonaMe doubt
that the marks in Fig. So, <?, ~,and c, are the symbol itsetf,both
in. its archaic (Fig. a) and New Empire (Fig. ~t, f) fbrms. Thèse tdentitîes
throw light on the reason of the practiceof tattooing among the Libyans. It has been
shown that the evidence at present avai!ab!e points to the fact that Libyan tattooing
was anciently a prerogative of (mâle) chieftains, and the common emptoyment of this
symbol indicates furthe/more that it may hâve served to show that the wearers w~ere
in some special manner underthe protection or, or affiliated to, thé Libyan-Egyptiah
goddess..
Thé other units of design were very simple they are coitected in Fig. j;2, and
maybechâractenzedàstypicànyneollthic.
Of the methojs of tattooing, no évidence !spre-
served indeed, wh~t has for convenience been so termed
up to this point may have been mere painttng. Thé
Gyzant€$ painted themselves with red aU over thOf
hodtes thé Maxyes smeared themselves liberalîy with
red pamt.~ The character of the Libyan design how-
ever, and the practice in ancient Egypt and !n modem ]~ôrth Atrica ofsubcutaneous

tattoolng!n the proper sensé.

't-
tattooing, encourage the beHefthat the sk!n décorations recorded On thé monuments were

It appears from the Egyptian records thatwhilecircumctsionwaspracti~dbythc

Sherden and other d!ies of the Libyans, they wefe not themselves given tp this'
mutihtion.~ This is ma ~ay con6fm$d at a later p~nod by thé statemehts t'f
Herodotus. He attributes thé ongin ofthe praçtice to thé Egypttans~ofwhcfmhe
remarks that they prefsrred to bc c!ean}y rather than unmutitated~ ~e
include the Libyans among those;peoples whbtn he enumerates as Qbserv!ng cir~u~~
~sto~/aRd. oA~
Aethiopia.' That he~
c!s:on, though he correct!y says that .was an Egypttari
undoubtedty of vcry ancient date m
with othcr Gfeek wnters ahd once or twicc w!th himse!~ çôhfctsing th~ Âe~

s
D. Ma'~t,
/iy.
~Herodotusii.~6.
~~C~~ ~&
.i).
~BARn~§'s87anaho<e~s'M,!Y.§ '7,
S
p;'79'theor!p)t'pft~signi5obscure/ y¢ r;
'u,0t. CE aliai~'
'?''L
 with thé Libyans, is ctear not only from thé XÏXth ànd XXth Dynasty tcstimony, but
'aH~ ffoNt thâtOf thé PIankht stela, The Aethiopian Ptànkhi, having ~nbdued thë Delta
dynasts, denied them cntrahee to his présence because they were eaters of an AettuopiMt
taboo atnmal–the ~sh–ahd.apparently.bccaHsetheywere uncircumcised.' Oniy
N~!pt waS pcrmitted to entei' the palace of Piankhi, a favour which waà gfantcd him

i'
bepause bf his position at thé héad of thé Dynasts and perhaps because, in conformity
withËgyptiah usage, hëhadbeen"madecircumcised."

l.
i',
BAR!v.§88t,ttote~.J
 CHAPTER VI!
MATERIAL CULTC~E AND ART

THE Use o/'M'j.–It has been tacitlyassumed by many wr~ers that the ancïeht
Libyans of the time of the invasions were in a fairtyadvancedstatecfcultute because
they had arms and utensils of metal. This is a question which needs careful examina-
t!on, since it has a profound bearing on Libyan civilizatipn, and because it isofdeep
historicalsignincance.
No doubt to some extent the Eastern Libyans were
users of metals. In thé lists of property lost to the
victorious Egyptians by thé emîr Meryey, mention is
made of his silver, his gold, and his vëssets of bronze
and the Egyptians took also as bobty over nine thousand
"copper swords of thé Meshwesh," "silver drinki~g
vessets, &nd "knives.4 In the hstôf Libyah spoil
taken by Rameseg 111. are itemized :-–
.l<;(-x)
SwoK!sof(!veeubit!i
Swordsofthreecubits.t2~ b

These notices receivecon6rmationAom an Egyptian

representMtionof thé métal vases of the Libyans (Fig. ~)~
and from the classical notices ofLibyanswords.'
It would, however, be wrong to infer from this
~full metal age." They were, in fact,mctal-usersonlyby
<-
..<i–t-i.j~-t .<t.t
evidence that the EastefnLibyahswe''e as a whole i~ a
~rtheir~
accident,
metals anciently, as to-day, came to them fromwithout.~ Thé metal vases of thé princes
betray by their tbrms their j!bretgnor!gin, and the
lohgswords ofthesoldtery were
'<" ` 'BAR~
tBAR!!i,g$8~.
loc. cit.
'BARiv.§t)f..
4 BAR, and
~BARiii.g;
rote b. These"!tnive~"havethedetertninM'YC<br':ppper.
,,<'W.M,Me))er,Yo).p.
7Hd)an!cas,fr~.9jin/~G;M!e<)!.tusD3m.tsc~nt)?,f,r~.))7!nf/j'C.
t
t say NMfut <neN)B, f.i))ce go!d they may have fout)<) within o~'citr their t<:rntor!<;s,
rtput<:dfofittn)!n<'M]-piteh(ÎÏeradotusi~l9;).
a? in
as thé e
91 of.Cyr~nts, M
s
those known in Southern Europe, and employed by the Sherden allies of the North
Àfricans.' Betwccii Tunisia and Egypt thé scarcity of native metal would in itSelf
be suSicient ground for doubting whethef thé Eastern Libyans were ever aoquainted
with thé art of working metats. Apart from the haematIticironinMarmanca,~ and
traces of copper in the Gebel et-'Akabah,~ no workab!e metaîs are fourd within Eaftern
Libya, On the western boundary of that area are some deposits of iron,~ while copper
i~ found in small quantifies on the eastern slopes of Atlas." There is no indication
that any of thèse sources was known before Roman times, and the m:)dcrn inhabitants
of thecountry dépend for their metals wholly on thc ôutside world,
An examination of the classical évidence relati ng to Libyan weapons is especially
s~ghincant on this head. A warlike people, if amply supplied with copper, bronze, or
ifon, woutd certainly have been provided with weapons of metal. Yet this does not
case in Greek and Roman times. It is true tbat, both citing the
s~em to hâve been the
sj~tne Source or one thé othe~, HeUanicus and Nicolausof Ûamascus speak of Libyan
swofds,~ but they are speaking rather of thé Punicized I~ibyans of the west than of thé
Eastern Ubyans proper, of whom Diodorus SIculus, hete drawing on a source better
tnan some he Uses, remarks that they were armed each with three javelins and a bag of
stones, and that they were ignorant of swprds, helms, or other armsJ The Auseans,
it is true, In a religious festival dressed ône of the performers in a "Corinthian helmet
apd a fu!! suit of Greek armour" not only were these importations, however, but
Herodotus declares his ignorance what arms they used before
the Greeks came
tp their country."9 It is noteworthy that thé arms employed by the Auseans in their
r~Hgiousshâm-nghtswere stones and clubs.
For the saké of their clothes and arms
thé Libyans eut ô~ the stragglers from thé Persian army of Aryandcs, when it was in
retreat fromCyrena!ca;" while thé Libyan contingentin thé army ofXerxes was armed
~Ith javelins the tlpsofwhich had been hardened by fire.12 Theba~bedspear.f~fM,
t~entioned as a Libyan weapon by Silius ItaUcus," was not necessarily headed with meta!;
thé same poet, speaking of the Banlurae, says that, lacking iron, they are–
L1: CM~M~~arM~WH~
~,`
ofthe Libyans of early,Byzantine times; as mentioned by Corippus. were
Thé arms
1"
'W.M.Mn))er,A~o).ii.p.~7,<
-S
i14. Mutler;op.rtvot. ü. p. t n. x.
Nodules of haemadte containinga high pcrc~nMgeqf iron, and shpWtng a )us:roas silvery fracture, are found in the
e
'[ibyatt désert, YuxbashtNimr'A)i,O.Ç.,H.H.Coa?tGuarjs,at:Dabbah, s howed in t9)0 a
near Mongar Lebuk. me
specim.en.héhadcoXeçted..
Arab Royie, O.C., H.H. Coast Guards, Marsah MsMu,
A spécimen cf the crë
B!nbtsht L. V.
tv.)S brough'. by an to
"whcretsawitin.~tO.
H.DuveYner,MT'JV~,p.'f' DuvcyMcrpert!nen[)ya~sfM~~f~m<f-MM~~
camburtifffe? P
~.terMian, ~&FM xii.; Victor Vitensis, Historia ~r~«/A«f~ v, t9!tS. CyprianNS, ~<ff. So cf. Strabo
!~ii~p; 8j&
i ,~He)!anicMS, ~< ni'. Thé Numidiaf) tribesma-) bas naught saye ~'«a '<< ~~t~af Kf! MpMf
~icohusbfbamascds/t'f. Sa~a~M!e~ nérçr~ytae ii'K&9~ f~w KvrlrKOÇ K~6`~aXaépas.
Diodoru~ S!cu)us i)~ 60. To make Diodoru~'s Hst comptete it pnty is necessary to add pety bows.
He'r~ J ~9. f ~n7. "M 'M ~M3. H ~ii.y!.
SiM ItaHcusiii t77. ~t~.iii. 903~.Thé BantHrae were aGaemtian tribe of the \yest,Piin;'v.
2
in some–perhaps in many-cases of metat but it should be borne in mind that the
natives described in thé y~~f were mainly of the west, and a juster idea of thé arms
of the Eastern Libyans can be drawn from Procopius.2 ît may be observed that not
only is a scarcity of mctat apparent from the evidence on arms, but atso the vases of gold,
silver, or bronze, tMe~tioned in thé Egyptian records, do not appear in classical writers,
who mention only cups and jars of pottery, 3 or of wood,or bark.~ Whereas, furthermore,
thé women of the Egyptianized Adyrmachidae had anklets of bronze/ their ststers among
thé Auseans, who were remote from Egypt, had, to be content with rings of teather.~
Metal, then, was a rarity. The great chieftains had stores of it, the fighting men in
contact with Carthage or Egypt succeeded in procunng it. The majority of tribesmen
had not enough of it o head their weapons, or to make themselves swords. Descriptions in
Silius Italicus of bejeweHed and well-armed Libyan chiefs are to be taken as mainly poetic,
and as only partially justified by the fact that the leaders of the allies of Carthage would
naturally have Carthaginian weapons. It is indeed only as allies of metal-users like the
Carthaginians or thé Sberden that the Eastern Libyans appear in history as a people
advancedbeyonda a neolithic stage of culture. This point is significant. Theislandof
Sardinia, which was at least partly under the dominion of the Sherden, is rich in metals.
The long swords of the Libyan tribesmen were,' as has been said, South European in
type, and are seen on the Egyptian monuments of the New Empire as thé charactenstic
weapons of the Sherden and Shekelesh mercenaries in the Egyptian service. From this
it seems safe to infer that the Sherden sea-rovers nssociated with thé Libyans in their
enterprises against Egypt armed their allies. This is of no small significance as indicative
of the strength of thé bonds between the Northerners and the Africans, and of thé
character of the gréât invasions.

~w.f and ~~y~/f.–What has been said with regard to the use of mctaîs may serve
as an introduction to the question ofLibyanarmsandwarrare.
Of offensive weapons the Eastern Libyans do not appear to hâve despised thé
humb!est, for it was not on!y in the Ausean sham-fights that they made use of sticks and
stones. Thé latter, as has been remarked, theycarried in bags, and threw with great
skt!t/ either by hand or from stings.* The former were cither straight (Fig. a) or
curved slightly near the end (Fig. ~c),like a moderncamet-stick. ifme~nt for
throwing, they were crooked like some of the modem Sudanese ~~M~~ (Fig. f).
These very primitive weapons were ,widely employed by thé Ëastern Libyahs, but
theirweapons~'w~wfwere the bow and arr6w,andthesho)'tjâye!in. !tts thë
yc~~M, ;); (~c~<), ;!$ (~&t/~tff/it~<),t~} (~M~~r~f~AVf
Cor!pp<)s, ~~7~~rr'')) );<
~vj/~m~?'<?~M?.f~
~FtOCOp)US,D~&)i.tt..
'$$(~rr~7~~)~~t i,
5

s Hc~aMtCus,f/J:co~ausDatnascus~ Metai.8.
9. Hefodotusi~~68.
~B
c/iy.~6. ~DiodorusSicutmiii.
üi. 49· i·
r. 'For<Libyani)ing<:r9e~P).V,s
e For a 2.
'`v'
 bow with which the Libyans are equipped in the great battte scenes of the XIXth and
XXth Dynasties. ïn thé Merneptah records Meryeyissaidto have faIIenUpon the
Temehu with h:s bowmcn and
later, in his own flight, to hâve left behind him his
bow, arrows, and quiver.2 In the booty taken by Merneptah were more than two
thousànd bows;* while bows and qu:vers, thë latter to thé number of 23 !0, were
taptured by Rameses 111.~ The bows uscd by thé Libyans seem sometimes to have

been so ~mall as to suggest that they were, as wassometimes thé case in Egypte used
for polsoned arrows. As far as can be judged, thé shape of the bows (Fig. ~~) is rather
that of those employed 'by the Asiatics of the monuments t.han of those used by thé
.~gyptians or in use in modem Africa.~ Thé typical Libyan bow resembled in shape a
yery obtuse V, having an angle of about t~o°. Thé bows of thé chiefs are sometimes
shown as having rencxed horns, as in Fig. < In one case (Fig. j;j;, <-), the bow itself
tssosmall thatit must be regarded as a modet~or as having for conventional reasons
~eenmadesmaUbytheartist.

-–
thé fbrmspf thé headsof the Libyan arrows were varied. thé large number of
jirrow-headsofnint,carneUan,andsimilar stones, found in thé Sahara, the Egyptian
'?'

~<
bases, and thé Fayum, makes it probaMe that these were the points generally employed
r
~vhilë thé highly'specialized types which thèse neoîithsexhib!t,and thcjfact that
t. o'
ëven in Egypt ~dme fbrmsofthcmwcrcinusedôwn intoprotodynastictimes,
encourage thé bdief that they werc cmptoyed by thé tess advanced Libyans
during thé full Mstoric penod, A paraUel survival may be cited in the càseof
~he Aethtûpians,who, êYen when servmg m the ar<ny of Xerxes m théâfth century

'w!n~
B.c.,

!L
mi'4arrows
n~~ had
~p0tnt,of
hëaded ''not
anuwa uc<tu~u iiu~ with
thekind u~ in Mg~hg
iron, but
wini n~ti~ uut Wtth
seal~ w*
A
a pièce ofstohe, sharpened'1
~t~~ v* M%t~] v<~«.~w.<
typtca!

&ARnh§;79, cf.ui.§6o~thearchers~hKwd9wnthe!t))o~
coUecMon pfFayum points

~BAR:i!/§$9t;tf.t~MMo~n!temhum~t xo,xtq, mentiopéd by BAR rü. § ~&Q:

'~).v!).,f)g.'t.
sE~
T<
G~A, R~anèr,

L ~tdrwMeh.R KMutx.DM~)~
~ef!:mQn!a)sign!~n~e.
~<~
Pfeile
'<Ïf.,howevM.[!)ë~oftho Npèrs'o~" thr
r~f

Bogen
[~iM~ c/'C~ntf~ ai

6~~ Hatçs, Srrda><tJe Nvlei,in CS

'7 r

~D~, :ft
anJ Kürher im Ltiôecktr ~fate(rm, etr.
j`, vol. vi, ~Io: 6g.
BARiii.§;X~.

the ~<rM~ yo). v.

~re MM.) 'a!m!<; bwsefpardy

~~erojotnsvii.e~.
is shown in PL thé arrow-head represented in fig. $6 is one
VIII. !-3' inclusive
recentlyfbund near Gerbah (Siwah Oasis), and sent to me bymyfr!cndMa)or L. V.
Royle. It may be stated with certa!nty that thé Fayum flints are Libyah and not Nilotic,
from (a) the wide geographical range of many of the types,' and (~) the-preponderance
of them in habitable places not in the Nile Valley.
The javelins which, at least after the introduction of the horse.wereweapons so
characteristically Libyen, seem not to have been common at the time of thé invasions.
In thé list of booty taken by Rameses tlï., only ninety-two "spears" are listed among
thé weapons,2 but by classical times darts, lances, and spears were universally emptoyed
throughout North Africa.~ These weapons were headed much as were thé Libyan
varjous examples ofspear and lance points
arrows. In Pl. VIII. 32-4.0 inclusive aie
from the Fayum, the broad, gashing type there shown (32) being especially note-
worthy.* That spears were sometimes
pointed merely by induration of thé
sharpened end in the nre has been men-

,b.
tioned atready.~
The classical writers, in using such
terms as M~A! /f/
~K'M/< etc., when
speaking of the Libyan javelins, clearly indicate that they were
mainly weapons for hurling rather than for stabbing or thrustmg.
That the javelins were usually carried in pairs appears from Corippus 9
\Õ.
(cf. Fig. ~7, ~), although three was not an unusual number (cf. Fig.
..t, _a_ "n
58) and that they may sometimes have been delivered by thé aid of throwmg-thong
(~~K/</w) may be implied by such phrases as-
.«'M/&.f
and
.<r<<x'
/M~C~Om<7t.M

in thé Latin writers. That the barbed spear.known to the romans as the M~M.was
used among the Libyans is to be inferred from a line of Silius Italicus.~
Besides the weapons mcntioned, the Libyans used, to a limttedextent.and at those
times when they were allied to a people more advanced than themselves, theswbrd.
The Egyptians took from the Meshwesh o!i! copper swords,~ and thé swords qf fiYe
1 Cf. E.-F. Gautier, Safara
~BARiv.§ii).
<«, p. tt) j~. p) xi):, photo. 37 H. Vischer, .ArM the M<!M, Append)x B..
i i.
Herodotus ni. ~t Strabo xvii. p. 8zS; Caesar, P~ ~/A ~<~M xiv.; Lucan iv. 66z
!), 80, Silius haiicm iii.
2~,ni.~o;;D!ojofusS!cutu:)n.~o.C!aud!an,~ej'Mji.o;Procopius,D<A~~&ei).tt.
~(?)The~M~N/!?ofCouppusn.i<J
The spear of the Temebu mercenary shown in t. Rosellini, A~M& etc., vo). t). p!. ) 7, S, appear: to be mereiy
<
tirc-hardcned. Corippu!,y~~Miy,;t3,;<,t,v.!36. /i).tf~. s C)!"<d!itn,~c~~<~MM,i.
~Conppus,y~<!XXMii,t~Procopius,~<f<7, Cf.Fig.57)~ k~,

Ctaudian, ~< < Lucan iv. n

.w~j'M~M.
~SU!u6Ïta~cusï)].i77,Bpeak)ngdfoneoftheJ~acae–
iateïa.. MBARi)i.§;i!o.
te üi. §
 PLATE VIII.

11
1 1
,JJ¡. (~
NEOUTHS~
~ke,

LIBYAN
-–––––i~i~<Mi<W<~<MM~
ahd of three cubits taken by Rameses III. have been mentioned.* Thèse powerful
~eapûns'were, as has been said, of foreign origin an exampte is sh~wn in Fig. 49.~
~.swordof différent type is mentionedby Silius as having been ëmployed by the
Adyrmachidae. Thé Roman poet describes it asy~/<r< a term which strongly suggests
the Egyptian sickle-shaped weapon known as thé °3), (PL IV. and Fig. 88).
it
Ifthe Adyrtïiachid&e realty had a sword bf this type, would be of much archaeological
interest, fbf thé occupied a Curtdus cérémonial position m Egypt, was an attributs of
k~ngs, and had origin in femôte–possibty in neolithic–limes.* In the classical period
thé Libyans m contact with the Mediterranean ~ofld were in some cases armed with thé
short sabre, thé ~c~r~
white in Byzantine times short, small, straight swords,* or
!<j'hg knives.wercoccasionanyworn on thé upperarm~aswith the modern Imushagh
~<

Fie.:?.
Sg.

ahd Sudanese. Thèse smaUswords are tobedistingui~hedfromthosettl~ntioned in thé

bôoty taken by Mernëptah.~ Thé kmvës captured by that Pharaoh
were presumably
such' daggers as those shpwn in thé hands of the Libyans as early as in thé Ne-user-re
reUefs,and as tatc as thé New Empire (Fig. ~o). These daggersarehardlydist!agu!sh-
ablefrom Egyptien weapons,and are really MeditefraneaH. They had sheaths
(~ig. j;9, ~), and, as is ctear ~rom the type of hilt, were primari!.y for stabbing.
One more vyeapon dèserves passing mention.' A Libyan mereenary in one of thé
Bënî tiasan pairttings (Fig. t) carries an axe.~9 Thé form is thé ïunate shape so common
}'~
'BARiv.§~
-?' Hveeub!ts-63m.(!),thMecMb!ts~t~ m.
JL h thé mocttrn tmushagh tong ~word a surviva) of thèse o!<) w~pons? For an e~amp!e see Aymtfd, lu Touareg,
s St!)uslMiieuti!t.<––
ct falcarnra6 arle
FmM~<~r~<?<'<}«!&
<For~nemmp)eofth!$curvedswordseeI/RoseHmi,~Mm<etc.,vbLni/p).8.
<HeUM)cus,&f.n/Nico!ausÛamascenus,/M.n7. 'Conppus.y~omt'fii.tt~t~t; çS·
.7 Cor!ppus,yo~~7jih!z~–
~M.f~<BMNf~&~rf,f<n'r<'a&j<)~t<
j. ~r~M~M~~f~,f<fM~M~n'
andii-t;!–“ 'j!
~&/n<)!Mf<hM'e')!J~~n?'<.
'BARi!i~s89.
An
~RMet)!ai,A,toLii.pLtt~g!vetaaMhM6~~ lé:
 m Ëgypt, and it is probable that thé axe-bcarer was armed by those he served. It is,
hew<ev€r, te bc r~mark<~I that S!Hus twice spe&ks of L!byans in thé Carthagin!an ar~ty
as anna<?d weth ax~ aMte~h M tMs case th~ de~b~ ~<'ww,~ and not thé Hun~te
ifeTm, ts spce!6cd.
A pMpk !:< t<w !'t&te of ct\'H!!MttO!tbetter supplied with offensive than w!th
is
dëSa~n'e &ra~ Th!s was weM exeMpUSed hi tlie case of thé North AfriCM~ of antiqutty,
thou~h !t is not necessMy to beUeve that any portion of the inhubitMts of the continent
w<ere quite sa dcvo!d of protection asHerôdotus declares the
~Gamphasantes to have
t?ccn~ Luther coats wcrc thé commonest defence even the riff-raff in thé army of
Xer~es w<ar<e th~m-* Shieids, moreover, were regularly used during thé classical period.
Thé ooMUîMn &rms were the !:irge round buckler, slightly convex on the outer side,
known to thé Romans as the c~tWj;* and thé c~ra~ and the Of/
Thé last two
were sometimes slung at the side or between the shoulders of the wcarer/ Thé smaU
MtMi<i shtet<~s of thé <<
type were especially favoured in Africa, as tn Spam.* They
were iighL, and made of strips or thongs of leather.9 Examples are seen in the Saharan
p<*tr<oglyphs (~. Fig. ~y) in a "Numidian" ste!a (Fig. 58), and in the Constantinople
sculptures (Fig. t~). The last-named instance is of exceptional interest, since thé
artist bas indicated the structure of thé shic!ds. Thé
Macae, according to Herodotus, used a shield which must
hâve been of the <'<!t'/r<! class, made of ostrich-skin.~ r
A shield rougbly resembling thé Boeotian type was
also known in North Africa Fig. 60 shows an cxampte,
<? –––c* *– ––
borne by a Libyan wearing a kilt and ~w'f~M~f (?).
Another exainple, somewhat like the body-shield of the Cr~saders,
v
is recorded on a petroglyph in Tibesti (Fig. 6:). Ït is otnan)ented
w!th a cr*ss, perhaps intended to 1represent· colour, since"U V
the fact that thé Libyans
pa!nte<ithctrsh:etdstsknown&pmSi!ius.
He!ms and body-armour, though occasionally refërred to by Rom~n writers when
· zBr tg.-
~SsMtTnÎMltaCt&B~~S~-fy.––
S/&<a~<!b~<<!t
C~w/
~9mus H2aficnns

&BiSt&rN€Sax~fp~A~?~r)oftbcPnncc&9Asb~tcîn!t,
Hff~eUtt iv. t~ Mofed by Meh i. X
<89..
and by M9r:!anut Capella, /A/ etc., f). (p. !~),
C~M~&rj[jf<fJ~<<'<M!3~&<~M<)!r<<~M. 1
~H<fGA)ta!t':).yt. The{ej.tct<'MprobaHyfcpresentedth<9rmot!r"ofMernepMhrccoi'd9,BARiii.g;8~.
89.
*C<M!ppn!A~&tt..9t.),tï<ThcGrcet<!<r)r&
SiJiat ttaticot iii; 7?8; Conppu!, y<nr/.f il. t~jj. Thé cante <MWt, f~rf, i* Iberian, snd thh <h!e)d was
es~My a6f<pb[e~ w!th Spt!'t. Cf. H<s)'th!os
SHmf ïtaHeotii. Sf.
e'
KOt~a &r~<t 't/!<)/)tKK, anj Servim ef/ V<:rg!!)! ~x<'<<t'~ v.it, 7):.
tMybebtcMK t))!ft!~t fan-tte !h!e)d was c<peda))y associated itt cfsstie~! art with thé
A~M.iM~s~it~SaSSM~atîfibuEe~nhefctotheLtbt'anpnticcssAsbYte.
~Conp]9~y<'&fii.t2:ft,t!
3.
*StmBt,&<af/m!f&y~i!&/M/x/M<'</Kftj~.
M~MHM~snH~O~/<~v)i).t~~y~/?n'<w~?~<7. Cf.Stf.tt)oxvii.p.~8,foffhi':M)ofctcphapc-hiti: ·
~Her~ptoO~t~
M$i}!tttft~)t'~f))),f~~)in~<tnb!t)gen~y''tn<chM,"
de~cribing Libyan ch'iefs,* do not appear to hâve been in gênerai fse< DIedoru~ cvsn
states explicitty.that they were not employed,2 Thé waniors of thc CoostsntM~pte
senIptUt'es rej~ffed te above. wear whât might bë suppû~d to be hetM~, b~t th~s~ nMy
bemeretycaps,etth€rofc!othofofleather,ofthe~type~
As regards equipment,it has already been femàrked that thé Eastem Ltbyan~as
earty as thé time of the invasions, madc use of qujvers. Mention has also been made cf
thé bags tn which the slingers or stone-<tcf6 Carfied their ammunïtion~ An impartant
item in Libyan gear was the or water-skin without which it WM impossible to
tra~e! in the desert. ~f~~
are first noticed in a New Empire re~rd,~ and in c!ass!ca!
tin')e~ were carfied slung under the bellies ofhorses, a practice which peMists to-day,
Thé booty taken from the Libyans by Rameses III. included nearty one hundred
ch~rlots.~ According to Hcrodotus, the Grecks derived their knowledge of the ~~M~g~
frohi Libya/ but this does not, ëven if correct, in the s!ightest degrec affect the
probabititythat the Libyans themselves drew their knowtedge of thé chariot 1 from
Egypt. By classical times, wheeled vehicles of some sort had become widcty diffused
ovêr North Africa. They were known to the Asbystaë,* and to the Zaueces, whose wives
drove their husbands' chariots to battïe.~ Even the Garamantes" of the interior, and thé
Pharusii and Nigrete,s of the far Wcst had cars for travelting or ~br battle and the
wholë Libyan contingent serving with Xerxes was mounted in chariots, just as were
thé Arabians Upon camels-in both cases, that is, the troops served with their usual
eQ~ipment.Itisnottherefbrestrangetonndsucliaphraseas–
uli~ucs ~U~u~siav~dpp~'surv~ir.~m·âsa`~3
113

in Sophpcles,nor to learn that Cyrenc,~<MTo~<re~was anciently aTerycelcbrated

centre ~bf chariotry, although by Roman times thé useofchar!ots in war had declined.
r It is nôt to be imagined that the Libyan chariot, of native make, was the Smart
vehiçle qf wood and bronze known m Egypt, Asia, and Greecc. Frequendy thé
"cnarlots" were probably no more than walns.ËxpUcit notices of such cxlst,as in
SmusItaUcus,whothus refers to the GaëtuHans;–
A~M//<t~~Mj~/aMft~Aa~Nn<~m~rar<r<frfa
~~t<Mf<rraM~orf<fmft'tfar<<'nafM.~

ft/< Cf., howevcr, the temar! of PtinyX. t, and Theophraitus, ~Mf.

Sitius Italicus i. ~<; f< f~.
}v.
~t, m fegarj to ostnch-ptumcs being worn b)' thé Libyans in the!f hetms. By thé Egyptian n;onamen[<tt tf)dcace
<h<~seoffMthtr~i9con<!Tm:d,butth!'tpfh?!ms!sh<)t..
.~D!c"totU<Sieu)a< ~Cf.Pto<:op!ns,P~&~H<t.
s BARiii.~j6b$,6to..
'SM!t))o'xvii.p..8!S. ~BAR)?.~ttt.
P!odo~Sieu)us,&f.<7.

iv. )~.
!S Herodqtus as ~r)y
Thé fo~t-horse chariot i5 teM{ as thf Hof~tie po<MB~7&t~ vii7i. )S~, O~t.

~7~tS~
the
x!ii. 81–~hd appearcd !n thc Otymptt: contesta m thé se<'enth century, M is atteMed by P~osan!M v. $. y.
t~WhQMHerbdotu~iv.t~o.KtmsTt~o~Tat~At~mAip~
.t'Hetodotus.iV.)$3.`
rèt.. The~~
MStrab.o,/M. suid by Strulao to haie beeytrmed uith scy~thes,
'ophoc)ea,~<M,~p! 'M''PindM,f)f~.tv.7.
~Si))usjM!tCHsiiLt~)oO.;ef.ÇMsar,~A'/&M)xlxxv, Pliny r<, d,
It of this sort, ~c~~
is cars /i'
and not chariots, which are seen on the rock-
glyphs of Northern Tibesti pictMres, if one may judge, of true neolithic wams.
Similar carts are to be seen to-day in Kordofan. They are drawn by bullocks, and are
made without metal, of tough woods well pegged together and lashed with thongs of
which are portrayed,
green hide. They bear no resemblance to the Libyan war-chariots
only in one doubtful instance, on an Egyptian monument; thé type of car there
represented is indistinguishable from the Egyptian vehicle, or at least was so rendered
by the Egyptian attist.~
What bas been said of the horses of Eastern Libya may be recalled here !n
connection with thé question of warfare. The North African horses were Uttle more
than ponies, but tough and wiry.~ They (irst appear in history at the, time of thé
myastons~ They were so well trained that they often followed their masters, when the
latter went on foot, like dogs they were ridden without saddles, and often without
bridles, be~ng guided by the touch ofa a light switch.6 In some few cases bridles of
rushes were employed,~ but they are not heard of among thé Eastern Libyans. The one
trapping which seems to have been in general use was a neck-stall of palm-fibre or
plaited bark, the ~<~tT~~)}\ta ~<tMt, from which depended a leadlng-re!n.~ A r,ude
representation of this is seen in the "Num!dian"steIa,FIg.~8.
In their manner of fighting, the Libyans of the Egyptian period followed a system,
of tactics very differènt from that which they practised when, at a later date, they had
become a nation of horsemen. The Meshwesh, for ex&.nple, having overpowered their
invasion, of
eastern neighbours, the Tchenu, forced the latter to join them in their
Egypt. Meryey, the Meshwesh leader, contracted alliances with numbcrsofSherdeh,
Sheklesh, Ekwesh, Luka, and Teresh, "taking the best 6f every warrior and man of
Egypt, cutting
war in his country."8 Thereafter thé army of invasion marched upon
off the detached Egyptian outpôsts as it neared the Nile Valley.* Eventually thé army
neared the scene of battle, approaching the forces of Merneptah. 3~~o''e dawn on the
day preceding that of the battle, thé gteat chief inperson~ wënt among thé leather
tents" of his camp, marshalling his men.~ The next day, the Libyan vanguard" was
face to face with thé Egyptian army, and thé battle began. For six hours It raged, thé
Egyptian archery loosing night after flight of arrows into the undisopllned but hardy

sStrabo,
2
s
W. M. Mancr, 'BÀR.iii.§;8~,iv.§<tt.

7~
~~A~'M/~MM~vo). ii. p. ttt.
Strabo, Lr. rit, BAR iii, n89. iv.
eit. ¡ I.Ncsni~66)~
LQc~n jv. 66J
3

I~~w~a<7~~<~r~?~ ~y/~t~c
tt t. 'i ~trabo,
§ ,'Strabo, ~J'f
lot. tit.

Ortt Or<~M~re<<<'MM'
frenorum nexia virga,
i:
Th!s passage was, may be safe)y assumed, equ<))y applicable for the rudet east. Cf. iv. <;a ~.–
~m/M/M
/j;<'«~C~/a/M~M.
Sitius Italicus i.
?Strabc'K.<-<7.
ït$~ Caesar..0<&~MM,txi.iCtaudian, JV/ !0; ~<7~ i. ~9.
~BARiii.§;79. eBARiii.§;8o. M.BAR!i!,§s~.
BAR $8~; M BAR § S~. BAR i". g 609. "Theif ma~htrt forWard."
 r~nks of thé Libyans.~ Finally the invaders broke and fled, casting aside their bows
and water-skihs,~ and leaving over oooo slain on the fietd, and as many more taken
captiver
Far différent from battles and carnpaigns of. this sort, which évince so .much
nmlitary stabitity–however barbarie–afe those of the Libyans of thé classical period.
ÏM Creek and Roman times, thé African was like the Parthian, a light horseman swift
to attack, yet swifter to retreat~ unapproachabte by in~antry~ The native cavalry with
which Caesar was forced to engage seldom chose to come to close quarters with ari
e<)emy on level groond they preferred to !ië in ambush with their horses among the
~adys, and then suddenly to fait upon their fbes.~ Somet!mes,for the sake of greater
stabiUty, these horsemeh went into action in company with tight-armed ibot.~ The
niounted African was, as Animianus said from personal expérience, an enemy ~anking
attd sudden, and trusting to secret wiles rather than to ~egutar fighting.0 Yet these
n~ethods of fighting, though not unknown to the Eastern Libyans, were rather those of
t~c Numidians and Mauri of the west.7 Something of thé old stability existed in
TripoHtana to a ts.te period, where thé 'natives fought from behind their barrack'd
c~mels,~ as cavalry
use their carbines from béhind their horses. at the présent day.
Thé existence in parts of Eastern Libya of well-built strongholds leads to the
supposition thatSuch tribes as the Auschisae and the Nasamones, within whose territories
thé occurrence of these forts has beeh'~oted, knewhow to maintain themselves behind
d~fences. N~ notices of such actions, owever, exist, uniess in thé case of an Egyptian
représentationof a fortress which is being stormed by Rameses II. The fortress in
question is pictured in the conventional Egyptian manncr, and is called Satuna-
sutpposedty a Syrian town. The garrison, curiously enough, is of mixed Asiatics and
Ltbyans–a point well worthy of notice, even if it be admitted that the scene of the
action lay not in Libya but in Syria.~
In late times, fighting from with'n a square of barrack'd camels was a ~avourite
mode of sustaining attacks. Fhe m~i were stationed along the lines, the women and
c~tidren were placed in the middle of the square.10. The camels~vere in some cases
partiany prOtected by the men's shietds."
tn personal courage the ancient Berbers were the equals of their descendants. Like
1 'BARiu.8~. ~BARi!i.§6oQ.
~BARiii.§s88~/):sndnote<Ai-
~Caesar;&r~(!t)!tf.Dio()orusS!cu)usii).t9.3. *x!v.69.
j/~7~/F<'p~
*Ammian''9 More~!)& W~. ![x!!t. ~~f/w~rM~ < r~<<M~, ~Wi'~M~~M ~M j)r<K'&n<~

'sdted. f~. '~iH

Cf. Nico)aus DamasEenus,
~~Ptqcppius,C<A~'<<!A~,i.8,ii.n.
t;t.
~–
FHG, where thë proSeness of th* MassyH to night attacks is emphadcaOy

° W. M. Mtiner, n'<. p. t?;and In disçussing this fcftress, Natter commits two slight enors h<:
fig. 6z.

'S.
st~tM [hat~the Libyahs couM ttot sneh a (brtfess as Satun. a statement wh!ch the Ghe<r!n~ tbrtress and other
hay? bttiit
rema!t)9 disprove, and he says that p!ne-(orests, w)uch appMr in thé Satina !'eprestntat!on,are Rot known in North Africa,
.wjtefeas they exist both iti Cytenaic)and in the Gebe)e)-'At:aba)).
1:
.\L~PtO<:opius,D<<M,ii.!t..
t. 'Y'
 must barbarians they were subject to panics, as when a handfui of Caesar's GaUlc horse
turned back, by a sudden sally, 2000 native cavaïry.' Yet under favourable conditions,
the North Africans were bold and determtned enemics. The tevolts of Inarus and of
Tacfarinas were in then~elves resolute and courageous Undcrtaktngs, although they
failed of their design, and readers of Livy will recall his statement that it was the
swords of the Libyan mercenaries that carried the day against Rome at Cannae.~
Though as a rule poorly and variously armed, the Eastern Libyan~ when whotty
independent, as in the days of the New Empire, were aiwaysnumcrous and brave
enough to be a constant menace to Egypt if they had to a greater degree been pôssesse~d
of the power ofco~certed action. In classical times ~heir bravery had remained with
them, and they had, through thé introduction and dissémination of the horse and thé
carnet, evolved a rude system of tactics which consisted in harassingand wearingont
their enemy. Their power of coalescence had not, however, much devetoped, and their
arms, unlike those of other Mediterranean peoples, had not' improved. Be6)fe thé
well-discipl.ined cavalry of Rome, or before the Arabs, close-knit in thé initial tervour of
Islam, they could not stand. In short, their mititary history,'vaguelyas it is known,
displays a common characteristic of barbarism–persohat braVery, rendered inerfectual
through wantof subordination, cohérence, and stability.

V
~~f~c/</ G~r.–Thé accoutrements of thé Eastern Libyans have varied SQ
CM

t.
little from those employed by their descendants that tt ~ittbe pertinent Crst 10 give
list of thé usual domestic possessions of a modern famity of ïm~shagh, and then one
ofsuch househoîd gear as thé ancient tribesman is known to hâve possessed. Thé
fbHowing objects are to be ~bund aniong thé modem Berber nomads of thé North East J::

'°
Gra$smats. Pack-saddtesMrasses.
Grassmatsforscrecns. Skinsforliquids(~).
WooUen rugs, par~-eoïoured (very rare). Ropes and teather buckets for4M~!ng water,
Tannedox-hid€s(toMtoiH*of). Gourd nogg'ns.
Mattress, pillows, cove~s, beds (aU hardly Pottery'jars.
known, excep L m the amitiés of chiefs. WoodenJarsfor butter.'
The usual "bed" is thé adeben, or

~v'
W~odett cups for drinktftg.
hollow scooped in the sand). Wooden trenchers.
<
'L.e~thercu$h!'ons. 'Wooden.spoons.
Gr&ss-workbaLsket*. Wpodenmortars (with stone pesdës). ,i
Leather bags.
It Is necessary to add, to make th list comptetc, otily à few odds and ends suçh S
'ftfcston€S,awt$,ne<;d]es,ctc.M~'

~Cite!,3r,<<ti.. 'Livy,xxii.t7,
The ancient household g~f of wh!ctt ev'dence exists may be Itcm~ed thus ;–-

~Porth!5Hst,H.Duvcyncr,t<'jF?~Mr<y~p.4.0t~ ;t.i~
 C~.f. Among thc booty taken A'0m Meryey
was ? throne and a camp-chair !<t sho~n
It )-) to be supposed that .~ftuturë of this sort
itt thé Ghadames't-eiiet, Fig. 33.
was even more
f<(reanciéht!ythanto-day. Thesameistrueofthenextitcm.
7'ao&&N/(shownmGhadamesreiief).
-M'/a/1)~, of g~]d, sityer, of bfottze, hâve, been airMdy «oticcd M despoil~df front the Hby<M
pdMes. An Ëgyptian fep<-eset;tationofsuchvases)s hcre reproduced, F!g. ~j. By their <crms
t~esc v~es are deariy of Syrian engin, as a cômpariMn with thé Àsian types
on thé monuments
'1 w!H show. They are interesting chtefty te9tify:ng the Wëatth of thé
relations withAs!atic'
c/<
to gréât en~rs, 9ad to the!f
in thé Ëgypdan iists, where
m~y have been «.ttended msndonëd
"t-pw-r-vcsse!s," "thdt-vessels,"and"variousvesse)s,but thé doubt as tothe are meattngofthe
6rst two hames leaves the question unsett!ed. tt~.is; howeyer, certain that thé Eastern Libyans
PPttery cups and ~ater-jars–the <y& and ~w
mentioned by Nicojaus of Damascus and
~ettanicus in thé ffragmehtscited eariier in th!s thapter. Onïyin
thé case 6f the Garahtantes !s
ttprobaMethatpotterywasveryscaf'ce.
~&o/'OjM~however, thèse people had/making "cups of then~ fbt- Bsthefe was
hotMngb~tsandasm~teriattheyhadnopottery.
(.
'j<c
C~
f
,i~.
are meptioned sxptieidy by

wou!d haYe been madé Ï;( )eather or païnt-~bre (~J

I~e)a, who says

J~).
Thé 'atter wonM bs
6f thé Hbyans ~M /~M

~)
Wett describëd by thé term ~A.t~n epithet which, asha~ been noted, Strah~. appH~ ta thé
Libyan headstat). Thé s!ihgs were more probab!y
(Made of teather. Grass-fope (of
was aiso known; a cord thereofbound thé grave-clothes of
nom&d buria! which I
Z.
~M~Hn~~o~(~(M~S~Y
~j. ~~y-yorX'f~~<have alreadtb~~n.nÓt,ed~as part of the Libyan m!l,t,a~yg~~r.
i
<
were used, as is;attested by one of thé Ben! ttasan pa!ntings, where thé f.ibyan
"'I$kl,Natsy,'ere,kf\own,
ar)Seehcarry!ngthe!rchi!dren
were~~
in baskets On their~b~ (PJatèV.).'
thopgh Procbptus, e!ther
Pr~~op!us, d,crjbing'apoor~d¡hm,mit}'"
either' de~cnbtng a poorCo'thmunlty
<t
women

orindu!g!ng
.)'
or indulging
Mi tendency to exaggeratethe barbarism pf thé tribesnten, says thati.only thé grëat
'th~.Mpors.enjo'yed'theseïuxunes.
il"
among men

TThe I.,tbyàM had :exist. They imust,

doubttess many.~€ct$ of~btc~ nonces
fo- mstance~havehad heedtes and thr~ad, !eathef~acks~(beStdé$ tho used st<?nes
in ivar) and awls f~r~f~ tnëm, pots ~r see~hing
to{)ts for thework'~ofhtdM.T~o~
~h.d w~r$ ~gncHtt~fists, ha~
~esh,
»'99 9,~cuPled parts
~re~stonës, and
ph wh!ch to gnnd thëir gra~t., the~e reUcs of theif
of thé ~yum,
.occupattoh'âfë'yet~o'\bc.~undo ~Mc~I11P:-sÜ~$~ 't' “'

'JL~ ~–L'byM ~s{ç' wa~of ."thé "~icst. ~n~:ve" c~racC'er. ~s

s!tbptest~r~~for Aom~~ vte\hts n)t(y be~
Mth~opQlôgtcaî ~oi!)t of

'É~?~
~u~c."7–was; ~iecs~t!c~ shSuHn~ nodcc~~y'.Hcr6(~us\as. ~~racténsUc' ~f' thé, n

~L<~yan~of~ h~d~~Mtt whtch' ~s .comnton aU.~OYcr~Nprt~",A~nca. ~tht" presc'~ time.

~~Je~!~<M.Mt!!I~¡,Q~: eîtp'¡~li~II.t,j¡~.+6~1. .~BÂR"H~
'p.LucMn,?0~ y.t,uek)t ishere fo))o'Mng 0
t.s~~e~M~n to;pti~y (cf. JLi)cMnj~i,
'K.o~)œ),"wÏth ~.Hhy'tdeMr~fioaoftMcs~mM~
M<;)a ~Y~ ~i~. ~t. ~<' ~ticoputs.' 't.'<S. ,< /?'
!).i<:f.P)!nV,M. fft.x~'t}"
on' « &]r!Bg
Thé Greek historian remarks that, in his opinion, the loud cries uttered in Hellenie
sacred rites were derived from Africa "since the Libyan women are greatly given to
such cries, and utter them very sweetly. Thèse cries were thé modern heard
by all and mentioned by many travellers in Egypt, the Sahara,~ and the Barbary States."
Thé x~~ is made from the throat, a vibrantandqualityhe!d
being given to thé prolonged
single pitch.
sht-nt cry by the rapid vibration of the tongue it is to a
Besides this crying, with which the modern inhabitants ofEasternLibya signaUze
tmycvcnt of importance, thé ancient occupants of the country had, of course, their songs.
Thèse were in some instances religious. Curtius, for example, mentions that in the
wcrship of Amon at Siwah the women walked in processions, "singing a certain un-
couth hymn in the manner of the country." 3 Just what force lies in the last Words may
be divined by a consideration of modern Imushagh metrics. Among the Imushagh thé
métrical unit is, as in French poetics, thé syltaMe, no attention being paid to stress or
quantity. The commonest metres are enneasyllabic or decasyllabic, which are sometimes,
though rarely, combined in the same poem. In decasyllabic verse, the caesural pause
often cornes in the middle of a word, which is but one of thc very numerous forms, of
licence to be found in barbarie poetry. Other liberties are the fréquent élisions and
contractions, the changes of singulars into plurals, of masculines} into feminines, or M~
-M. An Imushagh poem usually, though not invariably, ofcarries thé same rhyme, or
rather assonance, throughout its length in thé final syllables the lines. This is made
easy by thé gréât latitude allowed in rhyme. An assonance such as
tscontaihed in the
or in thé wc~ds /M~ ikki, is readily accepted. Even
wcrds ~y~, <M/Mf~,
consonantal assonance is permitted, auilan and or <
and ged, are regarde j as
true assonances,it being required in this tasr. case only that the vowels preceding the final
consonant should be somewhat atike.~ Under these circumstances it is not surprising
thftt thé Imushagh are facile makers, more especiatty as they sometimes discard even
consonantal assonance and use Mank verse. Their poetry is, in générât, topical in
character, dealing with current events and persons weM known t<3 the audiénces, and
it is allusive in thé highest degree. They sihg it always in a tninof cadence, and often
with a long-drawn and qu~vering tremulo.~ The primitive qualities of this poetry
justify the supposition that thë "uncouth hymns in thé manner of thé country
mentioned by Curtius were composëd in much thé sam< mode.
Thé musical instruments of the Eastern Libyans are known'onîy from thé

!by
1

t;<,
Herodctus iv. t89.
G. F. Lyon, TMP<& !< AT~~ ~/f/M,p. ;t~ ~<<
p.7t
supposes that the Li'')yat) RAoA)jy~ was à cry ofritEa) )tmen:auot!fur the
W. R.Stnith,~Af'M
Y~
McnSciit)
~~M,
For th'~ there H no
p.
Cïp)ici[ey!dence. To-day :he zo~r&israisedpn theentryof anynoMbte canp
)nto ) or village, on
thé
recepuottofstar!ingnews,atdeaths~ndb!rths,ctc. per~onage
'>'
M~M,
Q. Curtius, /)<' ~<r<
M~<M ~M ~<M~~f/«w ~~<&< M~o
iv. 7, ~r~~
M/A'/)/< “.
4 -anti-and-~areaUowed;butnotso-and-~of-~and-
5 This brief notice of Imushagh. pûetic~ is based on the long one by A. Hanoteai). ~w de grammaire f)!* ~~f
7~~<p.~Ot~andonnoK9persona))ycot)ectC().
scantiest évidence. A form of castanets appears to hâve been used, as seen in thé
Egyptien representa*t0n given in Fig. 62, <y.
An instrument of a character slightly more dcvctopcd is thé double-headed drum
shown in Fig. 62, b. In shape it is like a boat's water-breaker, and from the way in
which it is cordcd and crossed it seems perhaps to hâve been made e!thcr of pottery
or of staves like a keg. It was headed with skins at both ends, wa$ slung from the
shoulders of the drummer by bahdotier,and p!aycdwlth the hands as is the modern
Sudanese~T~ÂM~.
Of the known musical instruments capable of producing notes, one was a simple
pipe with a ~aring mouth (Fig. 62, c), and with an unknown number of stops. This was

FtC.6!,
probabty made of wood, the ntodcrn single pipes of the Sîwahs and Wagîlans being of
that material, or manufact~red from thé leg-bones of some large b!rd. Another wind-
tn~trument was the double-pipe, the présence of which among the Libyans is mentioned
by Durts ëamius.'
Thé most advanced instrument of which wc have any ancient évidence was a t!tt!e
h~rp with a fight-angled ffame shown in Fig. 62, < This instrument was also used
gttnerally in Egypt, along with the more y
comptex ~brms. Atl the instruments here
c~'tmerated wer~ probably used in concert by
thé Eastern Hbyans on thé occasion of their
p~b~c entertainments, since in an Ëgyptian
relief thé castanets,druLm, pipe, and harp
ai eaUrepresented as beingplâyed in concert.~
Thé Eastern Libyans hadboth dances.
and cérémonial processions, War-dances
were pràctised by thé Libyan mercenaries in u
tt~e Egyptian
army at thé time of thé New
E~npire (cf. Fig. 6~, a war-dancc of thc
Tpmehu &ux!lianes). In the scène cited thé perfbrmers are divided into those who stand
/'r< }t in
E~ne ~tNiHS, Cf. Npnntts, ~t~M, !f!f!v. and E"r!t!e5, .t/&r~5r~, 6S;
jS, T<
Tc'o~~Tw~<)v~r~!A~w~Â~H i~ verG. ~li~3us; Q âa~, At~3~snv~ûs.
j ~J.G.~hkhtsoh/r~<'&')/MM,vo< i. Q. ¢Ç6, and cut no. Zx~~
ctatterîng time with their sticks and those who are posturing and !cap!ng about another
représentation' even more strongly recalls the war-dances of many primitive peoples,
especially those ofnumerous American Indian tribes. As a sort ofwar-dance may also be
menttoned the sham-nght of the Ausean virgins mentioned by Herodotus. în connection
with dancing, it îs remarkab!e that the Sîwans, on the "birthday" or w~</ cf Sheykh Sîd!
Stileyman, thé patron saint of Sîwah, perfbrm dances of a character totd!y unt'ke that of
thé Arab and Sudanese dai~ces given by them at other times of the year. ln the moled
dances, companies of youths stand in long lines fadng each other, and go through v.nous
evolutions which recaU strangety the "Sir Roger de Covedey" or other EngUsh country-
dances. !ts non-Arabie and non-Sud~nese character proves it to b? an &hcient surviva),.
Processions seem to have been recognized part ofLihyan reiigious ceremon~s.
The Ausean "Athena"was honoured Pnau.ally by a procession around Lake Tritonis;
the worship of Amon was attended with ritual processions; Silius has described
the mourning processions about the body of the Princess Asbyte;~ and there was
also an annual sacred procession or progress in which the Theban Amon was for
twetve days carried about Libya.3

Pf;y < &r~.–Petrog!yphs

of
both of ancient and modern date are
North Africa where suitable rock exists. [n Eastern Libya,
common in those parts
the extensive miocene limestone area bas discouraged this form of primitive artistic
expression, but rock-scribings are nevertheless fbund in the places suitable for their
carving. Much Libyan material undoubtedly exists in thé sandstonc région of the Nile
VaHey/ but It :s not possible to separate it from thé stmi!ar Egyptian work. No
Nilotic scribings, therefore, are here reproduced it is better to turn at once to Fezzan,
whence have been reported several rock-drawings.
Three petroglyphs from Teli-Sagha, which were discovered by He!nnch Barth,
hâve already been cited as evidence upon Libyan hunting. Thé pictograph (Fig. 6)
in which two huntsmen in animal disguises approach a burfalo may be regarded as a
very tqlerable specimen of primitive graphie art. Despite the conventionality which
has, iri order to give "perspective to the scene, made'the hunters in the fbreground so
large in comparison to the remoterquarry,there isthe same quality ofliyëliness in
this representation, and the same infantile but sincere striving after truthfutness which
isseenintheBushmandrawIngsofSouthAfrica. Thé bloçk on which this pictograph
'T<'m<umi'rcenanMwiththcirwe!pons,)nt.Rose)J)n),~«t~'<'t/<,<'tc.,<'o).i),p).!t7,
Silius Italicus ii. 265.
~7~M~'<p.<90<S. 8.
G.Maapcro, ~re~e/f JV~MM, p. 76y,M[et.wnte!! "{ attribute to the Libyens, whtther merccnariee
or tnbM hoycnng o~ th; Es'p[!~ntfont!tr,[hc f!g!)restu[ tv<:fywh<r<; eh th~roe~) which noone ap t~j) nbM'has
,cpr<>J.;ccd or ~J¡c'¡." Thi.
Kprcxtueedor~ttjtej." Th~sçem? to m<!too
5çcm~ «',me .wçephigi) H~t,m~nt,ç5pcd~ny
Mo swccping H<)ten)ent, c!!p«!i))))' !)?
~e
\be thé
"cm~¡n~
fcm.uns
t'av~
h~vs
nç>e b«n "fep~ucfd
not4~n tel'r"d~cç3
OfMu<i!ej." Most of the g)yph<th9tJh9''<eif.)m!net!<r<:e)Mr))'not Libyen butEg)'pt!an.
 M scrtbed measures x.za m. by 0.91 m. In Fig. a$ bas been said, a wild animal is
seen walking into a pitfall. Hère, as in the nrst example, is seen thé anxious fidelity of
thé artist, as in his endeavour to show all four legs of the animât.' The third drawing
(Fi g. 7) portrays a herd of wild cattle with even more reatism. This last pâture
is on a block of stone measuring 3.89 m, by !o
m. and is therefore fairly jarge. Ït
is noticeable that all three of these glyphs try to present, as is usual in early art,
subjects in motion. The technique is good, and !n thé early Saharaa manner. The
représentations are characteri~ed by the large size of thé figures, the deep, clean-cut
lines, thé realistic treatment, and by the pictunng of animais which have since become
ext!nct, at le~st in Libya. This is in contradistinction to the late, or Libyco-
Berber glyphs of North Africa. These, as a rule, are small, rude, donc with a pecked
U~e, and are not at all, or only slightly, patinated.~
There have been vague rumours of numerous sculptures to be fb'jnd between thé
Cbad Road and the Nile, but although these reports arc perhaps based upon fact, they
must be passed over tbr tack of definite information. The sculptures actuaUy known in
Eastern Libya are few, and are all late. The most interesting exist at GMrzah, a point
sqme 70 leagùes south of Tripoli town (tat. ~!° 10~ N., long. t~ ~.t' E.). The
reliefs are widely reputed among the modern inhabitants of Tripolitana and Fezzan to
bè "petri6ed," an explanatio, which thé stérile Mohammadan fancy is ever ready to apply
t~ any ancient representations of men or of animals. The ruins of Ghïrzah were Ërst
v~sited byCaptain Smyth, R.N., in the early part of the eighteenth century (March
t~). In an abstract from his Journal, sent to Captain Beechey, Captain Smyth thus
d~scribes the ruins :–
The site is moun~amous and bare, presenting only dreary masses of lime and sandstone, inter-
se~ted with the ramificationsof the great wadie of Zemzem. And although 1 had not allowed my
itt~agination to rise at all i.1 proportion to the exhilarating accounts 1 had heard, I could'not but be
so~ety disappointed 01 seeing some i!)-constructed houses of comparatively modern date, on the
break of a rocky h'H, and a few tombs,at a small distance beyond the ravine. On approaching the
latter, 1 found them of a mixed style, and in very indit~rent taste, ornamented with iil-proporttoned
co~mns and elumsy capkats. Thé regular architecturaldivisions of frieze and eorn~ce being neglected,
n~rly the whole depth ofthe eiiiablatures was loaded with absurd tepresentations of warriors, hunts-
men, carnets, horses, aad other an!ma!s in )ow relief, or rather scratched on the freestonc of which
they were constructed. Thé pedesta)swëre mostlywithout a dye[w],and the sides bore a vile
imitation of arabesque decorâtion. The hm~an figures and animais are miserably'executed, and are
genërativ smal!,though they yarv m si~froni about three feet and a ha]f [t.~6m.] to a foot
[.~ m.] in height, even on thé sam9~h)b; which addsto their ridiculous efect; wh!)st some
pa)pab)eandobtrud!ngindecenc!csrendei'theMd!sgusting."
r In this conntct'ott t maybea)!<"v<4 to poin~ ~t ~str!k)ng anatogy h) techniquebetween t)<e now <aatoHspa!nt!ngs
of'AtM~iMand thé iess-ttnown glyphs of Africa Minor. In thé paintings, thé prehistoric artist hts often turn~j up the
hopfs of thé bisons, tte;, which he bas drawn, sa that thé cleft in the hpof it visib)e. The Mme distortion <b~KJ in thé
prehi!Mric graphie
art of North Africa, as in thé maghinecntrani of Bu *A)em, reproduced in F)g. &t.

j!
.1
E.-F. Gautier, Mftr~ <M«, p. 87 ~y., for a <hort but excellent bibttography and discussion of the ditTerences
t~tween thé two main <:tasMof?ah.trahg)yphs..
[ *F.W.andH<W.Ptcehey,<'<)'r'<<r~<'r<'C~e/f'pp.;o;o9.
 Despite the disappointment fe!t by Captain Smyth all but a century ago, it is dear
that these ruins are so strongly native in character as to be of great interest. In t8~8,
a French consular servant in Tripoli obtained fragments of the sculptures through the
agency of an Arab. From the brief note that appeared concerning these spécimens,'
one very interesting point is to be gathered. The sculptures are described as being
mère nat relief, without modelling. They may therefore be regarded as occupying. a
position haîf~way between the petroglyphs and true modelled relief. It is probable that
they are the work cf sedentary Libyans of the Empire, who were inspired by Roman
models. Works similar, but with stronger foreign inHuence, from thé ruins at Shabet
Um et-Harab, have already been cited in connection with Libyan dress (Figs.
t$).
Of these sculptures nothing more néed bc said thàn that ~t they arc
are essentially provincial
Roman.
A relief exists at Slunt, in Southern Cyrenaica, eut on a rock-face in wady, of six
a
curious ngures. The carvings are roughly !o
m. high and 2 m. in length, and
jjt~jSjQn~m were discovered by thé Ita!ian trave!!er Haimann. A moulding of thé
pattern shown in Fig. 6~, associated with these sculptures,2 dates them
F.c. <
as of Roman times. The workmanship is very crude, and the figures are
badly weathered (Fig. 34). Four of the figures
represent adults, two are children,
three are females. The upraised hand of the last figure
on the right suggests that thé
monument has been innuenced by
classical art, and that it is funerëal in
character. One striking peculiarity of
these sculptures is the bigness of the
heads of the figures. Ajitdetotheteft
~-T~:T''t,-1

Ft0.<j;. (AfterHaimann.)
ofthts group are a rock-tomb and some cdnfused ruins, among which were found other
fragments of sculptures, and, in particular, the two pièces shown in Fig. 6t,
One of these, is ~7 cm. in height, and shows a rude figure, semi-recumbënt,with
one hand above the head and the other placed against thé tempte, Thé other pièce
~isbatteredoutofaHsigni<]çance.~

thf.CM/6;8,p.
A work ear!ie)- that) thé Stunt sculptures wàs discoyered by Duveyrier near

~C~.< vi~.f thc 3h!rMh'

E. du Tour: Note in For a gênera)
rums,seeA.Ghi5)eri,7V~MXM<C<WMM,p.
A.Ghis!eri,p. A photograph reproduccd from J.W.Gregor)'.<~
Datefacingp.
y~a'M'!T'rn7ffM/Or~m'x~M)!,<&.
~G.H.)!mann,C<~)?<t~p.86~ferthcbestacœuntofthesercmains. –
 Ghadames (Fig. ~), and has been mentioned in the discussion of hair-dressing,etc.' The
size of this stella and its material are unknown. The scène shows female figure, facing
a
in profile toward the right, seated on
a simple sort of camp-chair, with feet placed on
a stool. Thé woman wears a long robe, and has thé hair dressed in a curious fashion.
Therightarmisextended.andin the raised ri~ht hand is a palm-frond or, an ostrich-
plume, near the end of which is fastened a small triangular object. From the right
arm depends a short tab of the robe (?). Behind the seated female figure is another of
much less size, but similar to it, apparently an attendant. Befbre the larger figure is
Seen ha!f an arched or vaulted structure, toward which the frond
or plume mentioned
its extehded. Be~eath this vault was a third figure now un~brtunatety broken
away
except for the right forearm and biceps. One of the vertical supports of thecanopy
may still be seen, M also the edge of the seat (?) of the missing figure.
There can be no doubt that this monument re~ects New Empire Egyptian
influencé. As a whole, the' Ghadames relief reca!!s strongly
a class of Egyptian
t'ehgious sculptures, and this impression reccives further support from
an examination
ff thé detaits. Thus thé "camp-stool" and thé footstool are both c.f Egyptian form,
~hi'c thé vaulted shelter suggests those Egyptian shrines with arched tops of which one
i~ pictured in the. tomb of Rameses V. Though displaying in these détails, and in general
composition and feeling, strong Egyptian influence, the monument is certified
as of
local origih by the barbarie dress of the figures: It must'be remembered that, in later
Urnes, Ghadames (Cydamus) was a.town of such conséquence that foreign influences
thade themselves felt there. The, significance of the relief is obviousiy religious the
ssated figure and its attendant
are going through some form of ceremonial before a god or
spirit wlthin the shrine further than this, however, it would be rash to venture.~ The
~ork may be provisionally placed within the limits of the Late New Empire.
The material presented above must sumce, until further discoveries in the 6e!d, to
iilustrate Libyan, art. Scanty as it is, It is signincant. It shows that, whereas thé
peoplewere tair masters of thé neolithic art of rock-scribing, they had not reached
a
stage at which sculpture in the round natural and easy means of expression.
was a

~r~'&'f/M~–No fulymegalithic monuments have been reported from Libya cast

of Tumsia. For qver jSfty years from the time of their discovery, thé remains of
Roman oit-presses of thé ~c~
type were repeatedty asserted to be megaliths,~ but
J! H.Duveyr;et,P),x.i!g.t,anjtext,p.!so~.
2 C. L. Me)!x,Z.rf'
commenMonthisreiie~
</f ~<7~<v ~fr~W~ p. ~8, bas cxhibited
more zea) th~n eri[!ca)power in his
s H. B~th. ~<'UMM~~«/~M~,vo). i. p. 6}; E. MnBar;t)~t-&.<MM
f~Hminthe Z~mir.~MM/vot.viii.p.~)!
'7])/ ~f~yr~/t-
tdem,~M~f/~m~&~?M~~M/t~~
i~ thc ~P. (/r~f, vo). ii. p. ~26 f~. H. S. Cowper, Hill ~<~ GMW,
")aega)!ths") A. H. K<a1~ ~M, Yo!. i. p. tjS ô. E, Smith, pif ~n'M< ~fMM,
(nma]~ à description of theM
~m (thé thesis of this
"y
)att pub)tttt!M is based "xinty onthe wrpng a~nmption that Tripoli abound~ iti megalithic remains).
 their rea! nature has now generally rscoghized.~ SImi!ar!y, traces of cistvaens
become
and atignments reported from Tripolitana as being of gréât âge are ait either doubtfu!
orcertain!y!ate.~
This is thé more noteworthy, as dolmens,
menhirs, cistvaens, and- cromlechs of
primitive style are fairly numerous in Syria. The scarcity of such monuments in
Eastern Libya is indeed striking, and is hardly to be accounted for except on ethno-
logical grounds the rapid diminution of rude stone monuments, as one passes eastward
along the North African littoral zone, suggests that in the Moghreb once existed a
megalith-building race which was never strongly established in the east. This suspicion
tends to become conviction when it is noted that there is, to an extent qùite as great as
in the east, an absence of true megalithic rcmains in the Sahara.~ In western Europe
and in Spain, and in southern Italy (Terra d'Otranto),G exist megalithic monuments
having distinct affinities with those of north-west Africa. Since in central Italy such
monuments are not found, the natural inference scems to be that the megalith builders
drifted southward through the Iberian Peninsula, established th~m$etves i-~ the Moghreb,
and by way of Malta and Sicily, even reached southern italy. Thé wave that thefe
expended itself in the north appears in the east to have spent its force in Tunisia.
If one attempts to divine .what people thèse megalith builders wcre, thé strong piob
ability appears that they were the Nordic ~anthochroids or blonds. That people seemS
to have come into Africa by way of western Europe, and in the Moghreb, where thé
rude stone monuments are most numerous, the bulk of the fair Africans is jfound. This
theory, which is fairly well sustained by other facts, and which woutd attribute thé
African megaliths to thë xanthochroids whom the,Berbers have partially assimiiated,
was first formutated and supported by General Faidherbe~and maystiUbeacceptedas
essentlaHytrue.
In the historic period some of the Eastern I.ibyans had strongholds, remains of'whiçh
exist in the vicinity of Bueb Bay (S.W. Cyrenaica). In thé precarious lives of thë tribes-
men it was of great importance that they should have within their area some sate place to
which they could resort in time of war, where they could !ayup such bootyor super
fluous goods as came into their hands, and where they could count upon finding strong
a
band of their fellows. That such centres existed is exp!icit!y stated by two classical
writers. "Their leaders," says Diodorus, speaking ofthe nomadic Libyans, Il have
H. M. de Mathuisieutx, t/M ~M~
vol. x. p.
M~w ?'r~ in the JVw~ ~<-<{<~ ~w~
cf. D. R. Maclver and A. Witken, ~<~ Notes, p. ~8. The last two writers say exp!i(;it!y and [fnty
"mmysupposedprehistoricmonumentsof,Tripoli are nothing more remarkab)ethan Roman oit-p~csses."
t have seen rnin$ of possible cistvaens on Seal Island and near Benghazi. H. Duve/rier, ~<f. p. z~Q and p). )f~.
fig. 3, reports a third from Fezzan. Cf. F. Bernard, Note nu ~<<f «!M~< de /&rr~ ~W/~pM <~z /M
Touareg -4zgar and idem, O~~M<M~<<~A/~< The rema!r(slMw
were quiteundataUe, but hy association
appeared late, as is certainly the case W)thDuteyrier'<cist('aen, which isofworitëdshbs.
As in the case of thé "alignment" at Messah, for which see H. S. Cowper,
M~ p. j68 and ~.70
(phctcgraphedbyH.W.B)nndc)i).

~J/ A~n~ ~?<v~f~

s L. L. C. Faidherbe,~r ~~o~ ~<
''P.P~),try,y-~rff~r~~r<-XM~n'~('J,fff.,p.};
A~/M'J~~M,)/
idem,
E.-F. Gautier,

Mm'o idem,
p. 6t.
g~t'M ~e~ j< /'ff/e.
t ,t
 commonly no towns," but "onty strongholds near water." In thèse keeps "thcy store
up thé supernuou! parts of their booty.1 This is connrmed by PImy the E!der, and a
stronghold such as those he and Diodorus mentioned is probably meant by the writer
of thé Stadiasmus whcn he says that at Eperus,~ which lay in desolate
a part cf Syrtis
Major, was a native fort.
Thé literary évidence in regard to thèse Libyan forts is in itself sufficient to establish
the fact of their existence bot, in addition, it fortunately happens that the actual remains
ofsuch buildings have been seen in Eastern Libya by modern travellers, and it is possible
to gain someideaoftheir size, plan, and construction.
The ruins ofone ofth::sestrongho!ds,ofaa rude and primitive type,
are discernible
to-day at Hawah Segal, in south-western Cyrenaica.* The remains consist of large,
fudely-sh&ped stones of oblong shape, planted in the earth
soas to form a rectangle about
~6 by ~mètres. At each
corner the stoncs form sman,circu!arbays,about 2 m. in
dMmeter.markingprobaMy–sosmaUistheir size–the fbundations of circular angle-
buttresses meant to give strength to the walls at their points of juncture- In the middle
()i each of the sides of the fort pair of larger stones, placed
a near tc.gethet-, mark the
places of thé doorways. The rough sketch of Haimann, who discovered this site, is
given in Fig. 66.~ Or i gin ally, Hawah Segal was probaMy stockade, or
a a sort of
thé walls beîng made of mud and brushorsmaU stones.
About à mile (rom these ruins is a second group, built of fewer, but îarger, stones
\yhitetothe north lies yet a th:rd,sma!!ef than, the other, circular, and enclosing
two
t~rge cisterns.
The most considerable native remains in Eastern Libya are to be found in the forts
built of polygonal masonry in the south-western part of Cyrenaica. At point just east
a
<f Cheminer in the Syrtis Major, south of Bcnghaz!, there are," writes Beechey,
several interesting remains of ancient forts, some of which are altogether
on a different
plan from those [Gracco-Romanones] which have been already described.7 The
COuntry in the vicinity of these forts and to the north of them is largely encumbered
b~Mocksofstone,p!aced upright in long lines, whi~h are crossed at right angles by
o~hers, so as to form a labyrinth ofincïosures. This peculiarity appears
to be occasioned
b~ thé nature of thé SoU, which, althoughrich and excellent, is covered everywherewith
a surface ôf stone c.f various thickness, which it is of course necessary to break up and
re;move, in order to cultiyate thé soit beneath. To moye the blocks, which are taken
'D!o<Jort)sSiet))~iii.69.3. ~SM«'mMM~MAf~m',§86,M~at.B<t~~w.
?.Onthisp)ace,seeH.Barth,f~c[c.,to).p.]68.
G.tMmahn, Cw~M in C~r. )88t, p. ~S and tig. :=id<:t), Ctr~fM. :nd éd.
M))M.<886,pp.s8andcUt,Sf).
L ~Fig. 66 is reproduced from ~&<<g.
Haimann's article in the
lion thé same ~gure is reprc.duced, but signed Marzorati," atd retoucha
ta the 2nd edition of thé separate puMic~-
to make the ruins appear more imposing.
j, H, Barth,
JA~, ~): < vol. i. p.
so
Ghemines is there convincin~!y identified with thé ancient Caminos (ofthe
(C~~M~ !n the ~Kont) c~!):). Barth also notes (&f. fit.) thç oceurrtnce of ~mups of these forts
Mitgtunah, Te) A)t)i)s,anJFtMshM,~ttvcenGh.em!nM and Benghazi. at
:!TF.W.and,H.W.BM<:hey,M~CM~ p.:2'tt~
'y
euh ~t~cthcr îmm thé ground, wouM bc l~bor, and they hâve accord-
an end!ess
!n~!v t~Mg~ m~ntioncct, ~erving at thé samc time as bcundaries to
jpMpcny an~ as !mpK!!)npnts M the appr~eh of an enemy Wc discovcred that
!M~ ~tc~ wcre ccc~stQnaUy tcft In diSercnt dircctiqhs, serving as We roads.
t'~r\<~ that :H th~ \dn:ty ef thé (brt$ the watts were usuatty placed much closer
M~thcf, .MtJ thc inctosurcs were !n conséquence smaUcr than in othcr parts."
Thé RMts thcm~d\-cs are "bui!t of large uneqnat-Mxed stones, put together without

F)c.66.(AfterHaimMn.) tx

Çyctô-
any cernent,&ndmade to6t one into another in the manner which bas been ca!!ed
pMn.a Broadiy spcaking, thc size of thèse structures is about 30 to m; in ïength, by
sqUare, with thé angles
2~ to 30 m. in breadth.* "Their form, generally speaking, is
roonded o~f, and some ofthcm are Med up with earth, we!t beaten down, tow!thtn 6 or
8 ~t (t.8~ m. to 2.~ m.) of the top the upper part of thé walt be!iÏg !eft as a parapet
to thc terrace which is formed ofthe earth heapedwthin it. In thé centre of the terrace
wc sometimes found foundations of [later ?] buUdings, as if chambers had been erected
been higher thM thé outer walls
upcn !t thé roofs of which, in that case, must haye
tt M !mpan!Me ftem thé de~enptKM) to oy M'hether th!< h thé true expfaMtio). h~fe teeh Mo'SHeh a!nmenK
inj&rt!)<:Maf«Mnea..
F.W-aadH.W,Be~chcy,)~«~f,,p.ï~t~. H.Barth,o7.p.};),detcribcein timitar t<:r;ni thi) (tistrict
<
~~Z~M~M<<'</t'<!iMy&'MM,
Fcr"Cyc!6pHn"ehou)<)proh!<Myb<eHb9titHKddicw9[<t"po)yg'?')j))."
F.W.M<!H.W.Be<:ct)cy,<f~.p.!t4
~H.B~r[h,f«.p.?)t' TheaimcnHonearethertgivcninfctt–toctct~obySctctCp~
 which fbrmcd thc parapet; and
a space scems atways to hâve been !tft bctwccn the~
Centrât buildings and thé parapet, in which the garrison p!accd ):}emgctv~ when
employed in defcnding the fort. An opening like window
a wa~ observed in thé parapet
t'f one of thé Cyckpian castles of Ghemines, which might have been used for drawing
up those who entercd the fort,
as therc was no other mode ofcntrance whatever. 2
Near mostof thèse strongholds !ies "a sma!t rising ground with
onc or two wells in
it, having the remains of building about it they were generaHy within yards of the
~rt, by which they were commanded.~ In some instances found wells~o in the trenches
st~rrounding thé forts, at others within the outer we
walls," which enc!osed the trenches,
though they lay "more frequentty without the forts attogether.~ Tombs,
eut in the
rncks, occur in the vicinity of some of the forts.
The castles hâve, most of them," to quote Beechey further, been surrounded with
a trench, on the oucer side of which there is generally a low waU strongly built of large
stones. Some of the trenches excavated in the solid
depth and width, and in one instance, occurring between Ghimenez [~-]
rock.
areofconsideraMe
and Benghazi, we
observed chambers excavated in the side of thé trench, in that which surrounds
as
thje second Pyramid [at Gîzah].~ The trench of the fort here a!!uded to is about
n~e and twenty feet in width [about 7.62 m.], and its depth about Meen
[about ~.37 m.j
the fort itself is an hundred and twenty-five feet in length, and ninety in width
[abou~
3~.to m. by 27.3 m.], of a quadrahgular form, and in the
centre of each of its [tour ?]
sides is a quadrangular projection, sloping outward from the
top [~< ba~ef:ng;j of twenty
re~t in length by twelve [6.0~
m. by 3.66], whieh appears to bave served both as a tower
and buttress."
a 6

It is that thé drawings in Fies. 67,67~, 68, etc., have b~en made.
fro<n thèse details
Fig.67 shows in plan a typical fort of the Ghemines group, thé details being
dc~ved from the général statements of Barth and Beechey Fig. 67~,
a transverse
central cross-section of thé same. Fig. 68 reprësents the stronghold for whicb
Beechey
i'
m/M~fM~jMfw<MM~
M~
H. Barth G~ “< M~M
"y
~F.W.andH.W.Be~hey.p.
~P- ~S- The ~ces ofbuitdings about the wells "were sometimes very considerable'" but f.aM t~tifr oah
-t~
,p.~6.
having been a number ofaquafe-bui)t 8
rooms of varying s.M placed about thé M-e)k whh Mm: ~<,w of ret~mn-

thé ch~be~weM thc .ut~faM.f thétrench. Mdnotu~

<p.)~6.
tton, thé
fi" ~f
chambers
H.
m
weré magaxiMs.
w~r
said
of th~ wa)b or along thé bas:,;'but in consttucting thé pla-n and the Mct;OM
the fort itself.

(F.p.me~ur~enR
To judg,e from their
w~ taken
~ng .h: top
67, 6~, .S, 6~ t h~e a~amed thé
F,4,s~-

f.n.n~thet,y,.tebuttrc~~).p,d..outwardfrpmthetop/ifthe'measutemenG
wo<)d be yvere taken bciotr it
mo~ pr.pM to .ay they .)op:d ".hward towsrd thé top." On page ~6 one Mads "thë m~~m~t. r.fth..
fort, are hère 6.~n in thé rough, but they ~!)) be found!n~ by are~ncc M thé ground plan ~d et~don~.h,
~ate
?"P'
conta.h.ng the details of soine ofthe for. Unh.pp.ty:th!< !ne .f ~).fth.ph~ Beecheys book

'd' "h~imp.,t.nt~ 'r, of

nor,às was peoiliised (P. S7' note) w:th oth~ made in Egypf and Nubh
~yh <or thcse m.~mg dr~ngsin thé British Muséum and the Admi~)ty
~hY~ Areh~M has p~j h M e~th1~v
than

,l,
 g!ves his most detailed account. F!gs. 68a, 686, two sections on the lines A-B and C-D
m thé plan. A $tfonghotd of the Chemines type existing at
a point* between Benghazi
and WagMah is given in Ftg. 69, 6~, 69~. The details from which the st~etches have
beeft constructed are thus given by Hamitton :–
Hanayah is à

.t
strong fortress of very early architecture, and by far the most curious
Construction 1 had met with in these tountries. The squared mass of rock oh which thé keep is
t't
L ')~ is not higher than the
built
ground
.t surrounding
t.
but it is isolated by a dry
moat, <ourteen feet [4.27 m.] wide and
nine [2.74. m.jdeep, eut in the living
rock. On the square mass, eighty feet
[2~.38 m.] on every side, left in the
centre, rose the waUs of the keep, of
which only a few feet'iti height now
romain. It is approsched by means of
à wa)), hardiy Cfteen inches [38 cm]
broad, which is built across the moat on
one side. This wa!i was, perhaps, once
the support of a movaHe bridge.
interior of the rock's base is entire!y[?]
Thé
ekcavated, forming centre chamber,
nbw open to the sky, and entered by
a flight of steps round this chamber
are
eut a hutnber of va~Its, communicat-
ing with it, and having small openings, to >
admit light and air, pierced in the sides.
This is, however, onlv the smallest part
ùf thé old stronghold, its site being in-
crë~sed by extensive caves, to thé nimber
oftwenty-eight, eut inthe rock, bëyond
thé moat, into which they all open. In
n~) part of these labotious excavations
c~uid 1 discover any inscription, or
évidence of their origin, but judging
~'om thé beaufifut exécution of the
tCho!e–from the form of theiamp-
ntehes which
are eut in several of thé
y~utts, as well as the gênera) style, re-

Like
s~mb)!ng what is fbund in sSme of the
Greek isies–][ have no hésitation in ascribing it to a date coeval with the best moruments of Cyrene.~
group, Henayahcommands wells, which containthc last
Sweetwatertobe~~with before reaching è~Vagîlah.~ °

i Thçre can be no doubt these forts are mdigenous, since they are quite different both
~AbputsevmmitMS.S.W.fromAgedabhh.
.)~ J. Hamitton, ~~nx~.t, p. l~. Needtes~ to say, the ptans based on these data are cap3b!e of ghmg only thé
of the building. How did the steps runf What site were thé tauttsf What ~'as the width from waU
moM general idea
/p,
i'
Mcstttrtthamb<r?et< t76.
in plan and structure from the Punie, Greek, or Roman fortifications of Africa, and they
are of commonest occurrence in a region where the foreign élément was so weak as to
be of least ~mport&nce. Barth supposed that the forts belonged to the Auschisae,l since
those he saw were on the verge of their old territories but it has been shown earlier
in this essay that thé most stable ethnie group in thé eastern portion of the Syrtica
Regio was that of the Nasamones, within whose northern frontiers the Ghemines forts lie
and it is possible that to these tribesmen and not, to their less powerful neighbours
the strongholds once belonged. At all events, they testify that the builders either
possessed no little skill in building stone structures themselves, or that they cornmanded
and directed this skill in others.
în regard to date, it can'only be said that by their style they should be fairly early
and, since they !Ie within thé Mediterranean sphère, they may be provislohatly assigned
to the great era of polygonal masonryy structures, /.< circa thé ninth and eighth centuries B.Ct
t
They probably are the structures reputed by thé Greeks to have been, like similar
ones in Sicily, Sardinia, and Italy, the handiwork ofCronus~ a pc";<;ibi!itv which would
not in the least intertere with their having served in full historié times as the strongholds
mentioned by Diodorus Siculus.. The forts of this type, ït may be said without reserve,
are the most important architectural monuments of indigenôus East Libya, and those
which call most impsrativety for scienti6c investigation.
In concluding this topic, mention may bc made of the fort shown in Figs. yo,
70~, 71, 72. This structure has the appearance pf being of a !atc date (presumabiy
i

Roman), but from its hav!hg the ultenor of thé endosures pardy 6tted w!th earth may

~'<<r~ p~ x«2a'i't~
Herodotusiv. t~
be regarded as rdated in some way to thé Ghemines~tronghoids. It stands in the

H.Barth, p. ~M<'fM-~MO~z~M</rfr~/MM~
~M~M< <<i<n&'&o.
!i DiodorusSicutus iu. 6). ); cf. CratM m
<7~~<'r~~<'r<'M/!<'fmw~

L)'dus, ~fi\).S,
 western part of the Gulfof Bombah, about a mile inland, and consists (Figs. yo, yo~) of
two rectangular enclosures, a greater (ca. 30 by 27 m.) and a less (ca. 20 by 25 m.). The
latter on its eastern side shows the remains of a sma!!<:r enclosure (tower ?) built against

t~e waU; thé former, outside the northern wat!, has the remains of
a double

!I. ,~4-
ramp, M. 2 m. wide, leading up from the east and thé west to the mtddteofthe

·, `.
~· ~·a~, :·
,e :z.nra.

1
w~tt, andalmost to its top (Fig.'7z~. Wi'thin each enclosure thé remains of several
Â~b gràve-Cirdes of smaU stones. A narrow ~ay, about 3.60 n).wids, séparâtes thc
two cnctosures.~ The walls, which are ruinous, stitt stand in places as high as 4. m-,
and are built of small rudely-shaped stones, laid in courses.
The district in which this fort now stands is one which received slight Roman
innuence, and is near the site 6rst occupied by thé Theran colonists on thé Libyan main-
tand.~ The plan of the structure, however, leads to thé conclusion that one is here
confronted with a Libyan building.
The <A~Âwof the Eastern Libyans wcre anciently, as to-day, caves,permanent
houses, or movable shelters. In Cyrenaica ~re a number of Inhabited caverns among
thé hills of Gebel el-Ahdar, and in the Gebet Gharyan are whole troglodytic com-
mualtiesdwetting in artificial caverns.3.
The bulk of thé Eastern Libyans, however, bëing semi-nomadic, did not !i\'e in
stable dwellings, but in tents or booths. The Lit an invaders of Egypt in the
XIXth Dynasty had tents of Ï6ather/ likt: those stl!l used in'Fezzan. That, at a pcriod
mueh later, tents continued to be used, as .at the présent day.among the Àrabs of
Tripolitana and western Egypt, is attested by thé descriptive term S~)4T<t< applied by
Ptolemy~to certain of the EastLibyansofhistime.
Besides tents, another form of movable shcîtcr was in use among the Libyans.
This was the //M~<~ of the Roman writers, a portable hut or booth,like the ~f~
of the Katmuks of modern Astrakan.7 Shelters of this sort were used by the Nasamones,
whose dwellings," says Herodotus, arc made of the stems of asphodèle and reeds,
watdedtogether."
These booths could be c.arried about from place to placer and were little more than
rtimsy screens against sun and wind.~ Simitar structures were used by anothef Libyan
people, farther west, if the name Asphodelides, given to them by Diodorus,~ may be
supposed a descriptive (like the term S~MT~t notêd above), referring to thé use of
booths of asphodel-wattling, to the employment of which among the Nasatnones
Herodotus testiSes. Mapalia were used bythe Numidians and Mauri In thé west,~
In the interior of Marmarica,~ and by the African herdsmen genera!ty. In the time
of the Punic Wars, the Numidian soldiers had no~ther shetter in thé field than thèse
buts," a circumstance which, becauseoftheirinnammabiîity,made it eas? for Scipio
on one occasion to rire the camp of Syphax.~ Onthe outskirtsoftheAfrO-Romàn
So in m~ note-boot, and therefore 59 in the pians, but t confest that my memory retttb !")<) one of th,'
photographe (P!g.~<)M<:ms to show,a s)!ght!y greatet interval. The visit 1 ibade to this site ('ht~o~)tvas attet)de3~r
wt~ Ctrcufnatanc~whïch<~n)te preclededthe making ofsuch âccurate observations as thé tuins itïërite~.
Fi. Barth, op. tif, p. ;07 and notes, s H Vischer, ~M<~ M< p. )8 < BAR iii, § i;8<).
~'PM]emyiv.7§to. IisoathcrnFeMan. AccordingMLucian(~~MA~,§!)theGaraman:eswereteht-d~

~f~ Gencra))y found in ~he plural )n a cottcçtivc sen~c– y~<;&

as in Festua, p. ~!8 (Éggcr), ~~& MMf fef~Mt
M! < ~r~ <(;&~ Mff/M'~f c~. Thé nrigin of thë
~J.Dtn!)t4r,~<p,t<<(.~ndng.~t..
nan)c is Q~cure,
batgenefa!))'suppp<e<)<obcPt)n!c..Afar!ant!9~
~Hero~ùtM~fiv.~o. SHe!)an!~us,~r~.<n/C==A!hchacns,D~p,.jL6aB.
~'DiojonNS)!:Ht)M)tit. 5. "San[)st,);Vn~;P!!nyv.),~vi.
12 Mela i. 8. Among thé peopieofMarmaricaaway from the coast </«fM~~«~< <M~/«;~M~)«/«/ 'yet
far(h:rsonc!)th<:non)adte/{ef<t/~A<&fM/M/,<yo~f!f~tr«t/M~n!t<f<'M.
'Verg)),GMr~.)ii.~a-3~o;Livy)H[~.3).
e. ~Uvyxxx.}.
3: "<xxx.s/
s,-
 towns groups of m~patia were to be found collected, like thé Arab or Berber shelters
which are pitched outside the modern settlements in North Africa to-day. It was for
this reason that the name mapalia, <<M/&? came to be used to designate a native quarter.
Thus, :n an inscription found at HensMr Mettîsh ici Tunisia, a locality is described as
FVNDVS vtH.At: MAGNA& vARtANtiD EST MAppAHA stGA.~ This name indicates that
the Roman town was placed on the site of a native mapalia called Siga. At Carthage
w~s a Via Mappaliensis in the time of St. Cyprian Martyr,2 and as this street was distant
frûm the centre of' the town, it probably ran through, and derived its name from, an old
native suburb once occupied by booths. A parallel is seen in modern Tripoli Town,
wtiere a long street~ running south from the'Kasbah, passes first among good houses,
then among poor and scattered ones, and at last goes through a settlement of wattled buts
inhabited by Fezzanî blacks. The modern buildings, was probably true of those of
as
thp Carthaginian street, are slowly encroaching upon the quarter of the booths.
In form the ~a/)a/M doubtless varied according to thc tocality, and pertiaps evcn
ac~ording to thé ~ncy of the individual builders.' Someof them looked like inverted
b~ats,~ and
were supported insidebystakës or pôles driven into thé ground.~ These
could not hâve vatied greatly from thé Tripolitan booths mentioned above. Others
ar~ described by M. Jérôme as resembling ovens:
<f~ ~K~~ M~y' f/Mr~M ~<
f~f/y~M~M.~
This seems to be the type reprcscntcd in two
pa~t~fâl tno$~cs fbund at cl-'Àlïah in TunIs.Ia.* Thé
m~aics show two Nile scènes, but the North African
artist ha!: mtroduced ititO them pictures of buts which
are clearly M~M.* The shelters are made of light
stttvës, topped with a wattled cone, which is curiousiy
el~ngated (Fig. 7~
A type somewhat diSerent is i'
that representcd in a môsaic ôf Udnab. ïn this picture
!s ~een a {arm-house, beside which. !s a tow thatched hut
W th a
pent-housC roof for thé slaves, a styl~ qf shetter
w uch theré is no tothink other than native.~
“
reason
Ahother thatphed type~" is shown oh a sarcophagus now in thé muséum at
*J.Tput~m,A~et~f0~f~W~~
~P.art,P'8i
";li2)?.~uJq~rh
S
Nunsid ans.
!i'<i~ns,
Th6se ofthe
C.T' zoui;
7~r/~
G'ide I,~ 'C.Til$Qt,
Sa))ust,
d`Nenrlrir Mettirh, pP·
Glo$raphre
ifyii!.
4 Livy
rp:trprrfe, vol,
icRR.
L!vy xxx.
3 3.
i, ,f'
7,G~t,
13.,

/</r'
S, Hterenyinos, pral. ~lr.f.f.
-~<'M.
.~P.GaucMer.m~C~
'('
.P.?. .––
< l'Aced. deJ Intrrèpa:,}898'1>0~~ rgg.
~M.~MA.v~ ~v., 1900n?nzeigrr, 1'.67.67, fig. 2,68./i~.3.>
L'O..

î Thu etongationis <~c[)yparat)e!e<tamongt))< Niam~Hiams M-dayt tf. C. Seh~futth, ~ftM ~~<r<nf«t', pl. S,
figs. ), Thea Pto)çn)a!<:
esp~<:M))y
eio~gatéJ type «f hut !s
purpo~ pf thé etonganon drawofthë'smQ~t<:M,ir.j!<ceofpt.ti. IMs
M
~~n~, p).
seM !n repr~entation ojE the Pt)nt!te shnne of Mttt. M,*P. W Pttne,
'*ëseU,~Kt~~f~M/p~ in pl,ü.
i'DatembefgBndSagtM.DMfmMt'~and cf. G.
Mappalia." r.rarL. ',0, < cxiv,
––
s
P. plartirde, pl,
 PhHippeviMe (Fig. y~). This little structure has walls of wattle, and a conical roof
cf thatch.~ As a whole, thé WM~/M tnay be cons!dered as divisible into two générât
classes, within which accident and locality produced many variations (<!) thé type

of which Sallust speaks, and of which thé modem Tripolitan booths are examples, and
thé type shown in Figs. In
thé 6rst typt, an elongated ground-pïan
73 and 74..
is covered by a pent-roof or arched wattling, so as to suggest the shape of a cucumbef
sp!it lengthwise in the second, a circular area is enclosed by a waH of paling or
wattling, which is capped by a pointed roof. Smalt portable buts of both sorts are
found among the mcdern Berbers.2
Besides dwelting in caves and movable buts or tents, the Eastern Libyan$ had

permanent houses, at least in the oases. Thèse, Herodptus~ and PHny record, were
built of salt. This statement is pnlysitghtiymisteading to-day,fbrthewa!tsofSî~n
Probably the top of :he doot was not eut up into the thttch as shown. Thereasott why the h)'{ is M repre-
seMcd on the sarcophagus may be simply to allow the tcuJptor to add tothé height of the woman he show~Ttahdmg in thé
entrance. !n <ig. 7~, 9!though thé femate figure is p~rp~etyomf.i'<~ t hâve drawn thé door M g!ve~ (incorrect)y on the
monument. Hats, ~copt~r thé door, like tM} ~o~ ~rt tv te Ap)bn !n Bomu, Bof!:)); ~d Tibest!, For wh!ch
f/<& Q.NacMga),&~<&< the?' Jh\N<?.
and !de)n in t~, <88o; pp, ~7~) ~*)~{.
C. TjSMt,<v/. vo).j.p.~S! cf. p. ~Ct ,0. C< ~Jf~.
M<:)tz< vol. i. p. 70~.
~~Herodotmiv.tS;
Pt!nyv.M!dofthe Amantes. Cf.<&'4!fMi.7.fofsimihrstroetutes9tGerrhinA'rab!a.
 houses, the beams of which are of patm-togs, are constructed of rubble m!xcd with
ahardmud-and-saltp!aster.'
It remains to say a word m regard to the cisterns and grain-stores of the Eastern
~.tbyans. At a very eariy period thé Libyans must hâve buHt wel!s and cisterns,
as opposed to mere water-holes dug m the
sand. The PsyUi~ according to Herodotus~
storcd theirwatcr m tanks; and the great
tomber of wells a~d cisterns one encount$rs
m passing from Egypt to Tunisia, while
largely of Roman construction,had probably
in many instances an earMer origin. Grain-
stores are often found to-day, but, as with
~yeUs, tt is seldom possible to say of any one
of thcm that it is Greek, Roman, or Libyan
they
are all simply square or bottle-shaped holes cut in the rock,like the modern
grain-stores of Malta. That grain-vaults weré of fréquent occurrence in Libya is
hino~n from literary as from monumental sources. It is the custom of the Africans,"
s~ys the historian of Caesar's Africari War, to place their grain privately in underground
Vaults, to keep it safe in war-time and to protect it from sudden descents of thé
enemy.a Figs. y~, y~< y6, y6< y~, y~ give plan and section of a large cistern
ip Mariut, a smaller on Seal Island (Guif of Bombah), and a grain-store at Marsa Suzab
(Apollonia) respectivcly.
f~j~
G. Steindorf, D&~ die ~T!M< zer ~OMM~, 6gs. :8, jf, 3~, ~8, 60, etc., give admnaMeillustrationsof
tttis architecture, which, one may be sure, d!<Tcrs)itt!e,if atat), from thatofandenttimes.
~Herodotusiv.!73. ~Cacsar,D~?~r/MM)xv.
 CHAPTER VIII
RELIGION

THE extant materials from which may be derived some knowledge of the religion of
the Eastern Libyans are in the pages which follow treated by a comparative method
which, were there more data. would be unnecessary. It should be further premised
that thé comparative method employed has forced me to adopt a number of views which
have no.t, hitherto, been advanced elsewhere, and which, therefore, have not the
advantage of having been subjected to publia criticism. In presenting the evidence, it
has been found best to do so under thrce heads first, the animistic phases second,
eschatology third, theology. Detailed consideration of these topics will permit us
to conclude with a few remarks of a general nature.
The most primitive religious beliefs of the Eastern Libyans were of the simple
animistic sort common to all peoples in an unadvanced stage of development. Very
early in their career the world and its phenomena seemed to the savage inhabitant of
North Africa pregn&nt with spiritual forces. Wells, trees, hills, clouds, wind-storms,
etc., were each o~ them the abiding-place of spirits which gave to them their distinctive
characters. Lon~ after such beliefs had given place to other and larger conceptions,
they themselves yet had a hold upon the popular mind, some of thèse'animistic ideas
surviving in Eastern Libya even at the present time. This, for example, is seen in thé
case of wells. At Sîwah, the people yet believe nrmiy that thé '~M in thé oasis are
inh:tblted by spirits which have, under Islamic influence, come to be Mentined
with the Kuranic ginn. Spmetimes these émerge from their watery hpmes in
the shape of horses, gcs':s, asses, or other animais. Bathing in Bîr Ahmed, a weH-
spring no longer in use for household purposes, is supposed to render women more
attractive, and is especially popular with wldows and diYorcedwomen. Women bathe
weekiy–gcneraUy now on Fridays–in 'Ayn et-ïsgawah, 'Ayn et-Bahitrî, and especi- >,
aUy in 'Ayn Musa (Tidt mta Musa) that they may be comely. In thé last-named.
well, which is a b~autifui pool lined with Roman masonry, and about ten mètres °

across, boys bathe before circumcision and young women, befbre their mafnage, there
 bathe thcmsetves carefully, the act being regarded atmost as an essential part of the
marnageceremony.'
In the face of these modern survivals of primitive superstitions, it is not surprising
to nnd ahcient indications of similar beliefs. ïn classical times thé sacred Fountatn of
the Sun at Ammonium (Sîwah) attracted the notice of a number of writers, who
~scribëd to it thermal qualities which it probably had, and capricious changes of co!our
which It atmost certainly lacked.2 In thé west. Roman dedications–GENio F'.vM'~s,~
~EN!0 FONT's/etc.–arenumerous enough to suggest that, in those parts, native super-
stition was often attached to streams and springs.~ Probably the splendid and beautiful
fpuntain at. Cyrene, which in Greek times was dedicated to ApoUo/ had already been
an object of révérence before the days of Hellenic colonization.
Stones of remarkable. shape or size were, by a people to whom all natural objects
were instinct, with a mysterious life, considered as having in them what, in modem
parlance, we might call soûls." Such a stone is that mentioned by Pliny/ on the
authority ofMe!a,*asbemgamongthc sacra at Ammonium. Werè a man so bold
as
t<~ touch it with thé hand, there arose straightway a strong ..sand-vrind, violent and
harmfuh tn the west, this ahimisttc conception of Menés is yet seen in the
case of an
àerplith in the R~r of Tementit in Tuat.~ If at Siwah a man stumbïes against a stone,
aM thereafter chance to fall ill, he Is thought to have annoyed a jM/M, and
a ceremony of
conciliation to effect the invalid's recovery is gone through at thé place of his misadventure.
'1.
Besides stones, hills aiso were revered by the Libyans in classical times. This,
nàturally, was more particularly the case in the mountainous west'" than in Eastern
Libya, but even in thé latter region, hills were sometimes believed to have their
informing spirits. In the anonymois Arabie ~iistory of Sîwah, one reads of hIU south
a
of Bahreyn, thé ascent of which nMed its discoverers with an oppressive and unreasoning
~ffor." A stfikiag analogy is oiTered by a passage of Pliny in regard to Mt. Atlas
a reUgious fear, he writes, seizes on the hearts of those who draw near it, especially
at thé sight of the summit upreared above the ctouds, and which seems as if nigh to
t!~e very moon.12 Thé same feeling of awe at présent attaches
to the Idînen ~M~y
j C. V. St!m)ev, MS.
Notts made at
//M<'w,iaC&y,vo).v.no.$,p.<)o~.
Siwah, I$)0, 0. Bâtes, MS. y~rM/at Siwah, t9to; iacm, Na'~ Super-

v.jHerodotus iv.
Mela t. 8
<8t; Diodorus Sicuius xvii. so; Arrian, ~M~jM iii.
Mf~m~.
Ovid,
L~ctantias,<).<(0beriin's
xv. 30~ ~.j Lucretius, De
~.Cursus iv. 9;- Pjiny ii
~n/m Mm/<), v. 8-).8, ViHus Sequester p
notes) ;AntigonusCarystius,MYr<:&V.c)ix.
)o?
:.t'
''C~,yM.97~. ~C/yii).t!9'. ~Cf.C/vii).266:66<S~
'P)!nyii.
''phbtpgraph.
~Cf.C.t))!n).'<:hu!a~AM.
'f
C G. Rohlfs, ~w Ar~ ~r~f, p.
~Metai.S.
La<;uHre, Z~ ~M~M~w~ t)'f <t~fr~/ ~rpf~,

MR.,Bassetj,<~<')'~<'j~f/<M~MjBfyM~,p.t~.
"T)'isMS,!s~fragmsn[pfa)ongerworh,now!ost. T,hef<'r'<rowneroftheboo)t,SheyHOntarMuse))tm
p. z: wi[h

had
m~moriz.ed thé parts te)at!ng .M S!wah, and at my rcqnest dictatcd thosc parts M Dr. ~aMn Effendi Farid in ~Qtp.
Captain $tan)eyartd tthmobtMt)ed cur copiés. Th~ work is of~nMrMin ()at<bnt was said M hâve heencompijed
~bp~tA,H.8oo==f!ft~enthe<turyA.ttcerta!n!y,a5fe<!actcd,h3L~mat'iyrcccntsdd!t]Ons.
.EyMnnhardt.
i-Pimyv.t) ef.Ma!fimus Tyrius, Dt<A<MMf tiii. Martianus Capetfa, D~ ~/w~M< vi. p. t!Q M.

L. .t~Mt~tWMMtMtiMt~
 north of Ghat, which the Azgar Imushagh (Tuareg) dare not penetrate.' Similarly,
Mount Udan is regarded with superstitious dread by the local lhaggaren.~
Mention is made above of a sacred stone noticed by Mela and Pliny. The ternes
in which the former writer speaks of this object are such as to indicate not only an
animistic conception of unusual stones, but of the winds as we!L The Roman geographer
says that at Ammonium there is "a certain stone sacred to the South Wind (-~M~o
M~~). When it is touched by the hand, straightway there arises a wind which,
hurling the sand about like water, rages as if over waves. In conjunetion with other
évidence, this passage shows that the Libyans had à belief in the spiritual nature of the
south wind--a belief so strongly rooted in the Berber mind that it has endured even
until modern times.4
Classical readers will readily recall Herodotus's story of
the destruction of thé
Psylli. According to thé Greek historian, the tanks in which this people stored their
water were made dry by a long continued south wind. The Psylli thereupon determined
to go to war with this wind, so at least," Herodotus cautiously remarks, the Libyans
report," The Psylli marched into the desert, where a great wind arose from the south
and overwhelmed them in the sands.
In conjunction with this legend may be noted that of the expédition despatched by
Cambyses III. against Ammonium, as related by thé saine writer. It is only necessary
first to remark that such an expédition, directed against a gréât désert sanctuary, was,
according to Herodotean ethics, a thing recklessiy Impious, doomed from thé Outset
to be visited with divine displeasure. Thé Persians are said to have left Thebes and to
have reached the Great Oasis (Hargih) in safety. But thereafter,"naught is to be learned
of them, except what the Ammonians, and those who derive their knowledge from them,
report." The Persian army never reached Sîwah, nor came again to Egypt, disaster
having overtaken them, according to the Ammonian story, at a point midway between
Hargah and the objective point. "As they were at their middaymeat.aa wind, arose
from the south, strong and deadly, bringing with it v&st cotumns of whirlihg sand,
which wholly covered the troops and caused them entirely to disappear–thus, according
to the Ammonians," concludes Herodotus, with a complacent sensé of impiety avenged,
"did it fare with thi? army." 7
The former of these stories certainly, and the latter in all prbbability, is apoêtyphal.
The true story of the Psylti, as will be elsewhere pointed out, appears to be that they
were beaten back from thé coast by the Nasamones,who seized their lands. As regards thé
2
H. Barth, ~WM e~
H. Duveyrier, <
~a! ~< vot. p. !S8 H. Daveyner, ?'eMr~ <~ ~)'< p. f~.
j M. Benhazera, Six <M;'j ~fa: ï~~r~.f Ahhagar, p. 60, 1 Me!i', /M.
< What follows is bas:d on 0. Bates, A B~~< Ce~, in thé CSy, vol. iv. no. ;), p. :Q6 t may hcre take
MuehwiththcposK.
occasion to ofTer a <ong-de!a~ed apotogy for the misprints in that article, which appeared while t wa! itt thé désert, out of

f~r~by j.j~.) thé expédition of the PsyUiiWM made by

south.
Rcpeated almost A. Gellius, A~~y xvi. tf.
Herodotus iv. t~j. According to Nonnus (D&~MM, itiii. }8t
sea(!), and the sh!ps were sankbytempMtsfrom the
Herodotus iii. 2~ 26.
expédition of Cambyses, it must be said that sandstorm which would literally overwhelm
Such a storm may have occurred,
an army is a phenomenonoutside all modern experience.
but the likelihoed is that, getting bewi!dered in an ordinary sandstorm, the Persian soldiers
became panic-stricken, killed their guides, or were deserted by them, and wandered about
until they wereovercomebythirst.' But whatever the exact historical basis for tb~
tales, the points here to be observed are (a) that in each of the above instances, Herodctus,
ai so often happens, is repeating a native story and (6) that in one an affront against the
sOuth wind, and in another an impious attempt upon a desert sanctuary, was supposed to
have beén punished by the offenders being over-whelmed by sandstormsfrom the south.
A striking parallel exists to thé story of Cambyses's army in the anonymous History
of Sîwah." According to the Arabie historian, the last pre-Islamic king of Santar~h
(Sîwah) despatched against the Moslemîn who had invaded Egypt–again, be it observed,
ah act which, from the writer's point of view was one pf <impiety–a great army. The
fbrce consisted of many thousands of men, who after leaving Bahreyn encountered a
of
very terrible wind two days south of that place, which killed nearly all them."
Another passage from the same source deserves here to be cited. Thé historian
says that certain cf the Sîwans relate that they visited Bahreyn, and there found a track
going south. This they traveUed for two days, and came then to a well-marked
r~ad." Following this, they reached a place where were the statues of four tiont,
t~o facing to thé north and two facing. to the south. And these statues were black.
They spied then a ~/M~, and a dark valtey.
The Sîwans sought to entct' the
VaUey, but a gréât sand-wind withheld them. They became enteeb~ed, and returned
again to Bahreyn after mnch travail."
Thé primitive idea that the winds were intormedwtth spirits bas not died outof
~astern
Libya Tothis day thé Kibly (~,), or South Wind, because of its power and
désert brigin, Is thing universally dreaded by thé caravaneers of Nc.rth Africa, and is
a
regarded animistically. Thé duct column whirling along the edge of the cultivation in
Egypt Is there stiUspokenof as a~~(~~&)or "devi! The Arabs in Egypt
regard thé ~M z~
(~j~). cr whirlwind, ànimisticaUy,~ believing that it is caused
~y thé mghtof an evil~'K~to défend themselves against which they often cry out
~Iron! Ifott"'or"Iron! thou uniucky!" as the~'M are thought to have a great
<tread of that meul As tate as the middte of last century, a feud which was going on
t)etween two Sîwan factions was stopped because there arose a ~)', which the Lifayah,
~neof thé factions, regarded "as thé untailing signal ofsômecalamity.5 The Sîwans
of tb-day believe that the atmosphère is peopled whh who, though "good," are
,.J,rrttaMeandcâprtcious.
t Cf. for a modem parallel, S. W. Baker, The Nile ?}-f~ ~MM, Lonjo~, 1867, p. «
~«&~M,p. 17}*
DuK-spirats were animistically conceived by thé tnedueval Arabs, W. H. Smtth, \R~«!) {/&' ~m' p. 134
/E~3.
.ïnd~ Lane, y~
<, E. W. yXM;M~ One JV' vol. i. A~ ? /e<rM~h'M,p. 3t. Cf. idem, ~w<~
and C<f~m<
'j.Ham:)ton,w~.p.
 Further évidence on this head need not be cited ehough bas atready been said to
give point to Mat~ft~s remark that part of thé inhabitants of Africa, like thé
A~yfNns, gave to the air a sort of domination over thé other éléments.' An animistic
view of atmosphère phenomena is one which is shared by many primitive peoples," and
thé question r«;ed nM be further dwe!t on.
That the raifbow and the mirage were both animisticaUy regarded in Eastern Libya
seems proved by the way ln which they are st!U viewed. Thé former is by some
Berber tnbes of the west spoken of as the "bride of thé ram," or "br!de of the sky," 3
and, like the latter, is regarded as having an informing spirit.
The pnmitive Libyan. living in a wonder-world of inspired stocks and stones, gave
to the heavenly bodies also their share of mysterious life. In later timës, the anthropo-
morphism which gre\v out of thé vague sentiments of thé ruder stages of culture, led to
thé actual worship of the stars,* and the doctrine of astral animation is seen surviving in
Berber legend to-day.~ In Roman times the Africans in général werc held to be good
astyotoger~: Septimius Severus.who was ofAfrican origin, wàs considered e5pec!alty
adept in this art.~ This is not extraordinary, when one considers the brilliancy and
magniSceoce of thé stars as seen in thé desert, or even in Egypt, where à host of
ammKMc beUer! attached M an early time to the imperishable stars.' The animistic
beHe& oftbe ancient Libyans, in fine, were such as might atmost be argued for them a priori
&otn a knowledge of their climate and natural environment. In their nMin outlines they
diSered but little, in so far as they are known, from those of the Sémites of Arabia, or
those of the Hamites of East Africa.
ït remams. in connection with the more primitive phases of Libyan religion, to say
something of taboos~ magie, and manës-worship. The Libyan taboos known to-day
are but few. The Imushagh abstain, as has been said earlier in this essay, from eating
btF<îs,6sh,and Hzards,*on thé score that these animais are "thcir mother's brothers."
This reason at once suggests both that thèse taboos are totemic and matriarchal in their
Ftrm~a~ M~c~no~ ~'r<v/r~y. ~v~. 3. Ha adds thé latcr c!aboratîon that thc A~ <pnse~ratec! thé air to
~Lîmo'ofCoc&eM~eaVenEB. C~C/Z'viîi.~6~~and,p€rhaps,vm.t~y6~
CH Hom~, 0~ ~~<
Wn~-Htem&tt) G. W, Bateman, Z~zf~
J. E. Harrison, ~'y<~<!t~~ /<
7~
&K~ ~Cr~ ~M, p. ty6 (the K~
Taler, p.!X In thé beautiM
p. 6X R. N, Bain, CMM<
BiMtCtt p~a~t m wh!c& EKjth has speech with God (t ![!)[. tt) the divine voice is not in the nre, nof in thé earth-
<p[ate, aot tft thé w!'M~n<~ becaa~e thé writer of thé p~ags was a protestant against tarrent anmwtK: viewt of the~e
c~~rt! pttefMCMM. Thé rM~f is ofcoaoe familiar with {h? {'crsonincation) of HeHenistic aft (Bore~, Notus,
Z<p&yn!~ete.n~Wtt!i!tt:As~naow!n<<emon!poftraye<tintheK)tef!. ~R.Ba;set,<y.p.t~.
LeoAfn<~att~C~M~Mf~,tot.i.)ib.i.pp.!6!,t~. tNayhercremarkthattheLibyanhaMt~frectfon-
tBgfïtBefiym~&CiHttOt!!M:S92fityev)denceof)aMrobteTvance.TheaNthontyfofthtspracticeitNicohasDamMçenus
(~'hg. ap, Cr<i~&<?, ~<y~~ t~~M'~&nM~, etc. p.
~t'. ;), o! No/toot! TtSc At~mf, o~ Tft! ~~xt~, <!AAf[ ïm!! f~ft
ctMw ~<<%«t~f T~ Thé CM of "n!ghtt"here i5 pa~i<!)c)ed by thé "eteeps" of thé Inuit and many modem,

·
yncMnve p<:cp!e. R. Basset, < <'< p. i cf. H. Daveyncf,
Spert~m~ C< < cf. SidontM Apottimne, viii,
~A-Efm!ttt,&f~~ ~)~t?~
~< tt (p. {!8); Léo A<icant)9, f/. <
p.
p.
'77.
~M,pp. !,7,.8X, pt. For some classical notices on Egyptian atar-cuttut,
P. B, ~'Mftftttt, f~~M ~f&~o'. Part i;. p. t~6 Libyan stellar observance t! perhapt to be inferred from a
~g~nett: af .~y<-e$ K!K~ttSt, who remart! that AMcan cattle, at thé Ming of Sinm, turn to face jt. Lycas Rheginut,
~j'.t.t.m~'A'G.
Tfitft itft
in Notth AMea Mv~fa! targe <~ib!< tizarJt, )!tte thé "monitor,"
"~1'c
 engin. In these fenses they hâve been repeatedty cîted by varions writers, but it bas
not bcen taken into aceount that these taboos may all of thcm be pf comparattvely fecent
origin among thé Berbers. Thé bird, the 6sh, and the snake are ail great totem-animale
tn Nigeria but among the ancient Libyans we find some of the Inhabitants of Syrtica
t~egio who wcre ~sh-eaters,~ as were the Libyan dynasts of thé Egyptian Delta,~ white
i~ the interior of Northern Afnca, in ~Ethiopia Trog!odyt!ca, t:zards were ancicndy
e~ten.~ Thé oniy taboo-animals of the Eastern Libyans; which are known certain!y to
have been held as such, are thé cow and the pig. Accordtng to Herodotus, thé nomadic
Libyans abstained from eating cow's nesh out of respect tbr Isis," this taboo obtaining
even among the Graecized women of Cyrene.~ The women of Barca went further, and
abstained from the desh of swine as we!
Thé dog may also have been a tabdo-animal,whose <!esh was eaten only for 6pec!nc
r~asons. For atthough thé dog's Sesh was exposed for Mte in North A&ican markets
during the Midd!e Ages~its consumption is sti!!associated with very strongty-markedand
~idesp~ead superstitions,which seem to descend from a time when the dog was t~booed
a
ahimal, which was eaten onïy on cérémonial occasions. Thus, at Kabes, in the Nefzawah,
e~c., dogs are eaten j and
near Tatahuin, part of the Megabelah tribe partake of dog's Besh
"when thé date turns yetÏpw, befbre becoming red," /.<?. in the autumn. The dogs are
phun in an especial manner. The throat is eut, and the animal is thcn aïtowed to escape.
It
runsshort distance and then faits, when it is taken up, singed, and then boiled. The
Ci~rcase is then drawn, and thé head and feet are thrown away.~ This ceremony is called,
according to Bertholon, a sacrince," and is one illustration of the forma! cynophagy
p~actised to-day in North Africa.*
In TripoHtana, dogs, as well as other animais fbrbidden by the t~uran,~ are eaten as
medicines. AtSîwah, dogs
are eaten in privacy bysyphititics; peoplewhowish to
g~ow fat eat the nesh ofpupples." A modern historian of Carthage has suggested that
African cynophagy was connected with the cutt of thegoddess Tanit:" it is more
probable, tpjudge from thé extent and nature of thé pracdce as revealed by récent ex-
p.oration,thatitismerelythesurvlvalofanancientindigënoustaboo.
A taboo of ùncertain origin exists at Sîwah with regard to garlic, which is eaten

emsuing twelvemonth.

'Stfaboxvii.S);.
iv. t06.
C'o)yaent)s,SA<v!
E)-Mo~ddas!,p. !~);
9BARiv.§88t.
~Theeow-MboQw~notoniMrsatinLibya. Cf.Herodctusii.tS.
Hérodote

SheyH et-Ti~n!,
~M~&M~. Cf. JuMin,~Mt.~< !!))!.<.
< &
}
but one week in the year–in thé autumn–with a view to ensuring good heaith for the
This custom can be reterred onïy doubtfully to a Berber origin,

~~ff
'Mehi.S.
The Liby~t) eh~acMr of thc BarceMS persista for ttotarit: afttt the fc~ndittica of thé fhy.

?~&} t!-Betf!~ Af~~t <a- ~'<!{~.tf

L, Berthotoh, &M<' fey & r<<Mt </M R~f~, p, ~t Thia essay contins pne or two tacts of nt!ae, Mch thts
juMcited. *Hem,~oC)!M~<A~«M/i{~~«'A~~fortth<;rinsMnces.
~~G.P,Lyons,~r~7?~r~r<~f~
~p~C.V.St9h)e)',MS..NoMs)MdeatS!'A'a)),<~tO.
Mp.B~9,$'iP!,fi'¡~lIt.jt\.I"çCS~, ~91. No, 55. p. 90. p,

MF,C.Mot-e~,J)MJ*A!e&MM,t'i.~o;
because a taboo of the same vegetable exists at Heybar in Arabia,* and aR both at Siwah
and at t~eybar there are mahy Sudanese blacks, it is perhaps they who are responsible
for the custom. Gar1ic and onions, moreover, held a peculiar position in ancient
Egyptian be!Ief,~ white it is pertinent to add that modem Mostem orthôdoxy !ooks
with aversion upon this plant "which renders man's breath disagrecable to thé angets."
To corne now to the questions of divination and magic, it has been noted that in
Roman times the native Afriçans were reputedtobeversed in astrology. Other forms
of divination were also in vogue, though information in regard to the details of thé pro-
cesses is unhappily lacking. As in the rest of Africa, and, for thé matter of that, as
among most of the primitive peoples of the world, the diviner was probably in most
cases a woman.~ Procopius is speaking generalîy when he .says that, among the Mauri,
it ïs the women, and not the men, who prophesy but th&t certain of their women,
having gone through the prescribed rites, become inspired so that they foretett thé futm'e
as skilfully as thé ancient oracles.~ In some cases, it Is certain that
thé diviner sought
his or her foreknowledge at the grave of an ancestor or other worthy, as is commonly
dohe at the present time. At Augila, according to Mela, only the w~/y~ of the dead were
held to be divinities; the people swore by them, and consutted them as oractes. The
grave was visited, the spirit Invokèd and told what was the wish of the votary, who then
slept at the spot and was answered in his dreams.~ In this the Roman geographer is but
restating what had been said by Herodotus, not in regard to thé Augitae oniy, but ? aH
the Nasamones. For divination," remarks the Greek writer, they betake themselves
to thé graves of their own ancestors, and, after praying, lie down to sieep upon their
graves by the dreams that come to them they guide their conduct." This practice
exists among too many of the Berber tribes to-day to bave been connned to thé Nasa-
mones alone. Two cases may be cited. At el-Esnam, near Ghadames, women attire
themselves in their best garments, and go to certain graves known as those bf thé
Z~~r, where they call upon the spirit résident among the graves. This spirit is
called (cf. Adehni, a grave "), and he appear$ in thé form of a giant with eye$
like those of a carnet. He answers such questions as are put to himeoncerhing absent
hu~bands, etc.' The consultant, it should be added, must bave upon her person no trace
of iron or steel. Again, near the Wady Augidit, in thé northern Sahara, is a group
of great e!!ipticat tombs. The Azgar woman, when desiring newsof an absent husband,
f:j,
~C.M.Doughty,<r/<<<!<M,to).ii.p.;o.
Pliny says thèse vegetables weré treate<) as gods by thc Egyptians whcn taking an oath (.y~. A~!<, xix. 6). Cf.
Juvena), xv. 9. Gtr!!c and onions were tabooed to thé Eg)'pt!.m pnesM (P)Ht~rçh, Pf O~'r~, § 8). Cf. thé
e]a«!<'a) practice ofgmng g~He as fodder to animals at ~he summer sotstice to <ns"re their heatth tbrough thé ,tnM)f)g*
Vegeuus,M«&m~&MMi.)i!.t8.

-'r.<Procopiu<f.u,8..
year.
Mythic figures conncctedwith magtc and sorcery itt Greek legend, it will be recalled, weré more usually Worneh

PP-33~'
[haa men, as in [he cases of Hécate, Sclcnc, Circe, Medea, etc. Cf. E. Doutté, Magie et f~'M '&~ /f~e<' t&f ~f<

~r~~fM/<'<e~<y~
~M/r<'M~{<r<t~
..<
Me!< !.g,
~~M~M/M<!<!M.
H. Duveyrier, Les 2~.Mr~<& Nord, p. ~t; .p.
"HerodotMsiv.t~. C~~u'Mth!a!~Di<mys.~r~.<o$.
M. Benhazen, Six «w~z T~« 6~.
`
,¡..
 brothèr, or lover, goesto thèse graves and sïeepsamongthem. Sheisthoughttobesuretore-
ceïve visions which witt give her thé news she seeks.~ Thèse examples of modem divination
at thegravesof thedead throw an interesting light on thé statcmentsof Herodotus and Mela.
Magic, both "white" and"btack," for the practtce of which the Moghrebîn are so
~ehowned throughout the Mohammadan wor!d to-day,
was anciently practised. A Libyan
custom mentionëd by Nicolaus of Damascus abords an instance of sympathetic magie in
~hich a whole tribe participated. Certain Libyans,~ according to this writsr, held
Mnuatty a testivat, which terminated, after thé settingof the Pléiades, by the extinguish-
ing of the Mghts and a promiscuous sexual intercourse.~ Such a custom is savage, but
~annbt be described as depray~d tor It undoubtcdty served ardigious purpose, being in-
tendedtoensuregoodcfopsandharvests.
A ~orm of pledging faith noticed by Herodotus a Nasamonian custom may here
as
be described, it is really magica!. Each party gaye~the other to drink from his
as
hand
and if there is no liquid to be had," adds Hei-odotus,
they take up dust ~rom
thé ground and put their longues to it.
Thé purpose of this ccremony is perhaps
tp infuse into each party something which is part of the other, and which will help
him to keep his pact, and work him ill, without hope pf escape, if he violâtes it.
Magical rain-makmg was anciendy knbwn in Libya,~ and thé Kabyles, the Benî
J~Izab, and others to-day préserve~ remembrânces of this in thé chants )hey sing in times
cfdrbught. înthese,Anzar,therain,nguresasapersona!ity:–
AnMr! Anzar!
and. OGod,moistenuseventotheroot!*
Giveus,OGod,thewaterofAnzar!
z

II
Magicat, tpô, was the snake-charming for which in classical antiquity the Psylli
werefamous.* Themen~of this tribe, iike the Matsi and the Ophiogenes,~ were credited
vith a~arveUpuS power ofcharming
serpents and curing thetr bttes. Thé same
r'putatipn is to-day enjoyed in Egypt by the Rifa'yah dervishes. Thé Psy!!I, !ike these
î: tter, were thought to cure vetvmous bites by saliva," though it was believcd that the
~E.vollcallsthem
'E.vôNBary,G~f~~T'<MMf~p.(i~
da~oA~M!,
a elsewhere.' Rupertt, tn
Aa~ohi(3veç,
name`not found
his notes
~icpia~s ca))s them a name not found etsewhere. Rupert), in h's notes on Sitios ttaticus
on Silias üi. t6t,
Italicüsiii. z6~, con-
jettuted that fof da~o-we shou]d read 9<o-, and that thé Libyans m question )ived in thé vicinitY ofThapsns. !wou)d

).
~ggest thatthe true read!ngm!ght be d'~oÂ~t!) appt'ej as adescnptive to Libyans ofthe poor)y watered interior.
Nicotaus Damascenos,ff~. t); in f~fG, Aa~o t\)€t ~ïaf tr~a~Cmrt,!r<!)'T<s f!~ Y<t/to!<rtf ~f ~f~ )j/Moo

't'L~
M<Ta
S~tf nÂftt!So!, tfa! /MTa
'T~Mf ~f f!f T~)) Aa~jSa/ft.
t~
WTM<7tf ~Mp!: TS~ yw<t[<f<3f <fNTaKft~Nf <(CtT<'Oj9«rat~<sT~ A~fof <Mrm~ofTa( c<t! fi
Werethese unions permanentf tf they wcre.we hâve hercapnniitivetotmofmamaee
Hérodote iv. t?!. Cf. for the s~stitutionofdostfbrwaterthé Mos!em
use ofsand for ~eremoMat aMutions in
'/ti)~desert, Thé form ofpie')ge described by H~rodofs Ofists to-day m A!geria, where bride and groom so pted~e them-
"eYg:iatntarriage/i T.ShMv,;r'r~<'<!rw~r~6'vo)t!.p.t3'.
f DioCaMi~tï. 9. <! E.DoMM of. <i!. pp. SS~ <:
Ben Sedira, Cf~~&~f~f.p. xeyiii.
n.
[Amontetu~ temar~ (y~. ;) in MfC) that thëre in Libya a tity'the pnests of wh!<:h çhtrmcd croeodites,
Tus is doNt)tful ëvMehce o.n Libym animat-magic.sinceA'Bomens
probabtyMfers to thé Fayu'4), ~here thé cuttof
SotnopaeNs, a form ofSebt):,BoUnshedm(îraëco-Romahtimes. Cf.J.G~M;)ne,
J~).*yThegiftwas'nothe'dby\vCmen.Zonat.as,x/~t~
~/)<K~)' p. t~q.]
"b!¡b)~y Vü. ~,)¡JVII!, ¡Ç~II~V. x~
3
IL Phny Vü. !palh~~1 FroB.; in FHG-~elian, NaI, an~m, ~vt.~8.
 poiconoùs animais.
persons of the Psylli were in some mysterious way antipathetic to
"In the bodies of these people," writes Pliny, "therewas by nature a certain kind of
poison which was fatal to serpents, and the odour of which overpowered them with
torpor with them it was a custom to expose children immediately
after birth to the
fiercest serpents, and in this manner to make proof of the' fidelity of their wives,~ the
serpents not being repelled by such children as weré IHegItimate. 2 Pliny, here as
usually the uncritical compiler, has narrated in this account the Greek explanationsof
the pretended immunity of the Psylli rather th~n thé details of the processby which
they were supposed tf have effected it. His indication as to the use of saliva, given
on the authority of Agatharchides, and confirmed by the historian Caliias,
succès to
show the magical character of the methods by which the PsyMi "charmed" yenomous
snakes. In classical times, the Psylli were employed as doctors. to '< charm shake-bitcs
and scorpion-stings,~ perhaps the most famous occasion on which their services' were
requisitioned beir.g one where their powers proved of no avail–fbr Octavius endeavoured
vainly to restore Cleopatra to life by the arts of these serpent-masters.~ The process by
which the Psylli effected such cures as they actually made, and by which they attained
their great reputation, is explicitly described by Caillas. Thë bite of the cerastes, he says,
is fatal to men and animais unless a man of the Psylli bc present to effect a cure. A mild
case thé Psyllus cured by spitting into the wound a graver wound he treated by rin~ng
his mouth in water, which he then gave the patient in a cup to drink and if, even after
thi$ "medicine," the symptoms grew worse, he and thé victim stripped and lay close
together until, by thé peculiar power within him~ he hadjdcteated thé e<ïectsof thé
poison.5 In alt this one sees clearly an old and respectaMc pièce of tribal magie later,
the charming seems, as not infrequently happens, to hâve degenerated into a mCre catch-
penny trade. Pliny speaks of having himsetfSeen" exhibitions in which thé Psylli
went through some sorry juggtery with toads(~f/~) which the performersirritated
by placing on flat vessels heated to redness, after which abominable treatment thé bite
of the r~&?, so Pliny solemnty declares, was deadlier than even ,thàt of an asp.~
"Black" magie existed in Eastern Libya anciently as to-day., Betiefin the evil
eye, at present universal in North Africa, is strongly rooted at Sîwah; and as. the
'Cf.Lucan,f~rM~,)X.8$o~Ae)!an,~<.<:))~.i.;7,vi.)),)fvi.!7,!8. ~Ptiny,f<7.
3Pliny ][;. Pliny there m~esthe we!rd statement that thé Psyiti–"whofor thnir own p<o6t have been in thé
t;.
habit of import!ng the poisons of other lands among us "–tried to introduce a Cying scorpion, which, however, could not
stan<i[hectimaMnorthofSi.:ity..
Dio Cassius )). t Zonaras, ~M& x. }). Psytti e)so attended thé army of C~to on !t} march t<:ro~ thé Syrtica
Régie. Lu~aniï.8ot~P)utarch,C'~<Mr,§5<
'CaU!as,&f.ft7,;tf.2<naras,~f. Lucanix.O!P)!nyxxv))).). i..
6Pliny xxv, )o. Was the Mrpent thePsy))!c totem~ W. R. Smtth, X<M<' ~< p. tt5' cited [~"stotfe]
(Mirab. ~~eA. § the efect tha: in thé EuphtatetVa)!eywa5 a certain small tnakefsta) [o foreighers, but
'~9~) to
harm!essto the natives whenceSq)!th inferred thissMketqhavebeen the'Mtem. ~ere )hMinferencecorfect,
a similar one would apply te. the Psylli, of whom the same ta)c !s to)d (AntigdnMCarystias, ~<r~, xn.),Mdw were
their )mmnn!tyfron)thspoiM)nof~p!PHf{hcPsy))i
even said to establish the )eg!timacyo<'the!tehitdren bytesting
were thought to be immune to (7//vcnomom
anin)i)h, and thoe taie! strike me as meM )J)e (toast! $tiçh as Européens sti)!
en<:out)ter in the Levant. Therefore hesitate to do more than
suggest that thé totem of the P~<)ifM<rpent. `
 1..
manifestations of this superstition there are not identical with those of Egypt, it is fairly
safe to assume that thé present survivats have descended not only from Arabie, but also
frohi Berber antiquity. It is known, moreover, on the authority of two Greek writers
cited by Pliny, that in Africa were "certain families of enchanters (/~M//M.f
~'JCM~K/~M) who by means of praise (~d~/Mf) could cause cattle to perish, trees to
~Ither.andinfantstodie.
? custom of divination at graves has been spoken of; and the other feâtures of Libyan
Th
/M-wdrship may now be considered. Ïn ait Africa thé cultus of thé dead has for ages
had a hotd extremety strong.~ In the northern portion of the continent it was deve!op<;d
inJËgypt to proportions so enormous as to affect profoundly the whole life of the Nile
populationsfor thousands of years. Amongthe Berbers it was highly developed and traces
of it survive from thé Red Sea to thé Adantic up to thé present time. Ït will be con-
venient to consider this phase of 1 !byan religion under thé héadings of Buriat and Cultus.
i .6~–"The nomadic Liby&ns," says Herodotus, "with the exception of thé
I~asamones, bury [heir dead as do the.Greeks. 3 Greek burials were usually dia-
!~agnetic–A<. the body lay extended in an E.-W. or W.-E, direction*–Athenian
custom
iRctming rather to a position in which the head was toward thé west. The Nasamones
buried thëlr dead in a sitting posture, a dyingman being carefully supported by his
Mends in thç proper position.~ Further information is supplied by Silius Italicus, whose'
JOf ~f/? P~~ cohtaihs a rcmarkable passage on buflal custom, which the pedantic poet
MuSt hâve derivëd ffom
some rather dstai!ed source. From Sitms it is learned that
not only did the Nasamones bury their dead as Herodotus relates, but that.they. also
dtsposed of them in thesea;–
Il' ~<MMt~/<r~<<~
Saevo .sepelire profunda

il. ~<!H<'m~WH'j~{A~~M'KMffM<'rM.*
The same author spcaks ofthe Garamantes as burying their dead in shaHow sand-pits :–

/K/«~
r~&fMMtf~MCar~M~~Aarfna

B"l under mounds was also known Me!a, spcak!ng of Libyan graves, called them

-)"·
and tt is told that thé Emperor Probus,havlngwben an ofEccrengaged thé
Libyan Afâdioninsingtecombat, and slain hi!
caused the soldiers to raise over him a
gréât barrow.~Chssical readers will rëadiîy recaM thé mention pf the barrows of thc
~hHaeni in thé east, and thé gigant?c grave of AntacHS bpened by Sertorius in thé
west
i, Isogonus ~an3 N)·inphqdotus vü,^2. Cf. A. Gellius, Nod. Afrüa
ho~onus an<! Nympho<!<"ù<ap. Ptinv
Plinyti!. Cf. A. Gc))iNs, JVM<. A<.Att,
i]f.ix. 4, in<t"T'
M fa.·,sifiar t!<!o:Mtf.?t
te>·ta .~<'«*~&3<~ttf 6mmï.·uai
M~M~M~m'MM~
't'
Herp~otusiv. !9d~~<!7r~<))t<)'[ M Te! <!tro9)~<rK<')'T<t;o! fo~a&;
Cf. ~et~n, ~f'~
E.B.Ty)or,jPr<m«<f~Ct"t~.yo).i).p.
Kmta ~fp «!jEAA~)'€~ ]rÂ])t' NtMra/tMfMf.
n;. r
'y/,<!M~p.o~
?
'9' !')'th,Sf~ io, Piogehes LaetOus, SM too Wetekcr, Gr~f~M~

1 HefôjqtU~ /:f.o!Tet ? mT~/Mt'ot): CmtrTf'Mrt, ~AmovofT~,Hr<a~ cfrtgj~f ~y~, ~M ~tf ~miroMTt ~St
~T(M ci)rf)~Mfr<tt, E~sMthta!,~t/Dionys. f<n~. !0g,
~$'tms !ta)icus, ~A.M«'e.']fiii. ~80~.
<}, i' S' ~M~Ks;
~79-
Kf~/t~'of! M, ~K<r~~MrTeMrt[.fff~o{ ya<ra~M)'t!]To~M~M.
~r~ Mehi. S.
.l;
/~e&'s~ï~<rw7'~
'~op'~us, fM~ ~r~fM.rt)! Mn(~ ~~r< «'~<!<; ~cr< ~<'a' ~w M'Atf
~«~'«{MM~ee~MO ~f/~jjM.~ Thé Mising of thb bMrnw

-p
haw-
efe~ ttrob~ty ti! ntuch à tbnt.sMibt) to Libyah préjudice, M a Mst to busy thé MMiiirs, a memcrM to Aradion':was,
v«)?ur.
or

1-
 It !s to bc noted that, while the Libyans practised different forms of interment, they
seem ait to have used forms of inhumation as opposed to Incinération.* The modes
which are recorded are-(a) extended diamagnetic burial, (~) sea-buriat, (c) cohtracted
burial in a sitting posture, and (~)buria!sundera memoriatmound.~
(~) The extended burials which Herodotus noted as usual were probabty practised
by the HeHenized Libyans best known to the Cyreneans.~ No sooher are thé Nâsa~ones
reached than Herodatus notices a different custom, and beyond that people he must, on a
point like this, have been ill-informed.
(6) The sea-burials of the Nasamones, if they really took place–and there is little
reason to doubt it–may have been of fairly late origin, and been due either to the
fact that among thé Nasamones were the survivais of customs belonging to an invading
sea-people, or to a feeling that to the sea from which they obtaUned so much, the bodies
of thé dead should be committed.
(c) Contracted burials are common to divers primitive peoples, The Winhebagos,
for example, buried their dead sitting, as did the Peruvians and thé Yumanas of South
America.~ The predynastic Egyptians had the same customj and in Roman times–~ah
exccHcnt illustration of the fact that the practice had not a chronological, but merety
a cultural, significance-the "X-Group" peopte of Nubia also buried their dead m a
contracted position. In Borghu (Bénin) "when a man dies a pit is and the
body is placed in a sitting posture, with thé hands and feet tied tightty with a cord, and
dug
the head inctming upward." 6 From this It may bc seen that thc practicc of contracted
burial is not peculiar to Africa, and that within that continent it is widespread.
There are, of course, different degrees of contraction, and dirferent positions–
tying on the side or sitting. Both the postures mentioned were known in Egypt, but it
was thé sitting one which was in favour with the L'byans. Its ëmpÏoymeht, or rather

The only case ot Libyan incineration for which there is any ancierit authority ]S in Silius I<a!!cu9* ~ccount (De
~&fM/ft<,ii.26~j~.) ofthe funeral of Asbyte. As that description does not agrée Wtthhispedatticbut more sober
acc&ant of burial customs in his xiii. book, nor with thé other évidence, and as it is written in a ve~a picaresque and
poetîcaï.îtmaybcdtsmissedas~gmemary..
inference Balearic pf'diisected
2 1 do not bcUeve, as bythat from the custom many appearïo, any form buriai" wai
common to the Libyens as a whole. know only one ancient source for anything of this sort in Africa. Nico!aas of
Damocus (fr~. '~t in f~fG) states that thé Panebi (n<~)'))j8ot)LibyaM, a tribe of whom even thé )ccat!on is unknown,
buried their kings after first cutting off the head of thé corpse. thé he~d was p)ded and ptaCed !<~–!tmong the

For thèse the reader is fefe'red to G.Dennis,~MM/

i;
tribal sacra. But thé nŒM}~c[ A~SMs may not hâve been Libyans at a)!, except by an error pfNicefaus or his eopylst,
For thé practice is exptkittydcscribed by Herodotus (iv. 26) as existing among the Issedonians,,andby Livy (xxiii. !~) as
existingarrtongtheBo'iofGau). May not thé Boii hâve beenhefteoKfuKdwifh thé ByaeiLibyans?
a Thé numerous rock-cutshaft-gravesofthe wester.) part of Cyrenaiça
may hâve been made uhd<.r Libyan innuehce.
C~~M, !h ?'(-J!<y.i~. n, Séries, !X,
t;
(tSyc), pp. '~7, )6t .r~. SMeta) retMinsofhorseswere found in some of the gr~vM, Ibid. p. '6~.
*E.B.Tytor,f~.<'<f.vo!.ii.4.!ij~.
~frer~
5 R. Lander, e/'C~MM C&~tMM'j Last ~~a<m vo!. ii. p. 139. Cf. H. K. W. Kumm,
'06, wh:r6 a bnna) at Joko, in tte Shart-iChad Protectorate,b described. !n that case thé grave
was dug in the
p.
centre of thé decease~'s but, "Fow!s .thé
wers sacri<!ced, and
hut
body, tied up into a sitting posture,

G. Ca~ti, TM rMMM~~fhf, vol. i. p. ~o~,andA.J.M.Jephson,7'M~

was toweted into the ho'e, wHch was thcn filled with e:rth and thé deserted," For s!m<)ar buriats among thc Ban,
1'.lfo.
Jephson notes [hatthesittingcorpsehassometimesahideputoverit.andunderit.~
?
 thé çare with which thé friends of thé dying man helped him to coniurm to it, is
signjncant. Such ritualism with regard to thé act of dying points to the strength among
thé Libyens of their belief in after-tife. There is ho évidence as yet as to whether their
betief Hvoured a rétribution thebry of the hereafter, the information we possess
po!nt!ng merety t0 the existence of a continuance theory."
(</) In thé tumulus is an exempte ofthe manner in which thé burials were marked.
Nomadic graves of Roman date examined at Gerbah,' near Siwah, consisted of a rough
c~st of small nat stones, in which the body, wrapped in coarse ctoth, lay extended. Over
ahd about the cist weré pited nat stones to a height originaHy, perhaps, of about ~o cms.
~t Seat Island, in thé Gulf of Bombah, exist a number of enclosures of small stones,
generaHy circular or eIHpticat in plan. Thé présence of smaU oifering niches, usually
o~ the S.W. side of thèse structures, shows them to have been grave enclosures but it is
not possible to say dennitety what age is to be assigned jto them. Cairns of rectangular
ground-p!an, with battering sides, exist near Germah, where they were seen by Duveyrier.~
C&f.–~As at the présent dme throughout Nôrth Africa and the Sudan, on~erings
\~ere probably made at graves at the time of intermeht, and replaced from time to time
~Ithfreshonesnthecase pf a notable personage. The Eastern Libyans had a long
t~emory for their tamous dead, as hâve the modern Arabs for their departed shcykbs.
Out of this révérence naturally thé habit of apotheosizing deceased chieftains, who
even in
grew
their lifetime were probably credited with spiritual powers which diSerentiated
t~em from other men. This is seen clearly in thewest,asinthecaseofjuba,whose
position {s explicidy denned in the curt phrase, Et 7~, M~KrM ~M ~/M~ f~
Ih Eastern Libya there s<:ood upon the Syrtic shore a tomb which in the time of Pliny
~as thoughtto be that of thé epony mous chieftain called "PsyUus, which,
one may
be sure, was an object' of native révérence. The samë applies to the famous tomb and
aittar ofthe Philaentat thé bottom ofthe Syrtis M~or.thoughtheheroic brothers fabled
t~ hâve been buried there were, if they ever.ëxisted, Çarthaginians.~ In short, the
gênerai attitude of thé Eastern Libyans toward their dead was markedly religious.
Thisis connrmed not on!y to thé practice of divination at graves, referred to
àbove; but to thé habit bf swearing by thé dead. Hëfodotus relates cf thé Nasamones
that amongthem a màntaking an oath "lays his hand upon the tomb of someone
c~nsidered tb hâve bëèn pfe-eminen.tlyjust a~d good, and so doing, swea's by his name.s

j 1 PerMha)obse)'Mtion,!'H.Duveyner,~M'ri)Mr~p!.];v.<)g.!(facingp.t79).
[ Minuctus Fetix, 0<M<M, ~ctanttus, P~~5~MM, xv. Cf. CIL, Yiii. ty, );9, and Tert'i~n,
~m~~M~~P'~M~M,~ .Af~~M~f~/f atSyriae ?/. î<MMn:ius,~<f<7.~MM~
t-h
r%MM&e/&p~wt~~ th!s cu)t ofpnncet~M perhaps
C~Mr~~M M~r~P~ i S. Cypna~s, De ~~«o M«~ p. t:}, Jtf~~ c~ .m~~C~
encôuMgei:) by RoniM apctheosis of
'piperûM, but ita ôrigttt in N<trth Af~ica, às!n Egypt, WMMnquiistio~abiy indigenous~ R. Basset, < nf. p. :t~.
~'<P)my,vi).
is SaHuM, /<~a~)][)!v.;
which made
Strabo
/r<
iii. )7!
:b9. his,
( t.tÏorodotus iv. t7!Mc!a t.S.Eustathius ~Dtonys.
PrecopiH5(~)M.S)<tçt)aKAatt~M~ri ignof~ntpfoaths
ti
xvii. 836; Vatenus'Maximusv,<, ~W.
of tonne,
Mcta
meTC
~rr.
i.7; Ptitty v. t.
fhetont!)) '!cpr<c!a!i<n
M'jM~M~
O~CtMf~j8'<<S. ~~y~<To!sO~T<f<'f!T<h"T\.
The custom ofswef.ring at tombs of pious persons is universal in Mo~ammadan Africa.
In Kordofan, for example, as a récent writer bas remarked, tombs "were thé favourite
spots for the swearing of solemn oaths, and shôuld such an oath prove fa!se, dread
conséquences were expected." 1 Itwasjust such a sentiment which led to the swearing
of oaths at graves among the ancient Libyans and the practice is proof of the strongest
kind of the existence of a belief in a future life.2
To pass now from the animistic phases to the mOre developed aspects of Libyan
religion, it will be best to consider first the different divinities with whom we are
acquainted under separate forms.
ASH
A Libyan god of this name (~. oa) is mentioned as early as the Vth Dynasty
on the reliefs of King Sa-hu-re.~ The narne also oecurs on some jar-sealings of about thé
same time.4 From the manner in which he appears in the Sa-hu-re reliefs, is may be
conjectured that this god was of some prominènce in Eastern Libya at thé time of thé
Old Empire but nothing further can be said in regard to his nature and functions.
SHÀHEMD
tn composition with several person.l names found in Late New Empire stelae
in the Egyptian Delta, has been noted the clement ~~tT)~ or ~~rL)~ ~~or
ï,hdd. The stelae appear to have commemorated certain Libyan settlers in thé Detta,
and it has been suspected that the ~</<names are theophorous. An attempt has even
been made to show that Shaheded was a Libyan goddess, but until further évidence bas
been collected on this point it cannot be regarded as having been satisfactcrily estaMished.~
One need not, however, doubt that thé élément or is Libyan, for it seemsto
be preserved in a bilingual Libyco-Latin inscription of the west. The Latin text in
question reads SACTVT IHIMIR p~vtxtT ANNORVMLXx; thé Libyan équivalent ofsACTVT
reads SKTT, which bears an unmistakable resemblance to the hieroglyphic form y~
StNIFERE
A god of this namè is mentioned by Corippus in thé j~~Wf~ as being worshipped
by the Eastern Libyans. Asfar2scanbediscernedhewasawar-god,but6nty,perhaps,
in the sense that hc was a tribal god who helped his followers in war as in peace.
R.G,Anderson,M<M/fMf«f<'<~</S<~<v/MfMe/'A'!)r'&/&p.!§z.
2 R. Neumann, JVer</f/<f )M~ ~r~ does not ex~gerate when he says (p, <3<)) ~h~t this }:e!ief <~ M
~& ~)~< ~r<&~<~ Ma ~<7~M z« den A'i:M~ tto~r~a ~r~x.

t~
thi* connection two )ate Roman inscriptionsat
Gh!rz.ah are notewarthy. Thèse tributes of children to the memory ofthor parents terminate with thé cunous whh that
the deceased-by their namas clearly natit'es~–may revisit their'children's descendants and "ma)fe them tike themM)ves"
vts)T~T FtLfos ET NEroTts MEOS ET TALES FÀOENT. Denham, Oudney, and Ciapperton, y.r~t'f&, f~ vol. il. p.
no.!).
(especiatty p. t~o, note, and p. t~<, inscription
L. Borchardt, P~ Cr~<&~<tt!/<<i'< ~~j$*< vot.i.p.
A. Wiedemann, ~y~
<J.E.Qu!be)),C~'MC~<t/0~P)ates,p.8,N9.)y8,t~,p.N<t,00.
Of~w, p. 227.
~ForthebningaaHnscnption,V.Reboud,7~WM~MM/e-M,p).iv.~to.2~,text,p.~6.
~Conppus,y~M/'f,tt'.68)jJ.ParHch,D<<'J!<~rBM~P<<<C~p.)6.
 MASTtMAN
Corippus one teams of a divinity of this name, who, like Sinifere, appears in
From
thé y~~w'f as a war-god,2 but whose exact nature is obscure. He is thus referred
toby Corippus:
.WW~A~M~
y~a~MM ~< ct«/~ /M/CM, j<7a~M/w~

?~
~&~<7a/ ~f')<'f/J 7«?f/a/«~ f/'f//m<7 ~M<
Partsch, from this gloomy characterisation,was inctined to relate Mastiman to the Dis
S~verus ofan African inscription/ and to emend ?~f~~M to
The name Mastiman is certainly connected with, and may be the équivalent of,
tDat of a divinity called Autiman in Latin inscription, where the latter god is associated
a
witthMercuri,us.~
¡;. ["APTUCHUS" AND "BALEUS"
A place near ApoUpnia Ptolemy names 'ATrTw~cu ~o~ C. Mulîer conjectured that
thé reading shoutd be Auro~ou, but in Christian Africa there were bishops styled
~~M~f/MM, ~a/!j~or Y~&~fM~ This suggests that 'A~To~ou may be correct,
and that in Cyrenaica there
may have been a native cult of a gqd of this name.
Near.Cyrene!ay a town caMed B<t;–~e TfM; B~M!, .S ~f ~H~–otherwise
kdown as <ï'<t\~a/* Ba\~(t< or B~f. In these latter forms it is easy to recognize
de~vatives of the $emit!c j~M,~ ~r<7,
recaHing the locative epithet B~/M~~w
ofthe Airo-Punic "Saturnus. Pausanias states that at Balagrae Aescu!apius was
w~rshtpped under the title of Physician, 't<~M;~ thé Tabula Peutingeriana glosses
Batacri$ with the words Tfof /<M
~<Y. thé inrerence is that here, under

'1..
Se~itic Innuence,
was estabMshed the worship of Ba'at Eshmun, t! s Baleus of Stephanus,
whom classical writers identined with Aescu!apius.]

f.According to
~THESEA-GOPS.
HE EA- ODS 'it~
/f
"v,'
Herodotus, thé Greeks' obtained their knowledge of "Poséidon"
"from the Libyans, by whom he has atways been honoùred, and who wcre anciendy
thé oniypeople who had a god of that name."M This femarkabte.state'nent Indicates
cl~arty that
some sort of a sea-god, of général character, was m ~airiyhigh repute among
thçcoastwise Libyar.softhe
nfth centuryB.c. Thé cu!tof"Poséidon"was especially
pr~ctised abdut Lake Tr!ton!s."

:C6nppus,y~w.yL..}67.r~
j/8. [. ~artschr lor mt.
~J~.J..Part!.ch,<f.
'I'M)emyiv.t§3.
a CIL,
j'C9r:ppus,y~~wiv.68!,v:i.3o7.
307
ït !s impossible to say whether this deity was original!y
~G.Mercier,tMD<t~Mt~~f,p.t.
<.C/t,i).9<))8.
vui. 9.018,'
,C/t,Mii.!6}o/
t.

< StephMmByz.~p~.BaAt!. t 31'. j.S.A.Mor<:e))i,~MC~tfAtM,vo).i.p.

P[o)emytv.§7. AUMSS.

r'* PM~hms,&.f<</ Ptu~n~s

~<p.9.
.pMMn!MU.:$.9,tf.Sy~~L"pJrt, lOf,
~fMm'pnmM~~
s catt BatagraC was jen~J
"f~.Segn).iii.
J.toutwn, ~S~fwf.f~,p.3t.
ffom Epijauros, bMt that goats were
otferedattheformMsanctu~y.contm~
usaal Greek practice. MH~rojotusii.So.So,
!'?/M~. iv. tM. Cf. R. Neumann, JVer~j/ M~ ~M~<, pp. t~6~.
a Libyan one, or was a god imported by the Sea-Peoples who were allied with the
Libyans in their invasions ofEgypt.
The Libyans about Lake Tritonis also venerated a god called Triton by
Herodotus.~ tn Argonautic legend this divinity is represented as havifg piloted thé
storm-driven Jason through the shoa!s of Lake Tritonis, for the saké of a brazen tripod.
The god then took the tripod," carried it to his own temple, seatéd himself upon it,
and "mted with prophetie fury, cetivered to Jason a long prédiction," saying that a
hundred Greek cities would rise about Lake Tritonis when a descendant of one of the
Argonauts should carry off the tripod. "Thé Libyans of that région," adds Herodotus,
when they heard the words of thé prophecy, took away the tripod and hid it." 2
With regard to this legend, it may bë remarked that, whereas thé Libyan Poséidon
appears to have been a sea-god of a générât nature, Triton would seem to have been
a local divinity whose activities were confined to a narrower sphere.
Connected with Triton was his ~ëmale counterpart Tritonis," who bore
Athena," presently to be spoken of at length, to Poséidon.~
["ACHOR"
An old error, promulgated over two centuries ago, and apparently unchallenged to
the présent time, would establish a deity of this name in the Libyan panthéon. $e!(Jen,
in his Df t/<M ~rM,* cites Pliny x. 4.0 (28) as follows Cyr~Mn Achorem deum
protinus M/~W~/ ~M/M A?<M
f~ ~o;
[MMM~/] muscarum WM/Kf/M~ pestilentiam <~y<?<i",
and he then refers "Achor" to the ptace-name "Accaron," and' relates thé
god to Ba'at-Zebub, the deus ~rcarc~t/~r~M, etc., as a 060! MuMc !ike the Greek Myiagrus,
Zeus Apomyius, Apollo Myoctonus, etc. 1 am ignorant as to the edition'of Pliny used
by Seldon, but the texts of Detlefson, Sillig, and Franz, and even that of Erasmus
(Baste, t~39), regularly give "E!ei" for "Cyreniaci," and "Myiagron" fbf "Achorun~
"Achor" corrupt lection of "Myiagron," but how'EIei"
is clearly derived from a
became Seldon's "Cyreniaci" 1 am at a tqss to say. The point is only worth noting
because "Achor," were this the true lection, wôutd certainly have to be regarded as a
non-Greek, and consequently as a Semitic or a Libyan, divinity.]
{"PSAPHON"
M2ximus Tyrius relates that a certain Libyan namedPsaphon.aspiring to divine
honours, collected a great number of song-birds which he taught to utter the words "THE
GREAT GOD PSAPHON." The birds, having learnëd their tesson, were set frOCt and repeated
in their native woods the cry' they had been taught in captivity. Therëupon thë
simple Libyans, thinking that the voices were divinely inspiied, sacrl6ced !o Psaphon.
It Is barety possible that a god of this hame really was venerated in some part of
'H'sfottotMtf.tOS, ~<tf,)y~,tf,)y6.
!v. t8o.
Escher, ?' & ~w~
For t!~ Greek conception of Triton, Tritonis, and Athena

<J.S<den,D«i'<MX))m,p.~o~.
Tr!togen!s, f/~y~ter,
SMaxinjniTyriM.Du~xix.
?~<~
 North A-frica, and that the tale preserved by Maximus is merely a late attempt at
exp!aining thé origin of the cultus. Other evidence on this point is, however, tacking.]
THESuN-GoD
Among the tattoo-marks seen on thé Libyens represented on the Egyptian
monuments occur some which, as has a!rea<!y becn said, had a religious significance.
To thèse are to be added, without lapsing into that extravagance which secs sun-symbols
in~ everything, the crucijfbrm devices shown in Fig. j;2, which yet survive among the

Berbers. Suh-cu!tus, to which these emblems seem to be related, was strongly developed
among the Libyans in general, Herodotus remarking that all the Libyans sacrificed
to Sun and Moon.1 Themanner ofsacrincehe thusdescribes: The rites which the
wandering Libyans use are thé following. They begin with the e~r of the victim,
w!nich they eut on*, and throw over their dwe!tings this donc, they kili the animal by
twisting thé neck.2 They sacrince to sun and moon, but not to any other gods. This
wE'rship is common to all the Libyans. The inhabitants of thé parts about Lake
Tritonis worship in addition Triton, Poseidon, and Athena, especially the last." 3
This evidence as to the importance of sun-worship in ancient Libya receives confirma-
tiôn from other sources. In the west have been found numerous hon-MIthraicinscriptions
b~aring tlje formulae son DEO MviCTo,* son DEO AVGvsïo,~ soLi !NV!CTO,~ or dedicated
to sun and moon together.~ At Ammonium (Sîwah) was a fountain sacred to the sun.~
A Libyan. Helius is mentioned by Diodorus tbn Haldun states that in carly times the
Berbers in general tdored thé sun a late writer, who conceived Apollo as primarily a
s~n-god, mentions that there was an Apollo ~M~M/f~/wj in.Libya Macrobius
déclares that ùnder thé )iame of R~Mmo~ the Libyans worshipped the declining sun/~ etc.
il Thé only
name nowknown for the Libyan sun-god–tbr that hewas only called
Mm
Hammon byconfusion will later appear-is that preserved by Corippus, who mentions
as Gurzi! In the yo&MMM'f this god appears as a divinity in high favour with
thé tribesmen. His priést Ïerna nghts conspicuousty in batde, and an image of
ttie god is borne by the Libyans Into the ~ay." He is represented as the offspring
of thé prophétie~ god of Sîwah, thé ram-horned divinity who, for reasons which will
p~esently bc made cleàr, was widely identincd in late times with the Egyptian Amon.
I!
t! Herodotus iv. t88. He has previoasty excepte)} [hc Atlantes ofthe west.by saying that they turse~ the sun for
it! w~tingheat (iv. t8~.). Cf. Me)a i. 9 hiny f..8 Nic~aH: Da~mascenas, frag. t~o in FHG.
i' W. R. $m!th, c/'<iM ~m~, p. ~)t, ha5 m!s~)<)te<t th!s passage pf Herodotns. "Thé L!b)ans," he writes,
'ttte<!the!fs~n6ce9w!<h<M!b)oo~hed,bythroWmgthemovefthe!rhaMandthentw)st!ngtheifne<:t:s"[!j.
'Hero<!otus, '<C/t,<'iii.i< ~C/viii.)3.
J 'C/t,vni.i3!9,t;~3,~t,p6!
~C7/viii.t~,688~t~,6S9.
!'Hero<!otasiv.t8!;Diodoru5S[Cu!t)SXYii.sO!Afriah,~a~w,iii.t;Cur[iusiv. 3!; P)inyii.t03,v.<:tc.
9Diot)orusStCu)usin.S7.«~<. "Ibntta)dun,<Yo).t!.p.S9.
"L,~mpe)ms,r~wrMA,9(p.!t);cf.Conppu~y~
j ~MMMb!us,~<<M,i.t), Cf.MMUaMsCapeUa,Û<~<M~M&ii.p.

r
a
J M Co<!p~ua,<.n.tO~o;,iv.66;,68~M~v.t<6,tii. 30~,6)9; J.Par~ lot. tit.
<Çpnpp!)s,<y.ii.tC9,iv.63t,!0)},tt~8,etc.
etc.
t iv. 669 jr~ «3~ For Semitic para)te!ssee W. R. Smith, p. ~6
~<~Yi.St6,ej.~ op.
 A'f/f [Gurzit] referunt gentes pater est ~M</ corniger ~mmc'!
&<f«/atortM~rMH. ,1

His form was that of a buiï.~ Thé sun Ma a divine bull is, of course, a natural
conception, from the power and splendour of the luminary on the one hand, and thé
strength and beauty of the animal on the other. A parallel exists in thé case of
Mnevis of Heliopolis in Egypt, wh.ere the sun-bull was held in high honour.~
A head which would seem to be that of Gurzil is seen upon thé discus of a
Roman lamp of the first century A.D. in one of the African museums 4 a rudely-
scu!ptured head, found at el-Kenayssîah, represents the Amon-Gurzil type, having both
thé butl's horns of the sun-god and the ram's horns of the god of the Oasis.s
The cult of Gurzil seems long to have survived in Eastern Libya. El-Bekrî,
writing in the eleventh century A.D., mentions-that various tribes in Tripolitana–among
others thé Huarah-to secure protection for their herds, offered prayers to a stone idol
placed upon a hill-top, and named Gurza.6 The situation of the idol, the purpose of
their prayers, and the strong resemblance of names, leave !itt!e doubt that this is the
Gurzii of Corippus. The nàme of the god appears in several p!ace-n~mes of c!ass!cat w
times, such as the Roman civitas G<x~
thé Gurza of Pto!emy,* etc.
Little as is actually knpwn of the sun-god Gurzil, his mythical origin, his général
chiracter, and his popularity are easiïy discernible from the evidence. He was a god
whose origin had place In the direct personal nature-worship of early times, and so
may be likened to the Greek Helius. His appearance in war was perhaps due to his
being regarded as a protector and a dark-dispeller-a god who, like the Apollo with
whom he was by some identified, was M~e\o; or ~MT~o\o~. When he was invoked
as the protector of herds, it was as a bull-god, who, naturally, had corne to bc regarded
as the patron ofkine.~
ÏHEMOON-GOD
The one divinity which, besides the sun, was, according to Herodotus, worshipped by
all the Libyans, was the moon.10 In Berber, the word is a masculine substantive aggur, or
~y< This, as was pointed out by Mercier," suggcsts the name Ieru, which occurs as à
divine name, linked with thé epithet
'Cor!ppus!t<c~.
~j,
in an inscription found near Constantine,
~/&iv.666~.
P~ s Amm~nns Mart<))!n~ x< Ae)!<p, -M~. x!.) ),
Macrobins,~erM/M. i.),
Porphyriai ap. Eusebius
Evang. iii. )~. For Ap~, the Memphite bull-god who was sometimes regarded e $o)ar J<ty, !eç MMrob!u6,
Af. and cf. [Lucian), De ~~&~M, § 7. C~ Me~ Z~~rM, vol. ii., P). xv. 6g. and text, p. $7 an<î note t.
~L. Carton,jV~Mr/jj!'NMM</W-X<'MùfM~,p.o~,fig.7.No.].
~E)-Bet:r!,ÛM<'r~f/M<t!r<}'«f~M<r<M~,p.t!.
C7t, Yiii. 69. Ct'. ~~<trz<m~ and ~~wf~
in CIL, viii. 68, cf. Fo)yb)us,'m.ff. i. 7~.
SPto)emy!.v.3!j)0,r<«.
In regard to Gurzil, t)~ere may have bcen some connectionbetwte)) him (in ~n aspect of thé M)efu) sun) and the
batcfu) south wind which we have already discussed. Çf.thetineofAnticteidei~P.E.JaMonski.M~Mre~,
r'.tr:i.p.);8):
Part i. p.. 58)
''H€~fOto~~<!TMOf!f<t~,?t/)m~)roM~<'jp~f.
'"Heroaotusiv.)88. "G. Mercier, ~P;p<Mf, pp. )!
 In connëction with Libyan moon-cultus may be noted the North African taboo
against pig, already cited from Herodotus,' who says in a general marner that none of
thé Libyans bred swine, and that the women of Barca abstain (not only from cow's
~esh, but also) from pork. In Egypt existed a simitar taboo, for which is an explanation
Which might apply to Libya. The Egyptians held swine to be so unclean that "if a
man in passing accidentalty touch a pig, he instantly hurries to the river, and plunges
itt with ail his clothes on." 2 Yet on days when the moon was at full, swine were offered
t6 thé Moon-God, and the sacrincers ate of thé nesh, though "at any other time they
woutd not so much as taste it." 3 The Libyan taboo may have had a simitar character.
D~M F~T~P/cus
It is necessary now to discuss a Libyan god whose name is onty known through
Ëgvptian, .Carthaginian, and Greek identifications the indigenous Libyan god of the
Oasis of Ammonium (Sîwah), who may convenientty be stylëd thé 2)~j
It has been frequendy stated that thé Egyptians occupied the Oasis of Sîwah as
f~
e~rlyastheXVIIIthDynasty.~ Ofthisthereisnoproof: the earliest remains in the
o~sis belong
to Ptolemaic or late New Empire times and if the Egyptian occupation be
piaced as far bacjk as ~o B.c., the archaeo!6gicalrequirements will be amply fulfilled.
;I When, some time about this date, the Egyptians came permanently to control this
oasis, they found there established a cultus of a Libyan god whom they at once
iaehtined with Amon,~ the god who, owing to the politicat rise of Thebes, his early
home, had beeome thë national god of thé whote Nile Valley. So nrmty established in
théhave
t..~t
poputaf m'.Í.nd.T
U.la.. t. mind heban
did identification
this iden. nucriberthat
tifi.but a become, that n.. only was
notot..0nlY. wasthé were set aAoatsaid
the Deus in
to hâve beën ofTheban origin/ but a number of dragoman-stories were set anoat in
late times, whicb claimed a Libyan origin for thé Thëban god. Thus, according to one
account, Amon was a Libyan hcrdsman, who brought to Dionysus, when the latter was
in Egypt, large number of cattle. In recognition of this gift, Dionysus gave Amon
tands at Thebes, and raised him to the dignity of a god.~ Another tale of this sort relates
i~at
thatD.i..on.Y.s.u.(or,
Dionysus asthe
(or,a.5
$. Libyan
others wastesH,Héraclès)
maintained, erac.le..S)overcome withihiast,
was on his way tite'godinvoked
toindia.andwasieading
h~s army through thé Libyan wastes that, being overcôme with thi.st, thé god invoked
thé aid of his fatherZeus, who sent to him a ram (thé sacred animal ofAmon). FoHowing
t~e ram, hé came to a certain spot wherë the animal pawed with its foot, and a spring
gushed fbrth.* Yet anbther tale relates how, in. the région betweea Carthage and
~Herodotusiv.~86.~ ~ii.~7.
/M< cf, Plutarch, De O~W~, § t8. In regard to Libyan Moon c n)tus, two ancient superstitions deserve

j!tRecent)ybyC.SourdiUe,~e~~& was believed that thé Ammonian aatt waxed and ~aned with thé moon
p. t 58.
(/
notice (') thé Nasamones searçhed fot carbunctes,Which they be!!eved to be of divine ongin, when the moon was at
it~ fu))est (f)iny xxxvii. 7); and it Ar. f/).

t
it wou)d pçrhapsbe more exact (oemptoy the form Amon" as a
'~mmon'omd!càtetha)ac!ass!ta)soMreewasbe!ng~
trahscnp't of the Egyptian and
j ~To avoid cver-e)aborat!on, hâve used the form "Amon indi6'er<;nt)yfor thé Theban or thé S!wan god, though

)<Mw
the form
.~Herodpt~tV.tSt.. 'Hyginus,t/rM~M,i.!0.
$eMns Verg. ~tv, )Q~ Cf. HyginM, Af. ~r.!
LjAmpeUus, ~<~r~%<'rM~,!iTertH))ian, D< 3 idem,'f~e/. t~ Lutatius <~ Statii
MartianusCapeUaii.p.~o,<'<f.
T~ ii). ~6;

`
T
 Cyreae, some herdsmen found a chi!d seated on thé sands, wearing ram'$ horns, and
uttering prophccies. On being taken up, it ceased speaking, but on being again set down,
it recpmmenced~ Suddenly it vanished, and thé herdsmen, theti recognizing )ts divine
nature, there began to honour the god Zeu$-Amon.~ Diodocus Siculus relates vaguely
that Amon was a mythical Libyan king f*ausan!as/ Eustathius,~ and MacrobiusG
distinctly impîy his Libyan origin, while [Luc!an], less clearly, does the samc.~
The storîes are of some value, as casting a little light on the nature of the Deus
~Ad~ They cannot, however, be seriously regarded as proving anything more than thé
closeness of the identincatton between the Deus fa~f~ and the Theban Amon in late
times. This îs the more strongly the case, since from the Egyptian sources can be derived
no évidence tending to prove that the Theban and Ammonian gods were one, A custotn
existed, it is true, of making annually a twelve days' progress in Libya with the image of
the Theban Amon and the other Theban gods but this custom Itse!f was of much the
same origin as thé above stories, and was not known'before late ti,nes.8
The distinction between the Deus Fatidicus and the Theban Amon, despite the
identincation of thé two, can be discerned even in Herodotus. That writer, for example,
has different styles for the two gods. The Libyan one he regularly ca!!s Zeus-
Atnmon," Z~ ''A~m?.~ He suspects that the worshippers ofthé "Zeus"of the oasis
have given their god this name because the Egyptians call Zeus Amoun/' The
Egyptian god he regularly terms the "Theban Zeus," Z<~ Q~te~ Thé Libyan
character of "Zeus-Ammon"=:DtW Fatidicus appears strongly in the story told by
Hefodotus concerning the inhabitants of Marea and of Apis in the région contiguous
to thé Egyptian Delta on the west. Those people, counting themselves Libyans, were
discontented at the religious impositions forced upon them by the Egyptians. They
appeaîed to the oracle at Ammonium.12 Again, Cambyses III., while he left the
sanctuary of Amon ait Thebes in peace, launched against that at S!wah an éxpedtt:on
which was to enslave the worshippers of "Zeus-Ammon,"and fire the temple where Zeus
gave his oracles." As a récent writer has shrewdty observed, this diSerence m treat-
ment is sign!6cant." Furthermorë, if historians are right in supposing that Sîwah'was

T'&.M~v!
Cf. thé well-known ttgend of the Libyan Antaeu!, who with each fall he took in wrestling pined fresh strength
from Mo[&er EM[!i. Apollodorus ii. v.

< fA.
S<:n'!n9,
tt;
Hyginus, f~. }); Pindar,

Diedorus Sicatas iii. 68.

/rHy. !<). Cf. D!ony9)i)s,«~. tu
<Ea:-ach!n9 <M'Monya.
//< iv. $!} Lucen iv. 6tyj Stat!us

FaaNniM iv. !<.

Nonnus, ~/f~ xiii.370; t'haestus <
ScM.P!nJ.v.!8;M~rt!itaMCapett.ti!<&.<y.pp.8.
'~efoMa<,&&«..
/&
EmhtMui Homer, i. p. t:S Diodorus S!tt)tm i.
'HyB!nH!WM~,i.!o,
Diodorus says pf th~ ~etHrn ef tht god–~A;~
AMt<~Mt! TaS <~oS fa~m'TO!. But the geogMphiest re~u!rements, and his own statement that the pfegreM was <!< TMf
At~ show that Libya, anj not Aethiopia, was meant. Cf. idem, iii. 68. Bpth Diodorus and Eu9tathiM<, ~7.,
h~vedrawHOtttconn~onsoa'ce.
n. ~A~v
– 'HerodotU9i.6,ii.)S,ii.iii.2;. 2
M
~mhtfehtx, De
«a~ow* ï~f ~K'.
~<, v:n.
Plutarch,
A!yt!)rTM)t
'A~!f; S<mM3 Verg. f~, t~ [~ ~<~], /<'
ThnÏMErccaÏÏ?ch?moJeTnS!wan~forAmon(P~~M.p.63).
Cf.
iv,
D<' A<<~ OH'r«/<, § to (p. Xy)ahd )

"i!i.
KHMO<fo[mi.tS!,ii.~i,v.!?). M/ii.<8.
'<C.SQ~di))e,<.p.t~;
-i
 befbr~ thé sixth ccntury B.c.~ it can hafdty be bet!eyed that
not occupied by Egyptiens a
god y~ro~c~ from Egypt woutd have attaincd to such grcat an<t such e~fïy ~puta<i<'n
as thcgod of S!wah enjoyed. The "opening up" of the oasie, thé dtgni~ng of a
barbarous, but strpngly supported local cult, by the recognition in its object a form of thc
EgyptMn nattohat gpd, wpuid exptatn how the oracle of the Df~ sprang at
suddenty into promitience as M did but !t is absolutcty neccssary to believe that such a
cutt cx!sted~ or Thebes or Diospol!s, and not Ammon!um, would have Mmatned the chief
seats of thë prophet!c god. On these grounds it becomes casy te understand how
C~oesus, i<lt dtstant Lydia, made tnat of the oracle about the time whcn, or even some-
wbat befbre, thé Egypt!an occupation of Stwah took place and how, by the <burth
century B.c., no oracle in Africa, nbt even that of Buto !n thc pctta, had corne Into
better
repute and why heads of thé D<~j Fatidicus are fbund so early and in such
ndmbers on thé Cyrenaic coins.~ Thèse arguments, in themselves enough to indicate the
ortginally separate Identities ofthe DfM f~and
of the Egypt!an Amoh,maybe
supplemented with one more, which is of gréât weight; the J9~j\R?/~M was such
tn<iced–essentlally agod of prophecy. The immense popula/ity of thé oracle at
Sî~ah is well known. The trial made by Croesus has just been mentioned other
instances, authentic and 6ctttlous, attest the famé of the désert god. Plutarch states~ that
thé god of thé oasis fbretold thé death of Cimon, which took place in B.c. 4~0;
th~ Athenians kept a spécial gaUeyat state-charges to convey questions to the Libyan
gqd around his temple at Ammonium might have been seenanumberofcolumns,
surmounted by dolphins, and inscribed KTPEHAÏ~N eE~PON in testimpny of the
gratitude of his Cyrenaie votaries;~theree~en sprang up in Greeceseconaary
sahctuaries of thë gcd, as at Thebes in Boeotia, where thé sculpter Calamis made a statue
0~ thé Libyandivinity, which, with an appropriate hymn, was dedicated by the
poct PIndar.' At Aphytis, where another temple hâdarisen, Lysahder, who had laid
siège drëam-warning from the god, to whose Ltbyan
to thé city, withdrew because of a
sa~ctuary he afterw~ards made
a pilgrimage;~and cveryschpolboybas read some
version ofAlexander'svIsIt to thé désert sanctùary. To gonpfarther,itmaybesaid
tnat thé characterpfth~L~yangod was primarilyandessentlally that ofaseer and a
pcophet; an~d heretn he e~entially andwidely difrers ~bm thé Egyptianoivinity with
wnôm he became identined, Thé Theban Amon was primarily a godofcultivation

·
and of thé haryest: later, în his national charaeter as Atnon-Re, he was a deity of
g<nëralscope–akttlgûfgods,
Â~hoUgh he gave prâctes, a divine protectof, a conferrerpf national bîe~ings.
p!' rather judgm~hts, m a perfunetorymunner, he never
t
r:
An

C
oasit

Hsfp~otûa!.
<uch M.'}!wa)) must inevitaMy hfive bet~
nitic concepttpnf ~f'~a'at's)ahd," etc., sostr!b!!)g)y ~ctdaMj by W. R. S<a:;b,?m
'tMth/e~§'!8.
:If't,.
Se
). J'i.t.
.I. Q.d.O..tu. L. Mdtef,
C. L.{UII.f.
8. C, t, A~~Mm~M.&f~<M,ot.<.pp.
ff~
reptded in tsr)y times M a spot pf ptcati~r Nintdty.' Cf. thc

r~m..#ffI,<ft,f. "!J',""d~,I!~f.J.ft.;f, \"01. t. pr. ~O.I

tôt 1ft.
f~.
6 Hesyeh'ui~
~C~trabo~p.t9-
t *PiuMrch,o,~s~
'?..
~tt<t~.cf. Ar%toj:)ha~ ~p~, 6t9,7<6! PtutMch, JVM~,§ t~:MMo.~fj.v.pp. yjS c.tte.
Pln~F""l' 3d, ed, Bcrgll..
i P.usanlaHII..Sx8 Nepos, LyJan~er, 3.
 became reputed as seer: his functions were quite different from thosc of thé J9~
~~<r~, and clear!y point to the different origins of the two deities.
In regard to thé form of thé Libyan god, there has been notalittle speculation,
chieny on account of a passage in Curtius which, had he detiberateiy designed ît to
engender discussion, could scaTccîy hâve been bettcr conceived. quod ~r<

<f ~~w~<?<r& &

<-f~r, sâys-Curtius, speaking of this prophétie god of Sîwah,
~w </w maxime similis est
~M~~ gemmis f~M~ ("that which is revered as a god has. not a likeness
tlie same as that which artists have commonly given to divmities its seeming is
n~ost like to
an rimbriculum, studded with emeralds and gems "). Thé word ~M~,
upfbrtunately, is not found in any other writer, and its meaning is therefore-not certainly
khown. Emendation to umbraculum
serves onty to deepen thé mystery; and several
eàitors and writershâve, in despair, and against MS. autnority, read umbilico for &r~,
ahd supposed that the form of the god was omphalic. That to Greek or Roman eyes it
may
indeed have seëmed so is possible at présent, the important thing to note is that
thé local aspect was neither anthropomorphic nor zoomorphic; it was of unusual and
peculiarform. r,
This fbrm has been recognized in Egypt by Daressy.~ Three very peculiar faience
statuettes ône of which is shown (Fig. y8, a, ci </), were found some years ago in thé
excavations by thé <S~'M~ ~~<MfM at Karnak. Thèse
provëd to be, by thé inscriptions upon them, representations
o~ thé god Amon. Thé god appeared
as a lump or mass of
curiousshapeiseateduponanelaboratetycrnamentedthrone,
thé lump or mass îtself being lavishly decorated. Daressy
CàUed attention to the fact that thèse strange figures were
eyidently retated
to two représentations which had been
nMicedbeforp! the one a relief of Roman times on the
temple of Karnak (FIg. yo), the other an etching on a
bronze mirrorfound
at M!t RaMnah (Fig. 80) .s Both
t~cse latter show not oniy thé enthroned mass, but show
–
c:=
i~ surmounted by head of Amon in thé Egyptian style,
&
~earing thë two ~eathers. Adopting thé conjectural reading

and
;r
~JM~<-0 m thé passage of Curtius cited abpve, Daressy sup-
posed thé enthrpned tnass to hâve represented an pmphalus.
1 Thus, althbugh hé reGôghize~ that this tbrm of Àmon was whoUy

-0~i.
\6-Curtiu!)';iv. <

j._ ~w y<f
E. N~t))e, <~ ~~«',
''––
<& /a~ G. Dareœy, t/)M A'efMr/i!'
~f~ihthe.<i'ix.6~ -< thé <?,

''Ça)rôMuseum,Nos.~6,7~36,?;$,'38,t7t.'
t G. Daressy, p. 67; Idem, TrMM«X' <<' ~M~ AJWt A~ !h thé ~<M~, :!i. të~ and p). ii.
dinferent from the antnropomorphic figures of thé Theban Ampn, who i$ regùlarly repre-
sentcd as a man, sometimes with thé head or horns of hîs sacre)! anima!,t~e rarn; Daressy
~i!ed to perceive the real significance of the monuments he was discussing. Thé enthroned
to hâve been that
mass representsa a body in thé sitting posture which Herodotus states
in which the Nasamoncs buried their dead. Exam!nat:on ot' thé Karmk figures even
shows the cordings of the baie in which thé body Was wrapped (Fig. 78). The~heads
wij:h plumes shown i)t the Karnak relief (Fig. 79) and the Mît RaMnab bronze (Fig. 80)
are merely Egyptian attempts at emphasizing the identity of thé Hbyan;
DfM f<i'~<

with thé nationa! god of the Nile. Thé appearance of these représentations as a whole
recalls strongly that of thé bodywrapped in a bull's hide,the ,0,sometimes
seen in Egyptian funereat scènes~ (Fig. 8t, a, and especially f).
This récognition of the fofm of Amoh, described by Daressy as a body contracted
and wrapped for burLat, gives the key to the whole situation at 8!wah. The strength of
M~fj-worship among the Libyans bas been noted,as bas the deeply-rootcdpracttce,
sur/iving until present times, of consulting the dead about the future. ~This âccpunts
for the fact that the god of Ammonium was, first and foremost, %god ôfpfophccy. He
towhose graves thé Libyans~
was the hypertype of those ancestors or mê8 of renown
resortedtolearnthefuture.
Fatidicus
The responses or monitions pf the Deus were sometimes.as ~jthe case of `
Lysander, conveyed, as were those of thé prophétie dead of Libya, by meàn&tof dreams.
Thetbrmal consultations at Ammonium wëre,however,dettYered in a mofe imposing
manner.~ The gqd was borne m a procession through thé pa!Fn-grqyes surrounding his
temple. Eighty priests bore on thcir shoulders a barque–thi$ <:ohyeyance b€tray$ ~t
whtch ~ested~he gqtde~ shrine or' thé
once the Egyptian inRuence of Amon-Re–on
divinity. The barque was ornamentedwith numerous silver~
hanging dowh~
(,

1 Cf.G.MMpero,mJ~ ~/< M~MefM~M,V.fMC.,iii.pp. J/J.Ty!or/Of~M~y'

~<,?ii~2~<e/'P~n,p).vii!.regisMr.y,andte)[t. o
For what fbUows.g. Cuctius iv. 7. !~J~. SMbo xvii.p. Sf~i Diodorus Sitotu: Xv!i. ;0fj~
fir
10-:
 thé gunwale$–perhaps representing thé grave-gear of the'dead god~and the image of
thé god itself was studded, as has been said, with precious stones. A long train
of virgins and marrons foltowed thé barque, singing uncouth hymns in the Libyan
tOngue," with a view to propitiating the god, and inducing him to return to thé
consultant aSatisf&etory answer. Thé deity was carrisd in the direction in which
he himself wlUed his bearers to go. This suggests an mteresting parallel in modern
Egypt, wherc th< attendants at a funëral believe thé
corpse exerts a mysterious in<Iuence
o~ its bearsrs, directing them as to where theyshalî go.' At Ammonium, a~ter the
procession, thé god made answerby gestures~ to the questions put to him. In classical
tunes thèse responses were interpreted by the pf{est, who had even the condescension to
p~t thé reptiesinto verse, in thé mannerof thé bestGreek oracles!~3
( Thé D~/ F~& was served by both men and women, who wert: termed by
thé Greeks K/)o8ou~t. The women took part in thé processions of the god and in
tierodotus's story of thé Theban origin of the oracle–à story itself patently of Theban
origine–itwas a woman who wassaidto hâve fbundedthc désert sanctuary.*
So much, then. concerning the original diaerencebetween thé Deus Fatidicus anJ the
Theban Amon, and for the true nature, in the beginning, of the former. An important
a<id interesttng question
may now be considered–thésaered animal of the Libyan god.
This animal was the ram a fact which thé Egyptiens, who hetd this animal sacred to
t~eir national deity~ seized on with avidity, as strengthening thé bond between the two

F~
gods. One mighttin fact, be led at nrst glance to
animal of the Deus
suspect thatthe ram,~s a sacred
had become so by Egyptian means, did not a peculiar
body of évidence lead tothe conclusion that thé ram was one of thé important ~gures
thé n~ Libyan aacra, How becamc first associated with the god of
A~~o~m cannot
F~
p~ssibly thé D~
be decided possibly it was the totem-animal of his worshippçrs,

~y~
came to be regarded as a phase of thé Ram-god. Thc wide
geographical rangéofram-worship in Northerh Africa might incline
one 'o thé latter view.
(O~M /<'r~M and 0, ~f)
~~ë~ tts
was anciently found in Eastern
haunts, and its fbndness for

.worthyofreyerence. ,.?.
W~ntam heights, aUtehdedto make it an animal wh!ch, to savage mmds, would
seem
New ~h;e~ were b/,ccrtamH~Mtn6e [hmchoscn
i Abu))
was ):iUed aa soon
copse wat M'rapped;n thé h!de,p)aeed.~ a bed,itn<) as thé old chief died. Thé
then MmeJ ontdoors. Thé deceased's tinsmen stocd in nBg
body, whitethe 'o~-e)de~ ~h~bespotte (hetofpse;0<:orp~e, ~ow'tswhoisto btparthief, thacwea
'? P~
tO~nAMs
c~ ~°~~ Thé bearef9th<n .târntd thé b~~d tht r!ag, and:t wontd may

<
themtobumpagainMthe lpan itWi5h~4tQtotsucceedJ.:N.r~earrl~ Horu~l Su~tr~tjtianJ,p; pp.I), cause
vi. 68; Strabo /M. ftf.! EastathiM Dion}'s.~<)' ttt, M~o~fn. M<'<~<~
!rw~o~<r'A;tN~yiviv~at, sjroy &cd Q)('r~fLüTfUV TLV(ÛV Ka6 Ka?aVEIIITENVKa6` dVaTElVEwa
j~~[C~(!ath~~J, p. gî~ xô. Cf. ~¡Ihis Italicus, De 6ellp Punito, üi. 700 '99.

j ~°~ S~-~or
f~
>
~4, c(.rfoCop¡?s.D,d!4(;¡,~i. z.
chohlerodu~l
Cf-.SM"
'p..4.0!!C.Sctrdi))e,p.'t; G. Maspero, ~A~
Ç)~t&ensA:exmdrMu9, P~p.t~j Proejus,~
ig6
p. r~
/jM!f OjM~§y! Strabo ïyii.p. p
 At Zenagah,in the Western $ahara, at a point far removed from Egyptian ot' other
non-L!byan influence, exists a fine and early rock-glyph ûf a ram, weàring oh its head
what seems a rayed dise (Fig. 82). The glyph îs a full metre in tength, and thé surface
of the rock within the outlines has beer carefully and neatly polished. About thé neck
of the animal is a sort of collar. The rayed dise is surmounted by what appear to be
â
pair of plumes. Thc whole is an imposing monument of primitive graphie art, and is

utterly different in technique from the late "Libyco-Berb€r"rock-scnbihgs fbund in all

parts of the Sahara, wheresoever thé stone is su:tab!e for them. The Zenagah ram is
scutptured on a high face of rock overlooking the palms of the oasts.and.despitetts
patination, is visible from some distance.' Another glyphtrûm the
same station shows
itgiuu [ne ram, out in this tnstance thé re-
) présentation ishotsogood(Fig. 83). Thé
artist has given thé animal an attenuafed
.body tike that of agreyhound, but thé
head retains enough character t<show
what Is tncant.~ This glyph measutes 82
Cms. jffom head to. tail. As in thé nrst
instance, thé fayed dise is présent, andagaÏn
there appears a colïar abput thé nëck. In
this case, attached to thé conar and worn
`
Itke a pectoral ornament, Is a rudeîy circutar
object like a A simUar pendant
is observed on mâny pqp~!t< tërra-cottas
of Graeco-Roman Egypte ~hich represent
thé ram of thé Libyco-Theban Amon. Besides thé Zenag~h g!yphs, a~ adn~rable
cxampk exists at Bu 'Atem in Atgeria (Fig. ~). thé Bu 'Atefn ratT) is rettde~d Wtth
~p.
t E.-F. Gautier,
i'. p. 89 and fig.
t~. 9~an<} <!g.
~M~&fMf&~M~W&[thegrav!ng1~e~M/M/ observa Gautief~)) atth6tndofhMd<:9Ctip[ion,0~
T~. Berlin MaM~, N;); 879~ Cf. Cairo Mu~nm, 7.o;},c.
e
 ,great carë. Like thé other tWo, it is of generous size, as is regularly the case with the
Cartier African rock-drawings. About the neck is a coHar. The disc on the head has
both in front of it and behind it an ostrich plume,~ and at first sight appears to be
tied on by a band passing beneath thé animal's throat. When, however,
one narrowly
examines this supposed band, it appeârs that !t is indicated not by a straight tine as
a taut band should h~ve been,and as are thé parts bf the collar. A!so the "band"
projects a Httîe betow the throat. It is therefore justifiable to revise one's first
impression, â.td to think that hère, by a curious touch of anthropomorphism,the
ram
bas been dignined with a side-lock, such as was worn by thé Libyan fighting-men on
thé Egyptian monuments.
Another représentation was found in t8~t at OldArzeu. This was a head, rudely
~eulptured, wth the nose feebly wprked,out, and with thé eyes, cars, and mouth merely
scored. A pair of curved ram's horns were scuïptured ât'the sides.~ A similar head was
not long ago fpund at Tementit, and identified as a ram's by Basset.3
Besides this monumental évidence and the various Indirect textual notices, it
i~explicitly stated by S. Athanasius that the Libyans held thcram sac~ed/ He
suâtes that this ram was called "Amen"; but this is probably his own conjecture.
J~l-Bekrîstates that until the ninth centûry A.D. rams were worshipped between Aghmat
ahd~Sus.s

Thé sucri of this évidence leads tp thé conclusion that, not ohlyin Egypt,but aîso
iii North Africa, the ram was a sàcred animal. If one mayjudge by thé rayed dises
~orn by
some of thé examples, It would appear that insome tocatittes at teast thé ram
had a sotar aspect but hëre it is tnereîy necessary to show that he was venerated by the
Libyans, and that quite without Egyptian intervention he may therefore hâve become
assôciated in some manner with the jD~Mf~A<MofSîwah.
~i
It was ùnder his Egyptianizèd form that thé cultus of the.god of Ammonium
became widespread and this discussion
may conclude with a brief account of the latef
histo~y ofthis divinity. Thé oracle of Siwah dec~ined as rapidty as it had risen, but the
Y ofship o~the Deus Fatidt~us-Amondidnot die
out untit thé Christian ïimes.~ Besides

I!1/<
t)etemptesërect€dtothiscompbSttedeItyoutsideofAM~
othtrs sprang up in Libya, as
a Augita.~ On thé Syrtic littoral was a station called 'A~<t (var. 'A/tc~a, 'A~e~~<.) s
a Mther caUed "A~e;M; [~~ thé ~~M~o~M"' or ~~M~M" of thé Roman itinet'arles
yet a&thM, Mearthe Philaenorum Arae, was known to thé Greeks as 'A~~mfo; ~oe<;
r~Jthçr than,as has bcen suggested; uraei, elsé
the
artist ttould not have inserted
Ç~ta!hlyt)teyM~mtobep)~mesr9ther!h~h,Mhas btea 9uggMtedjer<?M,e)sethe itrusurouid
not have inserted
m)dd!e)ine)neM)). Cf.forthhgIyph$.Gsen,~M~M/o~i.p/<~a~d 6g; tj.
,m'j ~L.A.Betbru~ef.M~~
~.E.-F.Gaut:er;p.2S3.
\~Bekrt,~t~
j ~T)teMt'Mrstited ~f,
<S.At.haMsius,C~/M~$,'co).'tOB.

.9~:
8,
ea, de 5Ia~e,Ar~b. te) t,l' 1.151=trans: p. 3~$..
Oaudiim, P<
M4~pecta))yPr<?eop!~t~~
add JuveM), vi. s~ mBj«&~ ~)!cn<, )~;Ausoniu~,
'Pt°'~iv,j~<). 'o
''<;f.C.MaHerinFMt.C~.(M~
Ibid.·?te.'ejt.
2 p, 6z? (A), p. ~ig
M
Procopius, lot. tlt.
~s).
T~~&A~M~egm.Yti.
rt
.t, 5 '0
(~.<~ thé "A~<~ 7r~ of the Stadiasmus);~ while a fburth,–~o" To6"A~a)~–
existed near Antipyrgus in Marmarica.3 At the present time, in the district south of
Benghazî, is a place called J;, Tel ~M~) thé "hill of Amon," by the natives.
From this it appears how popular, after his identincation with the national god ofEgypt,
the god of Sîwah became, even if, before that identincation, h:$ cuttus was purely local.
The most important of the foreign developments of the Deus Ï hâve
of
F<
not yet touched nor can Ï no\~ do so more than briefly, for upon the cultus
the Libyco-Egyptian god at Carthage a whole thesis might be written. 'The divinity
whom the Egyptians had assinuîated with their Amon,
was adoptédtnto
the Carthaginian pantheon under thé name of {on ~M B~/ J~M~M, the word ~M Ba'<
being of course nothing more than the title of'owner" or "master". There is hère, It
may be remarked, no phonetic dimculty in nnding the
Egyptian represented by the
Punie n such dialect équivalence is perfectiy possible in Berber phonesis and the single
o represents the m in f*
and in many ofthe Greek and Latin transcriptions.~4
Several thousand Carthaginian votive stelae, constituting' at least three-fburths of
all those found, are dedicated to the god Haman and to thegoddess Tanit.~ This is
the more extraordinary as the state gods of Carthage were the pufely Semitic Baalim,
Astarte, Eshmun,.Melkart, etc., and as, despite thé universally theophoric tendency of
Semitic personal names, the Punie onoinasticon offers few, if any, names in which that
of Haman appears. This is' explicable on the supposition that Haman was adopted
into thc Carthaginian pantheon from without; and that he retaihed enough of hi$
Libyan character as a god of the dead to deter his votanes from giving te their children
his name, which would have such a sinistersignincance.~
That Ba'al Haman was indeed a Carthaginian form of thé Libyco-Bgyptian god is

t Scy)a![, § <o<).
clear from his form. On his stelae appears sometimes the ram of the D~jr ~~fM

S&t~M~~M<!fM JM~ 8:, 8*, M 'A~mfMx )r~m! Against the identiScanon of this station w'th
that mention~ by Scylax it tMy justly be urged that, whereas the latter was apparentiy near thé Phi!aenorumArae, the
former, according to the S~M~M, was 30$ stades distant from that place, But, on thc other hand, Syrtic geography is
somewhat vexed, and, if 'A. a~o-os is the correct lection m Scytax, the grove would natHraHy be dépendent on thé springs.
The Ammonian Springs hâve beenidennfiedwMtthc niodern~.Ut~j, ~r thé name(=~~<o,t/) pré-
aervingamemoryofthetirnewhenthewatersweresa<;redtoAmon. Cf.C.MN))er,note~S~M~.§8~.
~M~.M~,§38, 38:
Cf. Herodotus ii. ~j~M' 8: S. AthaMsiua, lot. tir. Cf. the Hebrew form pcx
t!, lamblichus,/)~8,andCopt:cAjHOVf< M in O.T.
asinO.T,&<. (M~.C~
y~x!vi. 2;; ~x<]:t! AMM'.iii.
s Père De1attrè,' Lei 7'<a~M/~M
better example, one from W. S. W. Vaux, /~<-r~MM
C~ M
The typical formula [uns as M)ows(! c!te, for want of a
f~wfMa C~~r, et< No. tt, plate iv.):
fi /~Mmhi~Mi~
~fxj)M't';ApX'
\['!0]i:iamn')')~
po'ïamp'
I

consecrated." C~C/X.t.no.'t;
Thé finding of the Melae chieny in cemeteries to some extent bears this ont.
"To the lady Tanit, Ba'at-itt-fMC,ând to thé lord Ba'a)-an)tn thitt which ~ahna, Mh pf Bad-Md~rt, ~n ofMagoh,
 ahd of Amon, as in Fig. 8j;. Statuettes of the
composite god wearing the ram's horns
hâve been ~bund In Punie cemeteries (Fig. 86). Ïn one instance he taciks the horns,

taut bears on his left (Fig. 87). The ngufe-heads of thé

arm a standing ram
(~arthaginianshipsoftenhadtheibrmoftheram-headedgod. Silius. Italicus, in his
accountof a sea-figh,t in which a Carthaginian captaih, in despair at seeing his ship in
ames, stabbed himself and pour~d a libation of his own blood between the horns of
tié6gure-head,hasthewprds: dextra inde rruorem
j H~~r<?<n~ fr~cr~M
~f'<?r~Mtr~r~rn«<T~«M~
Similarly, another prays to the Amon-head in thé bows of bis ship; and SiUus, in
rdatmgit, remarks parentheticaUy:
~j!<?WKMn&wMfr~7.<~M<M~7<'Mr/M<!e
1! C~~M~MA~~ffa~Mefa~M~ –
~urther évidence cornes from Sardinia. There, ih Punicized sites such as Tharrus,
numerqUsram's-hcadamuIetsofEgyptian style hâve been tbund, tbc importations,
~crtâinly, of Carthaginian merchants~ Taken în conjunction with the other évidence,
t&s surEciendy proves thé identity of Ba'alHamah of Carthage with the Libyco-
$gyptîan god. tate his worship taste<i in Punie Africa is not known, but probably
i How
wâsextinguishedonlyaiter.theadventofChristianity..<
Ït remains tospeakofone spécial phase of thé Libyan D~ ~<c«j which has
p~ùrposely not yet bee~ mentioned,'âs its discussion is in thé nature,of
an appendix to
/)<M', !f!.v.4.
~7~.x[~o~
:.J:
SitiustMHeus,

t;
~m~& ~~A~
° J- LieMein, pp. t~ and tgs. :t With thcse amutets cf.
~36,)i,33~)!No.HQ7/
~eMndtia MuKum,

.¡';?i"
and G. A. Rosnet, ~M«&~ in C/x'~
i,
Co~ Nos. t!,}!p, !i,~o, t!,}~, '3~,
~J .'r"
what bas now been said. It will be readily conceived that a nomadic people, living in
a country largely désert, and constrained to fb!tow the vaguety-denned and waterless
traits running between oasis and oasis, would naturaUy cvolve a divinity whosc functions
were to guide and to protect the traveller-in short, some divinity ho< wholly un!ike
the Greek Z< ~fo!. Even to-day a feeling exists in Africa that the wayfarer enjoys
a large share of the, attention of Allah. A god of prophecy, a god who advises with
foreknowledge, and to whom that which is hidden to men and full of perplexity is
clear and patent, is, among a people living in such an environment as that which
surrounded the Eastern Libyans, in a fair way to become a god of roads, a divine guide,
and the friend of travetters.
Such a development took place in the case of the Df~
(
Toonemyth
whicb illustrates this phase of his character, reference has already been made-that
2~
myth relating how Dionysus (or Heractes), while crossing the désert, being overcome
with thirst, invoked the help of Zeus-Amon his father, who sent to his aid thé
ram which pawed a water-hote in the sands.~ Another story of divine guidance attaches
to Alexander's famous visit to the oasis. The Macedonian king, some days after leaving
the coast, found himself lost, waterless, and altogether in a strait place. A shower of
rain, which partially relieved the thirst of the army, was regarded as due to divine
interposition on the part of the god of Sîwah, and the expedition was thereafter guided
on its way to the oasis, and on its return thence, by two croWs (Aristobulus) or by à
pair of serpents (Ptolemy Soter).~
In the anonymous Arabie history of Sîwah is told a ta!e worth citing in this
connection. A certain one of the governours of Egypt," writes the historian, meted
out penalties upon some of his people, but thèse !atter escaped into thé désert with a
little food. Now after some time, their food being exhausted, they saw a ram, and thé
ram trotting away into the hills, they followed it, and came to a town with men
dwelling in it. The inhabitants paid no taxes and had trees and streams and gardons.
The newcomers inquired of the dweUers there concerning their country, and they said
that they never had to do with the outside world. And after dwelling there a long
while, thé fugitives returned to Egypt. Afterwards they sought again for this oasis, but
found it not." 3 This interesting story, in which the ram appears as a guide to the lost
traveHers, may be regarded as one of the latest survivais of the tales, once probably very
numerous, of the care bestowed by the prophétie Libyan god of Sîwah ùpon strayed
wanderers in the désert.*
1 Servie,
SArnM,t;v!<t); P)utMch,<<r,§7:
<f~Verg.iv.tg6;Luta[im,<Luc, f<iy.6yt,
These mysterious dese-t cities are, in Persil, Arabia, and Africa, the theme of a thousand ta'e~. Readers of the
~j&<! A% will recail the ctassic story of the lost e!ty of tram (f~uran, f«~ ixxxix. 6). Perha~ the earliest Kotice
of thèse hidden cities is in Strabo vii. p. t~p, where thé geographer cites a Greek critic as tensur:n~ ma~y writers for
believing such absardities as "that in Libya there exists a city of Dionysus which no one canSndtwice."
Such powers of guidance as the ?TM<M Amon seems M have had were derived from h!s neightpnr t~!n of Coptos,
patron of the Coptos-RedSMroad. Cf.A.Erman,M<?,pp.;S~.
 D~MCo.E~M'/s
AFrench schotar,whose works are marked with equat ingenu;ty and soundness,
established the existence among the ancientLibyansof a sky-god of general and
vague
char:tcter,'whom it is here convenant to designate s!mp!y
as Df~ Cw~/M~ The
o!dest conception of the sky among thé Eastern Libyans, and one which persisted until
thé seventh century B.c., was that the nrmament was a solid roof above the earth. This
Mea is shown in the account given by Herodotus, who
says that the Libyans who
brought the Greek colontsts from Aziris to Cyrcne pra!scd the !att6f place by saying
that there"the sky teaked"~– ramfan$
Ërmamcnt solid were fréquent. This conception of the
as no more interfered with the evolving of a personal D~~ in Cc<
~Ltbya thâ~ tt did in Grecce, whcrc sîmiïar cosmologicat views were entertaîned.~
Unfbrtunâtely, présent knowiedge of the LIbyan sky-god is chieny derived through
!;tudy of thé a
!ate Atrican "Saturnus,who was widetySvenerated in North Africa
<lunhg the second and third centuries A.D.~ From such a study.however, the general
rature of thé Liby in D~MCo~~canbeascertained.
On the votive stelae of "Saturnus" appeâr not only solar dises, but stars, crescents,
~tc.–in short, heaven-symbols in général.' On sôme of the stelae, "Saturnus" is
~epresehted with HeHus-Spl and Selene-Luna;* and his Afro-Roman temples
~rranged withthree~ that Sun and Moon might nank thé were
Sky-god m thé centre."
~'M f~' < M~f
Toutaîn is thererbrejustined in his inrerence that thé African "Saturnus" was a divinity
This supposition receives strength from the ract that
'~Saturnus"was associated with one of those vague nature goddesses of whom Rhea,
Ôybeïe, and Ops Régina
were examples, and who will be mentioned brieny farther on in
this chapter. îh short, it seems cîear that thé more générât aspect of "Saturnus" was

~ïta! Z. ~MM)~ Z ~~t.?," Z. eMt~ and Z; .i!

that of a gréât sky-iather and weather-god, comparabte to thé Greek conceptions of Zfu;
The conception Saturnusas
a général suprême being, univërsal and inCtite, is elucidated by the dedications made
of
to
~im as SATVRNOAVGVSTO, S. DOMINO, SAtfCTO, DEO SANCTO, D. MAGNO,
or
B. iNVtCTO~ and by his confusion with thé Roman. Jupiter." Among his more

~pp.6~
{
~M~
J.tctMin, Df~rM' <)'M~~<MXMM<!f<t/<'tt. Àdd R-Cagnat,
P,p~eUcr,tM
m~')/~ ~A&/M f~~j
r<)!&fi',vo).i.pp.S)~p.97!idem, in jVMm'Ab
JI" 1907, PP'H7/ff. et.. CdG, vU¡. $upplem, 1Z.38B rgq.
HetodotUi iy. t;8, Mp6;E\Â))t'<;–the )Liby~n$ are ~peaktng–~fCmCTt ~ff ~tT~~o)' MKKt)" H.~aSra yM
etmwo! TfT~Mt. Th~ passage does not rcfcr to thé fountaih. ~Cf. E. B. Ty)of, ey. f~. vo). o

~Tw~6~~<
(or similar
\<:(tneeptioM'ofa;s<i<!<!)'m.'n)ent,A' pp. y)

.P-r.
S
f ? For thé cottfmion oftherM) and' personit)ed sky, f~ E. S. tyior, ~.f~.yo). ii. p. :;7;

.p.
'p.
~~C)e~en!A)exapdr!nus,v,p.Stt,AthenaeMS,Df~~
i, 'pp.<<
'PP-)'- ".Y-p.'9<
"f'aas.t!)iasi.t').8,ix.}Q.
'°J-Tp~i ~c~
P)~.jh~~r<p.
M 9!.z. <s8 Ei PauMniasi.
p. +30.
Pausanias ü, ty,
Horace, O~.i.
etc.

~Apo))oniusRhotiiu$i).S!tM<!Scho).<?y&
M Pat)san)asiii.<3. 8. ? AMchytus,S~&M.
he ênjoyed loe~t¡v", tialé3,'e.g: $OUARENsls,ete..IMd. p. 32.
0~~ ~~<
). t~;

A!iin(?~,yiji. tp.6~, wh'sh t'ear< thé dej!<:at:on tOMSAS=/~< ~«rM ~~MM ~f~
 specialized aspects, M is not surprising to find this Deus Çoelestis appearing as a patron
of agriculture and, by extension, of flocks. Thus, this deity is called in thé late
inscriptions rRVGtFER and DEVS FKvcvM and among his o<îer!ngs, made largely by
native ~rmers,~ were first-fruits, grapes, dates, oit, wine, and pine-cones,* and !n his
attributes he resembles the Italian Vertumnus or Silvanus.5 The Greek heaven-god had
a similar phase as Z~ t7r«t<~(o~
That thé weather-god of the African tanner should also hâve been the guardian of
nccks and herds is not unnaturaL A weather-god could, if he so willed !t, literally
temper the wind to the shorn lamb," and Was of almost as much importance to the
shepherd as to the cultivator. Butts, sheep, and oxen/ as well as fruits and vegetabtes,
were offered to "Saturnus," who appears ocçasionally !n the Afro-Roman inscriptions as
a god of nocks.~ A god of such broad and such vaguely-defined character was by
classical writers not unnaturally sometimes confounded with the Libyan deity who, under
his Egyptian name, was best known to the Graeco-Rôman world-"Amon" of Siwah.
Hence, Pausanias is found vainly deriving the name "Amon" from an Egyptian word
which he gives as ~MM, meaning to graze" or "a shepherd,being drawn into this
error because he bas misapplied the name Amon nrst to thé DfM F~
and secondty
to the Deus Coelestis in thé latter's pastoral phase. Tertultian, falling into the same
confusion, styles the Libyan M~M dives "Amon"
and Servius, in the legend cited
ear!ier in this chapter, which tells how "Amon" came as a herdsman to Dionysius în
Egypt, mày be guilty of the same mistake. These etrors are perhaps excusable, since
the sacred ram, whic!* bas already been noted in association with thê Dc<~ f~A<
is also sometimes associated with Saturnus."
A comparative study of gods similar in their nature and functions to the Libyan
Dt~.f Cc-M~ leads to the belief that it would certainly hâve bcen eut of thé usual
course had this divinity lacked his spring and harvest festivals.. Thé rites consecratcd to
such a god would be, naturaUy, such as are suggested by the rhythm of animal and
vegetable life the great phenomena, more especially, of procreation, birth and death.
The primitive agriculturist is aiwaysstruck by thephenomena pfseasohal changes
to his eyes, Européen winter, or autumn in North Africa, are periods of dismal
sterilization, which he explains as occasioned by the death of god. Therefollows,
'J.ToNtain,p.33.
'/&Vp.3<.
~pp.<:f.Kosch~r,ii.pp.~tt~ <p.)oo,
s/M.pp.?t,
6P)uMrch,~M/.p.t0~.8c.c. ~J.Touta!l,~).f~.p.to6.
'C/vni.t!)6,);,o~,)~t8,8~,<:t(:.
Paasanmstv.t~.s; c~Eustathius~Dtonys.w~.tt!MTertt)))tM,.0<&
tt s[e:~
Cf the Thugga
)aek!!tg to the head
~«p~~
given in
ofthe hnman <gure,
thé
M~
Fig.
p. ~cj j
Archives des Missions
In thia
statuette tonnectiontf.
shown here in 87.
thé h~ns
G. Schweinfurth
and perhaps; since tre*
np.
etc. p. 73. Schwe!nfurth found a Bu)a~ (Harg~h) famity Which cherMheJ as anJteirtoom a
J. Bat), Kharga 0~,
bron~ ram, )Ocm5.]c.ng,whjcbwMesteemedacharme~nst sten)!:yinw6n)c)). This may hâve référence to thé
D~M C'M&j/uM a god of ferti)ity;of to the D<-M Fatidicur, M a god of thede-td, fotthe modem F.~pt!jth wornen ofte"
trytOtouchorw~kamundecrpsestohaMsons. Récente thefewMa'hidtou<<:MeofgMve-deM<:Wiott)nthé D.ettit )n
this connccfion.
 aftcr a period, a season of rejuvenation thé earth becomes again full of life and activity–
thé primitive mind says thé god is born again." Once this idea has been evolved, thé
men whd~entertam it are jnot slow to institute rites o~c~/M~ with v/hich they mourn
thé death of thé god, and carnivalr whereby they celebrate his re-birth. Whereas thé
C~v~, in those phases t~ Which he eorfcspotDded to the Greëk ~T'
X. ~~o{, <cv\ was a god eternal, universal, and unchanging, yet as the ~<M, thé
p'M~ dives, and the god of the husbandman's year, he could tcmporarity die. Hence
th!s god, together with Gurzil, the sun-god, is to be credited with having had some
share in those carn'vaîs and rites of désolation, traces of which are yet clearly discernible
in so many parts of North Africa.' Sôme of thèse survivais oHer striking points of
ahalogy to thé carnivals 'of Southern Europe. Thé rites of rejuvenation have on thé
whotesurvivedbcttcrthan the rites of désolation, man naturaUyprescrving longer his
n)emorles of pleas~re than his reeonections of pain..Thé ceremoni&l garlie-eatjng at
~îwah, however, which is practised annuaHy during one week in October,
may have had
its origin in a mou-ning-feast for the temporary death of the Deus Coelestis.

D~~ Co~ZMTVS
The god just discussed appears to have. had a partner of muçh the same nature
as himself. Her existence may be inferred from a fragment In Duris Samius, who says
thât the A'~M were of Libyan origin, and that they first were used in honour of thé
J~tother of the Gods.~ ïn thé Roman period this goddess, who appears in Carthaginian
ttmes to hâve been confused with Tanit, appears under the title ôf DM .M~M,~ and
as such is not infrequentty associated withthe DfM C'M~M.~ It would ap~ear that
It was this goddess, in her Punictzed form, whom Apuleius characterized as
~<c~MeM~M~'WM<
ÏHE AUSEAN GODDESS

Thé Auseans, in thé district about Lake, Tritonis, worshipped a goddess whom
~efpdotus and others Speak of as "Athena." The Auseans had a sanctuary to this
~iyinIty~andhercultusisthusdescribedbyHerpdotus:
Thé Àuseanmaidenskêep year byyMr a feast in honour of Athena, whereat.their custom is
t~ dr~w Up !h two bodies, and to fight w'th $t8hM ahd clubs. They say that thèse are rites whieh
have come down to thein frqth their fatbcrs, and that they honour with thcm the!r native goddess,

'E.DoMt~<.pp/~6't~ /<
i<DurisSami~m'J~U.'=Athenacus,D~;x!v.p.6lÈ~
<C~vnL:66~=R.Cagnât/C~fM~t~pt.~üi, hg.
~) (f), C/t, ~<t7, !0, Cf.C/t,viii.Sz~;j~.etc..
j
< bcss~u, /m~f. i CM, viii. !6~,j~:ti .~M-iDessan ~y3 i
.6/Z.,ni/~t~ r
ApBte!u~ ~tt~r~. xi. P. y~r,
< <)nJ<n<(orp cf S. Airtbros!n9, C~'4 Sym~ Cf. J. TouM!n,< ff'f.
pp, ~o~whe~e9hc~sçhA~ct6r!zÈ(ia5~#<w/
~Scyhx~no/'AC~.MT~M~o!)',
who is the Mme as the Athena of the Greeks, !f any of thé maidens die of the wounds they receive,
the Autans dechre that such are fa!se maideos. Before the Kght )s su<îered to begin, they have
anuther cer~mony. Onc of thé virgins, thé kveties-t Qf the number, !s selected ~ont the fest
CormtMan hetmet and a coniplete suit of Greek armour arc publicly put upon her, and, thus
adorned, she is made to mount into a chanot, and is led around the whole lake m a procession.
Thé Auseans décide that Athena is the daughtet* of Poseidon and Tritonis they $~y she quarrelled
with her father, and applied to Zeus, who tonsented to accept her as his child, and therefore she
became his daughter.'
Before commenting on this passage, it may be noted by the way that part of
the Syrtes, because of this identification of thé native and the Greek goddesses, was
regardedbyclassicatwntersaspeculiarlysacredto Triton and to Pallas. Callimachus,
fûrexampIc,caHsLakeTntonis"Pathntias.
a

The statementsofHerodotus may nowbeconsideredtn détail.'

i. 7%t' Lt~–From the fact that the goddess is said to have been born of
Poséidon and Tritonis," !t might be inferred that she was a sea-deity but this is
not borne out by her association with "Zeus." The explanation, in. so far as there is
one, would seem to be merely that "Athena" was a goddess of ilt-denned dominion
whomttwasequatlyrationaltoassociatewithsky-ru!erorsea-ru!er.
2. The ~M/ ff<tj~.–Thé annual feast of thé goddess suggests that, like the Deus
C~t'A'~y, she had some association with thé seasohs. The ceremony, moreover, was on.e
of great importance.3
g. T&' Cfyt'~MM/ ~M~.–Thé selection of the most comety of thè virgins of thé
tribe, and her arming in Greek (/.f. the best) war-harness is significant. The maiden,
armcd and mounted in her car, represented, on thé occasion of the festival, the goddess
in whose honour the ceremony was peribrmed, and who must, it is ctear, have had a
wartike aspect.
The fr~M.–Thé goddess, in the, person of thé armed maiden, accompanied
by thé other célébrants, made a circuit of the lake. This procession suggests some form
ofAfj~M, whereby the beneficent influences of "Athena" were invoked upon thé lands
ofthe tribe. Such a procession is roughI~paraUcted in the ritual of thé Arval Brethren,
whose circuit was madc with a view to obtaining the protection, chieny, of thé Dca
DIa. The circuitous procession, ending in a sacrifice was not, in fact, uncommon in
this instance, the conclusion was not a sacrifice, but a cérémonial combat.
The CoM~:<.–It is the cérémonial sham-nght with which the annual festival
concluded that shows most clearly thé character of thé goddess. One Ërst notes that
none but maidens engaged in it, and that those who were accidentally slain wëte
supposed to be ~M/f~~ because they were not true maids. This points to thé go<}dess
having had a strong virginal aspect. Thé signi~canceôf the combat is not hard to
1 Herodotus hr. t!o; ef~ Me!a i. 7,who<dd9 nothing to thi3 Mcot)')t,M<;ept that the annua] festival was ce)e-
bMted on the Mrthday of thé gaddess. Cf. R. ~eumann, ~~</o/, p, :8 and C. Tissot, ~)t rn/<m'<~
/fx,M,fbr thegeographfc~MHing.
Cit)t!macha!<P)inyv.cf.Lufan,ix.3~8~.etc.t.. Cf.Hcroddtmiv.tS~.
$9.
 divine–-it was a rain-cercmony in which was acted thé strife between drought and
tain. Thé frequcDcy of these drought-and-fain conflicts among primitive peoples,~ and
their survive in North Africa at the present time, lead to thc conclusion that the
processton ofthc Ausean goddess was designed to ward off cvil and induce Mcssings o~
tthe tribal lands, and thé domestic cpmbatwith which thé ceremonyendedwas meant
toensureagoodrainfaMduringtheensuingyear.
This begets the strong suspicion that the Ausean "Athcna"was but a localized
phase of the ~<! C~~A'f, thé ~r/~ ~M<
who bas atready been mentioned
and
qs a partner of the Libyan sky-god. From this point of view a very vexed
OifHcu!t question
may be approached, namely, that of the possible connection of this ram-

j'
~ender of the Auseans, and thé D~ Cc~&f of thé Libyans in general, with a goddcss
~f thé
western Egyptian Delta. This goddess is Neith of Sais, who bas by various
modem writersbeenrelatedto thé Ausean~Athena.
!I.
Neithwas a goddess established in Egypt from archaic times, her name appearing
1~
a royal name, bf the proto-dynastie période Her chief place of worship
~as Sais, thé sacred name of which city was 0 @, thé Dwelling of Neith,"r"
and where she had an immense temple.* Her functions we learn from various sources.
~)n naophorous statue
a now in the Vatican she is described as the mother of the sun,
whobegan to bring forth even before being born.Plutarch says that theshnnc of
thé goddess bore an inscription which he thus translates
'Ev~ t~n vaf To 'y6'y< «n oy <a! ~o~€f0f, «M Tef e/Mf Tr€Tr\C)' ou~f; Trm <)To! aB'MaXt~tf-
i am a)t that bas béer!, is, or shau be no mortal has ever uplifted my garment.
~h'sisCon~rmedbyProcIus:
~TrïtOt ~TOpoOo~t, €f 'rp oëuT~) T~; ~toCj Trpoy~a~MfOf t!f<M Te nr~f~Kt
T~Cre' T~ t~T<t <!oî
~o~t~<t, KŒt.TA 'y~ofOTtt, ~ym e!/u. Tof t/Mf ~[Tmfa ou8e!! m~r«aX<~t! m' eya' ~a~of &~t<rot~
J\tO!;6'y~€T«.°

'he Ëgypttatts re!ate that which mner sanctuary of thé. goddess this tnsenpbon is to be read
` tti thë door~ay t amthat wh!eh is, which shaU be, and wh!ch has been. None ever up!!(ted my
~arfhent. Thefruitwhiçhïbroughttbrthwftstheson.
t
Mightnot [he ins-ttatiohofaceremoniatcombMpfthis~ortaccoantforthc h!g~ pefctntageoffnteturdfbre-
art~s amohgthe Predynastic Egyptian women? Such Meïp)anat!on<tàu!<!beatteastasprobs.Heas that ttemen M

p.
t~attreitted thé women that thé armi. of thé )atKr were_freq))ent)ybroken. Pna'!t!Ye matt does nqt to ths ext~t
~!9hand)et!therh!*wom;aorh!s~e~~ <I()m~$t¡e a."¡ma1s.
? Oa tMs H. Bru~çh/X~~ ~M~
S
P..2fO.
~B-<~rMr-<n~-t,N~~
J~t.
p/~jG.J~MiM/m~~x)[X.,t9oS,p~);D.Ma))et,t~C~ dt Neith Snir,
~~–.
~e J~.j A. Wtedemaan, ~~A)!t

~r'

~)n.~t,)'
~ir-f
')~e![h, Mothçr oftheSuti,"etc.; D. Ma))j:t, nf. p. 9t- ~neofthe oMest of her symbols is
T~, two <:ro?stj
c~ows on 'a ~aN', (fhe h~ajs of thé arro~s'ârt! not pointcd, bot hâve thé bMaj concave cuttin~-edge,sacn as M Mon !n
<C;SQurdiUe,t~.p.tSo,);
? J.de Rouge~ GA~M~&~ftMM~~~~t< ÂW~ P.
'!H.Bragsch,?XtM&r~/Mfh~f'M~
~25. ~S. t Q Mattet, ~.f~.
&' M.allet,.o
D., 'P
s.
P.' n lff,' ¡ ç.r.r,
(l' p.;3 7' 'ff'
p. i,l Jff..
“ ~!at~ch,'2)/ 8~ § to (p. 3;t) Xy!}.' ? ProctM, 7<;y<<i,~o.
 From this it appears that in Neith one is confranted with a great nàtute-rfiotl1er
of virginal aspect. This virginal aspect led the Greeks to identify hef as Athena,~
but the emphasis laid upon her character -as a j~~M shows déarty'that her primitive
rôle must have been one comparable to those of thé Mater DeuM, OpS Regin-à,
etc. Among other 'titles, Neith was ca!!ed °T~3, ~-wr- "thé co.w Mehurt," ând
T ~3 (!! 0 ~~c cow which bears thé sun."2 These tit!es belongcd to her
asmostbroadlyconce!ved,asasky-goddess.
The chief points of similarity between Neith and thé Ausean goddess, both of whom
Herodotus caUs Athena," may be thus exhibited :–
SAtTiC "AfHEtfA At)SËAN"ATHENA"
t. Sky-goddess. t.Sky-goddess.
2. Virgin-mother. 2. Strong virginal aspect.
3. Goddess of vegetation. j.Rann-sender.
4. Warlike phase, as shown by her nome- Represented at her ~esttva! as an armed
symbols ~< and ~r. maiden. Ceremonial sham-fight.
~.Cow-tbrm. Cow-taboo in Eastern Ubya. Cows st!!
sacrtHcedforrain!~NortnAfriea.°
These similarities are such that one cannot avoid feeling that, were more
material available, they would in aH probability be increased in nnmber. They
prepare one also for a curious piece of evidence first adduced by H. Brugsch,
which was the original cause of the suspicion that the Ausean and Saitic "Athenas"Il
might be local phases of the same goddess. The évidence in Question is that
anforded by certain tattoo marks seen on Egyptian représentations of Libyan captives.
Some of these marks are of more than merely brnamental significànce, like the sun-
emblems already mentioned. Others, as bas been said earlier in this monograph,
are either idcntical with, or vary only insignincantly from, thé commonest hieroglyphic
sign for thé Saitic goddess, (early) or (New Empire, late form ~). These signs
have, as tattoo marks, ur.doubtedïy some spécial meaning they are not Egyptian
brandings, moreover, since they only occur on the Libyan captives, and not on thé
Asiatlcs,etc.~
A writer who has rccentty discus~d this question bas fbrmutated thé th~ory
that Neith was originally a goddess of~L~yans living in pré-historié Egypt, who with
them was forced out ofan original position in thé sbuth to become nrmty estab!isbed in
thé north-west.~ As presented by its propounder, this theory is ingeniousty sup-
ported it lacks, however, archaeologicat evidence, and not yet bas a period arrived
where any question of early ethnie shiftings in. the Nile Valley can be Coosidered as per-
Herodotus ii. 18, ;9, S}, ]69, <70, t?!; Phto,7ïN~«f, p. 4.74.; Hesychiut M N~
Eratosthet)~ )t)
C~ 'tii, fegypt.
f~C!cf.Roscher,Nit.
Mphiht the name N~TMK~ as=*A~M ~«t~~o!, etc.; cf. AppUpdorHe,
~D.Ma))et,<p.
7~

L. Bertholon, <
op. Hut,M 1 have said, the cow-taboo was not nnu'emtitt Eastern H<ya
tit. p.
ofMareaandAphproteatedigainstbeingmadebytheEgyptiamtoqbserveit. Herodotùsii.tS.
the inhabit~nM

< These detaits have beendiscusse<),f<~<!p. )3()f~. *G.Jeqmcr,f<Y.p.4}.

 fectiy safe grôund.~ But from thé parallel instituted above betweén the Libyan and thé
Ëgyptiàn goddesses, from this occurrence of the Neith-symbol as a Libyan tattoo mark,
and from thé geographical position of Sais, it seems that some connection between thé
t~odivInitIesishigMy probable.

GENERAL CHARACTER OF LtBYAN RELIGION

tf thé preceding fragments in regard to thé religion of the Eastern Libyans are con-
sidered from thé peint ofviewof thc student of the temper and culture of thii! peop!e,aa
few général tacts are deducible from them. Brieny, hère is seen the religion of a people
~ho.white they had~attained to anthropomorphic conceptions of deity.yet held tena-
c~pusiyto host ofantmistic ideas. The religion of the Libyans seems to have been
a
oniy partialty iconic,
to hâve presented many local variations and peculianties, yet to
hâve been dommated by a few simple and not ignoble idcâs which were common to most
.of the Nprth Africans. Thus, to thé prevalent superstitions which regarded seriously ['
various sorts of art-magie and sorcery, was joined the cultus of a number of fairly well-
de~ed gods,~ and of a ~ew 'broadly conceived divinities like thé Df~ Cc<< A belief
i~) thé future life also, was deeplymgrainedm the people.
ïn character It dpes not appèartô have had an unusual number of gloomy features,
is so often thé case with Afncan religions on the contrary, it seems, so far as can be
as
j idged,tp hâve been thé création qf a race Incllned to take a fairly cheerfui view both of
tus life and the next. Naturally,therë Is no évidence that it contained any.but thé `
s mpiest doctrines, and, in short, it
may be best denned as a' barbarie religion, half
ceveloped from thé direct animisticnature~worshipofsavagery.
If parallels to thé religion of thc Libyans as it is known be looked fbr, it its in Egypt
l
t iat thé most StrikMgana~gtesare to be fbund, There, for example, the sun was associ-
ated, as in Libya, with thé bull there the belief in the after-life of thé dead is strongly
developed there, as in North Africa, thé ram ngures prominently
as a sacred animal
and in Neith ofSais has just been remarked goddess having striking rësemblances
a a to
~ibya& onë. Ït does nOt do tp build too much on thèse likenesses, but certainly there seems
to hayë been between thé religion of thc ancientEgyptians and that oftbpLibyansacon-
closër than existedbetwëch that of thé latter and that, for example.of the Sémites.
Just as khit info thé Egyptian languageis a dennite Libyan élément, so, too,in aU probability
~xist in Egyptian religipn varions éléments of Libyan origin. These, howèver,cannot
yet be discemed, oft açcount ôjflack of knowledge regard to thé ancient Libyans.
~i Ï !t )S not évidence on this questtôn of ~eith and thé Auseangoddess that Amas!s sent asagift to Cyrene a statue of Neith
t, f~t-
1 1 :-ll'~
'i ~S~), i
1,
~~BMM~a~
u (Herottot~
p t for A-'nMis ~5 especiaUy under the ptotectioa ofNeUh, being called t
~a!; WM h!? capita), :*As Fpr t~ qu~st;!dn of Neith ahd

t~t~{!sNp!ra/)a/tm~Ttt,Ka!MoW~eMTo!WT't',m!~AAotTfM~
Tahit,Ï Wt<! ont)'

~A~'(106T0.S LQTOtIE6.
t-
say thatt disagree whcUy et) this subj~ct w!th

~Troeotiina, D< ~~&, vi. ~{'çt'.Scho). MApQ)!on. Rhod.)! t~p!, C~. f;)Wj.=AsrOetas, ~r~. t in f/~G,
 In condusion, the reader is again warhed, as àt thé beginn'ing of this chapter, that a
number of the views set forth above are too .new to hâve had the~dvantage ûf cnticissn,
and that it is oniy by the excav&tion of indigenous sites in North Africa that one ca~ hope
eventuaHy to arrive at a more dennite knowledge of the subject.

JpDAISM AND CHR!S~!At)ITV

bywayof supplément..
A ~cw words on Judaism and on Christianity in Eastern Libya mày here be added

In regard to the ibrmer,Jewish commu~Ities seem to have existed in Eastern Libya

fromcomparativdyearlytimes. Thus,averysënousrebeHionofthe'JewsinCyrena:ca
took place in n~ A.p., and near Borium, in thé Syrtis Major, wasa synagogue, thë, <
bu!!dtng of which local Hebrew tradition ascribed to Solomon It is a weU-known
fact that the Berbers get onwe!lwith thé Jews, and that tnanyhavéa<loptëdjudaism~
This explains how, in the rebeltion of !t~ A.D.; such a targe number of insurgents
came to be involved; it is almost certain that thewar,!ike its pretext,wa<' ~igious
ratherthanracia!.
Christianity entered North Airica at an early' date, and the Christian population,
to judge by the archaeologicat évidence aldhe,was ïargeandspreadoveraconsideràHe
area.~ Although pagans existed in the days of Justinian, who cohverte~ them,~ in
the time of the Arab invasions there were a number of Christianized Berber tribes'' It
is curious to observe that the Berbers, who are suchnotoriousty heretical Mehammadans
to-day, produced when Christians thé heresiarch Arius, and in thé ~estet'n parts b~
Eastern Libya, under the name of Donatists, cpmmitted a thousand savage extravagances.

~?.
There is one point which may be méntioned in thts connection, since severat
writers have been s!ightly in error concerning it. Thé cross is an élément ofcommon
occurrence in modern Berber ornamentation, and since the nàmes bf some môhths ha~
in many dialects preserved their Latin K:)rms, and as thcwprd for"anget''exlstsôn~
slighdy modi~ed in Berber, some writers hâve suppose<l that thé cr~ss~tn~
Berber tattooing, etc., is a re!ic of Libyan Christianity. This ts an
supposition, since a i.hie!d wHch, from the size Qf thé cross on it.mieht hâve be~
aie of
anumber Jewishfamiliesto-day rn whieh ->
Flaim to ha~ been seMM in in

,<>)"è'<"
t Procopms, ,T6ereafe number
Procopibs, lcr. rir. Ttere ofjewish &mi)!e! to-~y in ~ngh. Whïch
ç!aim
[he coantry since Romm timet. The présence of Jews in the Syrtic~ Reg:o tn Ron; times.:s attesM() by thé exbtehçe
of a sta[!on cafted t~M [=X<~ '~Ktfa] /MM (r~. Segm. v;t)~, the~ ÉI Y`9~lSUd?plr,
~7,

'<
ofJ,Msl,C"1IJ.iii.~5.
Cf. H. Banh, <&/ vo).p. s~ T' < ~reM&
fn thé viii/Md~~ one
5nJs w!re-<tr~wn aç~dem!c c!s<:uss!on in regard [o Libyan prosetytes, thé quetoonbci~ how )ong aYibyan fa~jieed
profess Jada!sm before being Mcepted as ~ws. Thé concta.iOn re«:hed ~that thé L.byahs stana in tae ~me reta~on to &
thé Jews M do thé Egypte and thM three génération, of profc~op ntust therefore pf6Ce4e their being receiYed into
~c~M- ~Cf:~voLi.p:M7,thef~hedba~i<aatShabetUniMt~ .<; <
f/
~Procop~,Af,'n/

p.M~m.M.~mp)e,~H.y~;)~~
-}.'
Cf. Johann~ Abba~, C~f. p. t3 Abu ')Ha?an, r~<! Af~~< éd. tornberg, pp. 7,
~M&
weM); E)-B<t:r!, Pw~-M in A~/w~r~, vo). !i.p.~8ti ?'' HaMun,Â'~
8< (<or tM <
TTansLdeS'ane,vot.t~~
rr ,'1;'

x.:
a ctusader's, exists on
a prehistoric rock glyph in Tibesti and as thé Cf~ss is aiso seen
as an ornament in thé ancient Egyptian representations of Libyans.~ Its true origin
in North Africa may be reterred to thé crucifbrm solar symbols aîreMiy noticed in this
chapter.~ Christianity, indeed, seems not to have been 6rmty enough rooted, even m
littoral Libya, to hâve left any deep or lasting survivais. There are no notices of
thé persistence, in Eastern Libya, of a Christian element that was ~trong enough, as
in Egypt, to withstand the overpowering influence of Mohammadanism.~
G. Nachtigal, M~M und S~«, vol. i. p. 308.

S.
Vide supra, p. )~8,
S. the
Cf. thé table
Mb)e ofsokr
of solar emb!em!
C~MfMM. in Thé readcr Le rcfcrred
J. Dechetette, CeA< <& ~</a<f~ ~ir~<
to th!t wor)t <of :< good
Mcpunt ôf
of African
~hnstianity, written from the Roman C~hotic point ofv!ew, and b.
A. Mvreelli, .r?friea Girrirtiaua. The reâder is referred to this worlc for a good geceral
génère) aeCQunt Afnc.tn
almost eM)o.ive]yon thé literary eviderce,
 CHAPTER IX
HISTORY'

THE history of the Eastern Libyans hardly deserves to be dignified by that name,
since practically on~y records of their conflicts with more éivilized peoples, made by
hostile annalists, survive. Yet in order to understand the life and character of the
ancient Berbers, and because of their contact with the important peoples of the
Mediterranean, these records arc worthy of more study than they have yet received.
Thé history of thé Eastern Libyans divides itself into two periods, both because of the
two main channels through which our knowledge flows, and because of the different
character of their history in Cartier and in later times. The first of thèse periods may be
tcrmed the Egyptian period, the second the Graeco-Roman. The 6rst is the epoch
extending from the earliest îustoric times down through the period of thé great
invasions of Egypt, a period at the close of which the Libyans are dimly discerned
in a state of flux, aggressive and unsettled. Our knowledge of this portion of their
history is derived almost wholly from Egyptian sources. The second epoch is one
of ethnie quiescence, relieved only by the unsuccessfui ievc!tS made <tgainst foreign
dominion in Africa,-an epoch in which the descendants of thé invaders itre seen as an
~gg''cg~~°" of factious and disumted tribes, at various points dispossessed of their
terri tories, and remaining in a state of barbarism--almost of savagery-beyond which
thé other Mediterrarean peoples had advanced. The sources for this period are almost
aU Greek and Roman. In time, Period I. may be taken as extending from proto-
dynastic times to about 1000 B.c., while Period Il. may be extended from about
!ooo B.c. to the Arab conquest in thé seventh century A.D. The date iooo B.c. js,
of course, arbitrary,6.ndmustberecognized as such throughout this chaptef,

PERIOD 1

The first act historical!y ascribed to thé Eastern Libyans is,~ characteristicaMy,
one of combined revolt and superstition. Libyans in Egypt at the beginning pf thé

e/
~Thetab9~neeofthi:ch~pterthavea!rMjypuMishej!nC~y,vo!.vi.No.yt(Auguet)qt~).
J. H. BrMsted, ~&~ p. states that King Narmar, at the beginningof th~ DynMtic Penoj, put <!?wn
a Libyen rebellion in the Delta, taking ft6,&oo captiver ~.00,000 e~tt)~, etc. This e~ternsot w~ made ctt the areh~eo-
IIIrd Dynasty are Teported by Manetho to have rebelled against King Nefer-ka-ra
(Nepherocheres), but to have laid down their arms on account of portentous increase
in thé sîze of the moon.' The whole episode is qu!te possibly nctitiou~, but it îs on the
other hand conceivable that Manetho bas here used an otd annalist as his source. It is
not, at all events, long after the IIIrd Dynasty that one learns certainly of conflicts between
Libya and Egypt, and of friction between the Libyans and the Negroes of the south.
The former are signalizcd as early as the Vth Dynasty by the reliefs in the Pyramid
temples of Ne-user-re and bfSa-hu-re~atAbusir. From these reliefs it is clear that
both kings had Libyan victories, and from the position in which the sculptures in the
Sa-hu-re temple were placed, it is also apparent that the Libyans defeated by the king
dwelt to the south of Memphis, prohably in the Fayum. It is worthy of remark that
at this early period the Libyan chieftains seem supplied with neatly made personal
ornaments as well as, or even better than, at any later period.
In the VIth Dynasty a state of war existed between thé Temehu Libyans and the
Negroes of Yam in the south. A trader-noble of Etephantine, in the time of Pepi II.,
made four journeys to the Sudan. On the third, as he tells in a record inscribed on
his tomb, he encountered a Negro tribe on the march against the Temehu. "His
Majesty," Harkhuf says in his narrative, now sent me a third time to Yam. 1 set
f<)rth upon the Uhet road, and 1 found the chief of Yam going to. thé land of
Temeh, to smite Temeh as far as the western corners of heaven. 1 went forth after
him to the land of Temeh, and 1 pacified him, until he praised all the gods for the
king's saké." That the district of Temeh which was to be attacked by the people
of Yam was in all likelihood thé Libyan bank of the Nile in Nubia bas already been
pointed out. The incident gives some insight into the state of constant raids and petty
~ars always flicketing along thé borders of thé Libyan area. It teftines also to the
prestige of the Egyptian VIth Dynasty that Harkhuf could travel in safety with a tribe
of Negro raiders and pacify the chief of Yam. w
This prestige arose partly from, the fact that for some time before this thé
Egyptians had recruited soldiers among thé barbarians beyond the First Cataract. In
thé reign of Pepi I., for example, an officer named Uni got together a number of
soldiers in the south, to engage in a campaign with Asiatic sand-dwellers (Bedaw!)
in the north. Besides other recruits, the Negroes of Yam are mentioned, as are also the
peopleofTemeh.~
In the Xïth Dynasty there again were wars between Libya and Egypt. The
)og!<tt efidettce of the NortMf palette, gfeEt maçe-heads, 'vOries, etc., from Hieraconpolis. Yide J. E. Quibe)),
pt. i. pi. xi., toWM résister! xii. Sg. xv. Sgs. t, 2, }, 7, xxv., tower fegister; xxvi. A, top and midd)e regiHcrs,
but
xïVt. Bi jfxix., etc. 1 regret to differ from an authority so gréât as Breasted, cannot see how thé people over whom
Naïmar triamphed can be ~hown tp bc Libyans. To me they appear to have been Egyptians of the Delta,
Maneth6,pp.i:2:.
.2 C~t4/</M ~~g~ A~rF, p. '~7.
L. BorchMdt, jO~j
Stdem,D<!jCMM<w~J!<e-vo).i.,P<'r~p.<7~.
<BÂR!.§~s. "BARi.
 first kingof the Dynasty, Intef L, had among his hunting-dogs at least one bearing a
Libyan name,' and that this dog may hâve bcen sent to the king as tribute seems w
easiiy possible. In the reign of his successor, Mentuhotep I., the Rebn and Tebenu
were defeated by the Egyptians, thé victory being commemorated with others in
Gebeleyn reliefs. It is not to be supposed that these wars were gênerai or that large
forces were engaged. That they were rather in the nature of raids, counter-raids, and
petty revolts of the Libyans settled along the Nile seems clear from the summary manner
in whîch they are mentioned by the Egyptian annalists.
Just such a raid is mentioned in the opening of the Tale The heir toc/w~.
the Egyptian throne, Usertesen (I.), had been sent to the westward by his father,
Amenemhat I., to raid the Rebu. Sinuhe says :–
Behold, his majesty had sent out
A numerous army against the Libyans i
The ddest son was commander thereof,
The Good God Usertsen..
Now, just as he was returning, having taken
Living captives from the Libyans
And ait cattle, without tim!t, etc.~

That this expedition was not merety a literary fiction seems certain from the
soberness and detail of the narrative, and from the fact that apparently even until Greek
times an echo of it survived. Diodorus relates that as a young man, the prince Usertesen
(Sesostris) was sent into Arabia, and then subdued a great part of Libya.~ It is perhaps
in memory of his Libyan victories that the exquisite pectoral of Usertesen I. in the
Cairo Museum shows thé king as a gryphon trampling the Southerners and the
Libyans.
In the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Usertesen, the Libyans had bicorne so
impressed with the power of Egypt that it was possible for an officer named Itendidi
to visit the land of the oasis-dwellers with a compahy of picked soldiers. The
object of his mission is not clear, but since it was both military and peaceful, it may
have had as its object merely the further display of Egyptian power. It is notable
in the vague notices of these early campaigns that it is the Egyptians, and not, as
later, the Libyans who appear to hâve been on the aggressive. The Libyans seem to
have felt a wholesome respect for the power of Egypt all through the XIIth Dynasty.
In the time of Usertesen III., an officer of the king brought for him the good prôducts
of Tehenu by the greatness of his majesty's~me.6
Throughout thé XVIIIth Dynasty the Libyans were apparently in continuons
connict with the Egyptians. An official ofAmenhotep I. mentions that in the king's

'BARi.§~!t.
BAR i. §
BAR i.§~!3 H, and notes <!</&< ~7..
The ta'e gocs on to say that on his return, Usertesen was met with the news of his fath<r'< death.
< Diodorus Siculus i. s3. BAR i. § ~7. 6 BAR i. § 67;.
1
 service he captured for him three hands of Imukehek on the north." t Thut-
mose I. records his victory over the Ekbet and in a hymn of triumph Amon-Re
addresses his successor, Thutmose III., saying :–
1 have corne, causing thee M smite the Te~enu. a

Libyan chlefs brought to this king "tribute from the southern and the northern
cases," and Hatshepsut, his powerful consort, received divine
assurance that she should
strike among the Tehenu." s Perhaps this prophecy
was not recorded until after Its
fu!n!ment at least we know that the Queen levied from the Tehenu heavy tribute,
a
which consisted of ivory and seven hundred tusks," and numerous large skïns "of the
Southern panther." s In short, so high was the prestige of Egypt in the reign of
Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. that Nehi, the viceroy of Kush, thus commemorated the
Egyptian pôwer in the twenty-third year of the king :–
The cô'untries of Tehenu do obeisance because of the fâmë bf his majesté with their tribute
upon their backs (~M/M) as do the dogs, that there might be given to them the breath
of life.?
In the middie of the XVIIIth Dynasty, Amenhotep III. conducted successful
a
war against thé Tehenu, thé captives being set to work Egyptian fbrtress.* The
on an
LIbyâns within reach of Egypt had seemingly been overawed and reduced to
a state of
partial subjection to the warlike kings of the early New Empire.
The desultory fighting did not, however, cease with the advect of the XIXth
Dynasty. On the contrary, thé ethnie pressure from the west, which
was presendy to
cutminate in the great invasions, steadHyincrcased. The continupus infiltration of the
Libyans into thé Egyptian Delta assumed proportions so menacing 9 that, in thé second (?)
year of the reign of SetI I. that king foresaw that Egypt was IIkely to be seriously
threatened from thé west. Before, therefore, setting forth
upon his Syrian campaign, he
first engaged thé LIbyans.~ That the outcome of this brief
war was successful we know
from thé annals of the king, but we are ignorant of its details. During nearly the
whole of the second year of his reign, Seti I. seems to have beenin the Delta," and
he apparendy fought at least two pitched battles with thé LIbyans,~ commanding in
person in both engagements (cf. Plates tV. and IX.). In the end, there came befbre
the Pharaoh the people qf "thé landof Tehenu on its knees," 13
numerous captives were
presented to Amon,~ and thé usual tribute was obtained from thé enemy.~ Had
SetI I., a really âUe and warlike monarch, followed up his victory and carried the
~BA&i!.§~.
'5-
'BA&.i.§~.
4 BAR li. §§ 38;, 986.
?BAR)).§89!mdnoM~~A<f/r.
~Cf.BARu!.§.
1.
'BARii.§66o.
The tribute probably containèd ivory and ebony. Cf. BAR il. S 387
<BARii.§~ ''BARii.~t3.
S.
9
..BARn,
BAR i!! R.

M Two gêner.) MgagemenM arc depicted !n thé Karnak reliefs of Seti t. ~Mi- BAR iii. p. 30. t. scencs 11 and
tj for relative position ofretiefs.
"BARiii.§t~.7. '<BARiii~te. HBA~iii.~o~.jS.
 Egyptian arms to the westward, instead of turning them to the east, thé succeeding
course of Libyan a:td of Egyptian history might have been altered. For had the
Libyans, at a time when they had become sensible of a pressure from the west, met in
thé east with aggression and a crushing defeat instead of with a temporary check, they
might in desperation have turned back to the west, might never have corne to invade
Egypt by force of arms, and might never, as eventually thcy did by more peaceful
methods, hâve obta!ned the Egyptian throne. As it was, Seti I. turned to the east, and
there fought victoriously. The Libyans, re-
covering from the check they had received at
his hands, were soon able to give trouble to
his son and successor, Rameses II. Hère again
details are lacking, but the record gives various
references to the disturbances in the west.1
Pharaoh is characterized as wasting Tehenu.1
Libya fa!!s before his sword.~ At Beyt el-Waly,
the king is shown slaying a Libyan chieftain
(Fig. 88), the title of the scene calling the
king lord of the sword, embracing the lands
ofTehenu, while at Abu Simbel Rameses II.
is seen standing on the prostrate body of one
Libyan and slaying another with his lance-
thé Good God slaying the Nine Bows, crush-
ing the countries of the North."4
The most important detail in regard to these
obscure wars of Rameses II., however, is that
here, for the first time, the Sherden, who were
so deeply implicated in thé Libyan invasions as
allies of the Tehenu, appear in conjunction with
11
them. In the Tanis Stela, the following mutilated but important passage occurs:–
He [thé king] captured the countries of the West, causing them to bc as that which is
has
not [thé god] Sutekh on his right, in the battle, King Rameses II. He has ferried over
corne to him, bearing their tribute his fear penetrates their hearts. The rebellious-hearted
Sherden them mghty ships of war are iii the midst of the sea before them8
This référence to the rebellious Sherden, allies of Libya, and to the war-ships,
would indicate a n~vât battle in connection with the war.~ The présence of the
Sherden allies and their capture arc confirmed by another document, thé so-called
Kadesh Poem, which refers to the Sherden whom thou [~7. the king] hast taken by

BAR § ~8. s BAR !!i. § ~8 and note ad BAR iii. § < BAR iii. §
§ For the firat mention of the Sherden in Egyptian documents, cf. BAR iii. p. 136 note e, and
5 BAR iii.
H. Breasted, //< p. BAR iii. § ~.8S.
 1 p

t–<
5

z
thy might." To the présence of the sea-allies of the Libyans may also bc related a
1

sentence in the Aswan stela of Rameses M., which says of him that hc plunders the
warriors of the sea, the great lake of the north, while they lie s!eeping." ->
In the end, some of the Sherden of "thé captivity of his majesty from the
victories of h:s sword," wefe enlisted in the army while he settled the Tehenu on
the heights, filling strongholds which he built with the captivity of his m:ghty sword."
Yct despite his sucoesses, Rameses 11. repeated the mistake of Seti I. his father. The
Libyans had before his day been recognized as dangerous neighbours when by them-
selves in thé time of Rameses II. they should, to a general and a statesman of his
sagaclty, have seemed the more menacing because of their alliance with the sea-faring
Sherden, and they should have been not merely repulsed, but thernselves vigorously
invaded. Probably the Egyptian king, finding the Sherden ready for mercenary service,
calculated that to Sherden allies of Libya, led by hope of plunder, he could
atways oppose Sherden mercenaries of his own, certain of their pay and incited by the
hope of rewards. His interests, moreover, lay largely in Syria, where thé political
balance could not be disturbed without sendusiy affecting Egypt. `

The Libyan wars of Rameses II. may be justly considered as the prelude to the
grcat invasions which followed. The chronology of the campaigns is somewhat obscure.
Pétrie is probably right in assigning a Libyan campaign to
the first year of thé king's reign,~ the Aswan stela above cited
betng dated in the king's second year. Later in his reign,
also, Ràmeses IL again ëngaged the Libyans.~ It is to be
remembered, moreover, that this sovereign regularly had
Libyan and Sherden soldiers in his army, ~ooo such being
in a force despatched to the Wady Hammamat.~
The most rem~rkable series of events in the whole
hi~tory of the Libyan race must now be considered the
gre~t invasiohs of Egypt in the XIXth ahct XXth Dynasties.
,r,b.
Thé causes of these campaigns will bc discussed later at
..».
présent they will be related in the ordcr in which they dccurred, from the Merneptah
invasion, which has been characterized by Breasted as "one of the most serious
which has ever threatened Egypt." 8 This invasion took place late in March in the
year five of the king's reign, when he was sixty-three years old. The Libyans had
~<<jMj< 7'<~f«j ii., v. ). z. C~ ibid. verso PI. ). and BAR iii. § 307.
BAR iii. ~79. The same inscription says thaï the Temehu hâve fallen for fear of the king. The name is
spelled Ty-m-h-nw, which leads Breasted to remark, note f, /w. f;'< that may be that Tchenu !< meant." Cf.
W.M.F.Petne,r'vot.i!i,p.4.6.
s BAR iii. §~7. 4 BAR iii. § ~y. <W.M.F.Petne,&f.
A curions proof of this exists in the Beyt eï-Waïy temple, where a Syrian~prisoner of the Ung's earïicr wars (for
which J. H. Breasted, ~M<;)~, p. ~2~ j~.) bas been revamFtd, by thé change of hair and beard, into a Libyan (t'/<<i'
Fig. 80). 1 have M thank Dr. G. Roeder,of Breslau <brca!ting my attention to this picce of évidence.
~J.H.Breasted,H~rye/p.o. ~BARiii.§§;6<).o.
 again become menacing. Part of Egypt had become, in the language of a contemporary
record, not cared for: it wa.s fbrsaken as pasturage for cattle becauae of the Nine
Bcws, it was left from the times of the ancestors. AU the kings of Upper Egypt rested
in the midst of their cities for lack of troops." 1 Libyan marauders repeatediy
penetrated the fields of Egypt to the great river, and spent whole days and months
dweMing in Egypt, where they passed their time going about the land to seek
thé necessities of their mouths.s The northern oasis and Farafrah-the district of
To,yeh-had for some time been eut off from Egypte Thi~ was the state of affairs
when the tribesmen of the west formed a powerful coalition against Egypt, and the
aged Pharaoh prepared to protect Heliopotis, city of Atum, to défend thé stronghold of
Ptah-Tatenen,"and to protect the people." 6
The origin of the fédération had its place, not among the Tehenu, the immédiate
neighbours of E~yp:, but among the Libyans farther west. The Rebu, under the
command of Meryey, son of Ded, allied i~ emselves with various bodies of Ekwesh,
Teresh, Luka, Sherden, Shekelesh, and Northerhers coming from all îands." 7 With
these allies, the Rebil fëM upon the Tehenu, who were probably, from remembrance of
the rough handling they had had from Rameses II. and Seti I., disinclined to violent
measures. They were not able, however, to stand against the allies, and were forced to
join them. The good-will of the Heta (Hittites), then the most powerfui rival of Egypt
in the north, was secured~ and at a time when forage was plentiful and the weather
good, the allied forces began the march eastward. The coalition had been formed in
the month of Marché and in early April news came that the invasion had begun. The
Libyan forces were probably marshalled somewhere in Cyrenaica to oppose them,
Merneptah ordered a général muster to be held on the 8th of April–" in Meber,
[an unknown tocality] the choicest of his bowmcn were mustered his chariotry
was brought up from every side.
He considered not hundreds of thousands
in the day of the array. His infantry marched out, those who bear the hand-to-hand
nghting arrived, beautiful in appearance, leading bowmen against every land." On thé
t ~th of April the two armies drew near each other in the vicinity of Perire in the
BAR iii. § 577. BAR iii. § ;8o.
BAR <&< (Vf, Cf. [he retrospect of Merncprah after his victory, BAR iii. § ;8$, So [hi: )ahd of Egypt was in their
power, in a state of weatfness so that their hand could not be repeUed." Obviously an exaggeration, but indicative
of chc real state of affairs.
BAR iii. § ;8o.
BAR iii. § ;?6. < BAR iii. § ;;8.
BAR ui. s/f
579' For thc identification of these peoples f,M' H. R. Hall, 0/~jf Ct'f/Az~MX ~Gr~
p.'7!
W. M. Ma)kr, ~w~K~Fxr~<t,p.3/t and~ It may be acceptedthatthsLutia~thcproto-LyciaM; the 8he)[c)csh
=the StecL thc Shcrjen =the pe~pîe who, after occupy!ng Sard!nia, gave their name to that ï&tand. Thé Tcr-cah and
E~w-esh have been repMt<-<])~ i<tettt!)!ed with the Tyrsi and Achaei. 1 ~o not aceept all thèse !<!ent!Scat!on9 a9
conctasivety proved, and would further wish to suggest the possibility that the Luta-Lycians, She'den-Satdinijtns,ahd
Shetet-Siceh may at the time of the XIXth Dynasty have occupied countries other than t~oae they held in classical
ttme~.
BAR iii. §§ ~o ;8o, and note b, ~7. 'Cf. W. M. F. Pétrie, op, f<7. vol. iii. p. to8.
"BARiii.§;yX. "BARi!i.§;8~;cf.§;o.

L-~)t<tw
 western Delta.1 The Libyan vanguard halted, and for a whole day the stragglîng
army of the invaders was massing for the attack.~ From the numbers of the
slain and thé captives, it would seem that the invadersnumbered from twenty t9 twenty-
five thousand nghting men. It speaksweUfbr the generaîshipofMerneptahthat he he!d
his soldiery in check, and allowed the Libyans to form, rather than to expend his
strength in incondusive skirmishes with advance parties of the enemy. The two armies
being assembled it face, the Egyptian infantry and chariotry attacked.~ When within
fange the archers of Merneptah began to pour a heavy fire into thé Libyan van, the!r
bows being doubtless of a strength superior to that of those of the Libyans. For six hours
this fire was kept up, until at length the Libyans were thrown into confusion and began
to retreat. Meryey attempted vainly to ratty his men, the retreat of the tribesmen
became a rout,4 and the victorious Egyptians pursued them with cavalry as they f!ed.~
Their marchers-rbrward [their van]," says one of the records, they left behind them,
their feet made no stand, but ned. Their archers thrèw down their bows, and
the heart of their fleet ones wâs weary with marching. They loosed their water-skins,
and threw them to the ground." 6 The pursu~t was kept up as far as the Mount of
thé Horns of the Earth, as the Egyptians called the edge of the plateau on the west
of the Delta. The total of the slain was over 9000, and as many more appear to
have been made prisoners.~ Six sons of Meryey, a number of his kinsmen, and other
men of rank were kiUed,* while there were taken before his face twelve women
of the fatlei) çhief of Libya, whom he had brought with him, being alive." Thé Libyan
camp feti into thé hands of the Egyptians, who fired the tents,"–" their camp was
burned and made & roast. The personal belongings of Meryey were seized, his silver,
his gold, his vessels of bronze, the furniture of his wife, his throne, his bows, his arrows,
all his works which he had brought from his land, together with his oxen, goats, and
asses;"
,}
The plunder obtained by the victors was considérable. The following items were
!isted:–~
Weapons of war which were in their hands, carried ofF as plunder copper
swords cf the Meshwesh <),!tt(
BAR iii. § S~o. The
papyrus in hit possession, that
attempt made by Goten~eht~ in
the meeting took place south of thé
~r. /tf'
Fayum, bas
~Mf~, xl. to<
not met with genert)
to prove, froma
acceptance. For one
thing thé présence of the sea-allies is against this, and, further, the words western ra~" pcMt emphatically to the
western margin of thé Delta for the word rwd is a term used only of the De)ta. W. M. F. Petrie, &f. fff., is also
~rong in placing thé battte near Katr ez-Zayat, for hc does so on the strength of an erroneous letion by H. Brugsch,
for which the reader h refcrred to BAR iii, § ;y~, note d, ad ~r. rit, Thé exact locality retnains unknown.
'!BARiii.§;8~~ 'BAR~.f; <BAR~
BAR iii. § }8~, "Lo, the oiEeers, who Were upon thé horses of his majesty, set themselves after th~m." Cf. J. H.
Breasted,ut~e/jy~f,p.~68.
< BAR iii. § 609. r BAR iji. §§588. 6oi and notes. 9 ,RARiii. § 588.
<BARii!.§6to.
's BAR iii. § 6to.
M BAR iii. §588.' "BAR iii. §589.
BAR iii. § 58~
BAR iii. §§ 580, 6<)!. Both these records, thé great Karnat ;n!'cr!pt!on and the Athnbis st:)a, are coniMnej ttove,
but sonie obscure items, found A~. titt., are hère omitted.
 (Libyan(r)smai!arms(r))

Gosts
Variouscatt)e

Sitverdrinking-vesseis
pairs
.t20,2!~
Horses which bore the fallen chief of Libya, and the children of thé chief of
Libya, carried off alive,

?<~a/vesse)s, ~-<</t'vesse!s, stvords, armour, knives [of copper], and various

!22
!<3o8
X
x

vesse)s 3''74
Bows' Z.OOO

From the disastrous field Meryey escaped with dimculty, alone or with but few
companions.~ "The wretched fallen chief of Libya," says the Israel stela, ned by
faveur of night alonc, with no plume upon his head he had no water in his
[water-]skin to keep him alive." 3 In his iiight he passed an Egyptian outpost caUed
the Fortress of the West,~ the commanding officer of which had news of his passage and
reported it. The commandant of the Fortress of the West wrote to the court as
follows :–
The fallen Meryey has come, his limbs
have tied because of his cowardice, and
he passed by me by favour of night,
in safety he is faUen, and every
god is for Egypt. His condition is not known
whether of death or of life if he lives
he will not again command, for he is fallen,
an enemy of his own troops They hâve
put another in his place, from among his
brothers, another who fights him when he sees
him. AUthechiefsaredisgusted. 6

The last lines of the above despatch give an interesting glimpse into thé position of
affairs in Libya after the defeat. Meryey, like many another barbarie leader, found to
his cost that his power rested only on his success in arms. The wild tribesmen, angry
and indignant at their ill fortune, turned upon their chief and deposed him, just as the
Eerce Zaporojian Cossacks would have pulled down an unsuccessfui hetman. Across the
ever-widening gulf of centuries one may stUl see the unhappy chieftain, a reproach to
his people, his ambitions in the dust, allowed to live, in' all probability, only because of
his princely fami!y. The face of his brothers was hostile to slay him, one fought
another among his leaders. Whenhearrivedinhiscountry,hewas the complaint
of cvery one in his land. Ashamed he bowed himself down, an evil &ts removed his
1 This last item, togetherwith the notice of thé Libyan archers throwing down their bows in Hight (BAR iii. § 6cp),
shows how inaccurateW. M. F. Petrie, op. ~f. vol. iii. p.. 109, is in his account of the battle. <* There are no bows stated
among the Libyan spoi), and they seem to hâve re)!edwho))y on hand-to-hand nghting ~nd chant't?," Mys Petne, and

§; La,
gocs on to compare this battle w!th the
BAR in.
"BARiii.~olo.
obtained by the exarch Nurses ovM the Framks at Casilinum.
paranel victory
the wretched chief of Libya was in speed to née byhimseif."

Mentioned later by R~meses tif., BAR. iii. § }86. Perhaps in the Wady Natrun. s BAR /M. <'<
 plume. They ail spoke against him, the inhabitants of his city He is in thé power
of the gods, thé lords of Memphis the lord of Egypt bas cursed his name Meryey, the
Abomination of Memphis, from son to $on of his family, crever.' 1 The unfortunate
chief heard on all sideS the praises of his enemy the Pharaoh. Merneptah became a
proverb in Libyà the youth say to youth, concerning his victories Ït bas not been
donc to us before s~nce the time of Ra,' say they. Every old man says to his son, Atas
for Libya Thé tribesmen ceassd to live in the pleasant ~shion ~f walking in the
field their going about was stopped in a single day their settlements were
desolated," and they said concealment is good there is safety in a cavern."2
In Egypt, ça the other hand, intense relief was felt. There was a général national
enthusiasm for Merneptah and gratitude to him. No more was there any "uplifting of
a shout in the night Stop Behold one comes, one comes with the speech of
strangers l' The towers are settled again anew," continues the Israel stela as for
the one that ploweth his harvest, he shall eat it."
It seems almost as if Merneptah followed up his grcat victory with punitive
expéditions of some sort. At least he appears to hâve secured a tribute from his
enemies,~ and he is said to have penetrated the land of Tcmeh." In thé Athribis
stela, also, Merneptah is mentioned as making the Libyan camps into wastes of the
Red Land, taking every herb that came forth from their fields," so that no field
grcw," and thé families of Libya were scattered like mice upon the dikes." 5
Whether we are to accept or not as a fact a retributive invasion of Libya does not much
Matter thé Egyptians were content with their triumph over the invaders, and the
absence of more detailed informadçn shows clearly that, even if bodies of Egyptian
troôps did harry the neighbouring Libyans, the expeditions were small and not in the
nature of a counter invasion vigorous enough to drive the Rebu back upon their
western neighbours.
Yet so sure and decisive a repulse would in all likelihood have been effective in
pteventing the Libyans from making another attempt against Egypt for a long time
had not the afiairs of the country fallen into confusion on the death of Merneptah.
Merneptah's reign was followed by a period during which the power of the empire was
weakened by obscure quarrels and the decay of military spirit. The latter is clearly
indicated by the manner in which thé peaceful occupations of thé scribe were exalted in
thé literature of the day at the expense of the military life,~ and was one of the main
reasons why the Libyans were emboldened again to attempt to enter the Nile Valley
by force of arms. Unfortunately for them, thé attempt was too long deferred when
*BAR)ii.§6io. ~BARiii.S6n.
Cf. BAR iii, 591, where mention ismadeofyeMtytrib~te. < BARiii.~SoS.
Cf. BAR <ii. § ~8. In thé concluding s!mi)e t have etterej thé positon of the words. Bre~ted has upon the

{/'<~
° .~hMAM'~J
Jt~es like mice," which is tic literal order.

JV~'MJ, p. ~S7~- 'A. Erman,

t
iii. p). t. p). v!. t.
~~«x M~
~~t~< jPo~~ iv. p). ix. t. p]. x. t. ) p, M~pero, Th, &<'<~f~
~~M/~ f<~<t, p. yti idem, H</M/u~ Ott~~ ih the ~)-.
/!<r<i'0~f.%)f~t88o,p.96~.
 it was put into effect, thé XXth Dynasty had been inaugurated under the energetic
Setnakht,l to whom succeeded a powerful and ambitious ruler, Rameses 111. Atready
the regeneration of the country had begun. The scribes, whose temper suggest so
strongly those of their successors in modern Egypt, had had to take again a position
secondary to that of the soldiery on whom the welfare of the country depended.
Thé materials for the Libyan wars of Ramenés III.
are copious, but unsatisfactory.
Of our chief sources, the Medînet Habu inscriptions are so overladen with metaphor and
strained imagery,2 and are so inconsequent, that even a scholar of Breasted's expérience is
forced to say that his "translation as a whole is exceedingly unsatisfactory to the
author while the account given in the Papyrus Harris, as was long ago recognized,
attempts to summarize the first and second wars in a single narrative.~ Fortunately,
however, we are able to trace the main features of both Wars, and to see in them
an
extiraordinary parallel to the time of Merneptah.
The first Libyan war of Rameses III. befell in thé fifth year of his reign, some two
décades after the Merneptah invasion. As in the accounts of that struggle, here also
so
the narratives show that the invasion was preceded by casual pénétration or by raids-
"the land had been exposed in continuât extremity since the [former] kings" s "thé
Libyans and the Meshwesh were dwelling in Egypt, having plundered the cities of the
western shore. 6 Immigration across the western frontier of the Delta had again
begun bands of Libyan robbers wandered among the towns from the vicinity of
Memphis to thé Mediterranean, or possessed themselves of the fields along the Canopic
branch of the Nile.7 While this tentative advance was being made on the casternmost
border of Libya, and while Setnakht and Rameses III. were bringing order out of thé
chaos in the Nile Valley, in Syria and Asia were happening events which finally resulted
in the spurnng on of the Libyans to repeat the attempt they had made under Meryey
a score of years before. Grave ethnie disturbances in the north were forcing more and
more of the older inhabitants to the south. In particular, two peoples appeared, who,
while not strong enough to withstand the pressure behind them, were nevertheless both
of formidable strength the Thekel and the Peleset, the latter being the Phitistines
of the Bible, who had before been settled in Crete. Together with the bands of
Denyen, Weshesh, Shekelesh, and Sherden, the Thekel and Peleset had begun to drift
toward the south and east. As they moved southward in Syria, the more venturesome
of their leaders began to coast along thé Delta, and to enter thé tiver-mouths on piratical
expéditions. As was natural, they readily fell into thé plans of the North African

BAR,v.§n..
servir
Manetho begins the XXth Dynasty wi:h Rameses Ht.; but see J. H. Breasted, A ~.7~ {/' ~;<w/
and BAR i.

G. MaspeM,
69.

~M<M'f<<&/<)M~,p.;2~.
p. note F. Chabas, ~/«~ sur p.
9 BARiv.S~6.
tjo id:m,
~6)' p. 6oû
~~r~M ~er
5 BAR iv. §t°: cf. $2. "Thé land of Temeh, §epej, and Meshwesh, who were robbers plundering Egypt
every d.<y."
BAR !v. § ~o;. 7 BAR iv. §§ ~o, ~o; J. H. Ereasted, </). f/ p. ,).~
 neaders to Invade and plunder Egypt,l and the presence of thèse new allies gave to the
Libyans just that stiinulus which was needed to rekindie those ambitions which
Merneptah had subdued.
The great chief Meryey, son of Ded, had been set aside after his defeat, and
une of his brothers put in his place. In the record of the first invasion under
Rameses ÏÎL, it is stated that the Pharaoh triumphed over Ded, Mesbken, Meryey and
Wermer, Themer, and every hostile chief who crossed thé border of Egypt from
LIbya." The occurrence here, so long after the battle of Perire, of the names of Ded
a.nd Meryey is certainly remarkable. Elthcr the names arc thoss of the original
invaders, returned agai:! after twenty years, or of other chieftains descended from them
or they may have been hère inserted by the compiler of the later record, who took
them out of the Merneptah account for the greater glori6catton of Rameses III. The
6rst hypothesis, though supported by Maspero,~ is hardly'possible; for in Merneptah's
t}me Meryey had six grown sons, and if he were then but fôrty and his father but sixty,
it is hardiy likely chat we should find them again taking the field at the ages of sixty
and eighty respectively. Thé second hypothesis is one which cannot be disproved,
but which is much to be suspected from the fact that the oniy two chieftains named
in the Merneptah records should be represented by another pair bearin~ the'same names
twenty years afterward. The third possibility, which is the most probable when is
c~nsidered the easy accessibility of the earlier records to the maker of the later one,
is that which Breasted tacitly admits when he supposes that, as given în the notice
above éited, the Libyan chiefs are listed in chronological order.~ If Ded and Meryey
aire introduced into the Rameses record in a spirit of reminiscence, and if Breasted
Is right in believing that thé names are given in chronological order, the succession
of the great chiefs of Libya would be as fbilows :–
t. Ded.
2. Meshken.
3. Meryey. (Deposed.),
~.Wermer. (ContempofaryofSct)H.,etc.)
S. Themer. (Leader of Second Inv~sion.~)

J. H. Breasted, op. n<. p. ~yy if., for these p~rticofars.. s BAR iv. § ~3.
s G. Maspero, y~ Sr~~ ~/M~, p. ~6.
< BAR iv. ~3, note ~A~. Mr; J. H. Breasted, < p. ~78.
The only certain family relations traceable from the Merneptah records m existing among the chiefs are thus
:–
in~ica[ed

l
DED
YEi'
Son
j~[~jj
MR

Son Son
MERYEY

Son~'Son
(a))s)t!n:ttP<:nre).
Son
Son
Son
(sH':<~e<!«t Mery<;y)
Son Sons)
Son(~Scns)
(brethers of Mer) <y
shin <t
slain Pc"re).
a: Perire).

Tbs Mcositry filiations (or Meshken, Wermer, and Themer do not cxist.
 This debatable ground may left, however, for the firmer one of the history
be
of the invasions which took place under Rameses III., which may be taken up at the
moment of the union of the Thekel and the Peleset with the Libyans against Egypt.
As usual, there was a general muster of the tribesmen the land of Temeh came
"together in one place in Libya.x Thé assembled Rebu, Meshwesh, and Seped~2
moved eastward to unite with their sea-roving allies, and with those Libyans already
settled in the Egyptan Delta, on the friendship of whom they could doubtless count.
When joined with the latter, and with the Thekel and Peleset pirates, they could not,
to judge from the numbers they eventually lost, have been much under 30,000 strong.
Having joined forces, the invaders began to plunder and lay waste the countryside.
The pirates, probably with an eye to securing their share of the booty, landed large
a
part of their crews, and served as warriors upon land as well as in the sea." 3
Those of the allies who remained on shipboard entered into the river-mouths
like wild-fowl creeping into a net."4 Gradually working their
way scuth along the
Canopic arm of the Nile, the Libyans and their allies sacked the towns of the western
Delta from Kerben sojth to Memphis.~ The resistance had been slight 'the invaders,
moreover, had been near to the sea and the coast-road into Libya, and so were'in touch
with their kinsmen. They became, as is the wont with ill-organized bodies in success,
careless and over-confident they began "sitting in Egypt," 6 apparently like
so many
coloinists. Themer and his captains may even have considered their aim
as practically
accomplished, when, like a thunderbolt, the army of the warlike Pharaoh burst
upon
them. The defeat was utter, and was attended by
a carnage in which over 12,000
of the invaders feU/ a large proportion of the slain being the sea-rovers. About
tooo
of the allies were made captiver The Egyptian king, personaUy present at the action,
pursued the flying tribesmen in his chariot, accompanied by his mercenary archers
and swordsmen.~ The wretched Thekel and Peleset on the river fared
no better than
those on shore; their ships were boarded and carried by the Egyptians-they had
indeed crept into a net." In commemoration of this triumph the site of it
was by
the royal annalists named Usermare-Menamon-is-Chastiser-of-Temeh.
The captive allies,. "with their women and chitdren, like the ten thousand,
were branded with the king's name and put to serve as auxiliary troops," or given
to be slaves in the temptes.~ What became of Themer is not known but groups
BAR !v. § ~o.
s BAR !v. § ~o and note d, ad cf. § That the §eped and E~bet may be thé same tribe has been
mentionedin the chapter on ethnogeography.
'BARiv.cf.W.M.Mu))er,M~p.,6o.ncte4.
r
< BAR~ T
BAR iv.~o;. Kerben may have been the site
near Abusif known in classical times M.Herac)etum–theKarbaniti
of the records of Assurbanipal. H.Brugsch,Z)<~MM/p.8~ar)dBAR,note~,&r.
6BAR ~r. T BAR §§ iv. sz 53, and note BAR iv. §
~§
9 Scelles at Medînet Habu, mentioned by BAR §§ iv.
$o,
"Cf.BAR)V.§§I90,:tj,}~foftk!sgiv:ngofMpt:VMMtemp!e9!~M.
12
BAR
Thé
f.
auxilraries

Cf. BAR iv. t~ 190~ 213, 359 for this gi~ing of captives temple
as
were Sherden,

slaves,
ak. iv. § 43, and cf. §§ 402, +°3..
403.
 of his tens," or councillors, were among the prisoners brought before the king.'
Well might the Pharaoh boast 1 overthrew those who invaded my boundary,
prostrated in their place. 1 laid low thé land of Temeh.
The Meshwesh,
they crouch down for fear of me." 2 The broken remnants of the invaders, it !s
évident, would have been only too glad to rest peaceably in their own lands after this
rough handiing. Unhappily for them, they were not allowed to do so.
It will be remémbered that, in the Merneptah invasion, the Rebu fell upon the
Tehenu, and forced the latter to accompany them against Egypt. Six years after
the first victory of Rameses III. a parallel proceeding was put in execution by the
Meshwesh. This people, situated to the west of the Rebu, does not appear to have
been active in the Libyan-Egyptian wars before the XXth Dynasty. In the Merneptah
invasions they are indeed mentidned, and a number of their copper swords have been
enumerated among thé booty taken from the Libyans. :.It,is in the ;5rst Libyan war
of Rameses ~11., however, that the Meshwesh themselves are seen for the first time
dennitely and in large numbers among the Libyati invaders as allies of the Rebu.
After the defeat of the latter, the Meshwesh Sèem to have been but ill content with
the turn of affairs, and to hâve had a contempt for their eastern neighbours: At all
events, they had no scruple in taking advantage of the weakened state of the tribes
between them and Egypt. Under Kepper and his son Meshesher, tbey suddenly fell
upon the Rebu and Tehenu, and overcame them. Thé chief of Meshwesh
went to one place, his larid with. him, and invaded thé Tehenu, who were made ashes,
spoiled and desolatcd were their cities, their seed was not." 4 This victory would
have been well enough had not the conquerors been spurred on by it to attempt
a greater and more difficult venture. Full of confidence from th~ir success, and
cohsclous of their superlorlty in arms, they readily gave ear to the tales told them
by the vanquished Rebu and Tehenu of the richness and accessibility' of thé Delta.
It may. be that thé Rebu, anxious to rid themselves of thèse new masters, deliberately
encouraged them to undertake the old quest on whîch they had themselves failed.
Thé subject Rebu would have argued that either the Meshwesh would succeed in
overcoming the Egyptians, in which case Libya would be relieved from this new

f,
oppression, and that an old score would be wiped out, or that, in case of defeat,
thé Meshwesh would lose.so heavily that they would be more manageable masters.
At all events, there is no doubt that they advised marching against Egypt, advice
which the Meshwesh took to their cost, and recalled bitterly afterward, when they said
t.ibya bas misled us like.
We hearkenedto their'counsels." b

''BAR iv.§~ and note

There is no reason. to suppose
t ~BARiv.~sS.
Ramese~orried wtr ihto ~ibya, antees weight !s :o be attached to thé phrase
"tny Name consonxj their tcwns," attributed by thé Medtnet Habu inscription to thé king. BAR iv. § s~.

° BA~iv.§9'
east.
*BARn'.§8~. ThoNghthetexthM"Tehent),")t!!saretoass))methatth)sgen<:r9)tefn<wasmeanttO<:mbr.t<:ethe
Rebu, the immédiate neighb&ùrsofthe Meshwesh on the
cbe
1
 A confederation of the usual sort was fbrmed/ five tribes, the Esbet, Shai (Shaitep ?),
Beken, Keykesh, and Hes, being mentioned as among thé allies. It is possible that an
understanding of some sort was aftived at with thé Amorites of Syria, since the Libyan
invasion and the Amorite war of the eleventh year of Rameses IH. came dose together,*
and one of the Medînet Habu reliefs shows thé Pharaoh leading the king 'of Amof and
thé Great Chief of Libya together beforè Amon.~ Such an understanding could easity
have been brought about through thé agency of the Thekel, who Were of the allies of
the Libyans in the war of the year 5, and who not only fought against Egypt in Syria~
but who even had towns there, such as Dor,6 and plenty of ships.7
Be this as it may, the Libyan force begah to advance late in the year, fully bent upon
occupying the enemy's country, saying," in the words of the record, we will settle în
Egypt. So spake they with one accord, and they contihuatty entered the boundaries of
t
Egypt," with a view, doubtless, of marauding and of testing thé enemy's strength. The
main body of the invaders seems to have met with no serious opposition until it arrived at
thé stronghold of Hatsho/ which they began to. investi" This was the moment chosen
by Rameses, who with his archery and chariotry suddenly appeared before his fortress to
relieve it." The archers marched in thé van, supported by heavy infantry that waited
before charging untilthe bowmen had broken the ranks of thé enemy.~ The Meshwesh
and other tribesmen fbund themselves as unable to cope with. the Egyptians as had been
th~ir predecessors. Pressed by the army and exposed to a galling fire from thé fortress,
beneath the walls of which they were attacked, they broke and fled, being pursued from
Hatsho to the town oftJsermare-Meriamon, which was upon the Mount of thé HornS
of the Earth." There were made eight iters of butchery among them.
The unfortunate Kepper was taken captive ."he came to salam he laid down
his arms, together with his soldiers. Hecriedtoheaventobèseechhisson""fbrhetp–
vainly, fbt Meshesher was slain on the netd, together with thé old chieftain's wife and
jfamUy.~ Thé total number of the slam was 2t/
The living captives, 202C in
number.wersthusitemizedin the acçountgivenby the Mediriet Habu reliefs:–
1 BAR iv. § S;. Undoubtedly the Rebu and Tehenu participatéd. ThM only the Methwesh
appear in the Egyptian
list of captives is due to the applicàtiqn by the Egyptian scribes of the name of the contingent dominant
among the
~BARjv.~o;.
a))!<s,ratherthantoa défection of thé non-Meshwesh allics in the battle ofHatsho.

4
chief of Libya,'Breath! BARiv.gt!?..
''BAR:v.§6t. Withthet'eteset.etc.
"BAR:Y.§)33.
BAR iy.§ x26. The :e'ftwith this sçene is,"Uttefance ofthewretchedchiefofAmor.andthewretchedtanouished

~BARiv.§sôs."Dor,acity.)fThe):e)"
?BARiv.§;88,.wherec)even.The){etM))arement!onedas)yingQn'Byb)Qs..
s BAR!v.§S8.
(cf. BAR iv. § 83 and note
Some eleven miles from the desert /w.); Cf. thé 8 ~r/ partit from HaMho thé
Eafth (BAR iv. § to:). Hatsho ~a~ situated by the cand <:a)kd Thé Watcra ofMRe"
Mount of thé Horns of the
(cf.BARi~§83andnote~~&f.! §!~andnote~& Foftht)engthofthe;~MeBAR:i.So6;,n(,te~
"'Ct.BARiv.§§t~,jo7. "Cf.BARiv.gtoy. Scène ttMedinetH.-bu
SceneMMedinetHabH..
,M'BARiy.~<0!
~BARiv.§<o6.
MBAR.v.go?.' .MBAR~.Moo,,co,<03. y
MBAR'iv.~io~. KBAR!v.~to6,it). j-
 K

1 .<
G.

W
H
a s

U
 The captivity which the mighty sword of Pharaoh, L.P.H., carried away from the vanquished of
the Meshwesh
ChiefsoftheMeshwesh
Chieftat!-softhe.enemy
Meshwesh < j;men.' tmao.
no~men.
Youths t!2
tj!t
Total
Boys

Thetfwlves
Maids
1~9~
342 women.
65
Girls 1 5t
Total ~8~g
Total of the mighty sword of Pharaoh, as living captives 20~2 various persons.

Catt!e,b~!s.
The captured spoil was as follows

Swordsof~cubitsie~th
Swordsof~cubitsici~.h
i!9(+x)
!t~
12~
Bows 6oj
Chanots 93(~099)
Qutvers 23ta
Spears 02
HorsesofMeshweshandasses !8~B
The prisoners were branded with the king's name, and made to serve as auxiliaries
nearly a thousand were assigned to care for a temple herd grandiosely called Usermare-
Meriamon-L.P.H.-is-the-Conquefot-of-the-Meshwesh-~t-the-Waters-of-Re s and in
commemoration of this victory, which took place m the iniddle of the twelfth month of
thé king's eleventh year, Rameses established an annual festival called in the temple
CiJendar Staying thé Meshwesh." 6
This was the qutcome of the last of the gréât Libyan militant invasions. The
triumph ofthe king had spread thé terror of his name as far as the Great Bend, and
the Libyans must have been convinced that they could not cope with the Egyptians
tn war.
As before the invasions, however, the Libyans continued to drilt grad.ually eastward
into the Delta, singty, in small groups, or m families,and rose eventually, as will be seen,
to hold thé suprême power. But before those events, which belong rather to Egyptian
than to Libyan history, it is necessary first to consider the cause of all this easterly <nove-
1. Were thèse thé chiefo of the five tribes mentioned above ?

8 BARloc: cil. t.
BAR iv. § u Fron] thés; data it may be assumed that the invad'ng force was at least .'0,000 ttrong.
<BARiv.§4.o}. °BÂRiv.§!24.. "BA'tiv.S~
7BAR iv. § no. This !oca)!ty is probabty not M be idehn~ed with thé Catabathrips Major, ~nce br;fh Rebu and
Meshwesh Hved west of that point. Racher it is the sontherly curY~ ofthe Cyrenaic coast, entering t~c Syrtis Major.
 ment of the Libyans-a movement of which the great invasions just recorded were
simply the most striking manifestationswithin our historical horizon.
If the Libyan campaign of Seti I. be regarded as the nrst indication of a general
easterly movement of the populations of Eastern Libya, the invasions may be said,
broadly, to have occupied the twelfth century B.c. This was an epocb which saw the
later and final manifestations of a great ethnie movement in Europe. The southern
shifting of the Syrian peoples with whom the Thekel and Peleset were associated has
been mentioned already about 1300 B.c. the Cretan thalassocracy, and, a century later,
ab'ut 200 B.c., the late Minoan power itself came to a violent close. Many island and
coastwise people, taking refuge in sea-craft which their invaders did not possess, became
piratical adventurers like the Peleset. Some of these people, driven from their homes,
seized smalt ports and held them, as the Thekel held thé town of Dor. It was a period
when, in the Eastern Mediterranean, whole peoples, split up into small groups, were
seeking to re-establish themselves in new homes. Such a re-establishment, it may be
supposed, resulted in the Carian sea-power of the tenth and ninth centuries B.c. In
thé west the twelfth century was marked by the introduction of iron into Italy, and
abcut this time the Venetes and Illyrians reached theAdriatic. The Tyrrhenians entered
Italy, and pushed before them the Italiot Umbro-Latins. These in turn drove out the
Sicels/ who, in the Egyptian records already quoted, appear as the Shekelesh. In Spain
the firing or abandonment of the sites inhabited in the Bronze Age2 cûtnmemorate
the advent of powerfui iron-using peoples at this time. In short, all southern Europe
and Asia Minor felt the force of the ethnie thr'jst that pushed the Thracians into the
Balkans.~ The dispossessed heirs of the bronze culture could find a home nowhere if
not in Africa, a country eminently habitable, held by a weak neolithic or partially
aeneolithic people, and cut off by the sea from the invaders. Large masses of wanderers
driven from southern Europe crossed to the opposite continent, particularly, it is reason-
able to suppose, in thé parts approaching most nearly to Spain and Itaty. The landing of
a large body of immigrants in the region which is now Marocco, Algeria, and Tunisia,
and the présence along the coast of rapacious Sherden, Peleset, Thekel, etc., would
naturally produce an ethnie disturbance of some magnitude. This would take the form
of an easterly or weeterly movement, the desert nature of the interior putting a southerly
one practically out of the question and of thé two directions the easterly wou!d be thé
more likely, as in the west new arrivais were pressing in from the Iberian Peninsula,
and as the region east of Tuaisia is less mountainous and difficult to traverse than the
Atlas belt on the west, Probably a movement from Africa Minor toward Egypt was
inaugurated as early as ï~oo B.c. tt was àcceterated by the arrivai at various points of
detached bodies of sea-peoples, whose arrivai was commemorated in later times by legends
such as that which said the Maxyes were of Trojan origin.4 Armed with superior

J. Den'kcr, The e/<t<f, p. ~t; j!). s L. Siret, t'M~M~r~M~ p. yj.

J. Dénier, p. g:t, ~HercdctHaiy.t~
 wcapons and more advanced in civilization than the indigenous North African<, the new
arrivais expanded rapidiy. An insistent ethnie pressure began to have its c<îcct! in the
east. Seti J. and Rameses II, felt the force of it in Egypt, and cut off the head of thé
advancing column. Then the Rebu, pressed on the west, fell on their castern neighbour~
and attempted the invasion which was checked by Merneptah. Again a convulsive west-
tc-eafit movement-the disastrous invasion in the year j; of Rameses ïïï.–wa~Mockedby
the Egyptians, and again a tribe advancing from the west-the Meshwesh-fell in upon
their eastcrn neighbours, and attempted vainly to establish themselves in Egypt. Such
a succession of wars, and the events by which, as will be shown later, it was followed,
can be explained only by the facts just outlined by the arriva! of new an powerful ethnie
déments in the vicinity of those parts of Africa lying opposite Spain and Italy. Ths
Libyan invasions, it will have been noticed, were accompaniedby numbers of women and
chiidren,' and were animated by a colonizing spirit. They were, brieny, not invasions in
the ordinary sensé, but waves of a migration which had been set in motion in the west.
The armed migrations terminated with the battle of Hatsho the impulse which
had caused them remained. Under thé immédiate successors of Rameses III. went on
a steady and persistent infiltration of Libyan immigrants into the De!ta under the
weak and ingloriois XXIst Dynasty 2 these families in some cases became powerful.
At the beginning of this chapter the first period of Libyan history was set as extending
roughly to 1000 B.c., the time by which the invasions or militant migrations had corne to
an end. It was about this time that the peaceful pénétration of the Delta was taking place.
In order, however, to understând what was happening at this period, it is necessary
to consider some of the later phases of New Empire history în which thé obscure
immigrants of the eleventh century are seen more clearly in the light of thë power they
came to attain. Fer the study of this point there most fortunately remain the records ofan
immigrant family which may be regardedas typical, the'familyof the Libyan Buyuwawa.*
1 That more women and children are not mentioned in the Egyptian annals is perhaps dae [o the fact that thcir
Mameration would not rodound especially to the credit of the!r victors, and perhaps because the majority of thé non-
c~nibatantLibyans were left in the rear oftïte militant bodies, awaiting thé conclusion of the cam~aîgns.
~J.H.Breasted,t<p.7.
° The genealogy of thé family is contained in the Serapeum stela of Harpeso;t. BAR iv. g yS~ Buyuwawa
i*
ittspired by Oppert, in Congr.
J /<
thére called Tehen-Buyuwawa. Twenty years ago P. le P. Renouf, ?% K'~T
des Orient., Paris, tS~, vol. ii. p. )~3 J~
Zt~<7~~ p. 602,
tried to intcrprct tht name
~t~K'-tt; d:nercM)y, rendering the word~ §
< as "bnght," "shining."
cited -n

(
He < -~°, A~)r~a~, frq~ ~e titulary of Rameses UL, and ~fri
<~B ~~rM te'f ~j~, "splendid of forms, great in marvellous works," from the titn!ary of Amenhotep ttt. as
pitmUets, Renoufon thtsc grounds cjaimed that Tehen-BayHwawa, "Radian~" or "t))ns[riotis" Buynwaw-), was a
c~mpound name like Aa~7rp<!?r9~s, or Zp~7~ Recent scho1arsh!p bas rejected this exp1ani-t!on,though W. M. F,
Pétrie, ~j/~ vol. !ii. p. ~)! has not only accepted it, but also reissued Oppe<t'< etymo)og!cs for the
namt~ofthisfami!y–F. M~M~ (httt D't) ) "man of Shushan"; JV~~t~ (thus reading or
T! .~)) = ~'r, Ar. thé teopard ?~~r~ ) =- pcrhap:from the Zcnd, f~M, the t?ger,"
etc. ~BAR,andJ.H.Breasted,p.;i!6.
 Early in thé XXth Dynasty a Tehen-Libyan of this name settled in Heracleopolis.
His son Musen became priest of the Heracleopolitan temple, and held command of the
town's mercenary soldiers. Both these offices became hereditary in the family, which
steàdiïy increased in influence, and which became more and more Egyptianized as It
advanced in power.
Buyuwawa's great-great-grandson, Sheshonk, "gréât chief of the Meshwesh," was
able, when he found that part of the rich endowment he had providec. for the upkeep
of his son's mortuary service had been misappropriated, to interest one of the XXIst
Dynasty kings in his behaïf, and to secure a decision in bis &vour from the Theban
Amon.' The grandson of this Sheshonk, who bore the same name, was first a local
magnate the extent of whose domains would have warranted his having been rated as a
prince. When thé XXIst Dynas.ty had become naturally extinct, or too feeble to
continue its nerveless existence, this second Sheshonk removed from Heracleopolis
to Bubastis, and in o~ B.c. proclaimed himseïfPharaoh.~
Thus, in a little more than two centuries after the death of their arch-enemy,
Rameses III., the Libyans, having added to their natural hardihood the culture of the
civilized Egyptians, became without a struggle rulers of what was still the most powerful
empire in the Eastem Mediterranean. Thé genealogy of thé house of Buyuwawa to the
accession of Sheshonk 1.~ is as follows the successors of that king belong rather to
Egyptian than to Libyan history :–

i. Buyuwawa.

2.
2. Musen.
3. NebnesM.
4.. Pethut.
Sheshonk'=Mehetnushet.
6. Namlot=Temsepeh.
7. King Sheshonk I.=Kerome. ·

The family frcm which sprang the XXIInd Dynasty kings was a typical one.
Evidence exista until late Egyptian timcs that'many Libyan families were established
in the Delta, and while their fortunes did not rise as high as those of the house men-
tioned, they nevertheless produced a r'uinber of petty dynasts and princes, such as those
secn in the account of the northern revolt suppressed by the Aethiopian Piankhi in the
XXIIIrd Dynasty.4 Such a local magnate appeared at the end of the Egyptian period in
the person of Inarus, whose brilliant but unsuccessfui revo!t against Artaxerxes ï. will
be mentioned in due course.

BAR !§66~ ~BAR!v.§y8~j~.

s BAR i< § 787. 4 BAR iv. § 8f; J~. especiaUy 830, 878.
 PERtOD II
The main characteristic of this period is the graduat curtailrnent of the area
occupied by the Eastern Libyans, because of foreign colonization in Africa. To present
the scattered notices relating to the Libyans during this period in narrative form is scarcely
profitable, the events of which records remain being for the most part isotated and
unconnected with each othèr. AU the signincant material has therefore been cast in the
iorm of a rough chronicle. In'this chronicle are inserted a numbcr of events relating

2'
only indirectiy to Eastern Libya, yet of enough importance to warrant their being put
in. Such items are printed at the right of the page, the facts of East Libyan h:story
being given the full width.
Cï~ t!~ B.c.
About this time the Egyptian oases were colonized by Rameses
time a place of exile for Egyptian critr.inais.'
I! t~a-garh became for a

CïfM 93~ B.c.

Sheshonk I. sent to Dahlah, which, from the weakness of the XXIst Dynasty, "had been
f()und to be in a state of rebellion and desolate," a commissioner to restore and maintain order.
This commissioner was a priest of Diospolis Parva, a Libyan called Wayheset.~$

C<rM Soo B.c.

this time Carthage was founded.4

763 B.c.
A Libyan, thé gréât chief of Rebu, gréât chief of Me[shwesh] Hetihenker," governor of the
Western Delta under Sheshonk III.'
A Libyan, Wesh:ehet, serving as master-caravaneer to Sheshonk 11!
C<w~ 700 B.c.
Carthaginian emporia established in the Syrtica Regio. By these factories trade with the interior
was stimulated,.and thé career of mercenary service was opened to Eastern Libyans.'

Cw~ 639 B.c.

Greek colonists from Thera occupy Plataea (" Seal Island"
territory of the Gitigamae.'
in the Gulf of Bombah) in the
Circa 637 B.c.
s
Greeks leave Plataea for Aziris on thé adjacent main."

'BAR!v.§!t~.
< 0.
SMon!ans.
BAR !v. §
Meiczer, GM~/f~ der Ji' ~BARiv.§6~o~.
vol. i. p. 90 se.
SBARiv.S~ë.
The factory of Cambe had already been established by thé
cf. § 783.
Cf, C. Perfouj, De %~t'~ ~r/
p. eoo..
The date is <+6+o~t, since the colonists
e BAR ~f. f~.

spent two years.on Phtaià (Herodotus iv. tsy), and six at Aziris before
going to Cyrene (Herodqtcs iv. t;8), which they founded in 6)t B.c. P'a(aea="Seat Island in the Gulf of Bombah,
and not, as many geographers hâve assomed, Burdah or Bombah Island, which is
HerodotM!V. t; an uninhabitablerock,
 C/6~B.C.
The Greeks leave Aziris at the instigation of the friendly Giligamae, who conduct them to
a
point within the territories of the Asbystae, where they found Cyrene.1
C:)'M~~2B.C.'
The Cyrenaean Greeks are reinforced by fresh colonists. The Asbystae and their chtet',
Adicran, "being robbed and insulted by the Cyreneans," send
messengers to Egypt, and put
themselves under thé rule of Apries [~Ha-ab.ra-Hophra of the Bible], thé Egyptian king. who
thereupon levies a vast army of Egyptians, and sends it against Cyrene. The inhabitants of that
place leave their walls and march out in force to the district of Irasa, where,
near the spring called
Theste, they engage the Egyptian army and defeat it.°e
The results of this first connict betwten the
Greeks and Egyptians, thus brought about by the
Libyans, were far-reaching. For Apries was
blamed for the defeat, and Amasis (Ahmose II.)
revolted and became first co-regent and then sole
king.
About this time, or a little before, the Ammonians, who lived under the rule of their
princes~ become strong)/ Egypt!an!zed, if not under direct Egyptian own
sway. The earliest a"chitecturat
remains in the oasis bdong to this period, and are wholly Egyptian in character. A little later
Herodotus described the population as partly Egyptian.~
Cf~'M~~OB.C."
The brothers of Arcesilaus IL, Perseus, Zacynthus, Aristomedon, and LycM withdraw from
Cyrene with their adherents to Barca, a town :h the territory of the Auschisae. This
town they are
said by Herodotus' to have founded, but from its non-Greek
name, and the circumstancesattaching
to the story of thc sécession, it is almost certain that it was of native origin, ante-dating the arrival of
the Greeks, or that the Auschisae had a large share in building .t." The brothers fomented Libyan
revoit against Cyrene. Arcesilaus marched against the rebels, who retreat eastward a
to a place called
Leucon. The Libyans there made a stand, and engaged the Cyrenaeans, defeating them
that the Greeks are said to have lost 7000 heavy-armed men." so heavily

C~M~2~-j;2~B.C.
Cambyses 111. accepts tribute from the Libyans of Marmarica.
1 Herodotus iv..$8. For the date cf. Theophrastus, m~. plant. vi. 8. 3, as against Sotir.Hs xxvii. 4t,
the<!ateis~v':n!ts;t)~ where

Arcesilaus t
date 63.6- being < 6; for Battus I. ruled in Cyrene forty years, and his successor
ruled sixteen (Herodotus iv. 159), 63, (~ 6) 57; = accessionof Battus II. A little time mu.t be
a!)owed for the renewed colonizing act!v!ty whieh led Adieran catt in Apries hence, Apries
the Egyptian expedition mu.t have b~n between
to as w~ killed in !6a'B
573 and 569. But Amasis, after the expedition and before thé
c
murder of Apries, ruled with the latter at least two
years (W. M. F. Petrie, of Egypt, iii. p. j;o ~.). so that the
date of the expédition falls within the nafrow]im!tsoff/~}~t
~Hcrodotusiv.t;o. Cf.A.Wiedemam,C~M,f~pM~etc.,p.t6;.
B.c.

The names ofthrce of thèse were eopied by G. SteindorO-who gives them (in tran:cr;pt!.h Qnly) in his

<
4

x.-<r ~~M~. They there appear as "Set-erdaïs, Great Chief of Foreign Lands,"
t.'li'' and ~°" "~) so~ of Nefret-ronpet (p. t t). Thé Etearehns
prob~MybetongedtothenrsthatfofthenfthcenturyB.c.
son of'Retneb" hame
of Herodotus
Herodotus ii, 3.. And,iu part, Aethiopian. But by".Aethiop:n"Hetodotus
wnteri.occastonaUyconfusingthetwo.. m~here in:end Libyan, Greek
~<t'<.ct:K
'<M!neyearsafterth:acMM.onofArcesi)ausU.Ch.t)epu- 1
'Herocotusivioo
have already remar~J on thé native character of Barca in the precedingchapter
M/M~.vm.~y. Seetoop.!}t,note3.
(p. ~7, note e.ting Po)yaem,9
?'
¡
Herodotus, /M. M tribute of the Cyreneane was ti.ought insu)ting)y sma]).
 Cambyses III. despatehes against Ammonium an army 3aid to have consisted of So,ooo men. )
The afi~y proeeeded from thé Nile, </M ~argah. What aftsrward happent )9 not clearly known.
The armyapparcntiyreached Hargah !n safety.snd teft for Siwah. At thc latter place it never
arrived, local legend reporting that while halting on the road it was overwhelmed by a sandstorm.'

C~M t B.c.
Thé Carthagittiansand the Macae drive out the Doric Greeks who had established themselves
at thé mouth of the Cinyps River.2
Circa ~t~ B.C.
Atazir,' king of Barca, .and his son-in-law, Arcestlaus III., murdcred. Pheritime, mother of
Arcesilaus, seeks and obtains help from Aryandes, satrap of Egypt Aryzndes besieges Barca,
which he takes by treachery, pénétrâtes to Euhesperis, and then r''turns to Egypt. On the
way
back the Persians are harassed by the LibyanS, who eut off stragglers for the sake of their accoutre-
ments. The captive Barceans are settled in Asia.'
Circa 500 B.C..
Ammonium and the Egyptian oases thorough!y subjected to Persia. Darius J. begins his
temp!e at Hargah.
~;8o B.c.
Large Libyan contingent in the army of Xerxes.~

460-4~ B.c.
Inarus, Son of Psammetichus, a Libyan dynast of thé Western Delta, revolts from Persia, with
thc support of the Mareotic Libyans, and perhaps of Cyrene.~ Aided by the Athenians, who send

a'
their Ceet from Cyprus, Inarus defeats the Persians in a pitched battte in which he slays Achaemenes,
th~ satrap, with his own hand. He besieges Memphis unsuccessfully, and is forced to withdraw to
Papremis. Finally, he M c~ptured and crucified.
In accordance with a not uncommon Persiah
poticy.Ms'sou.Thanyras.isinstattedinhisstead.'
Circa ~0 B.C.
The Nasamones faU upon the Psylli, destroy many of them, and force the remainder away from
ths Syrtic coast.
Herodotus iii. !$, 26 cf. DiodoftM Siculus x. 13; Justin i. p. This expedition may have been directed by
Cambyaes.who obviously h~d but a poor knowledge of the désert, against Cyrene as sn uhimate objective. Vide j~M,
P.'7t~- ~Cf.C.PerroNd,D~S)!f</t-M<nM,p.t)S.
The namc 'A~af~) (Herodotusiv. t6~.), be!ong!ag toa king of Barca, is further evidence of the Libyan character
ofthst city. The name is obvioastythitt seena; AAAAÂEIP in an inscnption (CtG St~?). A Cyrenaic tite-stamp
found at Cyrene by the American Expédition (reproduced in ~K/ ~r~. /m<. ~~nM, vo). ii. no. p). xiv.) seems also

to exhibit this name, thoagh no one has chanced to remark it. Thé stamp as copied is and the reading

;vii.i8~ !00j~
suggested M AAËZH. The spacing ea))s for one more letter, which permiM one to restore thé name as AAEZH(P).
< Herôdotus iv. t6~~f.,
'Cf.Pindar,);iv.53-s6.
CtM!as,fr~9§3!; Thucydidesi.to~.tot. DiodorasSicatHsxi.y)~ Herodotus iii.t~.v!~ y.
Thé date mnst M~ boween thé t!mes of Heeata~s and of Herodotus, sinee thé former :!)))} thé Gutfof Kehrit the
PsyÏlIc Gt~f; and by the time of the latter the PsyUi had not on!y been driven back rrom thé coast, ~'m a leeendary
acc&unt pf their remova! hac. aprung up. Il is Pliny (~~t ~v<?/. vH. ~) who h~s preserved the rattona! reco~ of what tock
pi~e–A}~ ~Mj [~< the Psy))i.) ~a ~o M/t/'XM'Mf .fK~&/<! a JvoM<«w/ qui MNf ear ~M/ j~j.
 -t'JB.C.
The Spartan Gylippus, on his way westward to the relief of Syracuse, puts into Euesperis from
stress of weather, and nnds that city besieged by the.Libyans. With his aid, thé natives are beatei~
back.'
C<~j<)oj).c.
The Libyans of Barca make a treaty with Harcoris of Egypt.2
'Ct~M 331 B.c.
Alexander of Macedon conquers Egypt and visits Ammonium.

310-307 B.c.
Agathocles of Syracuse levies war on Carthage
in Africa, and is partly supported by the discon-
tented Libyans. tn 308 B.c. Ophellas marches
across thé coast-road from Cyrene to joln Aga-
thocles, who slays him by treachery.'
Circa 277 B.C.
Magas of Cyrene marches from Cyrene against Egypt, and reaches the town of Ch! At that
point he learns that the Marmaridae have risen behind him and threaten to eut him off from his base.
He withdraws, and puts down the Libyans.°°
26~-2~! B.c.
First Punie War. Many African mercenaries
in the Carthaginian army.' Under Spendius and
Mathos, the Libyan, these eventually mutiny.7

2~Q-37 B.C.
The mutiny develops into the African war of
Carthage.

2!8 B.C.
The war continues. Scipio invades Africa,
where he obtains native supporta

14.9-1~6 B.c.

~o.
Third Punie War Carthage destroyed.

1 1 B.C.
Ptoltmy Apion bequeaths Cyrenaica to Rome.
Thucydtdcs viï.
Theopompus, f/-< )< t in f~C. vol. i. p. ?o;. C. Mc!!er here reads /?a~a/)ot;< for the B«~a<oM.

S/
Diodorus Siculus xx.
< Fotya-nus, ~w
ii. 28.
xv!i. t cf. tv.
X~ In Ptol. !v. g
~ForthedaM,J.P.M!hat)y,f<e/j}ff/p.note)..
P. Mahaffy, Empire afthe Plnlemier,
X~ or Xtt~ SAM~~ 6, X./t«!.

Polybi us i. 67. 7. 7 i. 69. 6; cf. Diodorus Sicuiua xxv.

s Polybius i. 70, cf. H. Fourncl, Les Berbers, vol. i. p. 4.6, and notes. Livy xx'i. ~7.
 C~S~B.C.
Phaedimus stain by Nicocrates, tyrant of
Cyrene, who then marries Aretaphile, widow of
Phaedirnus. Aretaphitc persuades Leander to kill
his brother Nicocrates, and Leander succeeds to
the
tyranny, marrying Aretaphile.
The cruelty of Leander Jeads Aretaphile to conspire against him with Anab"s, chief of a neigh-
bouring tribe. Anabus threatens rebellion, and at a conférence with Leander has ~.m strangled.11
67 B.c.
Cyrenaica reduced to a Roman province. Al! the East Libyan littoral under Roman sway.

49 B.C.
Cato marches from Cyrene across the Syrtis."

35 B.c.
Outbreak in Roman Africa
$
30 B.C.
Egypt a Roman province.
29 B.C.
Outbreak in Roman Afnca.*
4
2! B.C.
Outbreak in Roman Atrica.*
19 B.C.
Lucius Cornelius Balbus leads successful punitive force into Phazania (Fezzan) against the
m~Muding Gaf amantes, of which expédition Pliny gives the following account ;–
beyond tne Lesser Syrtis !s the region of Phazania the nation of Phazani! belonging
to which, as well as the Ctties of Aleie and Cilliba, we have subdued by force of arms, as also
Cydamus, which lies over against Sabrata. After passing these places a range of mountains extends
in a prolonged chain from east to west thèse have received from our people thé name of Black
McuntMns, either from thé appearance which thcy naturaUy bear of having be:n exposed to the
action of fire, or else because they have been scorched by the sun's rays. Beyond it lie3 the.desert,
and then Talgae, a city of the Garamantes, and Débris, Garama, too, that most famous
capital of the Garamatttes, aU of whieh places have been subdued by the Roman arms. It was
on this occasion that Cornelius J~albus was honoured with a triumph.
BesIdesCydamusànd
Gat-ama, there were carried :n procession thc names and models of aU the other nations and
dt!es in the following order:' Tabudium, a town Niteris, a tribe [<M~c1; the town of
Nigligemeia," thé tribe or toyn of Bubeium, the tribe Enipi; the town Thuben, thë mountain
M~
3't..
PiuMrch, De Mf~f. p. ~SS. cf. J. P. Thrige, X<j Cym:<M«)!t, p. 2';9
Ptatareh, Cato ~M<r, § 56, Lucan, f~rM/iM, ix. ~oo~.
D!o Ctsaius, ~t~. x)ix,
4 H. Fournel, f~.t' p. ~Q, and note t, sub-note d
i.'
Thé ordet is probaMy that in which the towM were taken, and almost certainly a north to sout~ one. The attempts
wh<f:h have beeti made to identify thèse ancient names with those of modern sites in Fezzan are hardly convincing.
JV~«t~, though thé current form of this name, is not the one prèferred by Jahn, who reads M~& Cf~f&t.
If this leetion is right, one is 9trong)y tempted to sec hère a Semitic name–J~.
rat~~Ao (Strabo Xfi. p. 737).
,j~ Cf. !n .A~yna the Semitic
known as the Black Mountain, Nitibrum, the towns called Rapsa, the tribe Discera, the town
Debris, the river Nathabur, the town Thapsagum, the tribe Nannagi, the town Boin, thé town Pege,
the river Dasibari and then the towns in the following order, of Baraeum, Butut~, Alasit, Galia,
Balla, Maxalla, Zigama, and Mount Gyri, which was prèceded by an inscription stating that this was
the place where précieux stones wer~ produced.1
6 B.c.
The Musulini and the Gaetuli defeated in
Western Libya by Cornelius Crassus.'
A.o.17.
Revolt of Tacfannas begins, and îasts till
A.D. 24, the scene of war shifting more and more
westward.8

C<~<< A.n. 20.

P. Sulpicius Quirinius, proconsul of Creta-et-Cyrene, defeats the Marmaridae and the
Garamantes, the latter being, apparently, beaten near their own territory.'

A-D. ~0–2.
Revolt under Aedemon in the western Atlas,
put down by Suetonius Pautinus.
Raids in Numidia."
Circa A.c.' 69.
Revoit of Oea and Leptis Magna in the reign of Vespasian. The towns are aided by the
Garamantes, who had been in the habit of defending themselves from attack by,hiding their water-

7..
hoïes. "Up to the present," writes Pliny, "it bas been found impracticable to keep open the road
that: leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the robber bands of that people have filled up the
wells with sand, whieh wel)s do not require to be digged to any great depth, if you but have
knowledge of the locality."
A.D. 86.
In the reign of Domitian, the Nasamones revolted, slew the Roman quaestcrs, and took 'the
camp of the praetor Ftaccus. Finding a store of wine in the camp, however, they made themselves
drunk with it the camp was re-taken by Flaccus, ~nd the Nasamones were put to the sword."e
Circa A.D. 100.
Christianity begins to be established aïong thé
North Afriean coast.
Septimius Fhccus penetrates to Aethiopia at the head ofa Roman cotumn.

!)..
julius M&ternus, marching from Leptis Magna to Garama, there joins forces with the
Garamantes, and proceeds southward agalost various Aethiopian bands.~
9
1Pliny S. Dio Cassius, ~M<. Roman. )v. 26; Orosiusvi.
Tacitus, ii.
Dio Cassits
Ftiny c. )
~t efc.
t.
4 L. Anniteus F)orus !v.
Dio Cassius, &f. ~<.
<
.).) (! 3<) Jornan~s, p. t0/! § 6~

Pliny v. 5 Tacitus, /~M-. iv. ;o Solinus MX.

Eusebiuf, C~m~e, p. 378 Zonaras, ~M&f. xi. t<) (p. ;oo).
Mannus Tynu? ap, Ptolemy i. 8 S t, a~& rc~m/M); a/te T~i ~a<rtAc! Tt))' rapa/t<!)'TQ)f ttrcp~Ojnef~) TNK
A.c~tf ~wm~TN ïA !rN)'T<t ~5
/.«y~~JMf T&ro~rt <tM(r~at K? T~ 'Ay~M~ff, KtA.
 A.D.
Great Judaicupnstng in Cyrenaica. Massacre,
of the Gentiles.'t

A.o.tt7.
RevoïtsintheAt!as.'
A.D.m.
Hadriati visits Maufetann to re-establish
peace.8

BeveenA.D.t3oandt6ï.
ReignofAntonirius:fevo!tinthewest. The
Mauri, driven Into the Atlas, sue for peace.*
A.D.iyo-
Serious fevolts in west. The Mauri engage
the Romans not only !n Africa, but in Spain.
They are eventually defeated on both sides of the
StraitS."
6
A.D.t8o-t92.
New outbreaks in the west during reign of
Commodus.'

A.D.193.
Septimius Severus becomes Emperor. He was born at Leptis Magna/ and was therefore
conversant .w!th the local conditions of Eastern Libya. Th's prince," says Spartianus, estaMished
the complete security of Tripolis, where he was born, by the defeat of numerous wartike tribes." 8

A.D.!<)7.
` °
Agrippinus, bishop of Carthage.'

A.D. 200.
Martyrdom of the SctUitani."
Between A.D. 228 and 238.
Maur! repressed in the west by Furius Ceisus."
In 238 élévation of Gcrdianus Pius at
Thysdrus.12
S. Hieronymut, C~m'M~, pp. t6~, t6;, t6/ Orosins

;}.
Eusebius, ~M/. iv.Dio Cassius txviii. }!.
t. t
vii § 6. The extent of this rebellion leads to the conclusion that many Berber converts to Jtudaism may have been
involved in i[. According tô Orosius, the morta)ity was so sévère a< to necessitatc a rcco)onizanon of thé !'entapo!is

~37' ~A~aSpart!anHS,</rw!W;.
'Hem,~<fr~<&~rfAw~'A~t.
5. "t!.
under Hadrim. Jews persisted in thc P~MpoUs into Chnssian ornes, their présence being noticed by $ynesias,
~J~iwCapitptin~~r~M~~w;.
*Ae)!usJ-.ampr!j!us,C~<<r~J~,<
Eutropies, ~~fMf. er~ fM~'A~, vi! t8 Sext. Aurel. Victor, De C~Mf~ !0, :0; Aetius
iden~ Epitome
SpMiMU5,S<j'<,ti!.
<Aeliut Spartianus, Severus 8. 'S.A.Morce))i,f'MCJn~Mm,vo].ii.p.
i idem,

.3.
.10 D. Ruinart, ~M <Mr<yrea< jM~r<! et ff/ffM, p. 73 J~. ~«f.~rtfW. ~o~A p. S. A. Morcclli,
< t;'< vol. i. p. ;o, vol. ii. 3. I-ampndius, dlexander S~p~r~,58.
's Herodian, f~wx 7)<M ~r~, v! v. } Sext. Aar~. Victor, B< C~Mr~M ï6 J. Cap!to!inus, At~'MMM
 A.D.2~3.
Raiding in Numidia.'

A.D..256.
Council of African bishops at Carthage~

A.D. 26!.
Raids of Faraxen finally put down by Gargilius."

2~0.
A.D.
Probus, iater Emperor, conducts a successfut campaign against the Marmaridae. He marched,
according to Vopiscus, from Liby~ to CMthage, where he quieted some uptisings.
In
Africa he fought against a certain Aradion !n a duel in which he came off victor."
The Palmyrene generals of Zenobia in Egypt
find allies in the Blemmyes, who corne north from
above the First Cataract and Mon overrun'the
Thebaid." °
A.D.2~1.
Aurelian breaks the Palmyrene power in Egypt,
but thé remnants of the forces of Zenobia,
together with the rebel Egyptians and the
Blemmyes,hold upper Egypt under FIrmus.'
During this period the Romans have also to engage bands of nomadiç robhefs who raid from
the Libyan desert.7
C~ A.D. !:92.
Diocletian caUs in the Nobatae or Nobadae, a
tribe of the western desert, to occupy Nubia, and
défend the south Egyptian frontier against the
Biemmyes.~
In the we')t, in the Jurjura Mts., breaks out
the rébellion of the Quinquegentes, which was
eventually crushed by Max!m!anus.°

A.D.320-32~.
Arianism begins to spread.'0

1 Sanctus Cyprianus, 60 in Op. 0<t. pp. 99, 100. St. Cyprian collected fands far the relief of the
p)ut;!d<:redChrist!aneofNun:idia.
~Mem,D~~r<w~M~'f(C~.O,!7,p.3~).
7'~A'N', p.
Zosimus i.
J!
Inscription from Sar el-Ghazlan in T. Sbaw, ?}.f~A, etc., vol.
no. to< amj H. Fourne), 7.~
C& IL
Trebdiius Pollio,
vol. p.
Vopiscus,
p. <)'; cf. L. Rcn!<r, /.r~<'<~ rmMmf.f de
.f/f
< F).tY!us VopiseHi,
Q.
). Cf. D. G. Hogarth, W. M. P. Petrie,
A'~rc/, p. 34..
'Vopi!cus,~r<'&!)!M;.2;f;rm«~ tZosimmi.yo!Vophc)n,)'oAtMt7.
Procop!t)s, P~ .Pc~ i. t9 cf. J. G. Milne, Hirtory of Egypt e~r ~MM)! p. 86.
"H. Pourne), ~t. <o and AureL Victor, C~w/
p.
f~«j
notes;
Zonaras, ~M~j, ii. p. 2~ Auctor Incertus,
F. Schaff, /ffory ~fjf C~utM~ C~
Sext. De
J~.f/«;MM CM~w, viii. 6.
vo). iii. p. 360.
Eutrop;us, M'f., ix. ¡
 About this time a certain Armatius successfully engaged the Libyan marauders, but died of
sickness before achieving any decîsive victory;'

A.D. 372.
Revolt of Firmus, son of Nubel; Count
Theodosius in Africa. Firmus proclaims himself
champion of the Donâtists, and liberator of
Africa. Theodosius crushes the revoit, and is
himself rewarded with capital punishment under
Gratianus, A.D. 376.~
9
C<M A.D. 3<)0-0.
The Ausuriani cr Austuriani, on thé borders of Africa and the province of Libya, neighbours
of the Mazices,8 having been for a time quiet, revolted." They ravaged the vicinity of Leptis
Magna for three days, and continued to be active even into the reign of Valentin-ian.5 About the
end of the fourth century they and the Mazices overran the Çyrenaic Pentapolis. Thé Mazices,
durif? the time of thé indolent Strategus Cereaiis,' actually laid siege to Cyrene !tse!f/ The
phitosopher-bishop Synesius was very active in the defence against these bands, and indeed the
C'hristians. of the Pentapolis showed an exemplary degree of bravery in combating their invaders.
Thé clergy of Axomis, near Darnis, having news of a body of marauders who were looting in the
Wooded valley of Myrtitis, marched forth with their peasant parishioners, and defeated the robbers
w!th slaughter. ïn that action, the deacon Faustus, at thé outset of the conflict, set a good example
by felling one of the brigands with a stone, and then seizing his arms.' After suffering miseraMy
from bad governors, the Pentapolitans were at length fortunate in having put over them a young
and active officer, Anysius, who, with a small force of light horse, hunted down the Ausurian bands,
though he lacked strength sumcient to carry war into thé enemy's country.

A.D. ~28.
Gaiseric, at the head of 8o,coo Vandals, crosses
into Africa."

A.D.~9.
The Vandals take Carthage. During thé
Vandalic supremacy m Africa, [here were a
succession of raids, revolts, ard disturbances in the
west."

O~-M A.D. 445.

Toward the end of the reign of Theodos!Us IL (d. ~o), the Blemmyes are again active in
Pnscus Panitë~ f~.
~Ph!)osMrgiu9,ff.xi.8.
t~. in.FHG. ')' H. Fournel, op. f/ p. !(} notes.
6y
B.
4 Ammianus Marcettinm xxviii, 6.
~< )MVU. 9. t.
~r~~f, w ~<mMM ~m~ rft'c~' JMA
Cf. Synesius, ~MA 7~, where thé Bishop re)stM how, in a panic, Cerealis b<toc<t: him~etf Qn ship-board for saftty,
aod thence directed opem~ons ~imt the b~rbafiah harriers. Cerealis' successor, John the Phry-g!fp, was Muatty worth-
)eM (ibid. 86, tc~.), and it was an exceptionwhen the Cyreneans found themselves under an hon<s( ~n<<
o~ a ,&A- who
wtsbeKerthaaatobbEf-chief.
D'Av~zM,~?'~<f<, fff., p. ~6, a condensation ofthe notices in Synesius. Synesiu!, F~t~. tu.
H.Fourne],p.S'
~H.Fouro.e),jp.7$~.Mdnotes. "'Procopms,D~~&o«&~)..t.
 Egypt and ravage the Oasis Magna. In their retreat, however, they are themselves harried by the
M'tzices.'
A.D. 453.
Thé general Maximinus, in an expedition
against the Blemmyes and Nobatae, takes from
them, for the first time, hostages.'D

A.D. ~t.
The Mazices again raid the Pentapotis.'

A.D. ~l8-~2~.
(Reign of Justin 1.) Blemmyes and Mazices plunder Egypt.'

A.D. ~3~.
FaU ofthe Vandals. The disturbances continue
under Byzantine rule.
About this time Justinian forced Christianityon the pagan tribes in the Syrtis and at Augila,
He, moreover, repaired many of the o!d fortresses in Marmarica and Tripo)itana, built
of new ones.

A.D. ~3.
Sergius sent as governor to Tripolitana. According to custom, the chiefs of the Leuathae
corne with their followers to Leptis Magna to receive from the new governor thé usual presents
and to go through tbe ~rm of being re-invested in o<Ece. A certain Pudentius/who had had
good deal of experience of the country, recommended to Sergius that only eighty delegates of théa
tribesmen should be admitted to the town, while the rest of the Libyans, who had
corne under
arms, should remain at some distance from Leptis. Sergius made thede!egate?~irspeeches,and
invited them to a banquet, although, according to Procopius, who seeks to
excuse what fbtiowéd,
he suspected their good faith. The delegates fell to complaining of certain grievances they had
su8'ered at the hands of the authorities; Sergius made light of their complaints, and
signât for retiring. At this moment one of the Leuathae caught the gave the
governor by the shoulder,
wishing to be heard out the other Libyans, not wtthôut confusion, began to crowd around the
pair, At thts instant a guardsman drew his sword, and eut down the chief who
was detaining
Sergius. Uproar ensued the other delegates were slain
on the spot, with the single exception of
one who succeededin escaping. He, when he reached the Libyan camp, innamed the tribesmen
frenzy with his story. The Leuathae marched on the moment against Leptis, outside of which to
they met the Byzantins army under Sergius and Pudentius. A fierce hand-to-hand conHict
ensued, but the wc!l-armed and disciplined soldiery of Justinian eut the tribesmen pièces. The
to
Libyan camp was looted,' the women and chitdren taken prisoners, and at nightfall Sergius

rtct..
téiutnphantly re-entered Leptis. Pudentius fell in the batde."
It is not surprisiug that after such treachery on the part of the Byzantines thé Leuathae should
embark on a career of rapine and war. Going to Byzaci.um, where their reassembled forces

zg.
were
Evagrius, ~t~. ~ff~. i. 7; Coptic Mxm~ in the '.M'<M/~ & Mwo! ~y-~A~M~/r~M~ jy
M, 53 f .t t t
J. G.M.ine, p. toc.- 9 D'Avczac, fX. p. tt~.
D'Avezac, op: tit.
''Copt:<:Z.e~:b).~vem.,AMb!ç~,p.~8c.
Procopius, De ~~<H ï and e Proeopius, ~c ii. !t
 joined by the cMefta!n Antahs, they marched or.
Carthage. On the road they met the Byzantine
general SoJomon, and refusing to listen to his
overtures, they engaged and defeated him, he
himself being taken and slain 1 The Leuathae
then laid 5iege to Laribus, from which they
withdrew on the receipt of a heavy tribute.
Sergius, the original cause of thèse disturbances,
was then nominated successor to Solomon, and
became speedi!y an object of hatred to every man
under his orders. The Leuathae and Antalas
were reinforced from the west by Stozas, with
whom they ravaged the country, even taking
HadruMetUM.2 2 The land became a desert;
people fled to Sieily to be safe from the Berbers,
!t $eemed M if AM<a was fated to be lost
because of the treachery of Sergius, and it was
not until Justinian entrusted àn~airs to Johannes
Troglita, an experienced sotdiër, that matters
began to mend.
A générât peace of some duration was obtained circa ~~o.'

Cirta A.D. ~80.

Widespread uprisings throughout AMca.'
Aristomachus, general of Tibenus 11. !n
Egypt, having defeated the Nubians, turns his
arms successfully aga~nst the m:)rauding Berbers west of the Ni!e.

A.D. 6:6.
In the sixth year of Heraclius the Persians
under Chosroes entered and subdued Egypt, and
seem to have carried their arms to a point west of
the Nite.~ The statem'ent that they penetrated as
&rasCarthage,wreck;ngtheshatteredPentM'o!is
on the way, is unfounded.'

A.D. 6~0.
'Amr Ibn et-'As! invades Egypt at the head of
an army of Mohammadan Arabs.
1 Procopius, lot. f~.
/& ii. Theophane~, C~crn~r. voL i. p. ~2) Coun[ Bthrccttinas,C~rMtfM, p. col. t.
H. Fçttme), p. 98 J~. Thé victories of John Trogtita f~m the thème of the ye&M.wj of Corippus.

John of Nikiu, C~
Theôphanes, C~œ~r, vç). t. p. ~o!
p. o;. Arktomaehus is there sa!d f? have subd~ thé '~au.-eMniaas," but this can
only be taken to mean the LibyaM west of Egypt.
Thecphaaes, C~M~. p. B, tr~Aa~o)' c! II~xrat Ttjf Ai'y(frTef, Ka: A~~tt &): A~;o~t'«.t i
]~ndo]f)is Sagax, ~Mïm'M ~fjt'<'&), Xï. that /cMm~<tW et Z.<m K~M <f?-M~M,'<t.
.k A number of writers hav<: assefted thé armyufChoi.roes.m~hedCarth~ge. They were misted byitn errontoa!
t~tion ofXa\x')So~!as XapX')~ Even Gibbon eommitted this mistake (C<Y<fw < fit/~ vol. v. p. ~), and note 76).
 A.&.6~t.
Having taken A!exandna, 'Amr marches
on Barkah. He proceeded at thé head of his troops," writes el-Biladurt, toward thé
Moghreb, and attacked Barkah, a city of the Pentapolis. He gave peace to its population, de-
manding a tribute of 3000 dinars, which they might pay by selling such of their chiidren as they
wished to dispose of.' 'Abd Allah Ibn Sa!ih reports on the authority of el-Leyts Ibn $a'ad,
who himself reports it from Yeztd Ibn AM HaMb, that 'Amr Ibn e)-'A~! wrote in the treaty
which he gave to the Luatah Berbers, of thé country of Barkah you shall bave thé right of
se!!ing your children and your women to pay off your share of the tribute.' Thé inhabitants
seem to have collected and remitted this tribute without the unwelcome aid of Arab tax-gatherers.'
'Amr, after subduing Barkah, sent a light expedition south-westerly ihto the desert under the
cofnmand of 'Okba Ibti Naf! who iater rose to such etî)!nenee as a Moslem gênera!

A.D. 6~2-6~3.'
Second expedition of 'Amr Ibn et-'As! toward the west. 'Amr sends in advance 'Okba Ibn
Naf!' toward Barkah ~nd Zawtlah and the neighbouring districts, which submit. 'Amr then
marches in person and raids Tripoli,~ which he takes, as well as the moutttains of the Nufusa, which
were inhabited by Christians.' At this time, Arab raids became common in Tripolitana.~

A.D. 6~6.
First great incursion of the Arabs into et-Moghreb.~
With this invasion the history of the ancient Libyans may be said to have ended,
and that of the modern Berbers to have begun. The long and exhausting succession
of wars and raids, the occupations of different parts of Eastern Libya by the Egyptians
thé Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines, the introduction of
Christianity and of Islamism, ail contributed to confuse and to change the ethnology in
thé northern and eastern zones. In Mohammadan times the Berbers of Tripolitana and
Marmarica tended to become more and more Semiticized, both in speech and in blood.
Thé unruly spirit which the Berbers have always displayed led, as before, to various
séditions and uprisings,~ but with these later struggles of a people that had lost their
ethnie purity this study is not concerned. The Arab pressure from the east tended for
centuries to push the Berbers of Ea$tern Libya toward the west, and south toward the
desert. So completely Arabized is most of Eastern Libya at thé present time that it

p. 22$. Ibn ct-Atir, C~

Eî-Btïadurt, ~~fr ~.t~c~ f~/p7ra/3, p. 22~
vol. ni. p. 20, states the tribute to hâve been !3,ooo dinars, with which Ibn
'AM c~fattam, .Mw.; vol, i. p. 302, agrees.
Ibn 'Abd e!-Ha)Mm, Af. rit.
M. Caudel, ~M PM~< J~p~MM
<
thc dare at zz A.H. Ibn At)! 'l-Dinar,
~)-
ji'
~u /t'
du Nord, p. ~} j~.
Ibn el-Atir, f/f. iii. p. 20 Abu 't-Mahasm, ~M&j, p. 8; Ibn *Abd el-Hakam, /w. ~/<, Thèse tfntefs p]!«:e
~Max/f, p. z3, fixes it 4t 23 A.H. On this divergence see H. Fournel,
~</r.p.tSn<tf3*n<tf
Fcf thé <!eta!k Ibn e)-Attr, < Ibn 'Abd et-Hatt~n), < f/ part i. p. 87.
7H.nAb!D:Mr,
E!-Ma!et!,
M. Caudf~ t~.
~< A~«f, <o!.
p. ~p j~:
2 vers.
p. :o

t, text cited by M. CitKde), < p. ~8, note 3.

Cf. S. Lane-Foote, /fù~ c/< the Middle ~j, pp. z~, 31 126, etc.
 is a matter for astonishment that in Wagîlah, Slwah, and MansMah e!Aghuzah (fn
Fara&ah) the'old Berber language has persisted, though in the last hunjred yearsarabic
has become more eommon, and is destined soon completely to supplant the native tongue.
Thé value of the dry and disjointed chronicle of thé affairs of the Eastern Libyans
which makes up the greater part of this chapter may not at first be evident, and can
be appreciated only by one somewhat famitiar with the later history of this peopte.'
In ancient times, the history of the Libyans is one of continued protest against <cre!gn
dommion, and of failure to ama!gamate successfully with their European invaders. With
the Çarthaginians they certainly mixed to some extent, as ts testined by the very name
Libyphoenicians with the other co!omsts there was less fusion. No conspicuous
result of these fusions appeared until Arabic times. Then arose the great Berber-Arab
dynasties of the Atlas, and eventually the Negro-Berber-Arab Songhay Empire in the
south-west. The Berce marauders of the earlier period are seen in later days to have
acquired to some extent a quality which, before the advent of the Arabs, they so con-
spicuousiy lacked-stability. How much of this characteristic was due to the new faith
and how much to Arab fusion it is impossible to say but when one considers the
diversity of religious opinion among Mostemic Berbers and their tendency to heretical
views, one is inclined to give a good deal of weight to the second factor. In ancient
times great Libyan kingdoms, like that of Juba, had existed in the west there had
been in the east great fédérations like those which invaded Egypt but there. were no
cunsolidated powers such as those of the Sanhagah or Almoravid Dynasties of mediaeval
times.1
Fierce, preda)ory, impatient of foreign dominion, and incapable of civilizing
themselves, the Libyans seem to have been a race without a mission–uniess for the
inSucnce, not yet determined, which they may have exerted at
an early period in Egypt
–until, not without turmoil, they became sufficiently united with the Arabs under
el,-Islam to give strength and weight to the Mohammadan dynasties of Africa and Spain.
1 For which the read,r
!my be referred to H. Fournel, < mth the continuation (to9. ii.) edited by H. de
Piçrrebourg, pr thc conMn ent little synopsis of V. Piquet, Les C/t~/<M~'o~ A A'<r~.
 APPENDICES
I. ON THE C GROUP PEOPLE 0F -NuBtA.

II. ON TWO iNSCtUPTIONS FROM GHEYTAH.

III. TRAD!T:ONAL LiBYAM OjUGfNS.
IV. BtBt.tC~l*NOTICES.
S~~
V. THE ANTAEUS-CRATER 0F EuPHRONtUS.
 APPENDIX 1

ON THE CROUP" FMPLBOFNUBtA

t HAVE not thé intention, nor, until the final reports of the Nubian Archaeo!og!çat Survey have
itppeared, thé right, 10 give here a detailed description cf the so-called C Group or Middle
Nubian" cemetenes excavated by the Khedivi.al Government b'etween the First Cataract and thé
Second. What 1 intend !s merely to state my belief
as to the ethnc.!og!ca) portion of the origine
C Gfoup people, by way of an Appendix to what, in thé second chapter of the foregoing
essay,
bas been said concerning the southern range of a po~cion of the Eastern Libyans. For this purpose
ï shaH use thé materials pjblished ~< in the Reports and Bulletins of the Survey, to which,
without expticit e!tat!-?n, thë reader is referred for the facts adduced in this discussion.
Isolation C Cr~–The so-calied "C Qroup cem~teries of Nubia, it was early
recognized, were those of a distinct!y non-Egyptian people. They extend in timë from about the
end of the VIth Dynasty to thé XVIIIth Dynasty, although the lower date is one to be stated
With some reserve. The only people ~th whom the C Grôup <aîk are certainly to be connected
are those of the so-called "Pan-Graves, a people whose burials occur sporadicaUy in Egypt, as at
Hu, Deyr el-Ballas, <tnd Hizam. Despite the marked traces of negrism tfhi!:h thé mâjority of the
C Group exhibit, Dr. Reisner, recognizing thé importance of the fa<:t that these traces were
tSostStriking in the later buriats, remarked: "Ï 1 would like to suggest as a basis for future
investigation that thé communities which produeed the C Group" cu)ture "were wandering
désert tribes of Nubian origin, living along thé edge of thé e~tivction, much like the Ababdeh in
Uppcr Egypt at the présent time, and the Beda~In !h Lower Egypt." In the light of the textual
évidence présenter supra, Chapter II., and ofcertinn anthropoîogica!and archaedogica! details which
1 shatt now bring forward, 1 believe the early suggestion of Dr. Reisner
may now be accepted as
fact, with the single but Import&nt change of substituting Libyan for Nubien."
~~M/ C~Mf~ ~"C G~–Sincethe !ater~Midd!e Nubian crania exhibit negroid
traits to a highet- degr~e than do thé earlier, it is th~ former rather than thé latter which it is hère
important to consider. Thé Sna) anatomka) report upon thèse crania has not appeared; but thé
readcrmayappreciatetheMed'terraneancharMterpfthe less negroid skulls from the three heM
rëprodu'jed (Pl. XI.). The aspect of these skuUs is ettipspidal the occiput tebûs to Oatness and
tt;e&onta!en)ineneetopfominence. Thé bridge of the''t)ose is ~attened,bt)t thé marg!nsofthe
t~res ar~ usuaUy sharp. Thé subnasal prognathism of thé "C Gr~up" !s not of the charactenstic
~egroid type, being, [n thç '~nrds of Dr. (. E. Smith, M Magg~rated form of that prognitthism
which is so commo~ m th~Predynastic ~gyptiàh." Onty by exception M thehair wc~ny
"peppercorn-tttce"! as a ru!e it is straighe orwavy. TAe<b!Io~!ngngure~ from thé obsefvatiohs or
pf Dr. D. E. Derry may here be cited, for Ithough they are takep froM spbjotts betwMn whose
hvës as much as a thousahd y<),rs may hav~ in~vened, they Serv~ to Indicate thé gênera! nature
ofthesecr~nia;–
2<tC i'\
 V Mcn..
.Eynrnrs. Vt~omen.

H:!ght.
M-tïimumtength
)Mit~!fumbre!n)th,
Cri<ni.t)base.
Fscïaïtttse
)2~
«y
$6
t0!
89
183.0
'Jt'O
t~.o
)0).8
99'~
6
)jl
t:~
x~.
H~
t?6.~
'3°~
tt<).j
t)6.
96.r
Upperfitc!!t!he!ght ;} 67.22 $6 6~j
.KaMtindeï
tCeph~icittdcx
,3
~)
;<
7~.9~
58 s:
1 am not in a position to say positively that these figures and the general aspect of the skutfs
from which they are taken link the "C Group" with such North African crahia as those from
Rokntah or Biskrah,' but will be content merely to recall what has been said in Chapter Il. in regard
to the appearance of a negroid Libyan type in the Egyptian representations (cf. Figs. 3, 4), and to
repeat that, broadly ~peaking, the C group skulls exhibit certain Mediterranean aspects.
Thé pilous System of t~e. Middle Nubian !s, when not negroid, that of the brun Berbers.
It is a remarkable fact that the C Group crania have an indubitable relationship with those
of PredyttMtic Egypt. As the proto-Berber e1ement in thé Egyptian language tsstines to the early
fusion of the Libyans with the other ethnie clemènts whtch made the historié Egyptian race, the

Middle Nubians were of Libyan

~~<y
origin..
afKnities between the early C Group and Predynastic crania accord well with thé theory that thé

of the Middle ~~M~.–It was on arch~teologica! grounds that 1 first sought to

re)ate the C Group to the Eastern Libyans, and 1 here submit the chief features in their culture
which tend to substantiate this theory.'E
A. The ~rM&, as among those Libyans who were least arfected by foreign customs, were !h
a contracted position. The bodies normally lay on the Mght side with the head to the east. Thé
knees were not drawn up under the chin, but the thighs were at right angles to the spine, thé legs
being so doubled at thé knee that the heels touched the buttocks. The praetice of contraction
is too widespread to count here as positive évidence but its absence would be a strong présumption
against a Libyan origir~.
B. The earlier graves are circular or oval, are deep, and
are covered with stone slabs. The tatcr graves are rect-
angutar, in consequence, 1 believe, of-the growth of the Negro
element, the typical Negro graves of Late New Empire times
in the Egyptian Sudan being rectanguiar. The late "C
Group" graves are generatiydiamagncttc.
Around the graves, by way of superstructure,'runs a.

<r<:utar wall of stones, often of cons!dcr<tMe diameter. The space enclosed by this was NUed with
Cf. D.~R. MaciMf ard A. Witken, Libyan A~pp. 91 and ~< ~nj p)<, xvi! x!x,
i!.Wh9! immediate)y fdiowa is ah expansion of a letler gent by me' fo Dr. D. E. Dert~; J:ttB<! "Sebuati~h, Syns,
tzthAnguMtpto."
 K
3 s:
u
M n 2
)-' ~J
<
U
 earth or stna!) stones, so as to make a circular cairn under which the pit of the grave lies cooceated
and protected. Even after the shape of the grave changed from circular to rectangular, the round
superstructure persisted. On the east or south-east side of the superstructure was regularly located
an oftering-chapet of mud-bnck, in which was placed the funerary pottery, with the exception of
certait. types of finely decorated ware, which, probably on account of their superi: fabric, were
deposited in the actual grave with the personat ornaments and toilet articles. An example of such
a C Group grave of the carly period is shown in Fig. 06 a, b.
These remarkable graves 1 wou!d relate to the great and widespread North African circular, type
-the class known in thé Western $ahara as the (pl. ~<:M).' These exhibit a variety of forms,
and range in workmanship from the rude cairns'of the Sud Oranais, or the circles of Seal Island,"
to such nnished monnments as the circular tomb of Kubbah (Cyrenaica), the "Tombeau de la
Chrétienne," or the <cmb of Medrasen–mausotea which are, whUe African in origin, wholly
ctassicat.1
'_0 in execution. As _1_
A- an example of "t. type, ]1 shall
_G this _L_11 cite
<!rst a regem at 'Ayn Sefrah, from the excellent book of E.-F.
Gautier, who first recorded it (section in Fig. <)t).~ 2 This
circular monument is about 8 m. in diameter and some 2.20 m.
high. The cairn or tumulus, with its step-like retaining wall,
su)'round9 and covers a circular grave, i m. in diameter, at its
centre. The grave is half eut out in the soit and half within the superstructure, the roofing being
of slabs raised above the ground-Ievel on others laid Hat around the edge of the grave.' Thé
burials in these graves are regularly contracted, and the type is one common in the vicinity of
Gebet Mekter.~ Externat o<!tnng-pîaces,differing but slightly from those of the C Group super-
structures, are not infrequent.
It is so far a cry from the Nubian Ni!e to the Sud Oranais that the instance cited would be of
no archaeologicalvalue unless it could be shown that the had a continental distribution. This
can be done without difHcuïty, excellent examptes of this type of
grave-structure existing in eastern Algeria, and even as near to
Egypt as at Seal Island :n the Gulf of Bombah. A plan of one of
the east Algerian rigam is seen 'in Fig. 92. Thé original is one
of many such structures at §enam Msi)ah. As a ru)e the circles
measure about eight to ten mètres in diameter, and are made of
natural slabs embedded edgeways in the ground. The circular
walls invariably have chapels in them, and these are almost always
placed on the south-east. Traces of the filling of the circular
enclosures are still discernible in thé form of numerous stones lying
within them.6
The ~M of "Seal Island" afe occ~sionaUypolycellular, probably
because of lack of space and from the desire to save labour in
building by the use of the outside of an old wall as part of a new
rfj~M. Both these factors contributed to the deveiopment of poty.
cellular tombs but numerous examples of thé simple etrcuiar type are to be fbund, an example
beihg shown in F'g. 93 a, b, Here the stone çircle (93, ~) tiM~ttfçS about 9 m. across and
about i.t~ m. in height. The wall is built of small stones, and rsst~, as is regularly the case în
these remains, on the granular !!rncstone rock. On the south side, four rude stabs are arranged
,~j plur. f~tt J~K~rom from &M ~n'f.

° Thé slabs
n~
E.-F. Goutter, M~M algérien, p. 6~ j~. for the date of the
the grave within the superstructure mayin the instance i,howm be the remains of an upper
chamber.over E.-F. Gautier, op. f<r. p. 60.
'D.Mac!verandA.W!)ken,Z.JV~M,p.y~
 so as to make an ofîering-niehe in the bcttom of the watt (Fig. 93, c, and settion ~). Some-
t!nte? the superstructures take an elliptical shape, as in an instance where the major axis of the
enclosure measured 8.0 m. and the minor 6.90 m. Again,
instead of the four siabs which usuat!y make the top, sides,
and back of the niche, this jfçaturs may be in thé form of a
smatt chape! against thé tomb, with thé walls slightly lower
than those of the enclosure.
The heavy rains which annua!)y visit Seat Island" h~ve in
most cases washed away the earth from within the walls, which
are themselves generally in a very ruinous condition but that
they once contained earth may be secn from such an example
as that shown in Fig. 94.. tn this case, the smalluess of the
tomb and the exceptional thickness of the walls have held the
earth in place.
It cannot be denied that the Seat ïs)and r~M exhibit
marked affinities to thé "C Group"
graves. They are probably late in
date, though cet tainty pre-Islamic but
S that, even in Byzantine times, the part
of Libya in which they are situated
was very slightly aPected by foreign
influences will be admitted by any one
acquainted with Synesius's account of
thé sin photy ~f the natives of M.u marica whom he saw wht)e storm-bound on their coast and
there un be no doubt )hat the Seat Istand n~M are purely Berber monumentsrenecting early
an
and widespread type. Thé chief différencestrom the C Group which
they present are (a) the orientation of the oiîering niches in most cases
toward the south (b) the absence, as far as can be ascertained w!thout s
excavation," ofthe grave-pits. The latter d!<!trence, 1 believe to be due E
to local conditions, as the soil is rarely more than five centimetres deep t
on the island and the rock is stubborn. As in the "C Group" graves `
the offerings were mainly outside the superstructure, so at "Seal Island"
scarce a shard was found within the circles, although outside them
fragments, sma)t and ~eather-beaten, of coarse brown ware or of cheap
Roman pottery were numerous. The small size of some of the tombs-

s
f.j. that shown in Fig. 9-).–testines to the fact that the Seal Island
burials were in some, if not in all cases, contracted.
C. The C Group material affords several representations of
the ~«M< figure, both graphie and plastic. The latter appear to be :¡¡

1"e.
mosdy women, but several of the former represent men. Fig. 95a
C_r_
shows two bowmen on a fragment of _C smoothed,
_.C
coarse red
ware from
r the great cemetery at
Dakkah (P5elcbls). Thé figure on the right is wearing the cross-bands so frequent iti Egyptian
représentations of Libyens, and both are anned with bows, a common Libyan
weapon of which some
Aethiopians seem to have been ignorant, even in late times. Another scene, incised on a pot of
the s&me wai'e, is shown in Fig. 95b. A steatopygous woman, wearing a kirtle, faces a man wearing

2
J~
Synesius, xvi.
What !s said hcrc of thé Sea) Mand remains, hâve extracted from a notebook written dtring a brief and un-
satisfactory visit to the Gulf of Bombah in t~oo. 1 had then no opportunity of making even JM<~< and hitvt since been
unable to revisit thé locality.
 plume. To the right are traces cf a th!rd figure,
a :t.orran-)ike apron ard having m his hair a
partially erased by ':he artist. Thé comptete figures support between them some M<!uceu~-)i!:e
object above their heads, at the back of each,
!sanobjectre<:a)iit'g(heane!entEgyptianor
modem African head-rest. The kirtle of the (
woman agrees with thé data concerning Libyan
fema)e dress given in Chapter VIL; but that of
the man, if, as appears, he is really wearing a
sporran &nd not a ~MH~ is not typical
of the Libyans of the monuments. On his
head he wears a ~ngte plume. It would be
imposstMe to say definitely whether the wearer
was in this point conforming to Libyan or to
Aethiopian custom, did not other evidence,
recent)y collected in Nubia, prove the former to J
have been the case. From Amadah cornes thc
XVIIIth Dynasty jar-sealing here represented
in Fig. 96. Thc déviée stamped on th?. sealing
is one very common in Egyptian graphie art a
victorious ruler standing behind his bound and
crouehing captive. This sealing is to be related
to the "C Group" d:'awlng (Fig. o~) both
by thé plume worn br thé victor, and by the
occurrence, in the netd of the stamp, of the
same caduceus-like emb!em which in the C
Group drawing the man and the woman support
between them.' In its turn,
thé Amadah sealing is
identical m period,fabr:e,

of
y
thé "caduceus," have in the field the hieroglyph ?, for
/M~ the West
y. ~<
and type, with a number of others found at Buhen. But these latter, in place
or
and the victor grasps in his left band a bow, which
he holds horizontaUy. The hieroglyph naturally belongs not to the captive,
but to the dominant figure in the scene a point substantiated by the fact that
the latter wears a plume. Thus, through the medium of the Amadah sealing,
.one has a clear connecticn between plume-wearing cadueeus "-bearer on thé
"C Group".pot,
"C: Grot)p".pot, and tke
thé plume-wearing westerner of the
ptume-wearing westerner thé Buhen sealings. If it ise
seatings. If.it be asked hosv
how the
thé
latter appears on jar-seals of Egyptian type, found in a site strongly Egyptian in character, the
ans.wer is not far to seek the victor is some Libyco-Nubian dynast in the Egyptian service
during the eampaigns which from the time of Ahmose I. were condueted scuth of the First
Cataract,
This emblem rec~ti curiously an archaic sign (of Min f) notcd at Diospolis Pana. W. M. F. Petrie, 0«~&
/f~, plate v. B toz.
D. R. Mac!ver and C. L. Wooley, Fe~, T<![t, p. )t~, and P)at<s, p). (three !ow«t Sgores). ~<ç!~<r end
Wao]ey Mcogni~e the common origin of thé Buhen and Amadah seals,
s The pfetenee of mu:h late "C Group" pottery iM the Egyptht; 'brtfess of Kubban (Con:N-Pse!chis) points to
the closeness of the relations between the Egyptians in Nubia and thé temnanfs of the otd "C Group" popalation in
the XVIIIth Dynasty. If, as suppose, the "C Group" were southern Temehn, this point is important, since it shows
thç tatc "C Group" peopte'in thé samc relation to thé Egyptians as that of the Amadah and Buhcn dynasts,
K
 <~f <~ 6~wr<s ~f thé Mid<.U<: XubMns," onc ~f thé most remark~Mc M thé fragnientary
t'M~'c ~<am t'~ Thé ~cx is not e~ity determinaMe 1 incUne to believe !t inteoded for
a nM<<\ !t is rcm~rk~Mc as wraring thé cross-banda, and the fines
~f <!<t~. des.xdiog ta the !.hcutd<s from the ear$ n<ay represent side-
!t~k'~ thc p).<~t!c pcrtr.ty~t of which thé artist fc)t to be bcyond h!m.
(Ct. the rudxncnt.try rcprcscntation of thé arms.)
The phstic représentations frequcntty imitate :attoo!ng or paint-
M)g- For M black g.Ue)M bas been found !n thé gnves, it seems that
\s
!t one of these two forms of body décoration, and not cicatrization,
th.<t the <!gur!n<-s portray.
The etements observable in C Group decora-ions are shown in
F)g. <)S. They are so simpie as to have only a siight archaeological
s!gn!6citn<c, but they are absolutely the same from 1 cultural point of
view as the Libyan tattoo-marks shown in Fig. ~2, and in some cases
!dent!cal with them.
In conc)ud!ng this note, 1 may mention that at Gebel Abu Dlrwah,
a few miles inhnd from Dakkah, are a number of petroglyphs which
Mr. C. M. Firth ruâtes to the C Group pcopis. Most of thèse
gly phs are of ostriches, g!ra8cs, etc., but one shows a man's profile
of distinctly Libyan type.'
D. As far as divinable, the religion of thé "Middle Nubians
-0.
o~ers dose analogies to that of the Eastern Libyans. The C Group
petjp'e <Kdt E~t share in the fish taboos of the Aethiopians, for copper fish-hooks have been occasion-
sHy <bME<! m the graves. As in Libya, the cultus of the dead was strongly developed, and the
-7r
coTF-wofs!np which, owing to Ubyan influence,
perm~ted thé Westefn Delta, is paralleled among )<
~~CCroup."
A!iMMg thé circular superstructures in Dakkah Il
1\
ce~r!K:ery were found a number of sandstone slabs.
ïl~se in position were p!anted upright in a the
gTEKtctd- They were carefully, though irregu!~r!y,
and two had on them représentations
y
w<:H'~ed

m ~II1'~ "U..I.I 7. 4
of ccws with their calves. The drawings had
va 41GT11l1~J Ilau
moscd muitnes, were coloured red or black, and both from their position and from their careful
e'6Mttti<m were ttnmtmkaNy of eligious significance.
E. The ma/irrM/ f~r/Of/v of the "C Group" agrées well with that of the Eastern Libyans.
Thé présence of copper in the graves is to be accounted for by the geographicàl position of the
peop!e, ftppo5tte the river-terminus of a road to the mines of the Eastern Désert." Botië implements,
tracet t'f g~t-skin and dyed leather, and of !oose linen coverings are cpmmon. The plate-bead
Mts &f the Abustr relief seem, as has been mentioned in Chapter VII., to be thf peculiarly strung
nacre* phte-hea~: so t~aractensticof the "C Group and the two great classés of "Middle Nubian
po-ttery are, as in both ancient and modern Libya, the cup and the jar. !n short, if the Eastern
!Jbys!!s &f the Egyptian period had followed the natural road f'outh from ~argah Oasis to thé
) re~fet that t have not a phot&j~ph. !t is on the west face of the rock dcscribed in~< A~- v. p. )o, near
tf.e mHfEf c.ftttt foct-face,sboat br~M-high,and « drawn !t! though thc he~d were thrown back. It ~ce: south (apMtatOf~
r~tt), itfij )h')Wt a t!i~htt)r )q;)!))M, orthognathout,bctrded hcad.

A'M/~M')~~~~f/~r ~y
C~
Ctfyr&M cft ~«aft, t&gethcr with dit~, etc., tx/th itt Kubban (Contra-PKkhif) and at Ko:hMmnah.
L. Bs~c~f<!t,
~/<
A~-t/~y- p. ~.7, says of these platc-bead g!f())o /)~ <~r<' sein
 vicinity of Derr, aod c~tabfishcd them9e)ve$ on thé river as their material tMit~fe wouH
not, in any particular tiat can bc named, hâve v;n'icd importMtiy ft-oni that (~f the ~r!y C Gr~tp."

CoNCt.triifO!f

Thé évidence which would indicate that theMiddle Nubians were of Libyan ongm may
thus be summarized frcm what has been said in this Appendix and in the text :–
i. The great "C Group" cemeteries are on The Libyans were first thé sole occupants
thé west bank of the Nile, in a district geo- of the oases, and later, as the Libyaegyptians of
graphically connected with the Egyptian Oases. Ptolemy, the preponderating élément. Their
southerly position on thé N:!e is exp!idt!y attested
by Strabo, and indirectly by the Harkhuf inscrip-
tions, and by BAR iv. S 373, 38~, ~82.'
2. Thé "C Group" were originally a people 2. A prognathous, piatyrrhin'an, thick-lipped
with Mediterranean crania, though they type of Libyan is occasionally seeft on the
steadity became more negroid toward New ]Egypt!an monuments of thé New Empire,
Enctp!re times. They never lost completely Figs. 3. 4, and N. de G. Davies, A~ y~c~f
f.
their original physical charactcristics, and they < ~Ma~ part i. plate xxv. and text p. 33'
had striking physical affinities with Predynastie Libyatt element in Predynasfic Egyptians.
Egyptians.
3. "C Group" burials laxly contracted." 3. Libyan bunals contracted in a "sitting
posture."
1
Circutar superstructures to
,;(.. C Group Libyan regem-type throughout North
grave< OtFenng chapels outside. Africa. Seat Island n~m with offering places
outside
< cirete.
"C Group" representations of men with Libyan cross-bands. (Almost unknown
cross-bands. Woman with kirtle from waist. aamong other Africans represented in Egypt.)
Man wearing feather. Plastic representation
side-Iock (r).
of
Women
1 with kirt!es. Libyan plumes. Libyan
side-Iock.
s
6. Tattooing or body-painting among "C 6. Libyan tattooing designs similar to those
Group." of
c C Group."
',y. "C Group cow-cultus. 7. Libyan cow-cultus.
8. C Group material culture leather 8. Libyan material cujture kather garments,
gartnents, bone tools, mats, plate-be?.ds of nacre, mats,
r plate-beads of nacre (?). (From foreign
(Copper, ut supra, from the Egyptian mines east ssources a suppiy of copper weapons, etc.)
of the Nile.)
j). Two great C Group" divisionsof pottery 9. Libyan pottery thé cytix the and
the bo~t and the jar. Northern character of "hydna." Black-topped, polished, red-ware
"C Group" fabrics, red, polished, Hack-mouthed pottery p and géométrie incised grcy or brown
ware, as in Cyprus and Predynastic Egypt ware a of Egypt, possibly due to Libyan element
nègre character of technique (punctured in il Predynastic Egyptians.
,a
ornamentation, etc.).
From these paralleis t incline ta believe that the Middle Nubians were orig'naUy a b<xiy of
Libyans, who, wMk "Ot strong enough to establish themselves, except in small encampments (as at
1Add to this, and to what has been Mid M/M, Chapter ![., thc <M~ee tor Tt~enu Libyens south ot'Dcrr, n<;i<r Anibis,
m
~)~M/Aw<n'f~,ii.p.t}6.
H. Brtt~ch, C~t~~

fbr'vh)chJ.Capart(D<f~f,
Thé negroid head
p. 6:9, c!ting LD eiii. t:~c, )!nei. ~-t0 (=bAR

p.
§ ~S:). C~ aho W. A!. Matter,

t;o, 6g. )?9,«ndp. t)6)cMms* a Libyan origin connot

bc h~re addttccd <s evHcnce, since therc is no good ground for caXm~ it Lib~n an)).
tht. ~'M'H. :t!td Ucyr c!-B.tti.)s), on the Hgypt~n Nile, wcre powerful enough to plant themsctves
.t\{: ~:r<teh cf th< river bctwfpn the t''ir$t and Second Cataracts. For reMors giveti in thé text
k!tc\< furttMrmw, th.<t it was thé Lib~.tn group known as the femehu to which the C Group
~'t~<\i th.tt ~nMwherc in thé vinntty 0~ Dcrr lay th~ région whtch, by a ~ight Md very
Mtttr~ tr!t? M))e\! thc "Jis.trict ff Teh~nut" (7j'~fw/) in the inscriptions of the XXth
~y!M~) t<?n)b cf rctMQ
thé )*ctKe~u and
(~ Ramescs IV.).' Thé F.gyptians did not atways discriminate between
and tha~ stone* named after the former shoutd corne from a region
thé Tehenu,
~~M<x)~Hy nuM.<Med ~fter the t~ttfr is not strange whet) it is remembered that both names wer~
H<< <!nx'~t gcnenMtiy t<'r Hbyan."
RAR n. ~< t BAR !f. ~~3, ~9 anj t~<- p. ~8
 1
APPENDIX II
0~ TWO !NSCR!PT!ONS FROM GHEYTAH

ExcAVATtNG some third century (A.D.) graves at Gheytah in the Egyptian Delta, Petrie and Duncan

t~t
2!
language.1 A
~r. .s.
diseovered two covering-stabs bearmg the inscriptions here reproduced in Fig. 99, b. The texts
were first puMished as archaic Greek, dating from the 6th or ~th century B.c. but the ex-
cavators added that the inscriptions, though
A year later,
)~t~- in his /~t.t and
L'- Ghizeh
Petrie stated that the texts were "in thé (~
written in Greek characters," were in an unknown

Tifinar character, as used among thé Tuareg of

Algeria at present." 2 It is because of this t
statement that they demand notice here.
No examples of Tifinagh (as opposed to
its parent Libyan) are known before mediaeval
times the Gheytah inscripticus contain letters
whieh are not found in either thé Libyan or the
TipMgh alphabets; and of thé two names which,
with difficulty, Petrie transliterates from the
texts one, YSHMYM," he is forced to regard
as a corruption of the Semitic ~M~& while
thç other, "SHNTHY," he can apparendy relate
to nothing in either che Semitic or Hamitic
onpmastica. Moreover, Petrie's léction of the
nrst signs in each text as JYR and JYRT respec-
tivpty, and his seeing in the second instance a
T~ a<Kx conveying thé sensé of becoming or
pastsing into a condition" is no more convincing
than his relation of jv~(T) M thé Kabyle geri,
to remain," the radical of which would be not
jy~ or CYR, but GR. For the~e reasons Petrie's
second explanationof the inscriptions may be dismissed as as tnconctusive as his first, ·
Thé fact that Gheytah occupies exactly or very nearly the site of the Rqmaa ~<j /K</<:Mr~M
sut~gests the real nature of the inscriptions they are in a writing very etosety aHied to Safaitic,
Lihyanie, and Thamudenian–Semiticsystems which were all in use at the time to which the Gheytah
bunals are archaeologîcally assignab)~. As tharM~r'stie examples may be <!ted the fourth sign
W. M. F. Petrie and J. G. Duncan, ~~M ;m</ /jr<:f/<ff Cities (double volume). p. 60 f~. ln the Plate (ifh'iii-)
thdwing the inscriptionsthey are datedsevcnthcenturyB.c.
tdem, G~<Xf~ <t~ ~M (dauMe votumc), p. <~t~s <<' //)~fM and /~r~7<' Cf'
 from the top in Fig. 99, ( thé fifth from thé top in 99, b), the o of thé Semitic alphabets
mentioned; the botter sign in the short tag (right hand) in 99, <?~ S; while the second and
s';venth signs from the top in 99, a ( = thé second, etc., in 99, ~) is the usua) wavy <&
l'he inscriptions a'e written vertically, and the tag in 99, a indicates that, as here reproduced,
they should be read upivards. Thé initial pairs of signs are common to both texts, as are also the
final p.'irs. The initial element (bottom pair in 99, <t, left, and in 99, b) 1 would t-ansiiterate as TB.
A natural vatue for this is found in the Chaldaic 3B, "good"=Hebr. 31~, "good"; cf. the Hebr.
n~, prêt. ~a, "to be good," adj. ~&, "good"; ~\o;, ~CMt~, in the ser.se of ~o~~j, ~o~Kj~ The

oS'" or ~'departed," by Arab.

~<
~/<~ ~<?~< .f<~w~w~ w~~7.
terminal clement in thé texts is also a biliteral, which 1 would read as §Z, §0, with the force of "eut

This gives a very acceptable form of mortuary inscription an honorinc, a name,

and a verb or verbal adjective denoting death. As for the names, 1 give my transcription only with
reserve. The L~, ~~u/~d, in 99, 1 regard not as a letter, but as a mère ornament or
as a
y~KM t'M~<f«m. t tentatively read the name of 99, a as ËT-NMY, perhaps= ''Mt~; n~
pr. n. connected with ne, buttocks," and with r~, cotumns," etc. (<< <bundation," ~rmness")
and so (Gesenius, in verb.), "princes," "nob)es"; and <fM/, ~~o~w cepit, etc.
Hence this name would have th.' force of "Sedes T~M~~M." The tag (bottom, right) is iUegibie,
but may have been, as ecmmonïy, a locative. The name in 99, with similar reserve, 1 would read
Y§8-MS=Bp- "d~e!)ing-in-purity"; cf. ro~ pr. n., "sttting-in-consessus";
sit," to be seated," to tarry," and (frequently) to dwell," "to dwell in," to inhabit," Hoph.
~c;.
as
"to

<<
to be made to dwe)! etc. *~m& and Arab. )~t, which by the loss of

cleansing."
bas given the derived
"to make clean," "to purify"; cf. the pr. n. c~o, Mise'am, apparentl/="their-
The Gheytah inscriptions, therefore, are not Berber, but Semitic, and may thus be translated :–
~g. 99- "The worthy §T-NMY departed
ï~g- 99, The worthy Y§B-MS departed."

1
pt. vi.
and F. Macter, ~< p. 13.
~r~,
For the Thamudenia, alphabet see J. J. Hess, Die ~~x~y~~ der /<m«MM-A'x Inschrifien, in RT, vol. xxxiii.
for the Safaitic, E. L'ttmann, Zur ~/x;~re/~ der P). i. for Safaitic and Lihyanic, R. Dussaud

W. Gesenius, Hebrew Lexicon, M e~. M, '~m. Perhaps these words are both a!lied to thé Arab. ~f/<'r
egit, ~m<:mm praebuit (G. W. Fre,'tag, Lexiten, Mt M~). For M in personal names with
same fa~cc as aboyé, cf.
'??. God-ts-good," by SyriEsm for ']t<: (/MM~ viL 6).
 APPENDIX III
TRADITiONALUBYANORtCiNS

SBVERAL notices rega-ding the origin of thc Libyans as a whole, and of separate Libyan tribes, have
$urvived from classical times. These notices are not without interest as exhibiting thé mental cast
of the proto-Berbers, but to suppose them of àny great historicaf value, as not a few recent writers
have done, is to assume that the folk-memory of the North Africans was phenonenally tenacious.
tn his y~r~t'M War, thé Roman historian Sallust présents his readers with the following
account of the origin of the native Africans
"Africa," he writes, "was in the beginning peopled by the Gaetulians and Libyans, rude and
uncivilized tribes, who subsisted on the flesh of wild animais, or on the herbage of the soi! like
dattle. They.were controlled by neither customs, laws, nor the authority of any ruler they roamed
~bout, without fixed nabitations, and slept in those shelters to which night drove them. But after
Hercules, as the Africans believe, perished in Spain, his army, which was made up of différent
nations was quickty disbanded. Of its constituent troops, the Medes, Persians, and
Armenians, having saited over into Africa, occupied the parts nearest to the sea [i.e. the Mediterranean].
Thé Persians settled more toward the [Atlantic] océan,' and used the inwerted hulls of their
~esse!s as huts, there being no wood in their country, and no chance of getting i~, either by purchase
qr barter, from the Spaniards, because a wide sea and an unfamiliar tongue were barriers to all
itttercourse. These -Persians] by degrees intermarried with the Gaetulians and because, from
constantty trying diFerent soils, they were for ever shifting their abodes, they called themselves
Numidians [A~M<° And to this day the buts of the Numidian peasant-y, which they caii
mapalia, are of an oblong shape, with covered roofs, resembling the hulis of ships.
The Medes and Armenians conneeted themselves with the Libyans, ~ho dwelt near the
African sea while the Gaetulians lay more toward thé sun, not far from the torrid deserts. And
these ° soon built themselves towns, since, being separated from Spain only by '& strait, they opened
an intercourse with its inhabitants. The name 'Medes' the Libyans gradtially corrupted, changing
it, in their barbarie tongue, into Af<:en'[AfM)'M~reAf~].
The power of the Persians rapidly grew, and at length their descendants, through excess of
1 /m~ ~M«t~ .<~M. Most critics explain <<'<M ~Mm~ as denoting the parts !y!ng close ta thé ocean and bounded
by it. There is some confusion in this passage between,the names ff~~ and M~MM. The latter were an historic
peopte of the Atlantic seaboard of Africà (cf. Polybius < Pliny v. t. 8; Strabo ii. p. t;), ïvii. pp. S:6, StS;
Ptotemy iv. 6 § 6), whose name readily lent itse)f to one of those facile etymologies in which the Romans delighted.
Thus, in Pliny (v. 8) one Ends fAMW«, ~~a< f~rf~ (cf. Mela iii. to. 3).
s This popular deriration of Numidae from the Greek fo/ta~tc, "to graze," or fojuas, "a pastoral wandercr," is
questionabte. Festus, certainly, is expticit A~ d'w y~M Gr~~ No~aSc~, w~ ~</ id ~WM ~~r~~ ~t*tC~~
<i~fM<of, ~M ~M~ ~r~M, t< ~e~ <t&</M' (p. 62 Egger), and No~aS~ as a descriptive of some of the North Africans is
(f.
clearly mtended in several ctass'ca) passages ~<
o! Mct~o~tot Nc~mots in Appian, J5<'F. ii. ~)L Cf. Oberiin's note in
yibiusSequester.p.~tt. i. s/thé Medes, Armenians, and Libyans.
256 THE EASTERN LIBYANS
 Here even more clearly than in the story of Sallust can be scen thé Libyan ambition to establish
a common engin for both the indigenous North Africans and the Semitic cotonists. In a
similar
vein are a number of tales preserved by Arabie wnters,' who relate the origin of the Berbers to
el-Yemen in Arabia, or to the land of Canaan in Syria. Several writers who maintain that the
Berbers originated in the latter region connect their exodus from their first home to their second
with the slaying of Goliath by David, and the subsequent victory of the Israelites over the Philistines.
Thus,el-Bekr! identifies the Berbers with the vanquished Phitistines.~and other writers even state
that Goliath ('–).)~) was the original ancestor of the indigences North Africans.'
<
This last point may serve to introduce a topic connected with old ideas as to Libyan origins on
which 1 have not yet touched-the question of eponyms. The above stories seek to explain thé
origin of the indigenous North Africans as a whole, though they are concerned most intimately with
the Western Libyans, who lived within what was once the Punie sphere. A number of theories
particularly to the Eastern
more purely native in character than those yet cited, and belonging more
Libyans, sought to relate the origins of individual tribes to eponymous king-anccstors. Thus, the
Marmaridae asserted their race to have sprung from Marmaris, son of Arabs;' the Adyrmachidae,
Ar~raucetes, Byzes (or Asbystae ?), Machlyes, and Macae, according to a late arrangement, all
descended from the nymph Amphithemis, thé mother of Psyllus, the eponymous king-ancestor of
the Psylli. The tomb of this Psyllus, according to Pliny, was to be seen on thé shores of the
Major Syrtis e The Nasamones believed themselves descended from an eponymous Nasamon,
Nay~Mf,' whose name the natives pronounced in a manner which differentiated it from the ethnic.
Na$amon himselfsprangtrom Garamas, r~«~
the anCestor of the Garamantes.'
Thé évidence on the old eponymous heroesbr kihgs, though coloured by the dassical or Arabie
mediums thrôùgh which it has been transmitted, )eaves no room for doubting that the Eastern
Libyans, like so many primitive peoples, had numerous triba) ancestors, whose names and deeds
probably ngured largely in the old folk-lore, and who were venerated as semi-divins founders.
'Ëspec!al)y!bnHa)du-t,~<vo).i.pp.:73~.
< Jbn H~Mun, op. tit. vol. i. p. )7j.
Eastathius ~Dionys. f~
Et-Bekr!, ap. ibid., vol. i. p. 177.
~t~.
Piiny, vii. z. For Psyttus cf. NonnH!), /)<M~WM x! }8t
Ibn Kotaybah,
Agroetas, fr~. !n /WC.
7 But thé older form of the ethnie, as has been said, was Mesamones.
Eustathms ad Diottys.
classical
f~ 20$ tt?. Cf !s!dorus Hisp~Iensis, ~~m< tx. ii.
legend appears as a son of Apollo C<mMMM'rege, ~e//MU ~f, ? ex M9
)!
~MMf
The eponymous Garamas
c/i/'<«m fM.&& (Lutanus,
in
&MM~M«.f<i~<iv.3~,ed.Ou<)endorp,p.!QOA).
 APPENDIX. IV
B!BL)CALNOT)CES

1 HAVE reserved until iiow a fewwords on the Old Testament notices of the Libyans, since they are
of interest rather to Pi~Hea! scholars than to the student of eai'iy North Africa.
When, in frequent conju~choi with the Egyptians and the Ethiopeans, appears in the O.y. a
people called Zx~M o~A' (once O~),~ there can be no doubt that the référence is to the Libyans-
a supposition which is confirmed by the translation A~3w! in the Another, and, as ~m.<C')~
Gesenius suspects, an older, form of the name exists in thé O.T. as Z.~<?~~ the A~fM~
(t'<!r. Aa~fy, At~c/t) of the LXX. Both name's are so clearly related to the Egyptian J! ~)
that it is superfluous to seek another origin for them, although an attractive etymology is
suggested by the Arabie <!n'< M<'e/<<, from
~M<~ ° ~n-
No detailed particulars concerning the bearers of these names appear in the KHe. The LuMm
figure vaguely as allies both of Tyre and of Egypt,' while the LehaMm character!st!ca!!y appear as
a son of MIzratm, thé son of Ham.~ e

i
2 C~rM. xi!. ] xvi. 8 A~oA iii. 9. Thé singa!ar form oMurs once doubtfully as sA in ~z?~. xxx. 5.
~/)~.x!3.
s The similarity between the early forms of the Sernitic a and t, and the conséquent case wit& which they might be
m!sMken in transcribinga foreign name, have in some cases resulted in the name ~«~m'j being coifounctedwith that of
Mother people, the ~K~?M, ciA. Thus in y<'r. ][)vi. 9 certainly, and in ~z~. xxvii. to perhaps, e-;A should be emended
toe's~.
Gesenius, ~<M«. verb. (p. ;tt) Gen. x. )j t
C~rM. i. tt. Thé contexts in which the name Me~
appears forbid its relation, which some have sought to establish, to the place-name Balah (in southern Judah–y~.XV. j¡
xix.)),denvingD'M~from[{.n~j;a=D'[n]~3.
~Gcseniu.%c/).ft'f.,p.M['
~Zf~. xxvii.
to read!~g for te~M (supra, note )).
~/)~.)[!};c~x)t.et<,
Gen. x. 6-13 t C~M. i. 8-)!. Cf. JoMphas, ~< t. In regard ta M<B:~«' D'
as an ethn!< wsed
at a fairty remote period by roreigners for the Egypttans–especiatty for the Detta–1 wou!d, with great reserve, suggest
a possible connection between this name and the MZGH names discuKed at length earlier in this CMay. There is, by
Hamitic phonesis, no difficulty in the permutation of to the r of B'i~a or the Arabie .~<, and the medial sibiUant otcurs
as r, or z almost indiffer-ntly. The présence of Libyans using an MZGH name in the ear!y Delta,'or even in Sinai,
7,
wot]!d explain how fbreigne-s came to apply the title generally M thé dwellers in the Nile Va))ey. The greatest di<Ecu)ty
here anses from the existence of the Assyrian word ~Mfa, "border, boundary," and of thé (allied geographica) names
M~= (') part of Cappadocia, (:) a place in thé Anti-Taurus, and Me~r'= Lower Egypt. But if thèse names are really
allied to <MM~, may not that word itself have had at first a specific, and later a secondary, gênera) si~nincance? It wot)!d
be an impertinence if t did not say, in publishing this note, that 1 have only a reading knowledge of Hebrew, and none
ofAssyrian.
:!X
 în regard to the association of thé LuMm with the Tyrians, it is worth while to recall two points
which have received attention earlier in this essay. It has been noted that the fortress of Satuna,
which was stormed by the Egyptians, held a mixed garrison of Libyans and Asiadcs and that the
vases of precious metals represented in an Egyptian relief as forming part of the booty taken
from
thé Libyans are distinctiy Syrian in fcrm.~ This evidence, in conjunction with the vague O.T~
notices, encourages the belief that the relations between Eastern Libya and the Syrian coast were
friendly and fairty inttmate.

Supra, p. tSt. ~r~, p. t~ and Fig. ;}.

 APPENDIX V
THE ANTAEUS-CRATER OP EUPHRONIUS

Tuts well-known masterpiece of fifth-century vase-painting, now in the Louvre, affords an

interesting representation of a Libyan, which bas not, so far as am aware, yet been recognized as
such. In the scene Heracles is pottrayed as wrestling with his African adversary, the
M'here
combatants are strongly dtfïerendated. The faces of both (F!g. 100) are shown as orthognathous,
but, whereas Heracles is given the usual straight profile common to Greek graphie art in general,
and to other Euphron~an Greek faces in particutar, Antaeus is represented as having a nose well-
shaped but slightly aquitme, and strongly marked supra-orbital ridges. The treatment of the hair
also differs in the two. That of the Greek hero is short, and ends in roll of ccris at the
nape of
the neck, and from the ear up and across the forehead. The beard is short and the moustache

slight. In the case of the Libyan giant the hair is long and matted, and it projects
over the brow
in a manner which at cnce recaUs the Egyptian representations. Thé beard is Icng and pointed
the moustaches longer and fuller' than those of Heracles. As may be seen :t; Poittter's excellent
reproduction (from wMch hâve drawn Fig. too), the hair of thé Libyan :s shown
as lighter
in hue than that of the Greek (~'h!ch 1 have left without detail). The lips of Antaeus are reaHsticaUy
parted in thé stress of conflict, and the whole is rendered with the care characteristic of maste!
a
Inthe<!e)distheexp!aratoryname[AN]TAIOS.
There can be no question that in this picture Euphronius, without do:ng vtoknceto
eurrent
traditions as to what WM seem)y in h!s art, bas !ntent!ona!ty portrayed Antaeus
as rude, gr:m,
and savage. !t was !nev!taMe that the Libyan giant should be given a rugged cast of countenance
but the especial type chosen by the artist is the significant matter. From thé intercourse
between the Libyans and the Cyrenaic Greeks, and between Cyrene and G'eece, it is almost
a certainty that Libyan ~ai!ors were no uncommon sight in the streets and tavefns of the Piraeus,
even in the fifth century. It is to be recalled, moreover, how early in Greek plastic vase-forms the
Athenian potter took his inspiration even from the black Aethiopians of the far south.' The
possibility that Euphronius may often have
seen mingled with the Greek sailors at least stray
examples of the African barbarians may, t think, be accepted without réserver This admitted,
what is more natural than to suppose that in conceiving the Libyan giant in this sceue he should
recaU tp mind the Barber faces he had encountered in Athens or at the port? Four features
seen) to bear this out the projection of the hair over the brow, the marked supra-orbital ridges,
the slightly aquitine hose of the Antaeus, and the fbfm of the beard. 1 would suggest a comparison
of this profile with those to be seen in Pl. I. l, Pl. !L t, etc. The face as a whole impresses
me, after long familiarity with thé Egyptian représentations, as Berber in characte'.
1 A sixth-century'instance,of which Dr. G. H. Chase kindly reminded me, is afforded by the Busiris v~se in the
OeMerrdchisches Museum in Vienna, for .be bibliography of which see S. Reinach, X~r<m'r< des Mj~ ~a'
vol. i.

~t-r)!,Yo).i.p.t3°~.~~U
pp. tC~-t/o. Thé Antacus-crater bclongs MEuphrotuus'SMrlypetiod
s Euphrpruns'9 persom! fonJneas for pecut!ar types
(500-480

known,
B.C.).

~d.that
Sec H. B. Wa)[ers, H/tyo/y e/*

th Antaens-crateria from his own hanj

istesttâcdbythe~y~itiscrîptioh. ~A:
t t ~t
 /gj[PLIOGRAPHY
;J
~.<~<~Km, ~K< in fMKff~~i)
A«'<~M ~~M~ ~~&</
/K</<~)M ~MM<KM, KM M~MO
t'~<<, M~ ne /<f/ ~M~e)H~y~)MfM«; ~«<'<~<<<< </K~t)r~m ~M</< <t< ~M)!&m<r~M~/<'
~< ~&<7~

~<<?<~f.–J. M. HARTMANM,TE'~iW~M, p. x"i.

Abel, C. Agroetas.
).Ein!eitunginein:tgypt!sch-semitisch-indoeuropa-
a- Fragmenta in FHG, vol. iv.
isches Wurze)worterbnch. Leipzig. 1886. Alexander Myndensis.
z. Ober Wechsefbeziehungender agyptischen, indo-b- ~r< ap. ~~«M~, û~< v. zo..
enrop~schen und semitischen Etymo)ogie(I). I). Alexander Polyhistor.
Lei zig. t88~. Frag. t~. F~X. in Pt'r~. At/?My.
'e Âgyptisch-indoeurôpaische Sprachverwandtsch~ft.
ft, Ambrosius [Sanctus).
2nd ed.. Leipzig. t~o~. Opera omnia. Ed. Migne. Paris. 18~
Abu 't-~san 'At! Ibn 'Ahd Allah Ibn AM Zer' e!-Fezani
ni Amometus.
[citedasAbu't-Hasan]. Fragmentain f~G, vol. ii.
Annales regum Mauretaniae a condito Idrisidarum m Ampelius, L.
imperio ad annutr- fugae DCCXXVI. Ed. Torn- n- Liber memor!a)!s. Ed. Sa]mas!os. Amsterdam. t66o.
berg. Upsa)a. )!]!-jj.6. Anderson, R. G.
Abu 't-Mahasin Gamal ej-D!n Ibn Taghri-Bard! [cited ed Medical practices and superstitionsamongst the people
asAbu't-Mabasin). of Kordofan. In~f&e~M~Z~mAn/t~/A
Annales. Ed.Juynbo). Leyden. t8;6<- ~~M7. London. t9o8.
Atesander. ~x~&f=Anna)esde Service des Antiquités (Egypt).
fr~et~<t in f~C, vol. ii. Anonymotts.
Adamantîus. t. Tarih Wah es-S!wah; History of S:wah. [Arabie
Physiognemonicon. Ej. Frauz in f~))~. Pet.
et. account from, a fifteenth-centurysource obiained aE
Altenburg. t~So. Siwah by C. V. Stanley ~nd 0. BaMs in !~t0.j
AAanson,M. History of the war between the United States and
A. Voyage to Senegal. London. 1759. Tripoli,etc. Salem. tSo6.
[Adm!ra!ty,Bntish.] }. [Review of E. Huntingdon's theones on climatic
t. Chart No. 66~9 Mediterranean Sea. osciUatiën in the] Gy, vol. ïxxvi. No. 6, p. ~jt.
t. Chaft:No.'<og!t Benghazi to Derna. Anonymus.
). Chart No. t6j0-s Bombah.
Chart No. t0!o-
Aeiianu9,C!andius.
Derna to Ras Ba)au.
t. Expositiototiusmundietgentium. JnGy~f.Z~f.MMt.
Chronicon paschale. Ed. D:ndorf in Col.
/H~. ~z. vol. ix. Bonn. tS~.
&
t. Deanimatiumnatura. Ed. Hercher. Leipzig. 1864. See Auctor Incertus Excerpta Barbari Géographes
Varia Historié. Ed. Hercher. Leipzig. t866. [Anonymus]Ravennas.
A<}!ichy)i)!
Tragoediae. Ed. Weil. Leipzig, too~.
= ~<M
Anticleides.
(Paris).

AMhicus [C'<)~mographus]. Fragmenta. Ed. MaHer. Paris. tS.~6.

t. Ccsmographja. in
Ed. Riese Geogr. Z<!f. Min. Antigonus Carystius.
d'ÉthteMS. Ed. Baudet. Paris. t8t~.j. Historiarum mentorabitiom coUectanea. Ed.'Meursins.
z. Cosmographie
A~thicus Ister. See Avezac~Macaya, M. A. P. d'. Leydcn.~otQ.
A~athetnefU!).. Apo!)odorus.
Geographiae information !n C~f. C~M. ~iw. Bibtiotheca. Ed. Hcrcher. BerUn. tSy~.
 AjMÏtonnn Dy~coïn~ jBafth.H.
HistOtMC connnentitiae tiber. Ed. Meur~U!. Levden. ). Wanderungen dureh die KUs<<n)!tnd<f <)es Mittc)-
t<'tc. meeret(t). B~r)in. )8.t9.
ApQtîort~ïsï~rtod".t?. Retsen und Entdeckungen in Nord- und Central.
Argon~tttica. Ed.Seaton. Oxford. 1909. Afrika(t). Gotha, tS~t)~.
Apuleius, Bar}-,E.von.
OpeMomM.t. Ed.~Hitdcbrand. Leipzig. tS~a. ). Le Dernier Rapport d'un EuMpeen sur GMt et les
Aristophane?. Touareg de l'Air. Paris. )So8.
Como<:d!«:. Ej.HttUanttGeU.irt. Oxford. )<)00. Ubcr Senam und Tumuli if) KUstengebirge von
2.
ArnartU5,Fï~vîus.
t.Antb.tstsAtef.tndn. Ed. Rocs. L<px!g. t9~7.
Tripotitanie)). In the Z~f. .B~A~,
Yo!.v!ii.p.)~8~.
!.tnJiM. Eti.DabMr. FMS. t~S. }. Senams et tnmu)) de la chaine de montagnes de la
A'ibjarn!en, P. C. c<ttetripo)itaine. IntheA<'f.<J!vo).ii.
Folk and fa!ry-Ntes. Tr~ns; H. L. Brackstad. New
York. tSS~.
p.6~. tSS~.
Basset.R.
A~h~rson~P. ).LeDi.!ecte<!eSyoMah. Paris. t8<)o.
Ont! e s].-tpHum. ta ~Ar~~f~, vol. vi. p. t Mt. t.Loqm.'inberbere. Pars. tS~o.
AthitH~M![Sanc[Hs]. .Êtude!.ur)aZ<:t)at!adt)MMb,deOuarg)act<ie
Opem omnia. Ed. M:gne. Paris. tS~. rOu-dRir'. Pans. 1892.
Achcnaeus. Études! les dialectes berbères. Pans. tBo~.
sur
D<p<ioMphhtM. Ed-K~be). Leipzig.
Au<:tor fnccrtu~
tSS~ 5. Les Chiens du Roi Antef. In Sphinx,vol. i. jiS~y.
6. Recherches sut la religiondes Bcrber'M. Paris. t~tô.
P.magyr!e(isM.tmmMno :t Constantmo. Ed. jaegcr tn Bateman, G. W.
~x~rM~A'M.
Augustinus ~StnctmJ.
Je
Nuremberg, t~ Zanzibar Talcs. Chicago, t~ot.
Bates.O.
Openmmmh- Ed.Mig~e. Paris. iS~tj~. t.ADesertGoc). InCSy,vo).iy.No.;).
1.
Ausonius, D. Magnus. Siwan Superstitions. In C~y, vol. v. No.
OpaKuh. Ëd.S<:hen6;t. Bertm. tS8}. 3. Ummes-ShmttaandUmmGh~rbi. InCSy.vo).~
Avezac-Macaya, M. A. P. d'. No.;6.
t. AFrique. Esquisse ge~erate de t'AM~ue et l'Afrique t. Dr. G. Elliot Smith and the Egyptian Race. In
ancienne, etc. Ptns. t8~. C$y,vo).vi.No.68.
Értiïca; tes
omrrag-s cosmographiques intitulé de

t'
et 5. On certain North African place-names prefixed with'
ce nom, etc. Ptru. )S;2. (Acad. des Inscript. Rus-. In C~y, vol. vi. No. 60.
~?:r~ YcL [!.) 6. Sudane'se Notes. In C~y, vol. vi. No. 60.
Aymitrd. [CaptamJ.
7. On somc place-namesin Eastern Libya. In
Le~Toare~. Paris. t~]).
1. Nov.t~)!.
A~G. Baux, A.
Trfpott e i! suo ct!mt. Tntin. 1806. La Poterie des Nuraghes, etc. lE the Rev. ~~o/.
&M, vol. v. t88;.
B..&chn, E. C. F. Bazin, H.
jLe Cabinet des MUqaet !a B!bt!otheqae MnoMie. Ëtades sur le tatouage dans la régence de Tunis. In
Panj. tSi!?. ~<{.,vo).vi.No.;yt.
F~GS=~a~&<
B~m.R.N.
~f~ G~yM~M~Ar. Beadnell, H. J. L.
t. Parafra Oasis its topography and geography. Cairo.
Co9s.!cffFmryT9tes. Lc.ndon. tSM. '001.
B~:r, S. W. 2. Dakhla Oasis its topography and secfogy. Cairo.
TheNt[eTnbut9j!e9ofAbys9!nM. London t867
London. 1$67-
B~Kharga tQO!.
3. Mr. Huntington on climatic oscillations in Kharga
t. Omu tu top~mphy and geology. Cairo. Oasis. InGy,vo).x!f]<vi,No.p.to8~.
t~OO. S~Ba)),J).
x. Topogr~phfcat and ~eotogica) resntt! of a reconnais- Beechey,F.W.andH.W.
s~nee survey ofje~t Garra and the Oasis ofKurkur. Proceedings of the expedition to explore the Northern
Cmro. t~O!. CoastofAfricafromTnpotieastward.ete.London.
B~t, j,and Beadnell,H. J. L. )8!8.
Baharia Oasis {M topography and geo)o~)r. Cairo. e)-Be):r!, Abu 'Ubcyd 'Abd Allah Ibn 'Abd e)-'Azïz AM
t90!. Mus'ab[c!tedase)-Betr}].
F~~=BreaKed!,J. Ancient Records, ~.f. t. Das geo~raphische WSrterbuch, etc. Ed. WtMen-
~rbitr~aï~cerma, fe)d,GOttingen. 18~6-77.
~.t~~ Scatiger, J. J., ~~NrM 2. Description de l'Afrique septentrionale. Ed. de
S!ane,A)gicrs. '}7.

~v
Bencdite.G. · Breasted, J. H,
Un Guerrier libyen, etc. h) MAf. ~f /M< der //M7~ t.AncientRecordtcfBgypt. Chiago. ty~/y~.
y.,
B<nha!!cra, M.
too: (f~r ix.), p. ):3 si. ~.AHi<toryofKg/pt,et<
Brineon, D. G.
!!<
NewY&r! t~ s,

Six mois chez les Touareg du Ahaggar, A)g!ers. t$o8. t. Thé ethnotog!<:3! afnnitic* of the !inc!e<!t Etratt~M-
Berbrugge)', L. A. tn P. Am. fA S., vot. ïïvi. p. )M<).
Bibliothéque-Musée d'Atger. A!giers. t86o. On Etrutcan and Libyan nanKt, tn P.
Berger, P.
Histoire de l'écriture dans l'antiquité. Par!). 1891.
ï.
Broea, P.
vol. !ïviti. p. 39. t~ /*<,

Bernard, F. C. E.
t. Note au sujet de q'jetqutt monuments de pierres
brutes relevés chez les Touareg Azgar. Paris.
dans )'AffiqNe «'ptentnona!t. In ~f.
vot.v.p.3<)j. '876.
~<
Lcs Peuples blonds et Je! monuments n)<gt!!th!'}a"t

t88!. Brown, R. Ste Pory, J.

Observations archéologiques, etc.
~<t886,vo).v.
In thé Rev. d' Browne, W. H.
Tfave): in Africa, Egypt, and Syria. Londcn- )!
Bertholon, L.
t. La Cynophagie dans j'Afrique du Nord. Tunis.
t8Q6, vol. v.
Brugsch/H. C.
t. Die Géographiedes alten A~ptem!. Leipzig.
2. Hierogtyphi:ch-demotiK:het Werterbach. Leipzig,
t!
Origines neotithiquei et mycéniennes des tatouages 1880.
Thésaurus tnstnptionum Aeg~paac<ram. Lt!px!g.
des indigènes du Nord de l'Afrique. (Extr. from
~r~.<r(~M'Mf/vo'.i!No.o.) Lyons. <M3~
'9°-t- Reiigion und M~tho)og!e der alten ~gypttf-
Les Premiers Coïor.s de souche européenne dans Leipzig. )S8~.
l'Afrique du Nord. (Part ii.) Origines et forma- Bull. ~r~. Xr,. = BuILIin ~r~~A~i!x~/«&
tion de la langue berbère. Paris. too~. ~~iB~M.
t. Essai sur la religion des Libyens. Tunis. tQOQ. ~x/ W~Archaeotog!ca) Saney of Kob~: F<&<f*J.
Bitrnay, S. Cairo. t ~08 jyy.
Étude sur le dialecte berbère de Ouargla. Paris. 1008. Burchard4 M.
Bi$Ie. Die atthMan~ischen Fremdwarte und Eigennamen im
Ed. B:ble Society of London. )C)o6.
BiMiaHebraica. A~yptischen. Leipzig. t~o~ <y.
e!-Bi!aduri, Ahmed Ibn Yahya Ibn Gabir. [cited as el- Burraws, R. M.
Biladuri). Thé Discovenes in Crete. London. 1907.
Liber expugnationis regibnum. ~j, de Goeje. Leyden.
t666. Caesaf, C. t.
Biitsue!, P. H. Commentant. Ed. Hoffmann. Vienna. )S88.
Les Touareg de l'Ouest. Algiers. <8S8. Gagnât, R.
Biau, E. 0. F. H. ). Musée de Lambese. Paris. iS95.
Ueber das numidisch: Alphabet. tn Z~«m<r. d. Études de mythologie et d histoire des religions
DM< Morgenl. CM<'& v. p. ))o. t8;t. antiques. Paris. tooo.
Bqchart, S.
1
CSy=C~<r< M~f y~nt~
Geographia Sacra, seu Phaleg et Canaan. In Opera Ca!assanti-MotyMnsM,G. A. de.
«)!)tM, vo). i..Ed. t. Leyden and Utrecht. Le Dialecte berbère de R'edames Paris. too~.
t~t: CaUiasSyraeusanas.
Borehardt, L.. fr~~M~ in ~HC, vol. ti.
t. Das Grabdenkmal des Kon!gs Ne-user-re*. Leipzig. Callimachus.
.00, Hymni et Êpigrammata. Ed. 3 Wi!amow)tz-5M-
i t. Das Grabdentma) des Konigs Sa~hu-re. Leipzig. lendorf. Berlin. 1907.
'9'0. [CaUisthenes].
BcTsari, F. Frag. in Arrianus, c~. ~r<t.
GeograSa etnotogica e storica della Tr!po)!tania. Turin, Campana, G. P.
etc. 1888. Antiche Opère in plastica, discoperte; raccoite, e
Bosman, W~ dichiarate. Rome. tS;i.
Voyage de Guinée. U;recht. t~. Capart, J.
Les Débuts de t'art en tgypte. Bruxelles. t~o~.
Botti, A.

°
Manuscrits itbyens
(Extract
toco.
from ~«'A ~)
dans le Musée de Turin.
/wr. Cairo.
CapeUa, MarHanus.
De nupttis PhUotoglae,etc. Ed. Ey~c~haf~t. ï~pxig.
t866.
B~!Ue,V.De. Capitolinus, tutius.
Extrait d'une Jettre Mens, Joumard,
etc. tn t. AntoninusPius. ln Sff~f. Mif. ~~<uf.
~«/&S«'.G~vo),x.(tS4.o)p.)7!J~. Maxim! duo. tn ~fr~'f. ~fff. ~~«~.
y,y
Carton.L.B.C. Cragius,
C N.
Notes sur !es ruines d'ei-Kenissiah. !n ~xF. Soc. ~r~. De republica Laccdacmoniorum. Herac)!dae Pontici de
<ïy~a. '9~7' po)it!is ]ibe))us. Ex Nicolai Damasceni Universati
CaMti.G. Historia, etc. Leyden. t6~0.
TenYearsinE~uatorii!,ete. London. t8~).
1. CSy=C.M~&WN/~y<w<M/.
C
Cassiodorus [F]orus], MagnM Auretiue. Ctcsias.Cnidius.
C
OpeMoniM! Ed. Garet. Verike. '7~9. Ctesi) Cnidii Fragmenta. Ed. Mii)tcr-D!dot. Pans.
Ca!!tigtioni,C.O. Curtius,
C Q. Rufus.
Mémoire géographique et numismatique sur la partie De rebus gestis Alèxandri Magm. Ed. Van der Aa.
oncnt.t)e<)et:Bartane,etc. Mitan. 1826. Leyden. i6t)6.
[Ctstorms]. X~TabutaPeatingerMna. Cyprianus,Thascius Caecilius [Sanctus].
C
Catal. Musée Lavigerie. XiV Delattre, A. L. Opera. Ed. Maran. Paris. <7t6.
Caudel, M.
Les Premières Invasions arabes dans l'Afrique du Nord. Daremberg,C.
E V. and Saglie, E.
Paris. )ooo. Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, etc.
Ceisus.A.Cornctius. Paris, tiiyy~.
De artibus quae estant. Ed. Milligan. Edinburgh. Daressy, r G.
.83. t. Révision des textes de la stete de Chalouf. !n 7!?*,
Chabas, F. xi. tSS~.
Ë[udessur)'annqui[eh!:torique. Pans, etc. t873. t. Une Trouvaille de bronzes a Mit Rahineh. In the
Chaittu, P. B. du.
équatoriale. Paris. Une
~ï)!. t~o~.
NouvelleForme d'Ammon. In. the ~M&J, ix.
Voyages et aventures dans )'Afr!que 3.
tSo3. t<)o!
ChampotHon, J. F. Statues de divinités. tn the C<!<r< C~~f«'. Cairo.
Monuments de i'Ëgyp!:e et de la Nubie d'après les t()û6.
dessins exécutes sur les lieux. Paris. )33; 5. Plaquettes émaillées de Medinet Habou. In the,
Annales, xi. (")".)
~f~or<?..
j~.
Chronicon ann. p. Christ. 334.

Chronicon Paschaie. S~ Anonymus,

ln Frick, C., C~M/M I
Davies, N. de G.
The Rock Tombs
Déche)ette,J.
1
of el-Amarna. London. t()0~j'.
Le Culte du soleil aux temps préhistoriques. Paris.
Chrysostomus, Dio.
Orationes. Ed. Reiske. Leipzig. )78~. '9°9-
C/G=Cer~M /Mfn))fMm~! Graecarum, etc. Ed. Boeckh. tDe!attre,A.L.[Pere].
Bcrtitt. )S!8~. ). Les Tombeaux puniques de Carthage. Lyon. tS~O.
C~~=C<M /~fr~'f?~ A~r~f~, etc. Berlin. t. Catalogue du Musée Lavigerie. Paris. tgoo.
<S63~. 1Denham, D., Oudney [Doctor], and Clapperton,H.
C~S=Cc.'ys~ 7/f~r~tN~ Semiticarum. Paris. l88t Narrative of travels and discoveries in Northern and
W- Central Africa, etc. znd éd. London. tSzo.
Chpperton,H. ~fDenham.D. Den!ker,J.
Ctaudianus, Claudius. The Races of Man. London. r~oo.
Opera quae extant. Ed. Bipont. 1784. See Collignon, R.
Clearchus of Soli. Denn!s,G.
fM~~M in f~G, vol. ii. On récent excavations in thé Greek cemeteries of the
Clemens, T. Flavius, Alexandrinus. Cyrenaica. tn
vol. ix. tS~o.
T'< ~ey. &f. Lit. ii. Séries,
Opera quaeextant. Ed. Potter. Oxford, t~);.
CoUtgnon,R.,andDeni):e<,F. Desjardins,
] A. E. E, j
Les Maures du Sénégal. tn~vo).vii.p.t;7. La Table de Peutinger, d'après l'original conserve a
(~96.) Vienne.etc. Paris. )f)6~
Corippus, Flavius Cresconius. Dcssau~H.
]
Iohann!s,scuP<:be!t!5L!byc!5. Ed. Bekker ïn Corp. Inscriptiones Latinae selectae. Berlin. l8gs~.
&f~M/z. Bonn. t8~6. 1Detlefsen, D.

C<Mi.<tn,E.St.C. Die Géographie Afrikas bei rtin~us und Mela und ihrc
Descriptio pfantarum novarum in itinere Cyrenaico Quellen. Berlin. too8.
a G. Rehlfs detectarum. In Bull. Soc. 7!eMe. Fran.
offPiinius.C.Seeundus.
vo!.)[iT.('o7:)p.8o~. Dietnch,K,von.
Byxantinische Quellen zur L!)nd<f- und Votkerkunde.
z. Plantae in Cyrenaica et agro Tnpo)!tano notae.
i~
ln ~F. ~f. ~f~.

Cowper, H. S.
Thé Hill of the Grâce'.
vol. xxii. ('87;) p.

London. )897. )S!

Leipzig.
Dio Cassiua Cocceianus.~`
HistoriaeRomanac quae supersunt. Ed. Siurtz. ~Leipzig.
Diodorus Siculus. Eutropius.
BiMiothecahistorica.Ed. Wesseling. Amsterdam. t~6. ab urbe condita, etc.
Breviarium Ed. Droysen. Bertin.
DmgenesLaertius. )879.
Vitae philosophorum. Ed. Cobct. Paris. <S;o. Evagrius Schofasticus.
DionysiHs[Periege:cs]. H!stor!aeecc)cs!ast!<:ae)ibr!sex. Rc'.M;gnc, Paris, tS6o.
Periegesis. !aC~C".MM.vo!.ii. Evans, A. J.
DoUghty,C.M. Scripta Minoa (!). Oxford. t~cg.
Wariderings in Arabia. [Abridgcd from Travels Excerpta Barbari. tn Sca1iger,J. J., T'~MxrM
inArabiaDeserta,Cambridge,)8S8,byR.Garnet.] Exiga Kayser. en-Na~r, Mohammad Abu Ra,
/if~
London. t~oS. Ahmed.
DoHttë,E.
Faidherbe, L. L. C.
Mag!eetfe!!g!oadans)'Afr!queduNord. A)g!en. t~tO.
DUm!<;hen,J. ). Recherches anthropologiques !t:r les tombeaux méga-
t!thique!i(teRokn!!).B5ne. t868.
DieOasenderfibyschenWfiste. Strassburg. t8y7.
Duncan,P. S~Pettie,W.M.F. z. Quelques mots sur l'ethnographie du Nord de
l'Afrique et sur les tombeaux mégalithiques de cette
Duprat, P.
Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de
contrée. tnthe~F.ei'M~.oi- 1868.
l'Afrique Septentrionale,etc. Paris. )8~
Collection dcsinscr!ptioniNum!d!qaes. Lille.
Du~is Samius.
'870.
4. Noticesethnographiques,etc. Paris. 1871.
Fragmenta in f~G, vol. ii. Instruction~ sur t'anthropotog'e de )'A)gerie. In
DuMaud.R. the ~t;& a!' & & znd Series, viii.
Les Ciyitisaiions préhelléniques, etc. Paris. fc~to. 603~. Paris. tSy3.
p.
Dmsaud, R., and Macter, F.
Voyage archéologique au Safâ et dans le Djebel ej-
Fe'tus,S.Pompe!us..
Fragmenta. Ed. Egger. Paris. 1838.
Druz. Paris, t~o).
1. FHG=Fragmenta ~M~r~c~~ Cr~<f~ft/ Ed. Mu)!er.
Du~eyrier,H. Paris. i!tj~.
Les Touareg du Nord. Paris. '86~. Filiasi, G.
SuU'ant!cocon)mërcio,ar:e,ent.'r!nadeiVenez!.tn!.
Egyptian Government [Snrvry Dept.].
Padua. t8tt.
t. [Map] District ofMersaMatrH, t:z;,6oo. Cairo. Finsch, O., and Hartlaub, G.
'9°T- Die Voge] Ost-Afrikas [=von der Decken's Reisen in
[Map] District of Ras a)!em Rum t !ooo. j Ost-Afrika, Bd. iv]. Leipzig, etc. 1870.
Cairo. i<)o~. F)amand.G.-B.-M.
Meteorological Report for the year too8. Cairo.
t. Note sur les inscriptions et dessins rupestres de la
t())o. Gara des Chorfa du d!stn<;< de t'Aoutef. [E~tr.
~.Aimanac[Stat<stics,ctc.]. Citiro. I<)tt. from ~/< ale Cf~r. ~M~r. et <r~<. iii. ('90?)-]
Er~tosthenes. Paris. tC)0~.
ff<~< Ed. Berger. Leipzig. )SSo.
z. De l'introduction du chameau dans l'Afrique du
Erman, A. Nord. Paris, tgoë.
t. DiePIuratbitdungde~AegypMchen. Leipzig. '878. Florus, L. Annaeus.
1
Die Flexion des agyptischen Verbums.
S</ze~ der ~~<*r for tooo.
In the Epitome. Ed.Jahn. Leipzig. !8;
Foucauld, C. de.
Âgypt!scheGrammat:!c. tnded. Berlin. t00!.
Reconnaissance au Maroc. Paris. t88S.
Handbook of Egyptian Religion (translated by A. S. Foumel, M. J: H.
Grimth]. London. 'po?. Les Berbers (1). Paris. tSy;.
;.AgyptischesG!ossar. Berlin. too~. Freyrag, G. W.
Es(her,J. Lexieon Arabieo-Latinum e~ opere suo maiore
Triton und seine Bekitmpfung dareh HeraMes. Leipzig.
excerptum. Hatie. t8j~.
'~9°- Frictt.C. [Ed:t.]
ËudoxusCnidius.
C~m/M )!!MeM. Leipzig. tSoï
f~. ~~mea< Dy~&a', ~.f. Fruin.R.F.
Euripides.. De M~rtethone SebeaRyta tibrorumque ab eo scnptorum
FabH)a< Ed.MHrrity. Oxford.
Eaeebiws.
[)<)«!] fe!!qai!s. Leyden. [t!]
Fur)ong,C.W.
j). ChMt;!eoit. Ed. Mai. Milan. t8)8. Gate~vay M the Sahara. New York, tgoo.
!PMepe)'atioEMnge!iM. Ed.Viger. Paris. )6!8.
Eu~tathitis. Gabetentz.G.vo~der.
t. Schotiain Homerit:!ad. et O~yss. Ed. StaHbaum. Di~ Vcrwandtschaft des BasMschen mit den Bcrber-
'.Leipzig.8! ` Sprachen Nord-AfrictS nachg~wiesen. Brunswick.
"t. SchotIainDiottys~Ptriegesin. htC~Cwff.Af~. '89~-
 Gauck)er,P. Haimann.G.
Note in the C~&' r~A /r~. /~<7- 1898, t.Cirenaica. In~~<r~C~r.~o/. )88).
p.SzSj~. :.Cirena!ca. Milan, t886.
2. Les Monuments historiques de la Tunisie. Pins. Halévy, J.
tSoS~. Étudesberbères. [Extr. from tte y<e~< ~M~. ~th
3. Rapport sur des inscriptions latines découvertes en Series,vots.iii.andiv.]Pari!. t8~.
Tunisie de tooo too;. tn ~M~. ~r~. des Hall, H. R. H.
A~MM MMA Tom. xv. fasc. 4. <ooy. Theo)destC!vi)ixationofGreeee. London. t~o).
Gautier, E.-F. Hami)ton,J.
Sahara aérien [AifMjM~m X~~M.t]. Paris. )oo8. Wanderings in North Africa. London. t!6.
Gettius.A. Hamy, E. T. S~ Quatrefages, J. L. A. de-de Bréau.
Noctes Atticae. Ed. Hertz. Berlin. tSS~j~. Hanoteau, L. A.
Geo~Mphus [Anonymus] Rtrennas. 1. Essai de grammairc kabyle, Pa-is. [)8;8.]
Ravennatis Anonymi ccsmographia et Guidonis Essai de grammaire de la langue tamacheK. Paris.
geo-
graphica ex libris MSS. Ed. Pinder and Parthey. t86o.
Berlin. t86o. Hanoteau, L. A., and Letourneux, A.
GeorgiusCypfiu! La Kabylie. Paris. 1872-7}.
Descnptioorbis Romani. Ed. Gelzer. Leipzig. )8oo. Harrison, J. E.
Gerttard.E. Prolegomena to the study of Greek religion. !nd éd.
Griechische und etruskische Trinkschalen des Cambridge. t~o8.
Museums zu Berlin. Berlin. )8~o. Hartlaub, G. See Finsch, 0.
Gesenius, F. H. W. Hartmann, J. M.
A Hebrew and English lexicon, etc. 3rd ed. Robinson. EdrisiiAfrica. tnded. GSttingen. '7~6.
Boston. !S~o. Hasan Ibn Mohammad et-Wezaz el-Fasl. Leo
Ght,L. Africanus.
De qMe)<]HM rapporK entre les langues berbère et basque. Hawes, C. H. and H. B.
Toulouse.' t88j[. Crète the ibrtruttnerofGreece. London, etc. tQOQ.
Ghisteri,A. Head.B.V.
Tripolitania e Cirenaiea dal Mediterraneo a! Sahara. Historia numcrum. Oxford. !887. w
Mitan,etc. t0t2. Hecataeu!.
Gibbon.E. fM~M, in f/~G, vol. i.
HIstory of thé Dectine and Fall of thé Romz!) Empire. Heiss.A.
Ed. Bury. London. t!!a6~. Description des monnaies antiques de t'Espagne.
C~r. Gr. A~M. = C~r~ Cfx~ Aft~r~. Ed. MuHer. Paris. t870.
Paris. iS;; y~. HeUanicus.
Gm~r. tt:r. AfM.=G~M~&' 7.m JMM~f. Ed. Riese. ~'r<~<M/<ttfMC,vo). i..
Heilbronn. t!!y8. HeraclidesPonticus. Cragius, N.
Gtraad-Te[[!on,A. Hermippus [Comicus].
Origines du mariage et de la famille. Geneva. Fragmenta in f~~rea; M~~m.~ Graecorum fragmenta.
t88.t.. Ed. Bothe. Paris. i8;t;.
G ? == TA' G~r~&'M/ yMne~. [Lon don.] Hero<anus.
Goleinischeff.- Ab excessu Divi Marci libri octo. Ed. Bekkér. Leipzig.
O~ener Brief an Herrn Proressor G. Steindorf. In
Z~r.~ Spr. ï). (fQoz) p. tôt Herodotus.
Gornn~e,H, t. The History of,Herodotus. Tr, and annot. G. and
A crnise along the norchern coast of Africa. ln H. Rawlinson and J. G. Wilkinson, New Yor)t.
y~OW)~, vol. ][! p. j~. .8~0.
Greenhow.R. <. HPOdOTOY I2TOPI3NA, E, Z. Hérodote the
Historyand preMnt conditionof Tripoli, etc. Richmond fourth,nfth,andsi!;thbco); Ed.andannot.
(Va.). ,9~. Macan. London. t8o;. (App. xii. vol. ii. p.
Gregory, J. W. ~60~. 'n~'Z<~B~i!~<.]
Report on thé work ot' the commission sent out by thé 3. Histbriae. Ed.Hude. Oxford. «)o8:
Jew!shT'ejr!tonaîOr~n)Mt!oh etc. London. Hesiodus.
'9°9' Carmina. Ed. Rzach, Leipzig. t~O!.
Grimm, W. and J. Household Tales. Trans. M. Hunt. He~J.J..
London. t8i! DieEntzifterungdetthamMischenInschfiften. h
Gse)),S. ~7',vo).]!)f!<iii.p. t~6~.
t.MasecdePhiiippeviife. Paris. igaX. Hesychius Alexandrinus.
z. Monuments antiques de l'Algérie, znd éd. Lexicon. Ed. Alberti and Ruhnke*. Leyden. t~6
'°°?- Paris.
 Heuxey.L. et-tdrM, Abu 'Abd Allah Mohammad Ibn Mohammadfbn
Tribu asiatique en expédition. ln the Anhéol. 'AbdAnahe<-Sherlf[citcdatd-!drt<t].
Ser.iii.tomcxv.(<~go)pp.9~. Description de t'Afriqucet de CEtpagnc. M. Dozy and
Hieronymus [Sanctus]. dcGocJe. Lcydcn. t86~.
t. Opcra omnia. Ed. Martian~y. Paris. )6o) Jephson, A. J. M.
t.Chron!corum)ibr!jao. Ed. Schoenc. Bcrtin.
a. Emin Pa:ha and the rcbe))!on at ttc Equator. London.
t866. <8~o.
Hi)debrand.G. Jcqui<'r,G.
Cyrenatha [w] ats Gebiet kUnftigerBesiedelung. Bonn.
n. Notcsetfemarques. !n~7*,vo).M)[.(t9o!!).
too~. Joannes Laurcntîm [Lvdus]. j[LydH~ j~anncs
Hippocrates. Lauren[!u6.
De morbis. Ed. Kt)hh. Leipzig. <S26. Johann!sBicïarens!s~Abb.t5j.
Hirtius, A. X~CMMr,C.[. r. Chronicon. Ed. Migne. Par~. )S~. (tn
Historia miscella. See Landolfus Sagax. Curl. Complet. Ixxii. p. X6~ ~.)
Hobler, T. B. Jchn[Bishop]ofNi)[iu.
Report on the Oasis of Siva. [With an appendix (B) ;) Chronique. Ed. Zotenberg. Paris, )S8~.
by G. Maspero on )he wells ofMarmarica.] Cairo.
o. Jornandes.
t~oo. Romana et Getica. Ed. Mommsen. Ber)!:). 1882.
Homerus. Josephus, Fïavïus.
1. Ilias. Ed. Dindorf and Hentze. Leipzig. t~o~. Opera. Ed. Bekker. Leipzig. tX~6.
2. Odyssea. Ed. Dindorf and Hentze. Leipzig. g. Isidorus Hispaiensh [Sanctus].
'9°4-. Opéra omn!a. Ed. Mjgne. Pan!. )8;o.
Honorius, Julius. Itmeranum Antonini.
Cosmographia. In RieaCt Geogr. Lat. Min. .6!. EJ. Parthey and Pinder. Berlin. tS~S.
H<at!')s,O.FiM<:U! 'ed-D)nIbnei-At!r[<t<id!tstbn<~At!r].
Eclogae cum schoîiis vtteribus, etc. Ed. Gesner and
ld Chmhicon quod perfectissinum (el-Kamil) inscribitur.
Zeune. Leipzig. !8l;. Ed. Tornberg. Leyden. tS;)-76.
Hornemann, F. Jubainville, H. d'A. de.
Journa! of travels from Cairo to Mourzouk, etc.
c. Notice sur les Cettes d'Espagne. In Cc~ff ~<~<)4f <!i'
London. t8oi. /M~. <&< Affr~r. sér. iv. vol. T~ii. (tSgo)
H))ntinj;tort,E.

t
p.Z!9.FM.
The Kharga Oasis and past climatic changes. Inn Junioris Philosophi Orbis descriptio. ïn Geogr. Cr~<
2!~GS. Sept., :9]0.. Min. vol. ii.
Hyginns.G.Jutius. justinus.
t. Fabatae. Ed. Schmidt. Jena. tS?:. H!stonae Phitippicae)ibri ][)iv. E~. FrQtschcr. Leipag.
Astronomiça. Ed. Bjnte. Leipzig. 1875. <8.:7~.
~uvenalis, D.-Juniqs.,
Satyrarum libri v. Ed. Hermann. Leipzig. t86;.
Jab~onsk!,P.E.
Karutz, P.

lambHehua.
r~
Panthéon Aegyptiorum. Frankfurt. <7}o,t~
y~fGJV~=yM~< ~<< ~m~Me C~r<M/ S~f«y
New

Demystenistiber. Ed.Gaie. Oxford. t6~8.

Dieafntanischen Bogen Pfeile une KacherjmLabcctcr
Mnseum,eM. Labect. )§oo.
Keane, A. H. «
Africa (1). ïnded. London. )<)0~.
King; W. J. Harding.
Ibn 'Abd e)-~akam, Abu '1- I;asim 'Abd er-Rahman[cited as
ls A search for the mas):ed Tawareks. London.
Ibn Abd e)-H~)[am]. Futoh Misr. !$03.
tbtj Abl Dinar er-Ru'ayn! d-Kayruan! [cited as Ibn Abi Kumm, H. K. W.
'')D!nar]. From Hausaland to Egypt. Lûndon. t~to.
Ibn et-At!r. 'Izz ed-D!n Ibn e)-At!r. et-Kuran.
Ibn I~atdun, Abe Zsyd 'Abd ër-Rahman [c!ted as Ibn Corani tMtas arabicus, etc. 3rd éd. Fjftge). Leipzig.
r ~aMun].
'n].
Kitab et-'Ibar. Bu)ak. A.H. 1284. Siane, W.
)869.

MacG. Lactantius,L. CoenNS–Firmianas.

Ibt) Hau~a), Aba 't-Kasim [:ited as Ibn ~au!fa)j. Opera quae extant. Ed. Gallacus. Leyden. 166o.
Viae et régna.Descriptio ditionis Mos)em!eae, etc. Lamprid!as,Ae)!))s.
Ed.deGoeje; Le;'den. <i! Commpdus. A)exanderS<:t&rus. tn&'r~.HMA~
Ibn ~ordadbah, Abu,')-~Mit'UbaydA))<hIbn'Abd A))ah h L«tdM,R.
.~edMibnpord~bahJ. w Reçords of Captain Clapperton's hst expédition to
LiberMarumetreghorum. Ed. Leyden. 1889. 'Africa.J-.ondon. tS~o.
 L~ndoïfusSaga~. Maclver, D. R., and Woo)t:y.
Historia miscetta. Ed. Eyssenhardt. Berlin. )8$o. t. Areika. Phitadetphia. «)0<).
L<ne,E.W. z.Buhen. Philadelphia, <Qt2.
t. TheThoasandandOneNtghts. London. )8}Qf~. Mae)er,F. S~Dussaud.R.
Macrobius.
z. Manners and Custcms of the Modern Egyptians..
;thed. London. t86o. Saturnalia,etc. Ed. Eyssenhu'dt. Leipzig. )8q~.
LaMe-Pooïe~S. Mahaf!y,J.P.
History of Egypt in the Middle Ages. London. The Empire ofthc Pto!emies. London. t$o).
Langhans,?. et-Makdisi. Set e)-Mokaddas!, Abu 'Abd Allah.
Wandkarte von Afrika (t :y,)00,ooo). Gotha, t~og. et-Matriz!, Ta! ed-Din Abu 'i-'Abbas Ahmed (cited as
Laqn~re. e)-Ma~r!x!]. Ueber die in Aegypten eingewan-
Les Rconnaissancesde gênera) ScrvMrc. Paris. n.d. derten arabischen Staemme. Ed. Waatcnfetd.
~D=R. LepsiM, Denkmater, ~.<\ GOttingen.- t8~.
Leo Africanus (Hasan Ibn Mohammad el-Wezaz e!-Fasi). c)-Ma)ek!.
t. Africae descriptio, Lcyden. !6):. Riad en-Nofus.
z. See Pory, Mallet, D. ·
Lepsius,R. LeCu)tedcNe!taSats. Paris. <888.
Denkmâler aus Agypten und Athîopîen, nach den Mandoul, J.
Zeichr.ungender von S. M. Friederich Wilhelm IV. De Synesio Ptolemensi episcopo et Pentapoleos defensore.
nach die,en L~ndem gesendetenund in den Jahren Paris. t8~g.
!S~t; ausgefohtten wiL.senschaft)ichen Expedi- Manetho. Fruin, R. J.
t!on(c!tejaaLD). Berlin.
Letotirneux~ A. See Hanoteau, L. A.
<S~ Marcellinus,Ammianus.
herum gestàrum libri quae superiont. Ed. Gardthausen.
~.<~ ~,MMi'MXt'f. In Frietr. C., C~t-M/M <MMM. Leipzig. t87~.
LttHein.J.D.C. Marcellinus [Cornes].
Notice sur les monumentségyptiens trouvés en Sardaigne. Chronicon. Ed. Scaliger, J. J., it f~Aw. Temp.
!n the fer~~ffi ~<&m~&fMi'/ i C~&yMSM, Marcianus Heracleensis.
No.vi!i.(!S7o). Periplus Maris Externi. In GM~r. GM~< Min.
Litcmann, E. Marcus, L.
t. Zur Entz!Serang der Saf:1-lnschriften. Leipzig. Histoire des Wandates. 'Paris. )836.
'901. Marinus Tyrius.
L'Origine de l'alphabet libyen. h
the yMnt. ~M/. fragmenta ap. Ptolem. Geogr.
ser.![.Mmeiv.p.< t<)o~. Martha, J.
Liiri, R. L'Art étrusque. Paris. t88().
Antropometnam!t!tare(!). Rome. )8o6. Martin, S.
L:v;us,T. AufsaM ttber das silphium. f~r~«-
Rerum Rom~norumab urbe condita )!br!. Ed. Ahchefs!
Berlin. '8~.t~.
t.
~< Paris, Sept. <!0, tSy~
Jn the

Note sur le prétendu silphium Cyrenaicum. Jn the

LucanuStM.Annaeus. Bullet. ~/y. «; ~A-<t<y. Paris, vol. xci.
Pharsalia cum scholiaste hucusque inedito, etc. t876,p.!j~.
Ed.Oudendorp.-Leyden. 1728. Maspero, G.
Lucianus. 9. Études égyptiennes, Paris. tSy<)~.
t. De dipsadibus. In 0~ vol. iii. Ed. Jacobitz. Le Nom d'un des chiens d'Antouf..tn RT, xxi.
L<:]pz!g. )8S7. ('S99)P-
z. Nang!nm, In 0~ vol. viii., ed. n'y. 3. Études de mythologie et d'archéologie égyptienne.
fLMc!3-nu9.] Paris. t8<)3~.
De astMtogia. tn 0/~<, vol. ii., << Le Tombeau de Montouhitfhopshouf. Le Tombeau
Lncretms Carus, T. de Nakhti. In thé Mlm. de <b mw~ «r~
De rerum nacura. Ed. 3ernays. Leipzig. t8;y. ~M~ v. fasc. 3. Paris. t8Q~
Lutatius. The Passing of the Empires. New York. tooo.
SchoftamLucan.Phars. See Lucanus, M. Annaeus. 6. The Struggle ofthe Nations.'NewYork. 1900.
[Lydus.J, Joannes Laurent! 7. The Dawn ofCivitization. Nsw Yor)[, t90t.
Operaquaeextant. Ed.Bekbr. Bonn, 1831. Masqueray, E,,
Lyon.G.F. <. Dictionnaire français-touareg. (Dia)ectedesTaïtoq.)
Narrative of travels in Northern Africa. London. Paris. t!!o~.
tStt. z. Observations grammaticales sur la grammaire touareg
ettextesdehtamahaqdesTaïtoq. Paris,
Maean, R. W. Herodotus (2). tSo6~
Maciver, D. R., and WitHtt, A.
Libyan Notes. London. ïoo).
3.
''878..
Le Djebel Cheehar. Jn the Revue ~7M/
Maternus,t.Firm!cus. ~.Scef//C.
De errore profanarum rcjigionufn, etc. tn thé ~rMr. 5. Sec C~gr. Gr~f/ Min.
ed.M!nuciusFe!i)[. Leyden. <?o9. Mt))!er,C.L.
Matheseos libri viii. Ed. princ. Venice. ~97. ,~ïumi6mat!<tue de l'ancienne Atricuc. Copenhagen.
Mathuisieu!x, H. M. de, t86o-7<)..
Rapport sur une mission scientifique en TTnpoïitaîne. Mu)!er,W.M.
Paris.'tQO~. t. Anmerttungen zum Sicgohymnusdes Mernepta%. tn
MaxXmuaTyi'~s. the/!7',xx.(<8~8)p.~<
Dissertationes. Ed. Reiak~. Leipzig. t~y~ &. Aaien und Europa nach aït3gypti~chen Den~maïcrn.
Meh)M,C. Leipzig. t8~.
D!eBerberfrage. Braunschweig. '009. 3. Egypto)ogica) Rescarehet (!!). Wt5hington. t~<o.
Meinhof.C.
D:eSprachenderHa)n!tcn. Hambur~. )§!t. Nachtigal, G.
Mela, Pomponius. Sahara und SOdan. Berlin. 879.
Dechorographiit. [De situ orbis.J Ed. Frick. Leipzig. Nardin, E.
t88o. Maroc-Algérie-Tunisie. Carte politique et physique.
Mai~C-L. t:7oo,ooo. Paris, n.d.
L'Interprétation de quelques inscriptions libyques. [Re- en-Na§ïr, MahommadAbu Ras Ahmed.
~M~. <M~,
No.
Meltzer, 0.
:j
printed from Bullet,
B6ne. t8o!.
t8ot-$<, Description de ï'Isïc de Djerba. T*rans. Ex!ga <~
Kayser.
Naville, E.
T<)nis. t8~.
G!~ch!chteder&ar[hager. Berlin. t879~. Figurines égyptiennes de t'epoqjc archaTqae. In
Mercier.E. RT, x xi. (1899) p. ït: f~. ï!ii. (t~oo) p. 65 ~y.
Histoire de J'établissement des Arabes dans t'Âfnque Le Dieu de J'oasis de Jupiter Ammon. tn thc CM~f
septentrionale. Constant!ne. *[t87?.j ~aA t/f~M~. der /)!~r~. t~o6, p.
Mercier, G. Nemesianus, M. Aurelius Olymplus.
Les Divinités libyques. tn the ~~K~/ zfMM <& la Cynegetica. Ed. Haupt. Leipzig. t8~8.
Sef. ~yf~. </f CMJA xxxiv. (1900) p. tyy Nepos, Cornelius.
MeyM.E. DevinsiUustribus. Ed. Gitlbauer. Freiburg. tSS~.
G~schichtedesA)tertums. tnded. Ber)in,etc. 1909. Neumann, R.
M.Hef,C. r. Arrika westlich vom Ni! nach Herodot. Halle.
Die Weltkarte des Castorim genannt die peutinger'sche [.89..]
Tafe). Ein!eitenderText.Ravensburg. t887. t. Nordafrika (mit AusscMuss des Nilgebiets) nach
Mitne.J.G. Herodot. Leipzig. t8~.
AHistoryofEgyptunderRomanru)e. London. t898. Newberry, F. E.
Voi.v.ofW.M.F.Pst~No.S. BeniHassn. London. 1893~.
M!nu<usfe)!x,M. NieephotasBiemmyda.
Ottavius. Ed.Ernest!, Langsall. t~6o:
et-Mo~ddast[or e!-Ma~d!s!], Abu 'Abd Allah [cited as e!-
Geographia synoptica. tn Cff~r<~< C/w~ ~r~.
Ed.Bernhardy. Leipzig. tStS. (Vo!p.~o~
MotxddasiJ.
Descriptioimperii Mos)em!i. Ed. de Goeje. Leyden.
j~.) [A!so in G' G~M Af?jt. vo). ii.]
Nicephorus CaiHsms Xanthoputus.
'~70!. Histonaecc)esiast!ca. Ed. Migne. Paris. !86;.
Mom~sen~T. Nicolaus Dacuascenus.
Ram!sche0aseh!ehte. Ed. Berlin. tSSt-S;. t. ~A?~, in ~WC, vol. !ti.
Morce)ti,S.A. 2. &< CMgitis, N.
AfricaChnstiana. Brescia. )8)S~. Nonnus of Panopptis.
Moschus.Joannes. Dionysiaca. Ed. Marcellus. Paris. 1856.
P~tnm spirituate [Af~Nt"!ptOf]. Ed. Migne. Paris. Notifia t/~pt/~eo! <!t/mw~r~tM<f<t MtmtHt tam f<rt&))!
L'8',0. ~rt.f~ ~r~~ c'tf,
Motylifnski, A. de C.
Movets,F.C.
&< Ca]assanti-Mot)'Hnski, A. de.
~MM
BSeting. Bonn.
M
'8~ etc. Ed.

DtePhonizier. Bonn.
M''en~er,F.C.C.H.
)8~t-;6.
R<:)!g!pnderKatharger. Copenhagen. t8t6.
Mt))ier,C,
t. Tabutae in géographes Graecos .'ninores. Paris.
Obsequens, 1.

Leyden.
Oppiatius,
t~ô..
Quae supersunt ex libro de prodig! Ed. Oudendorp,

Cynegeticit., Ed. Boudreaux. Paris. ïQo8.

t8< PartofGm~r.Gr~'AfM.
Tabutae tn Oaudii Ptotemaei geôgraphiam xxxvi.
Oribasius.
Collecta med!c!na)ia, etc. Ed. BuMe:na!;etand Dajem-
Pans. t90t. berg. Paris, t8;t~.
3. See Ptolemaeus,Claudius. ` Origo ~«~x< ~<e~tf. Jn Frick, C., C~M/M «m!!)<
 Orosius. Piquet,V.
Histonarum ad~ersn: pannes tibri vii. Ed. Zange- Les Civilisations de )'Atr!que du N.'rd. Pans.
mcister. Vienne. )SS2. '909.
P)ato.
Ondney [Uocto~. &f Dentmm, D.
Ov!c!ias,P.NasO.
Opéra. Ed. Stallbaum. Leipzig.
Plinius, C. Seeundu9[Senior].
)St<
Opera omnia. Ed.Burntann. Amsterdam. '7!7. Natura)ishistoriac)ibnxïxtii. Ed. Janus. Leipzig.
tS~o~.
Pacho, J. R. Pîutarchus.
Relation d'un voyage dam la Marmarique, etc. Paris. t.Vitaepara])e)a< Ed.Sintenis. Leipzig. t~û~~
t8:7. ~.ÛberhisundOsirh. Ed. G. Parthey. Berlin.
Pathr~.P. )8so.
Instructions pour les recherches préhistoriques dans te Poinssot, L.
~<t:< ~r~f't'fj, x!ii. (1906) p. t!S~.
f.~f.X. = f/'M~y.'e~ e/
nord-ouest de l'Afrique. Atg!ers. t9oq.
~M'
tn

P..rk,M. l'
(Phit.tddph:a.)
~M~<M)! P&VM~;M/

Travels in thé fnterior f.f Africa. Ed. J. M. Dent

&Co.~I,on~on. f'~o/.j
Poitt!er,E.
Vases antiques du Louvre (U). Paris.
Polemon.
Physiognomonicon. Ëd. Franz in
~ot.
MM'
Altenburg. <y8o.
P.trthey,G.F.Ç. Pollio, Trebellius.
Der Orake) und die Case des Ammon. Berlin. Claudius. tn Script. ~<~m/.
iS; Potyi'enus.
Partseh.J. Strategematon. Ed. Melber. Le!px!g. tSS?.
Die Berbern in der Dichtung des Corippus. Breslau. Polybius.
t8~6. Extract from ?<<! ~t<M'r!M. Historiae. Ed. Buttner-Wobst and Dindorf. Leipzig.
Pausanias. t866~.
Descriptio Graeciae: Ed.Spfro. Leipzig. ~o~. Porcher, E. A. See Smith, R. M.
Perrot, G. and Chipiez, C. Pory, J.
Perroud.C..
Htstoirede)'art,etc. Paris. tSSz~.

De Syrticis emporiis. Paris. !)!8t.

J.
The h!story and description of Africa

Brown.R. London. tS<)6.

Leo Africanus, done info English, etc.
by
Ed.
Petrie, W. M. F. Sf<'LeoAfnc9nt)s.
t. Racial photographs froa the Egyptian monuments. Pf!)naud!<!e,E.dctit.
London. n.d. Le Littoral de la Tnpo)!ta!ne. Paris, n.d.
a. Royal Tombs, etc. London. t~ooj~. PnseMnus.
j. !nahnn,KahHn,a[idGurob. London. t8ot. .Periegesit. Ed. Kreht. Leipzig: tS'o-~o.
~.DiospohsParva. JLondcn. tqot. Priscus Panites.
A History of Egypt. London,
6.Athnbis. London. iqo8.
t8< Fragrenta in FHG, vol. iv.
Proc)m.
7. Kopto!. London. tSo6. ®
In Timaeum Platonis, Ed. Diehl. Leipzig,
Petrie,W.M.F.,MdDnncan,J.G. ioc~
Hybos and Israelite cities. (Double volume Egypt. Procopius.
~fr.] London. tooo. Opera. Ed. Dindorf. Bonn.. tS~j
Petrie, W. F. and others.
M. Provotelle, P.
Gizeh and Rifeh. London.
Petronius [ArbiterJ, T.
ïoo?.
Satirac. Ed. 3. Buecheler. Ber)iu.
Philistus.
Fragmenta în ~'T~C, vol. i,
t88!. 7'=/
J

j
Étude
sur la Tamazir't ou Zénatîa de Qa!aat. es-Sened.
Paris. ton.
(Londor.).
Ptotcmaeus.Ctaudius.
Society. of A~
Phi)ostorgms[Cappadox]. Geographia. Ed. Mu))er. Paris. )88~-ioot.
Histonaecc!eMa'st!ca..Ed.M!gne. Paris. tS~S.
Phi!o9trams[Sen!or]. (Quatrefages, J. L. A. de-de Breau (and Hamy, E. T.).
Philostratorum quae supersunt omnia. Ed. Olearius. Histoiregénérale des races humaines. Paris. 188789
Leipzig. ~09. w
OuibeMJ.E.
(
Piette, E. t.Hierakonpotis. London. taoo(])!too~(II).
t. Les Galets coloriés du Mss d'Azil. tn Anth. v! t. Archaic objecta. [In Caire Cat.] Cairo. !9C~
(t8<)6)p.)!!6j~.
2. Les Écritures de l'âge gtyptique. !n xvi. t
Rainaud, A.
('9°5)P''W- Quid de n;tura et fructibus Cyrenaicae Pentapo)<
Ptndarus. antiqua monumenta nobis tfadiderint. Paris.
Carmina. Ed. Schroeder. Leipzig. iqoo. '994.
 Ravenna, Anonyn)«us of, See Geographus [Anonymes] :] Ruinart, T.
Ravenna?. AcMmartyrum,etc. Ed.Farit. t~O!-}.
Rawlinson, G. and H. See Herodotus ()).
Reboud, V. Sainte'Marie.E.dc.
Recueil d'inscriptions libyco-berbères. [Extr. from thée Mission a Carthage. Paris. t88~.
Mém. e!' Sor. fr~f. <!t* A~xm/j. <r~.] Pans. SaintMartin.L.V.de.
t8yo.. Le Nord de l'Afrique dans !'ant!qt)!te, etc. Parx.
Reclus, E.

Rtgny, P. V. d<
Nouvelle Géographie nntvefseUe[vols. x., xi.J L'Afrique
eeptentri6na)e. Paris. i8S;-S6.

Libya Italica. TTcrrcni cd acque, vita e coÏtura, etc.

Reinach, S.
Milan. '9<
e
t8~.
Sat)u!tiu9,C.Cf!)i{)U9..
Jugurtha. Ed. Kr!tz.) Leipzig.
Si)r.n,P. ~Vischcr,H.
Sau)c~, M. de.
Observations sur l'alphabet tifintg. !tt
iv.ter.,vot.ïiii.()!9)p.
tS~.

they~nr. ~M/.
Répertoire des vases peints grecs et étrusque!. Paris. Scaliger, J. J.
'809~. Thesaurus temporum, znd ed. Amsterdam. i6jS,
See Tissot, C. Sch.tft.P.
!@isMr,G.A. Historyof thé Christian church. NewYort. tSS6-)~tO.
l. Work of the expédition of the UnIve~sÏty of Cali- iSchirmer, H.
fornia at Naga ed-Der. In the ~XM~J, v. !oo~. De nomine et génère popu!ofam qui Berben vulgo
p. !OS fff. dicantur. Paris. !S$!.
~.AmuteM. [InC<H'r~C~.] Ca!ro. )oo~. iSchneider, W.
3. The Archaeo)og!cat Survey of Nubia (1). Cairo. Die Religion der afrikanischen Naturvo)ker. Munstet
<OÏO. i. W. tS~
Renan, J. E. Scholz, J. M. A.
t. Histoire des langues sémitiques (J). Ed. Paris. Reise in die Gegend zwischen A!exandrien und Par!-
'S63. tonium. Leipzig. t!'t2!.
2. La Société berbère- In the Rev. des /)~~ Mander. SchrOdcr.P.
!8/}. Période ii., tome toy, p. 138~. DiephonizischeSprache.etc. Halle. tSC~.
Schweinfurth, G.

~j
Renier, C. A. L. S

1 Inscriptionsromaines de l'Algérie, etc. Paris. !8;86. Artes Africanac. Leipzig, etc. ~S~
Renouf, P. le P. < ~M~ft~ ~f~At~. Ed. Peter. Leipzig. iSS~-
Who were thé Libyans 1 In vol. xiii. Scylax.
S
(t8o.) p. ;oo 1Periplus. In G~. Cf~f. Min. vol. i.
Ridgeway, W. Sedira, Belkassem Ben.
S
The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse. Cours de langue kabyle. A!gien. tSS?.
Cambridge, toos. Se)den,J.
S
Rochemontetx, M. de. De diis Syris syntagmata II. Ed. Beyer. Leipzig.
Essai sur les rapports grammaticaux qui existent entre .672.
v t'Égypticn et le Berbère. [In edit. collect. works by Sergi.G.
S
G. Maspero, ~r~. Egyptolog. tome iii.] Paris. i. The Mediterra'neanrace. L~ndon. t~ot.
!8ot. .2. AMca antropologia della s:irpe camitica. Turin.
Roh)(s,F.G. t897.
t. Reise durch Marokto, etc. Bremen. t86S.
Das Silphium. !n Ôsterreich. Monatsschr. f, d.
Servius..t~
S
Comméntar. Ver~yiearmina,
Commëntar.inye~~icarmina.
in Ed.ThiïoandHagen.
Ed. Thilo and Hagen,
Or!ent(Vienna),fo).xv!i.(t8ot)p. Leipzig. tSyS-t~o:.
Roscher.W.H. Sethe, K. H.
S
Ausruhrtiches Lexikon der griechischen und tomischen Das SgyptiMhe Verbum im A)Mgyptischen, Nea3g)p-
Mythologie. Leipzig. tSS~f~. tischen und Koptischen. Leipzig. tSgg-t~O!.
Rosellini, I. Setcn-Karr,
S~ H. W.
Ia~M~.r,v.(t<)o~)p.
T.
1 monumenti dell' Egitto e de))a Nubia, etc. Pisa. F<tyoomf)!ntimp~en)ents.
tSg! 'T! T.
W-
Shaw,
R,ossberg, W. Shaw,
S
Qùaestiohes de rébus Cyrenarum provinciae Romanae. Travels, or observations, relatirg to several parts of
Frankenberg. N.d. Barbary and the Levant. 3rd cd. Edinburgh.
Rouge,J.de.. t8o8.
Sh<:t)<:y,G.E.
Géographie ancienne dje)a Basse Égypte. Par!<. t8ot. SI
A?*~ f!< rv&f;/f & ~<'M~ ~f
~fe~ /'<~&i' Handbook to thé birds of Egypt. London. tS~
~M~ pour ~r~'r < bulletin & Sidonius, C.Soijius Modestus ApoUisaris.
Si
Opéra. Ed. Savaron. Paris. 1600.
~w~?~'<M~M'.M~MC<WF. Paris. t8~o~.
a M
 Silius Italicus, C. Thcophrastus.
De be!)o Punico. Ed. Rupert! and Lemaire. Paris. '.J)c)opidibus. Ed, Meursius. Leyden.
Siret, L.
1823. t. Historiaptantarum. Ed.Wimmej..Le!pi:!g. )8;
Theopompus.
L'Espagne préhistorique. Paris.tSo~. Fragmenta, in FHG, vol. i.
deS)ane,W.MacG. Thrige, J. P.
Histoiredes Berbères. par Ibn-Khaldoun.Algiers. Res Cyrenensium. Copenhagen. i8s8.
<S;}6. Thucydides.
(&f Ibn Ha)dun, Abu Zayj 'Abd er-Rahman.) Historiae. Ed.Jones. Oxford; [!$og~.]
Smith.G.A. tt.Ti~n!. [Sheykh.];
Note in ~~f~
~/fr~M ~t~ g;Mry~ ~M<M/,
xxxvii. (Oct, <~o~) p.
Smith, G. E.
tS: Voyage dans la régence du Tunis. Trans. Rousseau.
'853..
Tissot, C. J.
The Ancient Egyptians and their Influence upon the t.DeTnton!de)act). Dijon. <S<3.
Civi)izationof Europe. London. t~n.t. !.Su'')esmonum<'ntsm~at!thiqueset)espopu!at!on!)
Smith, R. M., and Porcher, E. A.
History of the récent discoveries at Cyrene, etc.
blondes du Maroc. In~f.{.v.~()S~6).
Tissot, C. J., and Reinach, S.
London. i86~. Géographie comparée de la province romaine d'Ainque.
Smith, W. R. Paris. tSS~-SS.
ReHgionof the Sémites. ;rded. London. )Q07. ref~ ~tf ~fryfM. In Acthieus. Ed. Baudet.
Solinus, C. 1. Tour, E. du.
Cotiectanea rerum memorabilium. Ed. Mommsen. Note .in CM~ ~M<& o!' /M~. 7);
Berlin.
Sophocles.
*8oc.
Toutam.J.
p.t; )8s8,

TfagoediM. Ed.Jebb. Cambridge. )!!q~. ). De Saturni dei in Africa Romana cultu. Paris. 1894.
Sourdit)e,C. t. NouveHes Observations sur t'!ns:r!pt!on d'Henchir
Hérodote et la religion de i'Égypte. Paris. i<)to. Mettich. tn A~ff& ~~p. /)~< et
Spart!MU3,Ae!ius. <r~.vo!.][)fiii.(t!)oo).
Hadnanus. In Script. Hist. ~<~M/. Tremearne, A. J. N.
Septimius Severus. tn ~r~)f. ~'jf. HausaSuperstitionsandCustoms.I.ondon. tQ)~.
Geta. tn Script. W~. ~~tj/. TSGS=TopographicalSection,General Sta<t(Br!t)shArmy).
~«~M~M ~m Magni. tn Gtogr. Gr~f. Min. vol. i. t.MapNo.t~f)- Tripoli.' t:t,ooo,ooo.
Statimi, P. Papîtitus. !.MapNo.3<,)-i~ Se)!a. t:),ooo,ooo.
Opera~uaeextant. Ed.Dabner. Paris. )838- ;j.MapNo.t!39-t;. Aujth. ):t,ooô,ooo.
Sttmc!orj!G. t.M.)pNo.);3<it-8. Ben-Ghazi. !ooo,ooo.
Dareh die libysche Wtiste zur Amonsoase. B!e)eMd, Tytor.E.B.
etc. t<)0~ Pnm!t!ve Culture. ~th éd. London. !<)0~.
Stephanus Byzantinus. Ty'~JJ-
Ethnica. Ed. Westermann. Leipzig. t8)f). Wall drawings of et-Kab: th: tomb of Paheri.
Strabo. London. 1895.
t. Rerum geographicarum libri xvii. Ed. Czsaubon.
2.
Faris. t620.
Strabonis geographica. Ed. Ma!!cr and Dubner.
VatcriusMaximus.
Exemplorum memorabitium libri ix. Ed. Var.
Paris. l8;3-;8. Leyden. 1670.
Suetornius, C. Tranquillus. Vatef,F.
DsXH.Caesaribus. Variorumed. Utrecht. t~o! Triton und Euphemos. Kasan. 18~.0.
Synesïns. Vaux, C. de.
Opera. Ed. Migne. Paris. t8! La Langue étrusque sa place parmi les langues. Paris..
Tabu)!) Peutingeriana.
'91'.t,
(<) E. Desjardins (2) C, Vaux, W. S. W.
Miller. Inscriptions in the Phoenician chara:ter now deposited
Ta<:iMs,C.Comctin! in the British Museum, London. '863.
Opéra. Ed.Oberlin. Leipzig. <8o!. Vegetius Renatus, P.
Ta)mud,TheJernsa!em. Ed.~itomir. 1866. Ars veterinaria sive mulomedicina. Ed. Schneider.
Terentius Afer, Publius.
Comoediae. Ed. Dziatzko. Leipzig.' 188~.
Leipzig. '79~ [In~r~f.~M~M/~iv.],
Verg!!iusMaro,Pub!ius.
Tcrtuitianas, Q. Septimus Florens. Opera. Ed.Heyne. Leipzig, etc. 'S~o-~t.
Opera omnia. Ed. Semler. Halle. )77o-76. Vibius Sequester.
Theophanes. Denuminibus,rbntibus,etc. Ed.Obertin. Strassburg `
Chronographia. Ed. Classen. Bonn. )8M. a. R. )778.
 *yJ
V)ictor,S.AurcUus. ï.Stetaeof Libyan origin. ttfS~xi.(tSe9),
DeCaeMribm. Ed. Picklmayr. Leipzig. tptt.t. P-~7.
Victor Vitensis. 3.Re)ig!oad<:ra!tcnAgyptcr. MtiMtcri.W, t$~o.
Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae. Ed. Pet- Wilken.G.A.
schenig. Vienna. i88t. H<n<!)<:M!j;voord<:verget!jtt<:n<)evo))t<'nt!unc)evant
Vi'ischcr, H. Neder)an<}s<:h-tnd!e. Leyden. tS~.
Across the Sahara from Tnpo)i to Bornu [With appendix Wi)kinson,J.G.
(tl) by P. Sarasin on the neolithic axes, etc., found Manners aud eustoms of the arcient Egyptians. Ed.
onthemarch]. London. K)io. S.Birth. London. tS~S.
Viviani.D. S«H<:rodotu!()).
Florae L'bycae specimen, etc. Genoa. iSx~. Woenig.F.
Vopi9em,F)avins. DiePi!anzenima)tcnAc~ypKn. Lopzig. l8S6.
Auretianns. In Script. ~fM<. ~«~ WoX~J.G.
Probus. tn Script. /f~<<p~. De pnnc!p!bu9re!pubi!t:ae Cartha~n!ensïsmag~stfatïbu~.
Bonn. !8}7.
Uoger.G.F. Woolley,C. L. Set Macïver, D. R.
Chronologie des Manetho. Berlin. t86~.
el-Ya~uM, Ahmed Ibn AM Ya'tub Ibn Wadth e!-Kat!b
Waiters,H.B. [e!ted\s et-Ya~ub!].
Histor~ofancteMPott~ry. London. t<)o;. DeMnpt!o AI Magribi. Ed. de Goeje. Leyden. 1860-
Weisgerber,H.
LMBlancsd'Afrique. Paris. t')to. Z~~{/ ~~yM~ %iM~.
Wdcker.F.G. Zonaras, Ioannes.
Gnech!scheGatter)ehre. Gettmgen. t8;7-6~. Annales. Ed.Pindi'randBMtner-Wobst. Bonn.
Wiedemann,A. t8~t-97.
t.Geschichte Aegyptens von Psammetich I. bis auf~pH9M~t ~Mst~iae.
AtexandefdenGrossen. Leipzig. [880. Ed.Menddssohn. Leipzig. tSSy.
1
 1 l, PHJ~OLSGICAL
INDEX
abaikuf,8t amMMc.,8: BYU-\ F~ permutmg to
ByzaeMs, Byza-
B/MC<:n!s, Byzacitis" H or Uy ~y
abekt!f,8t
aber,8~s.!1 amza.Sz b~,S:
cium, ?.
abeSi.S} amzuaru~S~ &7y
Abtu6gensis,t8; anebdu,7;,76 gn,So
S anefdu, 75, 76 capNt-,79~;8
8 G,R,antte,<S!y7
abn&uba'ah,f "ange)," 208 Ct)!bb~77
abzug,76 anhil, 76 F.~5!
i)<!Mr,7; Damis, 77, 79 g!,ft.
Aquet Amar!g," ~.1 t
ad-e]tem-ee, 7~
:)Jm.t)',7S; ;o
Aptungensis,)8;
Arda!(-is),77
drr,79
du,7S
Dynn,77
gu~
Gu)))aume=Wi))!am,~7 2

adrar, 79 Ardan(-is),~ Hasbitae,~

adu,?88 ar-(dar),83 ebba<:),82 (H.t(dith<:t-)JL<:but,~6
.'du~!),7; arm!j,y6 ebzi,8! hepe!.t~
.afuM, ~Arzucis~ 68 n. y ef);,8< hund,7;
"6~.7!7f Arzug, 68~.7 7 egdem, 7;
Asby(s)tae, 80 ibbo<1.76
ag<:di<7; Asbystae=Hasbitae,<t.7 egzem,7S ibbeSi,}
ag!:UM,~eU!d,ys ehad,76
S aSe))id, eldi.yë '4,7)
agena:t,agenna,7;
f *Astures, 68 n. 3 idda,~6
aj!;en;)!),i!o <:))i,76
~g~7S. a5uia6,7S eLKeM, 7.t
e))[em-e&, 7~
!drarcn,y~
idraro)-*mat,7<)
!tgŒ!)t,7; ausar,~8 idt],?)!
agugi),7S AuMn.yi! Icru,tSi!
aguM), cmmet,8z
auser,78 en~,78 i~ean~So
'aga~h,78 <AUS<t>UR, 68 K. 7 'gg"~7!
ahar,7~t~.6
6 (Ans-) t)fat, 77 ` erges.7; tj~en,~j;
aifti,76 *Auxug!s,6S«.7
7 ergez,7; i~ed,7)
aiyur,77,<88 Auz-, 78 eri,79a.&
Ir
~79 Auz!qua,78 eri.,79 ik~~
a!tabbar,o Auxius,78 e!e<'),7$ ihbbMen, So
a~M~6 ayi.t)m,7S ~k.7< !k!;at,ikkat,y~
5
a)[gu~,7; Azu, 78 evod,76 *I-!eMth-~n = Ihg(a)aten, 6~
a)tsm)*)7;S azug, 76 ezj;a,78 iUa,~
a)(ziA,7$ ezua,7S !mme~,Sï
!t)es.7t t-MaëiGH-en,
ezzar, 8~
.)~,79 Baca)es,So t MaZiGH~n,
a)mi,76 Bs!carens!s,)8} fer-,8~*t1 i-MaZiR-en,
ama~,8t Bahcris,)! fgM.St t-MuSaGH, t*
amag!7; B!)SSaCH-!tM.77 ~,f~,St1 1~,79
bd. 8t 8,78 irst,i*s)),79
.)m-a}t!tr,7~)!<.6
6 b<:5!S3 !s<:k,7;
aman, 8t b–pp,8o Ga]yba,77 ".?!
a)naS.7s br,!i4.<t.t 1 gM).h-=hort-,t7"z Ubir,7~
an)-et'i,7<)«.66 b9,M,8! (GM!t-)uM(a),77 iu~~SS
amo9tr,79 M~~ Ger(-as),GM(-eitds),Ger iutef.y;
bt,8~sZ (-8~.7S !m)t,y6
ameza~Sz bufgaz,76. ig'-ti,
geri, iyen.y;
2!
t~!t.7SS M
MïssyKtSo o<M,Stt TKnchitc.77
H<M,7$ "M<M~ptcM«!t~
z t~em,7S
Ilirla,
HMf,S~¡ MMut~MMu))a,«.ti
M~ PhMusu ~nd PtfM?, :SS t Toucheira, 77
77
MatXY-e~~t7.77 tx~bat, 7;, 76
M~
M~XY-t~ <. t: s
Phazania and *G<mphasMtes,
~79 S3'.77 lazuara, 83
M~~ <:<
M.7
~M~t7$
7
M~Z~C-e~~t
M'
M~Z~C-tti',77
M~Z.tG~, <t<
pr-t~
R.S;
,S
te<te<!<it,7S
.teht!,7;
~7? M~Z!C-e~~<,7?
M.
M~ce~~
*t tbw,M<So,t;8
t<:).).;<;t,8:
Te~e, 77. 79
)t.n,So
~799
~.u~
KF~r,~
h
~S~
Jf."
M.tZtGH,t:
M.
M.<ZY-<t7.?7
m:!r,8~
md
mep~,St1
Rus, 78. 79
Rusadder, Rusadir, 79
rwd, 2)7 s. t
temuc.er,7')
Tenebreste, 78
t<:nHd,[<:n~!d,7S
)t.<t.SC!i'5 mes-jt.S,So,S: tes,*test,76
k-H-W,~ Mesunones, jt. S ~sem, t(0.8t
m~S~
me (S.M-) citibba. 77 Thagul (-is), 78, 79
~tc(-.i),7S m~.St
m~ SiL-cadenit,66 Thtgur(-a),78,7~
~a<c~,7~ m~r,~
cne SiL-vacae, 66 Thjben.77
.¡.6LBU, Sa
L.B]K.t=LBU,So
Let~u~4LBK <
Mt~t~
Mi GemeH~ 233 6 SL (in ethnies), 66 Tidamenses,77
M.utt,t6 Mm*, Mtnoa, ~S S-P-D cf: *S B-T-T, ~7 T-iji):e)-t,7ë
LEPCtTANA, So MtKigcnes, So S permuting with T, D, ;tt timLmun,76

'e'
I.=pn~So
S'~
Hb~x~
imsrn, 2~S
m
m=n,6j!,7~
Mr,
S

mr, mr-mr, nir-Wj, So

mr(t:},~e-t
mrt 1
'-77
S- preSxed to pr. n., 63
".S)
ST-NMY, 254
Tinci Ausari, 78
T:ng:(-s),7!!
tin&,78
t!xemn)etS,7i!N.}
g
Libye~So MRY(U),So
M) su, 8: t~rw.So~.66
t=~~ m!,S3
rM,
saie,82 tmiB't,)' 1
m!,So
m!, Sund,7;S tsimimun, 75
M-,M,7~8ï m!,St,S3
m!, T-ua-t,76
~vr. S!
MM~{,7S,79
m.tpH~6~6 m~
msdr,
)ms<
msj
M~
MS&N.So T, 76 I9., 8:
Tubactis, 77
T-)-ggNr-t,76
tugodum, 79
m~o.M,7Ct
m?r,S;
m?! Tabuinatis, 77 tLmrt,76
m~79~-77 m~~3 Tabunte, 77 Tyhtuvt,
M.tgTa, 78,79 ni~a~ ~aba~~ 76
*mtt, 79 mt,8! Tacape, 77, 79
MM(-Mn~7!} M;
M[tsci,~S tadevvot, 75, 76 ufrik, 75S
M~nt(-z.m!t),7S mu
[
nfnts,7;
M~
Mimm~~M
Ma~~ XII
Ma~S;iL-:ni,66
in~s~z~S~.S8
rnz~S~
mze, mzgh, ~2, 47, 62, 77,
ttSM~, 88 X. t
ta&at, 7;
tahbt, 79
"=6.67
u=]f,8o
uu-gaz,~6
M;tS.tK,~s. T-akrif-t, 76 usr,7)i
M.tS[K,tj, go,g<r.S
i 8
Taiatotus, 77 uz, 78
'0'

M2!tMÎ3a3L,8Q mz~
tDX (<~ ~<!&), Xz
Tamaric (etum), 78
M~3i.R,4,ï. N,S; Taman<:(mm),78 YSB-MS.t
Mœ-t'v~ 80
Mœt<Syî.-i,6<; ~7;
°'
nettef, 7;
ne!
tam~dift, S}
M-MaSeGH-t,~
M~aa~niarna~ëo z=t,63
M~-MsyE.So RM, 7; taolfust, 76
MM-ngM,8o ~,7S tammetHitt, 82 Zaa'tM.79
(z) -ara,
83
M~cm!m,So Tanabrasta, 77, 78
;8 x. 8
M'aSaCH-5,77
MaSoCH-M,??
"~i,
<
nh}y-'imn,
t!tnfast,76
MnM)t,76
zm,7f!)!.33
xr,~
Mas-Syî.-f,66 Nnmifhe,
Ne ij.ïz Tapanitae, 77 ~tt<],7;S
'A<!)'/)/mx!&M, FtUT~Aa, ï)~ ?. 6 At~<ti)(<t.tJ
AAAA&ËIP,g 79
ra-Kn, 6~ M penntMg M B, <M, <
AAAZH(P),2})«.3 rff' and Zuy-, !ï n. 3 M'~«< <9
'A\!t~3t~,33 3 rt'f-, Zvy- onj B~, *)!a'Km~M'<u,60
'A~ot~y~A~o~yA~'A~of~ t~ r~fm, Max~tt!) 79
M<{~ff for H~AM~, )~ t!~
'A<'f)Cf,t90N.)0o
[AN]TA!OB, t6o MK~==~chtyma~y6~.tJ 1
'A~ïo~oM !</)~)', 18;ç A<)ft!, y~ Ma~Mt, 79
"A~rfm', ci~Kra~t)', 8~ T~ dt~tf ~K)!, 79 ~ey<tA-, 79 e. 7?
'A~eTatj, S~CTf€S,~3~.33 /M<ro~ ~M~~ 5 <r. 8
'A~~Ta~~y A%tf,79 *3tM<XM~6~
AYS-f-r-A-at, 5
*A~Ot~)~et~Ot,68 Za~ for Btf~ 51 rc~~ety and Nam~e~ ~~j 2
e. z
At2-X-'2-< 5 Zvyat~rcy,
AYS-X-tT-mt, 5~. 5 11 not known in Btr!)cr, 6}
A~ro~<ti!; -77
Mrr<;=S-Tt,t7 PoMm~~x~ ~9
B permuting to M, 6t, 63
B<!MAM,~8 "T<77
BqÂK~M,t8; 2<iM<f for Su:o~, C~ 3
B<tAts,t8; *KtS(t~MTtOtj 6~ S-]<tXftBtK- =Antt)ac-,<3
BafStA.o[=Vand~i,67 *SeA<M~t€?~ 6~
BooM;, 93 n. 4 A=~,6~
Aa~tf, AajStft~
Aâ~3tEt(1,AajSt*,<, ïjS
Az~·_E,t, zjH ;Tav:arwioy 6
B~ 5
Ba.TTO!,tt6e.ï 2

B~WTM,~ $
At~8<9. (=Le<tanth-)=I~g()t)ant-,67
Aeva- =A6/3a-, 67
~nÂM~M, tS~
6

A<vo~- = Legath-, 67
rJpermutmgMB, AtjS)t<mt,6t«.t 1
*r<t~c~ra~T~$33 A~SMs, ~6, z;8 an!;noirnm Btrber, 66

),sN J.), ?s ¡ 3 J~y* 70

J~),~ CJ).79 rttp~&'n, t~ )t.t
y'
~St ~,80
~3
¢

~,66)..tts ~°
~.S~~t. :79 3 SLe~t~JM, ~o
~U.2 a~[n]r)??, :)S ¢ S–~) ;o
'~83 ~), 8: ~3.t9S
)jL)),S9f.4 4
~t, S! ;B)D-~a,'9S' ~.S9'-t4
~79 np~3.'ss ~.U)~. '9S t

~)
~.7~
~.79
~).8.
~St.
~.79.
~70
~y.
c~¢

'– $
c-x n

J:, !~S

<
pCM,I<)8)t.t

'7!
~).78

.So. 78 ~),78
~,78g
~j~jc- jL, 70
.~J~.7'
Î~
S~J~.yo
J~79
u.J'JuJ.Sï
s~ i

~?'
·
~<)~.),!56.' ~),89a.t4 S.)M )~. 7° t–S!t
~'S' ~).S9M.~
Mn, g 7< 1 <~ e~
J~. 79
9 S! ~4*7 1 ~3
~?0)t.tt ~7"-6 b
3
pOM~tD~, ;m. t
~7"-?
.~i~, SS
~o t. jt
x. )
~)*M)SZ
S. 70 x. r)
SjjJ.7'
J~
J~ 3

C~.rSs

~79 9
~j J'
“
~j-n~, r~, tjt
<~
Tl~,So
D~8
~xix.<r.
!S8<t.~f
3, t;8,
S~.7'
X~?'
o
~,69
CL~tjLM, SjJ
~6
j~,<:)t
S)J,<'7.69
~X,Sx.).1.
X~t,t7.7o
~,70
~M~t, ~56
~tfS B' xix. a. t;8, ~8,
~7 3 3
Jj~,7S ~.7'
~n s~, 7tI B''T)~58)!.33 ~,7'
'– J~ ~)Nb
Mn,'9S~ 5

j
3
1

~N,t
~!?.t
~M'M for ~M~B, z
*~8~
~lc' 8x

Jn~ (~?~' ~~3 "-6

t~
~~78
~,83 ~-r~79
~,A79
3lN,t 'UO, <<)!!«.;
ç

J Bt~.70 ~79
~.83 T B~Ba.e~Sw.S
8 ~78
t,'(J).S} ~'7° ~.80
~79
~.r~ a
~,70
~S~
<–*

x *~0, n~n-
X?-U, 7° J'Pa ~.ï~ ~-o~
'~M~
O~M,t
~.<!9
?'
~M.'7!
1p,t8;N.<3
S x.
~8".i!
s~`,2s8
~.79
8
n. S ~o
~'7'
?
&uj)j (~t)' 7! ~36".? "7' ~7'
~6~ L/'
-)1,?,.8;<t)
*1-)j7,!8;B.t;
~~j'-< 6~ «. )o
~.)j.~L<,6ja.~¢
<<!t".88
C-~M'S.!
X;;J~t,:o8e.!i
A.'movff, '981.14
Ajp&p, RpApETT, 8~
~.M~)~
)f. t
jmAT\T, 8~ /WW, 82x
1

JUtATOt,
jmopTr,8~)!.t
1

!)'s° T~~
?
~j~ f~
<)S~ ~~$,s.
&“
jf.!Jf~f~9
4 f~
1~
(~~J' a
f~
~~T'~
~<).
~~J~~lër!
)'7~
)
~ww~~t
~)1@~v~
5
MMI.
j~~ ^v: 83

,j~~
J~ MH~<
T~ s

~l~
-Ëe~A) )<vww\

~5.~

.S~
3

<=~

S~t~
~e=~S!
~T'J ~1 *°'
~M.~
~M@'~
t~
c~
@ a j)

n '~='
) <==*
~~Ê-~
1 w<w
SI
s:
M~t-
~~J~M–
3

m:Mif~
~?~
l!l'IIiN,7".3
~v~~– 3

~M~M~ 3
~So<6 6

~TV~M- ~0.
~fL)~7 -Ml.
L~~T~~
~c~~
~ac.

JL'~
5

5 ~ï
-~1.~
B~ 3

-m~J~.t~
5

Ababdah of Upper Egypt, 24~
'AbdA)hh!bnSa)!h,<)uoted,~o
Abel C, t!ted, S'o }
AbuMf,t:ta.~ 5
Abu'tHasan,c!ted,to!< S
Abu'IMa))aa!n,6~,240
AbuNaym~t~~o,
AbuSimbetretie&[t,!i~
*Abuit!rreHefs,i3t,t3i,!34
Abu~Ungar,oasîs
AbuZuba'ah.t~
of, 11 ru!ns
Aby~înîa, absence of b!ot)ds in, ~<
Abytsmians, 45
Acatia,7
Aecajon.iM
Acesimder, quoted, n6 s. 2z
Ach~e),2t6n.?7
Achaemenes the Satrap, slain by Inarus, :~t
"Achor," 186
Adamantius,quoted, 44 M r
Adahson,M.,cited,ioo
~t'~2
Adic~an,ch!efofAsby~M,i3o
GENERAL INDEX
Aethiopic ongin of Libyan wndng not Ambrosius,
A St, Ctted, 293 n.S
proved,8~ S Amenhotep
A Ï-~ tt ~ndt fser~eseo (î )
AezarÏ, placed by Ptolemy, 62 to Libya, :t~
Africa, opett to dispossessed Europeans, 226 Amenhotep
A in. conqnenT<.&cno,ït~
outbreaks in Roman, ~33 Sallust's Amentum,use of in Eastern I:ibya4 146
accoont oftheMopUng ot, z~s A
.o:\nJt11ukal, 115
Africa Minor, Jehned, Xx! ethcuc shift American army, march o~ &om AîcxaBdfi~
A
toward Egypt from, u6 to Bombah, .1f
Africa, North, ram revered in, 197 A
Amghar, 11~
a~ ~z, 3: fflc~4 No~th-w=.rn, met6 in, ,60
Africa, South, Bushman dirawingso~ 1~6
Ammianus on Liiyaa cavalrf, njn
A
Ammonians, placed by Hcpodoto~ 54¡
A
African, ree Berber, Imusbagh, Libyan, subject to E~)~
Nomad Ammoniom,
A Cy~en~c Toùve coÏa~cs a~
Agatharchides,1?~ 1~1 Egyptiajïastxndaacym, ~30; ex-
Agathemerus,cited, 59 n. t pedition sent against, by C~!aby=es nt-~
Agathocles, levies war on Carthage, 23: i 17~, ~rtns of responses a~ ï~~ m-
sÏays Ophellas, z~x habitants agricaïtonsts, Hbyaa
AghÏebites, 34 n. ï sacra at, 171, natica princ~ of, z3o s.
Aghmat, rams worstupped between Sus and, sut~ect Bo Persia, ~3 f Tiaïcd t~
'77 Alexender,. Z3z.. See Sisah
Aghurm~ town o~ to A
Ainometus, iy~ 7t. 8
Agisymba, région o~ 10:
Agriculture,Lthyanj~S jy-
"AmoD," use of this tbnn, ïS? <- 5
A
Amon, captives presented <o, 2:3; gm~e
Agnppmus, bishop ofCarthag~ ~33 o~ tpS n. 2; myihs of the Sï~TD, ïS~

'6
Adjecdves, in Berber, 74.
Adtnïraîty, British, Charts,
"NB.tatid}3 & KH. t and Agroeta~ cîted~ 54 ~.a, 62, ii2,
quoted, xo?
~7; ~y. presented with taptire kings by
Rameses tH~ t:~ pnest o~ in anay
K. z
Adyymachidae, 101 N. t claimed descent of Hannibal~ ït? procesBocs in cultes
~rom Amphtthem!s, z57; c~-ved swords AhmoseL, Nubian campaigns o~ zgg of, r j6 i sita an~emtly- named for,
pf, t~ dress of, ttS haïr of, tj} Ahmose H-, rise o~ t~o. Sec Amasis ~97 ~?- son~s used in worsbip oi, t~
teg-rmgs worn by women, 133, i~; Air, Territory oF, rs, ;o the &therof~ApoÏ!o," tSy worsh~of
niarriage customs o~ lit:
Herodotus,
nomadism *A!~abah es-SoUum = Catabathmcs Major,
A
atMemphIs~iSS ~.3 3
Amon, Tbeban, ~91 annual progKssofio
~t placed by ~t by
fUny, }7 i by Ptolemy, 61, by Akel Amarig," çz n. 4 I.tbya, to~ j d~st~ngmshed from 2~~
Seytax, ethniestability of, ?! Alachfoas. Set Machryes J~î~rfK~ ï93~ Sheshonk and, ~sS
Aedctnon.revoïto~zjj~ Alasit, 234 · A
Amon-Gun~I type~ iSS
AegUofAthena,12!
Ad!<n,c:ted,~3,97,t!tf;t~N.io,iSo
Alazir, murdered, z~t
Alele, $8, ~33
Amon-Re, t~i; bark of,
A
triumph to~ ~t~
ï~j hyma ~f
and 6, tSi, tSS
Aerolith, at Tementit, 173
qeo~ed, 95 n.z A!exander in désert, zoo visits Ammonium,
~r, 23:
A
Amor, Hng of, lad captive by Rameses ÏH~
22~
Aescjhytus,c!ted, <oi AJexandna, taken by 'Atnr Ibn d-'A~~ Amorites,Egypte war wlth,
A
AescMapius, cult of, at Balagrae, t8~ 2~0 A
Ampdius, L., Gted~ tS~ S j ~aott<!)
Aethicus, e!ted, ocoted, M. ij Algeria, ~~JM of, 2~7 ram-glyph at Bu 'Sy
Aeth!op!a, circcmcMon tn, !~a, confused *A)em Ïn, ï~S sq. A
Amphïthem!s,Libyan tribes claimed d~scent
~ithLibyaby3iodorus, <90K.fish- EÏ-'AHah, mosaics at, t69 from, 237 mother of PsyHc~ 237 ¡
jtaboo in, !~< ïvory and htdes frpm, Alimentationof Eastern Libyans, 99
M:! matriarchate in, n: Nygbeni Alphabet,AHtemnn, choice of ruïer~ 11~ ?. ta A
nymph-ancearess,
Am.-
u
Ibn eï~As! înTa~es Egyp~ a~ i
p,~
Aethïopîantroglodytes, to~ M.
Libyan, distribudon o~ 84, 8?7
or!g!)n of, 8$ taMe of, 87
marches on Sarca, s~o second cype<H-
~on o~ ~o mahes treaty w!th S<~r-
Aeth~opians, con~scd with libyans by Alphabet,TMnagh, table of, 88 ber~~o
~erodotus, t~o X. j j Mrows of,
~tack and woony-haired, jt dispute
t~
i Altanof the PhHaen)~
Ame
PhHaenormn Amulets,ram's
Aj
A
A nabucis, 63
he~ 19~
~!th Libyans, early rtptesentahons Altimira cave, paintingsof, t~7 n. t Ariabu,
A] conspires w!th AretapM!c, 233;i
pf, on Greek vàscs, z<i eat tocusts, Amadah,jar-sealwgFrom, s;y stran~Ied xg;
ïoos.t6;someignorantofbows,&~S Amasis, 230 n. sends Kdth statue tb Anagombn~
Ai p!aced by Ptolemy,61
Aet)~!op!ans, Atlantic, cho!te of kings Cyfene, 107 K. t Anai
Ai g!yph~ '03
~mong.tttn.t 2 Amazigh, side-tocks worn by, t3<!
"Aethiopians, White," 6e. fM Lencaf- Amazons, ttx lunate shields of, '~8
~tttM~Mt P~rrH~ ~M~, Sï~ n,
Andernin,
A)
St9
R. G., cïted, t~5, quoted, ï~~
'thiopes n,6 Andes, absence ofblonds in, ~t
A'
Animas, shapcs of assumcd by S~van gïnn,. Arval Brcthren, ritual of thc. 204. by Herodotus, j< .rc!!g!ous sbam
Ar~andes, retreat of, from Cyrenaica, ~3 fights Qf, t43, j~6 1 women wore rings
~7~
Etijah's pnMe:t against, tak~Barca,.t3t ottcather, t~ i yearly festival of, 9~t
Animia-m,
t~x j~. 234
Ausigda, s~
y6n.z= Arzeu, Old, sculpture from, 1977
An~tta.?, placed by Ptclemy, 6* Arzuges, identification of, 68 n. 7 Ausonius, D. Magnjs, cited, 197 n. <!
Antaeus, legend of, 190 i facial chaf- AsbjOrnscn, P. C., Cited, m M. 3
5 Ausuriani, 71 dc&ated by Anysïua, 137 t
Asbystae, Cyrcne founded in territory of, incursions of, <n in late Roman tïmes,
acter o~ on Euphronîus ffa:er, 260
gtuve 0~ op~ncd by Scrtonus, tS? :t10; g houses f,y6..rq.; identiSed with 68 revo!t of, 237 and Arzuges,
Esbet, ~t nomadism oit 91 p!aced
Ant~!a!:miches on Carthage, 239
und"
<:S 7
Anthrax, Livyan trade in, noz by Herodotus, $2 by Ptotetcy, 6: Austur. ~ff Ausuriani
AntMdde~ quotcd, tSS n. 8 by Strabar 55 put Austurmn!. Ansuriani
AntigonusCarystn's, 173 n. 2, tSo K.6
6 Eg~'pt, 230; usea chariots, 14.9. Sec Autiman, associatedwith Mercunus, tS~
Ant!pygu~ 198 Asb)-tae, Hasbitae. Autuchus. Ap~cnus
Anysm's,hunts dûHa Ausurians,2~7 Asb)~ac, 62. Sec Asbysta?, Hasbiîae Auzui, 93
Anrar, the rain, 179 Asbyte~ princess, in De ~o FK~o,
and 6, i~t! funcrat ïi§of,
Avezac, d', cited, 6$ M. i, 237, 238
Axe [-bat.le], Libyan, 't7
Aphrodtsias, tdenii~cauoti o~ $1 K. tii M. <~ t~S n~.
Aphyt!~ sanctuaryat, t~t iSx M. t Axomis, bravery of clergy of, ~37
Apis, in M~rm~nca, ~t'K.io; L~byan in- Ascherson, P., cited, z8 n, i Aymard, cited, t6 3, t~~ ~~7 M. 2
habitantsof, consult Sïwxn Amon, 190 Ash, Lib)an god, ix, t8~ 'Ayn, defined, xxi
Ap<jH< fountain of, at Cyrene, 173 thé Ashra~ &!se, 236 'Ayn et-Bahar!, 172
G~ramantic, g~ Myocton'j~ tS6 i Asiatic captées, absence of Ne~h-symbot 'Aynet-Ïsgawah, ~72
"ApoHo," the son ofAmon, 1877 on,206 'Ayn Musa, 172
ApoUodoru~ cited, ~2, t~o n. t, xc6
Apollonia, 5 cîstcrn at, 17:
1 i Asiatic Sand-dwellers, 2111
Asiatics a!l!cd with Libyans at Satuna, ~~1
'Ayn Sefrah, t'~m tt, 2~7
'Ayns, supetstitions concerning at Stwah,
Apolfonms Dyscolus, cited, s~ 3~ 9~ 1 AsphodeÏîdes, t 68 172
ApoHoîUus Rhodius, cited, 20~, 2o7 z Asphodet-watt!mg, shelters o~ t68 Ayra, G., cited, 20
Apotheosis of Libyan kings, 1833 Aspirâtes, permutat!onso~mBerber,y~ Azgar, taw of success!onof, 112 confédéra-
Apotomitae, placed by Ptoiemy, 63 Asses, 9~ in Eastern Libya, 28, 29 used tion, )!~M.; Imushagh, ~7~
Aprtcpt fever/' 2 s by Libyans, 96 Az!Us. See Aztns
Apticots, 26 AssurbantpaÏ, 222 ?. 5 Aziris, 61 n.6; c~nnized, 229 Greek
Apries, sends army against Cyrene, ::3° Assyrian and Tigré, ?31 colonists brought to Cyrene from, 291
Ass~ana, animistic conception of atmo-
quotm,
Aptuchus, tS~
Greek
Arab~a,
.2°1 sphereamong,i76
tegend of Scsostns's mvas!onAstacures, placed by Pt<t!emy,
Ba'at Eshmun, worsïlipped at Ba!ïs, t8j
Ba'at ~aman, CarthagmianeuÏt of, 198
o~ :t2 nomad~from~$4. n. 2 tattooed Astarte, Carthagimandeity, 198 Ba'atim, the Carthaginian, 198

t
hieroduli of, :139 n. 7 Astrakan, Kalmuckso~ 168 "Ba'al's Land," 191 M. t
Arabian origin of Hamitic tanguagca, theory Astncës, 6S N. 3 Ba'at-Zebub, ~36
of, 73 Astrolo~ers, Africans noted as, in Roman Babelon, E., cited, Yv
Arab!au§ of~he Negd, ha!r~Iress!ng of, 136, times, a~6 Babylonia, fertility 98
137 Ascuhant,64. Bacales, placed by Herodotust ~2 nomad-
.Arabie, transcription of, N~iii wotds taken Aswan ste!a, quoted, 21S ism o~ 9; `
from, in Berber, 74 A'ta'mntians, vegetanans, 100 K. ti cursed Bacatae, placed by Ptotemy, 62
_rabs,anirnisticconceptionof dust-spmats thesun,iS?M.t
1i BAGS, Ctted, 24. n. i
Bags ofÏeather, Hbyan, <~2
by,, ~73 incursion o~ into eÏ-Moghreb, Athanastus, St., cited, 197, 198 M. 1
24.0 sweep across N. Africa, ~3 Athena, 187 aegis of, t28 Baha~ah Oasis, 11 diaÏect of Manshîah et-
.Aradton, bunaro~ 181 slain by Probus, "Athena," Ausean, tit, t~6, 186; com- 'Aguzah in, 76 popu!ationof, 32
pared with Saitic, z06 Bahr el-Ghazal, Nuers ot, 96 n, 9
23<i
Arak eI-EmIr, Bedawln of, 92
Ararau(:e1es, claimed descent from Amphi-
Athenaeus, cited, 96 nn. and 9, t68 ~.9,
201~203~.22
9, Bahre~-n oasis,
~73 Sîwan
îi sacred hiM south of,
~'my overwhelmed near,
themis, 2~7 placed by Pliny. 57 by Athenïans aid Libyans against Persia, 231 '73
Ptolcmy, 62 kept gallcy to convey questions to Bain, R. N., cited, 176 K. 2
Arcesi1~lus 1., rule of, 2.3° n. 3 S!wan orade, 191 Baker, S. W., cited, ~7~ M. i
ArcesibusII., hat o~ 127 called Chalepus, Athribis stela, 27 98 K. $, 109 n. z, Balacris or BaÏagrae, iSj;
jq r.. 6 ~'7~~=*~ B~bus, L. Corneïius, tr!umph 0~39, 234.
ArcesHsLusIH., murdered, 23! Adas, rcvolt5 in, 233) 234, 235 M.7 çxped!t~ tp Phazama, <o~ x~
3
ti
~rcher;1r, Egyptian at Peri.r~ 17 Atum, HeHdpoîlS, Clty oi, 2l6 Balearic burial, 182 n. 2
Architecture,LibJan, ugg tg9. AuCtor Inccrtus, n. y9 "Ba!eus,"cutto~ i~
Arctdonhâgi, Augila, 10,32 dates manes cultus
o~ 98 Bâtis, iSj;
Aretaph!le~w!dow ofPhaed!mus, ~3 at, '78 sanctuaryof Deus f~~fM ât, Balkans, Thracians arrive in, 226
Argonautic Iegend, 186 sq. 197 Ba!t, J-, cïted, ~z, zox n.
Arianisim, spread of, 2~6 marnage customs o~ iiï placed Ball, J. and Beadnell,. H. J. L., cited, 11, 32
Anstae~s, ~S by Pliny, 38 by Ptolemy, 6: Bal]~
Aristobulus, zoo Augmentationof verbal thème in Berbère 74. Baneicren, 112 3
Aristomachusdefeats Berbers, z39 August!r'us~ St., quoted, 16 M. 3, 79 n. 7 Baniurae-Gaetuli, 68 H. ~3, 143 a. !4.
Auïad'Att, at DeHngat, ~t nomadism of, BAR, c;ted, v)U, ~i, 9~ 93,
Aristophanes, cîted, i~! S
[AristodeJ, eited, go n. 6
5
Aristomedon, brother of Arccsitaus II., z3o
91
Aulad NayJ, tÏowry by prostitution among,
~7, ~.9,
96, 98, !0t, 109, tïo, ti2, tt3, ti~)
tl~ tl7/t22, t27, 130, I~O, t~I, t42,
Arius, the heresiarch, 208 no, marnagecustornso~ Ht ~7t't8 ~9' '3°' '3't
Armat~ua, engages Libyan marauders, 237 Aure!!us, St., cited, 232 quoted, 68 M. 7 t~3, t68, !77, tH, 212, tt3, 2Î~, 215,
;rts
Armenjans. 23$
ArnuUsLe, 132, ï~S
Arm!ti~ ceremon!a~ in Ausean fes~!va~ 20~.
Auschisae, Barca i~ territory ot, 23~
attributed to, t$i, ï66; nomadism o~
p): placed by Diodorus, ~6
by Hero-
224, 2~, 2~7
Baracum, 23~.
r.
Xt6, 2:7, Zt8, ±T~ 220, 22<, 222, 22~,
22S, M9, 2~1, ZJ;Z

Arrian, cited, 9~, 173, .ïS?, 200 dotus,s2;byPto!emy,62

6, Barbary Statcs, K~~r~ !n) ~5't-',c
Arrows, Libyan,
20~ K. 3
t~
of Neith symbo~ Ausean goddess, 203 ~?.
Auscans,cÏeaf!dcaofv!rgm!*y, counc!!
Barca, 6z AÏaxir, king of, 231 brpthcrs r
of Arcesilaus tl. w!thdraw to, 2 30
Artaxerxes t., revolt ofinarus against, 228 of the, ï~, n~ Greek armour used ethnie name de'!ved from, 66 Libyans
Artemidorus, 55 in rettg!ous festivals by, 1~3 haïr of, of, treat with Hareons, 232; native
Artiele, warting in Berber, 7+ 13+ i marriage customs of, 1 i
o placed character of, ~77 ?.4, 230, 23< ?.3.!
 origin of, z;o taken 6y~Aryande~ Benu Mohtar, 70 hostagea to Ma~1mînUI, zg8;harisd
BenuN'zar~Sp by Maz)C<~ ~3~jt oppowd by ~oba~i'
of9w!nc,~777 BenuThaMan,~ 236; pÏuti~f~ypt, 2~
Batcaei, in late Roman timcs, 66 BenuWa!id,7o Blonds, ltalian, ~i ~ordic~ t~ not duc
Ba)'cean9,L!byancharacterof,i77M.¡ BcnuWarkan.yo to altitude, 4t
captive, sett!ed in Aaia,ïj)1 Benue)-Wa<uah,70<t
r Boara cytcn !n the Attas, 93 M. y
Ba)'c!tae,ptacedbyPtotemy,6z BcnuYahyah,7c Boccïtu~, betfa~N Jugurtha to the Romane
Ba)k, vessels of, t~3J a!phabet,
Berber" 8~S ~7
Barkah, use of tefh) by Ambic Mthors, Berber and Coptic, S~ n. < S., chcd, ~z n. 8
Bochart,
66M.tt,LuatahBerbet-sof,z~o Berber and Egyptian, fusion of, words Boeotian type of thteÏd !a Africa,
8~ i ~X
Barkah el-Homrah,+ compared,8if~. $oü, burial cua:oma of, t8z
Barfey,:6.
BarreM glyphs, 103
Barrows tn Libya, 181
Berber, converts to Judaism, !:} N. t de-
nned,xxi, doctrineof astral animation,
Boln, 92, 23~
Bombah ls., the Greek Dot PI. %%9

Bafth, H., cite xiv, xx, i~, 95 K. t, i~

161 K~. 3 and 6, i6z, 168, .:?4., 208 H~. 2
and6;quoted,)62H.2,~63~.ï,t66
?. ï his explanation of a
Teti-Sagha,
Bary, E. von, cited, 1~6,
1~6
t~ ~7~
Baskets, Libyan, j~2, t~~
Basque and Berber, y}J
Bassachitae,pïacedbyPtotemy,62
Ba~et, R., ated, 6~, 70, 70 «. 7!! K. 3, So,
'73,'76,'Sj.
Bataks, m n. 4-
Bateman, G. W., c!ted, 1/6 z n.
BatM, 0., cited, 10, t9 x. 3, 7S, 96 K. g,
".7, '73' '7't" '77
Bathing. ceremon!a), t?! f~.
Battiad kings traded in si)ph!u-n, tS
Battle-axes, Libyan, ï~7
"Battus," ti6 a.! 2
Bat~ù~ruîeof,23oM.t n,s
Battus 11., accession of, 230 K. :0
Ba~x, A., cited, xiv
Bazin, H., cited, 139
Beadnel), H. J. L., cited, )f,
BaU, J.
Beads, Libyan, t3tr
Beafds.amongEasternLibyan~ 137
Beasts, wild, of E. Libya, x~
semi-sedentary,
1:9~
Bedawin, of Sinai, i!2)t.
Beec&y,
F. W., and H. W., cited, 63, S~ Berbers, Luatah, 6g n. 6
1~7, t6r, 162, t63 quotsd, i6i, 162,
'~3
Beë~ among Libyans,98
Be~as, 4S language of, 73
Beftnasa, Berbers in province o; ,69
Bekén,4.7,z24;identinedwithBacales,s'
Et-Bekr!, cited, jy~, )M, 1~7, ~oS x. 2~7
Be~aarius,rewardsTr!po titan chiefs,n6
Beïts,Libyan,ta6
Benghazi, 6, 30, '98, dist&ncc to Cape Biarnay, S., c!ted, 78 n. 3
Passett<tS ?. 2
Benhazera,
~9,'M,'3~
cited, 17~, 178
Be~i i~a~n'paitttings, ~6, to~ n.
Ben!Mzabratn-makmg,i79
'76
Berber tanguage, contihuity 0~, 90 d!atc~ts
o~ 74 eastern dia!ects o~ ~t general
N.8
Bombah, Gulf of, 4~ 6 fort in, <66
"Bongem." f"f Bu Kegem
character o<, 7~.permutations in, 7~ Booths. Set Mapalia
g~yph from sqq. persistence of, 2~' relation to Borchard4L., nted, xiv, xv, xvt~ 93, <S.~
scr~ion :t survival of, 73; tran-
Egyptian, 2t t quot~d, 2~0 M. J
quoted, of, viti
Berber place-names, eastern and western
Borgnu, contra_ted burials in, r8z
Bonum, s~Tïagc~uea~ xc8
compared, 77 in Eastern Libya, 67 Borku, t~ hms o~ 170 ï
~??' Bornu, buts c~ 170 t
Berber, S!wan, spoken at Manshiah el- Borsan, F~ cîted, to$
'Aguzah,~«.~ f
Berber. See African, Hamitic, Imushagh,
Bosman, W., cited, z
Botti, ctted, 76 n. Z
m
Libyan,Nomaf* Proto-Berber. Bourville, V. de, cited, 84 n. 3, 80 n. ¢
Groap' jar, z38
t-n
Berbers, adored t~e sun, tSy, anaen~
courage o~ 1$! becomeSemitîcized,
Bowtnen on
Bows, ceremon'a!, of Xuer~ tj~j T. 7 Lib-
2~0 brachycephanc, 39
honour, ~$ cruciibrm
code of
devices among,
yan, t~~
Bracelets, Libysn.'t~z
t!7 defeated by Anstomachus, ~3~ Bmchycephaïic ciment in Xorth Afnca,
descent of, accord!ng to Arab wnten, 39.
69; fondnessfbrintox!cants,3~; fusion Bread baked in the ashes, too
of, with Nordic blonds, t6oj get on Breasted, H.. cïted, viii, +7, 49 n· -b z
wet[ with Jews, :oS, heretical Mo- m. 3, )22, .<39 n. 6, 21~ A: 215, 2t7
hammadans, :o! hospitatity o~ 37
identified with Phî!!st!n€S by eI-Bekr!,
B.2~ H.$, 220, ilO Jt.I, 22i, 22~
t, 22~, 22~ 3 ~UOt~ 2t0 s,
3 See 2C7 in Cyrenaica, ?o in pre-lslamic
TnpoUtana, 7) modern, beginning
2t~, 2t3KX. and 7
Brtde of the r~n," ty6
of history of, z~o i buts o~ 170 Mos- Bndies, pnmittTecharacterofUhy~n, tj~
!em!c, beresies o~ ~i of E. Libya, Bnn~3, D. G., cited, 73
phy~!que of, 33, 3~ treatmeat of BroGi!, cited; 4r
women, 37 theory of Berthoton con- Bronze Age, atandonment of Spanish sites
cerning, 7~ o~ 226
Brown, R-, cited, ~z n.
Berbrugger, L. A., €]ted, 197 Browne, W. H~ c!tcd, 29 n. }
Berger, P., cited, 84 n. 3, 86
Berïs, t: at north end of natural road to
Brugsch, H., cjted, 40, ~6,
'39" ~~3t 203~.2, 2)ya.t,
S, t!
Il222
Derr in Nubia, 49 ?. 2~ t ?. 1
Bernard, F., cited, r6o a. z Ba *A!em ~$6 fy., ram o~ t~y M. t
Bèrtholon, L., cited, 74, 139, t77, 206,
1 Bubastis, ShesTtonk proclaims hîmsetf
zo~ 11~ t Pharaoh at. 228
Beyt cl-WaÏy relief, 13), t32, zf~,
revamped Syrian head in, & i M. 6
ïij; Bubemm, 2j~
Buckets of leather, Libyan, 1~2
.Bueb Bay, Libpn forts near, ¡ 60
tt3,
Bible, cited, 128 K. 3, 176 M. 2, 198 Jï.
2~S~K,t/e8~
J, El-Biladurt quoted, 69 n. 6, 2~0
BHmah~i:~
Binothns, 112 n. 3
Bull. ~r~.
B: C~
Bull.
28 n. t
?~
Buhen, jar-sealings frôm
~fw., c!te<t, 231 3

~t~ c!ted~ xiv, 230 ?. t

M~c. C~/r~
Behin,cohtràctedbui!alsin,tS: Biophis, 1 U u. g FH/ ~Of. -~H~r-, ~t N. 3
Be~,t-Uromlalr, lawof" x B!penn!s, t~8 Bo'1, solar animal, rS8
Benu'Abdàh.yo Bir,denne<i,x\! ° Buluba, 2~~
BenuBal!ar,6~ Bir.Ahmed,cereinonial bathing in, tjz~ Bu Negem, $o
Bel1,u Barkln, 70' Bire)-Bash!r,i98<r.!z Burchardt,M-, 89 n. 6
Benu Demmej*, 71 B!rds, taboo against, 176, 177 trained by BurJah Is. ~ff Bombah Is.
Benu Gheras, 70 Psaphon, .86 BunaÏs, '*C Group," s~6 ccmractcd, tS:,
Benu Gheras, 70
Bena HadM<,
Ben~Haggag,7o
70 Birkah, defined, xxi
B!sayas,tMM.~4
B!shar!ntanguage,73
24~6 customs of E. Libyans, tSt j~y.
"disseeted," tS~~z; extende~ 1$=~ ii
Garamant!atn, .tSi Nasamon!an, t3t
Benu et-~akem, 70 Bishops, African, councit of, 236 sea-, t?6
Bçp~ Ka~ufah, yp Biskrah, cmnia froent x~b Burrows, R. M.; c!:ed, t=x
Benu Kazrun, 71 BissM),P.H.,cite[),t! Bushmcn.drawin~sby, t~S6
BenuMagdu),?o BtaBtophoenices,<$ Busiris v~se, 26: M. t
Benu Mahresah, 70 Bho, O., t:ted,
Jllau, 0., cited, 85
Sj Buyuwa~~ fam!!y, namcsof, 2x7 ~.3! nsc
BehuMatu,70 Blemmyes, active in Egypt, 237 t~. ai!ied of, 227
Benu Mohammad, 69 with Zenobia'a générât~ :36 gtve 1
Buzean~ p!accd ~y Ptukmy, 6~
 Byaei, their govemmcnt, F
Byzace~ p!ac<~ by Ptctemy~
m Casilinum, Narses victory over the Franks
at,:t8n,!
Cinypht),pÏaccdbyPto~emy,D3
Cinyps, 63 western bouhdary of Ma<;ac,
Byzacites, 64 Castancts, t~~ 34jDonat)co!onyonthe,t3<;fcr-
Byzac!um, Leuathae-mvade, 238 CastïgHon), C. 0., c!ted, 58 H. y, ~9 M. 2, tility of, 98
Byzantine v!ctofy over t.euathae, 23~ 78~.4t C!rcumos!on, itt~~ng Shcrdan~ '40; ccrc-
Byze~ claimcd descent from Amphithcm~ Catabathmus Major == 'Akabah es-Sollum, moniatbathtngbefbre,)?!
~7 ~3. 37. ~'t ~~3 ".77 CM, c!ted, 198 M.~
Catal. Musée ~<<'7'<~ cited, ;8S Cisîppades,placed by Pto!emy, ~7
Cabales. See Bacales Cateia, t~6 a Libyan weapon, <43 Cisterns in Manut, tyi on Seal ïa., 171
Caduceus-4ke object on et
Ctoup" jars, Cato, M. Porcius (Uticénsisj, army of, in Marmar!c~ 7 M. ï L!byan, t~t
249 attended by Psylli, 180 n. mareh C!stvacns in Tnpo<itana,)6o
Cacsa~, his engagements ~!t't Affîcan along the S)'rtic coast, '4, 233 Cities, mysterious désert, zoo ?. 3
~vatr~ t$~ 132~ CJt~ ~6~ CattÏc, eartiest évidence on, 9~ Libyan C)truswoc'c~,to~
n. 15, t~o quoted, 171 superstition concerning, )y6 K. 7 long- Claudian, cited, 4~66,97, t~(!,t$o,<97
<r~ t~.S used in Spain, t~8 '<.
Cagnait, R-, cited, 20 n. n. t 203
bomcd, 95
Caudel, M., cUed, 240, 240 8
M.6,f)uotedt,t~.6
Cte~rchus of Soli, citcd, t~~
3
Cairo Column, tog nn. z and 3 Cauterization among Libyans, tigJ CÏetnens Atexandonus, cited, i~~ M. $, lot
C~am~ statue ofAmon maJe by, ï~i Cavc~ ilihitbited by Eastern Libyans, t6S ~.3J
Calassanti-Motylinski, A. de, cUed, 78 n. 3 CeÏsus, cited, i~~ Cteopatra, Libyan serving-womcn o~ 4~0 ¡
C~tHa!~ cited, t7~ n. ~o, t8o K. $ Ceïsus, Furius, quells the Mauri, x~ Octavius sends Psylli to save, t8o
Ca.Uitmchus, cited, 32~ ty~n.~ zo~ CcÏtiberian alphabet, 86 C!!peus,i<t.S
K. 2 quoted, 4.0 n. 3 Cemeferies, Punie, 198 x. $, tg9 C!oth, ofgood quality scarce in Libya, uo
[CaUisthenes],cited, ïp~ Cephalae Promontorium = Ras Mizratah, 3$5 Ctubs used !h Aus:an sham-~ghts, 1~3
Camb~f, factory of estabHshed by Sidonians, Cereatis, Strageus ofthe Pentapons,coward- Cnethi, 64 n. 4
229 n. 6'
6* ïcc o~ 2~7 6 Coasts, N. African and S. European con-
Camb~:Jdian priests, r t c rs. ¢ Cerne, port of, 102 3 trade at, 103 m. 6 trasted~ijjjy.
Cambyses UÏ., army of, said to tave been Cerophaet, 64 Coatsofteather,i<-8 8
o'~erwhelmcd in sandstorm, x;c i ex- "C Group, and Temehu, zqg n.; 3 ap- Coinage, supposed Libyan, ~06 M.
pedmon of against Ammomum, 174, parent Libyan origin of, 2~1 archae- Collars, Libyan, ijt 1
ayg aeainst Siw~ah, tgo; takes tribute ology of; 24È sqq. a southern Libyan Colltgnon, R., c!t&j, 43 n. t
from Ltbyans~ 2~0 branch, 2~1 sq. graves, sheH beads Collignon, R., and Deniker, J., cited, 4z
Csjnei, first appearance in Afrîc.Ln history, from, t~t peopÏe of Nubia, 24~ jy~. s Colonists, Greek, at Plataea, 229
2! xS n. 97
for désert travée 16 jy. plastic ~gures ot, t~o. Colour, of Af-th!cy!ans, ~t of pure Ha-
Cameleer~ Arabtan, serving with Xerxes, Chabas, F., cited, 40, 2:o m!tes,39
Chad Road, 14, 33, iot, 107 oases of, 12, Combat, ceremon ~aï, at Lake Triton~
CameÎ g Libyans figheing behinc line~ of, '3
Chaillti, P. du, (tted~ 112 ~.4
zo~
Commodus, Libyan uprisings under,
JJfÏ1 4 23$
Caminos, c6c n,6 6
Campana, G. P., cited, tS~ n. 10
Chairs, of E. Libyans, 3
Chaminos, 161 n. 6
lj Communism,Berber spirit ot, tt~5
Confédération in second Libyan war of
Campasantes. ~Gamphasantes
~Camp-stooï" in Ghadames retief. t~g
Champollion, J. F., cited,
nn. t and
ti~8, 126 RamesesÏIL,x2~
Coniferous trees, 27
3
Canaan, 2~7 Charactcr,classical opinion of African, 37 ¡ ConstantînopÏe sculptures, 1~8, t~t)
Candacae, Meroitic, 112 n. lx Ibn HaÏdun on Berber, 37 Contractedburiats~ t8i
Cannai:, Libyan mercenaries at, 'j2 Charax Iscina, 208 n. t Contra-Pse!ch!s. Kubban
Canopiic branch ofNife, 220 Chariots, Libyan, 1~9 Copper, in the At:as, 143 !n "C Group"
Capa.rt~ J., Ctted~ 122 n. 8, 213 x n.
CapeU~, Martianus, cited, 3~ 7t- 7, ~73 n. 12,
Chase, G. H., 26' n, t
Chattani, placed by Ptolemy, 6t
graves,2j;o
CopttcandBerber,t!4K.ï
r
rEl7 u. cz, c8g n. B, rgo; i 9~ted, to Chettaea, 6~ ~z
Chiefs, grades of,
Coptos Red Sea road, <oo n. 4
Cordage of palm-bast, z6 Libyan, 1~3
n. 3, i~S N. x
66, <!6~ lo,
dudes of, n~
its
Capite'linus, )ulius, cited, 235 Tripo1;tan,conemed in office by Beli- Conppns,c!ted, 6~8,
Caps, ];i6, t<t.9 sanus, n 6 choice of, by the Alitemnii, ~S, 69, 98, ti6, ti7, ii~ i~,
Capsa, $8 H4 2 among the Hausas, '9~ ï ~46, t4.6 N. 4, t47, t4.8, 184, t8~, 187,
Capatmi, placed by Pliny, p8 ChieftainshiP, associated with priesthood, r8y n. il, r83; quoted, 66, m6, ra6
Capdvs& m second Libyan war of Rameses tt? j~. Libyan, semi-hereditary, )i4 n. t27~x~
ït, r88 '44 't '4~ 1~7 7~
11! 22~ Children, Libyan,in Sa-hu-re relief, t2j; 183,188
Carzvan-robbing, ro~ rg. Chi, Magasof Cyrene at, 232, 232 4 Co'3soB,E.,cited,z6~tJ
Carbuticles in Libyan trade, 4.9, tcz super- Cholera, t~ Cow, Hesh tabooed, ~6 M. 9 Neith associated
stition concem~n3'1 ] S~ n. y Chosroes, snbdues Egypt, 239 with, ~o6 j taboo against, ryy;~cultus
Cârchedonia.natones, 4.0. ~f CarbuncÏcs Chnstîaoîty,forced on Libyansby Justinî~n, of, among "C Group" people, 250
Carian sea- ower, zx6 238 !n E. Libya, 208 ïn
N. Africa, Cowpef,H.S.,c!tcj,i6oM.33
Carntvaïs, African, 203 208 134 in mountfUM &f Nufusa, Crama, "C Qroup and others, 24 j;
Carob trees, 27
Carthage, attacked by Âgathoctes, 232~ )g
i40
C~ren~n P~f~ cîted, 66, 68; quoted,
Crassus, Cornelius, defeats Gaetuli, 234
Crates,t6o~.3,
MunciÏ of, 2~6 euîtus ofDets Fatidicus s. 4
64 Crates Pergam, cited, t66 N.3
g

fi
at, 198; destroyed, .:g2; fa~tones of, Chronology,Egyptian, xx!î Crcta-Cyrene, or Creta-et-Cyrene, Roman
cos ç founded, ssg 3 Libyansin service CtrM~M ~M~. C~r. j~~ oted, 6$, 68 province, 18
of 2~2 not reached by exMdit!oa of
C~osroes,
f Chrysostomus, Dio, cited, ~$ N. 8, t~o H. t Crete, earÏy scrmts 85. 86; geographical,
zg~ I Numidiansalout,i56; 1 quoted, cn6 n. rn. ofj to ~Libya, a, gg, loi n. 5;'
taken by Vandale 237 Via Mappa- ~Cidamensî), 63 Pdesetfrom,220!tha!M80cracyof,226
Cnop~ag:
9,n.
liemsis in, e6y <~C, c!teJ, ~3< 3
Carth~n~n capta'n, self-sacrince of, ~99; CY~ cited, 4: 173 M. 3, 4, t/C a. i, Crocodi!e3, sa!.t to bave bccn charmcd tn
factonea, 229 imports at Tharrus, 18~ K~. 4, 6, t8? 4 y M~, 188 M. Ubya,!7pM.a
89
'99 tfade în At!~ntîc Libya, to~ 7t 201 K~. t7, 20: ??. 8, 203 M, 3, 4 Crosse consutts or~cte at Amitnpnîum, jt~t
Carthaginians, drive out Doric Greeks from Cillaba, $8,133 Cromtechs,scarcttyonLibyancoa9t,i6o
Cmyp~ 23. · Cimon, death of foretold by Sitran oracle, Cronus, structures Ettributed to, t66
Carton, L., citcd, t88 !9i Cross, in Egyptian representations of Lib-
Caryotir, prep>red from fruit of pairn, 99 C!n!th! 58 j in late. Roman tïmea, 68 i ~~yans,~
2°9.; 'tn Berber,~ornameafation,
Casatt, G., cncd, tS: n. 35 placed by Ptolemy, 64 '2o8,onaTatgishteî()[,?d8B.6 6
Cross-bands, figure with, on 4-C Group"
jar,)ntJbyant!rcM,j3'
t DavÏM, N.
z5t
de, G-, citcd, xiv, xv, xvï, 9~ w. t, Dohpet, placed by Ptolemy. 6)
Do1id)9C.epbaJr,Namitic,
il
Crowa, serve as guides to AÏexar.der, 200 DMCO~203 Do!mcns, ~carcitT ofin E. Lïb~a, )6o
CrM~J~t'~ta.~ Dea D!a, irvoked by Arval Brethren, 20~ Domitian, r~o!t of Nasamones in time of,
C~cited,96 ~.9, t~ n.7, ~3 n. 74. DcaNutr<x,t!tte~rP<aC<M~t!s,203
M;4,<77M.9,2tON.)1 Dead, consultation of, tp~t swearing by, Donat!)m, Berben, tc8
Cte3)as,Cn!d!us,z3t '83~. Dor, a Thekel tci~n, zz~, zz6
Cup~Libyan.t~z Debria, $8, ~9, 233, 234. Doric Crcct:: dfi~cn from Citï)~ Rhcr by
Curt!us,Q.,<ted,<o6,t73,t8?,tp~M.t, Déchelette, J., oted, io~ ~.33 Carthaginiansand Macac, ~31r
Quoted,r~~3,!93 Ded, conquered byRamescs ÏIÏ-, 22t; name Doughty, C M-, ated, t6, tXt, *3~ t7< i
Cuahtons, leather, Libyan, t~z appears twice în Egyptian annab, 221 quoted, 31 j!. 2, <oo, m 2, i 36,
Cyb<:te~ tût Deftoratton among pnmtttve peoples, < t < t36 a. t
Cyd~mus, ~8, 9%, 1~9, 233. Ghadamcs.
M. Doutt~, E., CM: 178 n. x, 179, z?3
Cyïi<'es, Libyan, 1~3 Delattre, Père, cited, !t)8 Dres~ Libyan, i [ 8 women's <3 ~y.
Cyn!ph~~ !~§ n. i' DeHngat, resoft ofthe Aulad 'AÏÎ, 3* Prum, donbîe-hsKÏcd, t~~
Cynophagy, in modern Atrica, t??. See Della Cella, cited, 89 n. s Duffah, deSocd, Mi
Dogs Delphic oracle, Libya called AiiX~p4O" by, 96 Dûmïchen, L, ctied~ ~8 5
Cyptess, 27 Delta, connection of Ausean Athena with Duncan, P. ~f Petrie
Cyptianus, St., cited, t~j,
~36 cô!!ected
ed Neith of the, 10~ sqq.; rnarus, a Lib- Dura, t6
funda for pïundcred Christians, 236
~6 yan dynast of the, 23; Hbyaidynasts Duris Samius, c~t~d, i;j, 203
K.tjjQuoted~iS~M.s o~ tto, tt~, '77; Libyan &mihes !n, Dussaad, R., otcd, 112
3
Cyptîotesyllabary, 86 inscripticn!n, 8~ M. 3}
Cyptus,Atbenian Neet from, 23:
228 Libvan infiltration into thé,
penctratîon of, in the time of
t<
I, Dussaud, R. and Macler, F, cite< %H e. a
Dust, substitutefor wat~r in pÏfd~ng <ahh,
tzj,,
Cyraunta, gold found in, t~x )*. 8 grapestes Rameses Ï1I-, 220 Petiie'a claim to i79
o<,9Sfy.;ot!vesof,~9 .hâve iound Tifinagh inscriptions ïn, Duveyrier,H~ 128; cîted, xv, 21, 12, x 3, 26,
Cyrctiaean tnbute to Cambyses tH., 230
30 2~3 nse of Libyan settÏers in thè, 34~ 3~ 37, 38 43, 'oo, 'c~
?. <o 227 stctae of LibyansettÏers in the, 107, ti2, <i3, ~3, i~: a. 3, t~ t6o
Cyre,naie, Greeks and Libyans, ~61
head of Deus fatidicus on, 191i
coins,
Denham, Oudncy, and Clapperton, cited,
M. x,
3t
ï~ 1~6 )<.
a.ï, 103 4, <43~~
t?8, <S3 quoted,
Cyreha!ca, 62 Aptuchus o~ t8~ an t~<~t~~22 Dysentery, z~
4-

Roman province, 233 be~ueathed to

Rot~e,232;bur)a)swithhorsesin~
Deniker, J~ cîted~ xv,
H.2,t33N.t,i6i!,226
<t0, .ft~.4, t~a Ear-omaments,Lib~'an, 130~.
n~
t8z 3ch~us wood from, )02 i Dennis, G., cited, i8z M. 3 Eaton,General,aarch of, across Marmanfa,
coastaî plain of, 4 goats m, 96 har-tr- Denta!s, permutationsof in Bcrber, 7~
bours of, 6 Juda!c upnsmg in, 23~ Denyen, 220 ELony, Libyan trade in, tcz
'[ocusts ïn, 29 ?. j; misgo~emed, ~37
;y Derbukkah, Sudanese, 155 E~gSj ostnch, from Etroscan tombs, toi i
?. 6iphysiographyo~ 3, <- p'ncs in,
n, Dernah, ~o; distance &om Cape Krio, t8 in Libyan tnbute, 94 n. t
Egypt, aided by Ï.ub!m, 2~8, amm!st~c
!t~i 9 p~ace of muster for Libyans
ns situation o~ 79 so eaIÏed Libyan
of Merneptah invasion, ~o ra!ds ]nto, inscription from, 84 ?. ]j ciew of stac in, ~76 a a Roman pro-
~t scuipturesinsouthern,f~8; south-
t6t
~o,
Derr in Nubia, at south end of natural tïnc~ 233 Afy&ndes satrap o~ 23; s
wes~ forts in, 160, ve
successive
Crops of, 98 topography, t ~y. trees'es
rqa-t fFom Re~1% îg Libyansin vicinity
c~ 2~2 j road from Hargah to, z~o
chariots of, =-+9, Fajimrte in,asion of,
71 forcesof Zenobiajo, 236 &actured
~f, zy watcr-supply oï, jy. Derry, D. R., quoted, n. z
Désert, ÏoneÏinessof fife in, 3$ Tnatches, 3~
arms of wcnaen in Predypast!c, tDj;
Cyrc~e, 62; a centre of chariotry, 149 i n. ï Graeco-Roman terra-coTQs o~
&îd9Ïnaru8(~23<;bcs!egedby
Lfy mocotony o~ 3~ t~S~ invaded by'AmrÏbaeï-'A~ ~39
~Maz!c€S, 237 0
early chronology o~ Desolation,rites 2o3 f, med~aevaï, Rcrbc~ ïn, modcrn
~30 founded in terntory .of
2 of Dessau, H., cited, 2o3 funerals in, 19~ ongin of Libyan
A&bystae, ~30 fountainof Apollo at, it, Dedefsen, D., cM, 6S n. t invasions of, 226 raided by B~mmyes
t73 Greeks brought from Aziris to, :0,
~M Cbf/i' 201 ~y.
us DfMj ~tfsj, and Maztces, 238 raided &om the
gel secessionof brothers cfArcesilaus
tl. from, z3o statue of N~ith sent to,
189 confused with
of travellers,
west, 71 rock gÏypbs of, tj;6
:o, Coelest:*s, 202 god state in time of Merneptah invasion,
:&07 M. t zoo tïS in time of invasion onder
Cyrette and Cyrenaica, Greek <p!thets àp- p- Deus Frugum, Libyan, 202 Rameses 1:1, 2:0, subdued by
pÏied to, 97 Deyr e!-BaUas, 2~2 Pan-graves at, 24~ Persians, 23~ treaty made by Harcoris
Cyre~eans, defeated by Libyans, 230 story ry Dialects, Berber, 7~ surviving in E. Libya, of, t3i under Libyan Pharaohs, 228
tfeïatedbycertain.to~ 76 xogharFt in, 15+
Diamagneric burials, iSt1 Egyptîaa, caÏt of Mncvîs, tS8 expedition
Dagte, Libyan, 't7 Dio Cassius,cited, 17~, 180, 233, :3~ 23~ agaînst Cyrene, ~30, ~ortj~ss, "C
Dahlah, 48 n. tt6
jy.; mcteorology of, D!ocÏctiaa~caHs Nobataeinto Egypt) 236
oasis of, n m, m
population of, Diodorus Siculus, cited, 24, ~6,
Group pottery
scènes, ~N~u in, 149 R- 3 fuaerat
in, t~:
C
mfuence at
2
32, 33 steta, tt?
Dakkah cemetery, 2~0; "C Group" pots
~2,<ï3,i~3,t~~t~~t
M.4,tDT,t66,i68,t73,)87,ioo,!o~
x
Ghadames, 39 tangua~e, relation to
Berber, Si oases, arrow-heads from.
)ts
~om, ~~8 jy. M. t,
tH, t~t, t~t M. l, 232, :32 n. i i
145 ~upti.0of Siwaly 189 j origin
Dan~kib,~ Quoted,t0j;,t)3,t~i6o,t<~0fr.ît
8 of Libyan wnting not proved, S~ n
Datifs, Libyan, tj;~ war-, :3~ Diogenes I.aertius,cîted, 181 pottery, ow~ers* marhs on~ S~, S<! i
~Dapcmg-bows"ofthe Nuers, 45
Dapsotibyans,<79M.2
x
7 Dionysms Penegetes, c!ted, ~7, t~o n.5,
202K.~iquoted,s2M.t,6zn.i,to<5H.s 5
recruits from soT.ith of First Cataract,
xn religion, compared with Li~yan,
Darae-GaetuI),68M.< Dionysus, aided by a ram, 200 I legend of ao~ superstMon in regard to corp~,
Darb, denhed, xxi Amon and, 18~; i mptçrio7us cîty of, zoz transcription of Libyan peRonat
Darb el-Ai'ba'în, t6, 30 200M.3
3 names, go
Dar~et-ttag, t3, t~ D!scera,Z3.t. Egyptïan and B?tlKr, y~ ~y?,, fusion of, 83
Dardistan, Yeshkhunso~ 4~! n. Dissecteo burials, tSx N. t Egyptians,45 bcriat of FKdyDasti~ tSi
Dare~nberg and Sag~ô, c!tëd, 16~ DjsSûvefus~tS~ eaU Zeus ".Amoun," rqo; arcumeisewÿ
<
Daressy, G., cited, Kiii, xv, xvi, ~o n. 6, ~93,
!3, Divination, among E. Libyans, ty8
1
t4o; defeat Tehenu and Rebu, 212;
t~3 t Dogs among the Libyans, 28, ~7, ) t~ M. $ 1 defeated by CyrenaÏc Greeks, 23~
Par!~ ï, ~gîns tcmp!e at H~argah~ 93! eaten at Kabes, 177 catcn in MMdtc ~ady ~tsed ~th Libyans, 24.6 hdd
past'bari, 234 Ages, 177; with Berb~r names on swine uncïean, 18~ in Ammonium,
Date-pa!m, !h E. Libya, x6 ~y-, ~9 stela oF Intef I-, 80 M. =30 talc ofou~awed, zoo
 ~t~f~a GoTfrNMfnt yf/M~Mf, 3 s M. 2~
ryoSt
of
Festha! of Ausean Athcna, 203 ~o. the 1 Cfîm~K~uS
auapst 7 Mrrrurrlo~:alRe~ore f Deus Co~est!s, so~ Je., "Sïay!n~ of Ga)~!n~-feed of tvofy~ ]f S M.
t~K.Z th?M~hwc9ht'*sx$ 5 Camphas~mçs, ptacett by Hcrodomsj ~3 i
E~bet~ ~6, ~7 bcaten by Thutmc-sc Ï., 2~ Festus, quoted, t68 ?. 6, 2~c n. 2 poverty in arms, 1~8 vaguely located,
pM~toaofun~nown,~ Fever, apncot, 2~ "Hargah," 2~ Lîbyan ?*
E!wfsh,n.!entihcaltonof,2tC~.7!Jn cure fur, tt~n. ¢ oasis of, jo
Garabub,

al.liance with l\let~.er, r5° jOltl the Fezarah, ?&
Hbyans agamst Egypt, xt6(i Fczzan' ancient and moderne 58 ry, i leatirer
EJacoCtes, ptacfti by Ptolemy, 63 tent$ o~ tfiS. Phazania
Etbcsi), 6x n. 6 f~C, cited, ~x nM. j:o, 53 n. M. a,
Eîtjah, protest of, against animism, 176 s. 2 ~6t~.3t<6zM.~6,6~M.7,t~6S Garama~ 2~7, ï~y 8
Empona, Carth~tmanestablished, 2z9 N.ito~7,m~.i,~ti:t,
8,~t~K.~mSn.~t3~s.3,t~t,
Gafah, 33; defined, xM~ i dialect of, y6.i
population of, j:
Garama.gz, 233 identified with Germah,
~8 Ju!!us Maternus at, 234~
Garamantes, aid revolt of Oea and Leptis

E
C4 Enh¡~dt Kurt"1, 5
Entp!, ~9. 23~
nati\-e fort at, t6t
Ep!daurus and Balagrae, cutts of, tS~ n. tj
Eponyms, Libyan, 2$7
~.7, i~t M.7t t~~ n. t,
~~i~~M.3,8,n,i82A.i,t87
n. 203 n. x~ 206
n. 2, 237 M. ï, 2~7 Il. 5
t6S m. 9, 176

l, xo? M. x, :3:
Magna, 23~~ annual moYcmeot? o~
as
9ï n. 7 agncuïtunsts, 98
staver$, to~ E.ttacked by Ba!bus, ~33 i
buriais of, tSt defeated by Quinnïu~
23~; descendcd &cm Garamas, ic?;¡
1
as

Eratosthenes, quOtl:J1 z°6 n. r Fightiag-men, estimated numbef in E. dress, 118 j &ad cars~ t~~ !n late
Erebtdae, a part of the Lotopiagi, 54i -Ltbya, 3.:S fy. Roman tirnes, ?8 join Juîius Matcrnus
placed by Pto~iny, 63 Figureheadsof Carthaginian ships, 19~ against thé ~ethiop!ans, light-
Erg, da:Sned, xxi FlUasi, G., cltcd, to~ clad, tt8 n.~j Uved by hunting, 93
Erg eL-Edeyen, 12 Finsch, 0., and Harthub, G., cited, 29 a. 3 n. t man'iagecustomsof, no placed
Erg el-Kebîr, Firestones, 1~3 Libyan, t~x by Herodotus, 33 by Pimy, ~8 by
Erman, A-, ctted, 46, 48, 7~, 8t, 122 n.6~ 6, Firmjs~ revoït ot, Z37 UpperEgypt under, Strabo, j;6, Pliny's story of deposed
v76, zoon.¢,.zt9 ~36 king o~ n~ n. 3 range o~ 8 i
Eropar~ placed by Ptolemy, 63 Firth, C. M., 230 road to thé country of, 234.; Roman
Esbct, ~.6, ~7, $tt 62~ yt, 22~ Fish, z9; taboo against, 176, 177 i ;-l expedition against, 10~ scarcity of
Escher~ J.,cncd,i:S6n.3 3 Aethîopîa, ï~i pottery among, 1~3 southcriy ex-
Eshmun, Cartti~nmn~ t~S of BaÏ~t-ae, Fish-hoo~ in "C Croup" graves, :~o tension of, n. S use of tents by,
t!~ Fits, Libyan cure for, 1133 ) 68 K. s, wrong!y identl~cd with
Esnah, ~o Ftaccus, the Praetor, defeats the Nasamones, Gamphasantes by Herodotus, ~3
E;-Esrtam, divination atJ 178 ==3~ Garatnanttcc~îcs, ~8
Etcarchus, dynast of Sîwah~ t04 probable Ftaccus, Septimius, expedition to Aethiopia, "Garamantic type," 4.3
date of, %]0 n. f <o3,~3t GargHtUS quells Far'axen, 236
Ethnie disturbances in N. Africa, 7 :u
Ethnies, Libyan, in cïasstc~I period, $t sqq. ç
Flamand, G. B. M, cited, xvi, 28 n.; 3
Florus, L. Annaeus, cited, 58, 103, tg~
Garlic, ceremon!atty eaten at Siwah, 177 i
obnoxious to Mos!em orthodoxy, 178
in Eg)-pthn times, +6 sqq., So Food of the E. Libyans, 99 ry. Garlic-eating at Sînah, possible origin of,
Etrusam language compared with Berber, 73 Footstool, in Ghadames relief, <~3, 1~9 203
Etrusc~n tombs, ostrich eggs in, toi Footweai,Libyan, !:7 Gatrun, 12, tf;;o
EudoxJtJSCnidius, Si n. 3, 98 n.-zi Foreign types in N. Afriea, ¢r Gauckier,F-, dted, xvi, 169, zôi n. i
Euespefides.~fEuespens Fort, on Gulf of Bombah, t66 jyy. Forts, Gaudo, distance to Ras et-Tîn, 18 n.t
Euesperis, besieged by Librans, 232 fertility African, repaired by Justinian, 238i Gaulis. See Gaudc-
of district of, gS modern Benghazi, Sz Libyan,ï0j;,ij;t,ï6o Gautier, E. F., cited, xiv, xv, xvi, xvn, 38
Euhespens. Enesperîs
Euphriites valley, Anstotïe on snakes of,
Fortressof the West, 218
Forty Road." Darb et-Arba'!n
M- 2, n:, 14.6 ?. t,
t~7 n. 2, ï6o, i~6,
i~7, 24.7 n. i quoted, t~6 K. t
iSo n. 6 Foucauld, C. de, cited, ~2 Gear, househoM, of Libyans, 1~2
Euphronius, Antaeus crater of, %'60; fond Fountain of Apollo at Cyrene, 173 Gebel, defined, xxi
ofpecutîartypes,26tK.iZ Fountain ofuie Sun, 173, 173 n. 2 Gebel Abu Dirwah. petfogtyyh at, ~30
Euripindes, «Juoted, tsg n. J
Eusebius, cited, 106 n. j,ïSS 3, z~, 233
Fournel, H., cited, 63 n.
tiy, ~3~ n.7,
x33,x3f!,236M.2,37,~oM.3,2~i
'J, Gebel el-Abdar, caves of thé, 168
Q~ 27
trees
EusîiH:hiua~Ctted,~3~.7,~6n.3iit6,t:6 n.tr Gebel et-'Akabah, 4, 6, 62 pines' in,
.11 ~3- n.q~oted,
r, c78 n. g, 183: 190, zcz
ï8i n. tpf; n. z
Franks, defeated by Narses at Cas!Hnum,
2t8 n. t
i~ t prpbabtcseat of Rebu, ~i traces
of copper fbunj in, 14~3 trees of, 27
n. 9' ~37
Eutropius, dted, z35, 236 Freytag, G. W., cited, 2~~ K. 2 Gebel Dahar, 2
Evagnus, cited, î.2 n. 66 n. 5, 2}8
Evans, A. J., cited, 28, xS n. 5, 86, ici
Frick, C-, cited, 63 nn. 2, 3, 4, 66
Frum,R.,Ctted,ti2
Gebel Gharyan,
villages in, ï68
71, pt i trogiodytie
Evenor, Greek physieian, 113 n. g Futah peopîes, ha!r-dress!ng, t~ë westerîy Gebel Mekter, grades at, 24~7
Excerpra Barbari, CtCcd, 6~, 68 dnft of, 17 ff- 1 Gebel Nafusa, 2, 3 dîatect ci, 76
Eye, be!ief in evil at S:w~ t8o Libyan, Fu!h~. Su Fulah Gebel SharMah, 3
d.ilfecentiatedfrom Egyptian ~n monu- Funerals in Cairo, ryS n, r Gebel es-Sodat), 3
ments, 4.3 Furlong, C. W., cited, 29 Gebeleyn reliefs, 131 n.3, 3, 137 H.
C~~3~ 27
3, m

FactitÍ've seme in Berber, 7+ GabcÏentz,G.vonder,cited,73 GeHius, A.,c'ted, t?4.n. quoted, rSt N. t

Fac~onea,Carthaginian,toi. ~M Empona Gaetutï, 1~0 n. defeated by Crassus, Gems, Libyan trade in, ~02 use of, 133
F&!=fh~rbe, L. L. C., cited, ~.t, ~2, S~ t6o X3~;mtatç Roman t!me3, 68; Georgm& Cypr!us, <!tect, ït
?. 3
FamHy, the Libyan, :oS t?y. greatest Libyan peopÏe, 56 n.3; per- Gepheans, placed by Ptolemy, 64
Farafnth, oasis o~ cut off from Egypt, manent centres, pï ~.3; placed by Gerbah Is., 2, 3, 34~
2~6, Egyptian name o~ ~8 ?. Pliny, ~9 by Strabo, ~6 SaHust on Gerbah, arrow-head from, 14~6 graves at,
poputatbn of, 32, 33 the, ï~~ waîns o~ t~g. See Baniurae :S3
Faraxen, raids o~ ~36 and Darae. "Gerîd type," 4~3 ?. i
fatidicus,Deus. See Z~w
Fatimite invasion of Egypt, 72
~fM Gaetuti,Nigîze,63
Gaiseric, leads Vandals into Africa, 237
Germah, 38, 59
Gesenius, W., cîted. t8~ n. tt, 2~, 2~8
Faustus, deacon, kills bngand, ~37 Galena in "C Grqpp" JI gc;lv~ x5o GetuUu, 93
Fayum, flint arrow-heada, Lthyar~ in, J45 Gaïia,~ Géze, L., cited, 73
I,!byan9 in, -Mi Per!r~ not in, Callas, 4$; plumes tokens among, r3o Ghadames, 30 dialeet o~ 76 divination
ni? n. t population of, 32 Te~enu M. t as practised ne~, ~78 !dentified with
in earÏy, f GaHic cavaÏry, victory of Cae$ar'a~
Gaîu,oaslsof,!o
tjt Cydamus, ~8 re!!efs of, tz8, 13~ tj~,
Fen']Inme,~rmat!ono~!ïï Berber, 7~ ][~9i town, t3. ~Cydamus
Ghardayah,t~,3o
Ohar<)ek,t<
Ghat,30;d)aÏectof,76troadfro)n,
t Hadrumetum,Libyan: take, :3°
H.i!mann,
I O-, c:te<), xv, xvi, 47,
t6t,t(!t~.$ S
Henayah, f~rtfCK <?~ <f<
M~,<47
Libyen famHy in, x~<
Hcfa~eop~

Che'K!n€s,fottr<-s3at,)~<fu!ngat, H~r-dres~!ng,
I Libyan, <33 HeracÏc~ tcgcnd nf Amon and, en )~i
t6t~y.
C~'eftheKa)muck!),)68
IHat~yy, J., c!ted, 4~, 60, S4, S}, 86, <y Antacu* cfatcr of Euphronius,2~0
Hera~etum, zzt ?. $
«, t
Ghcyiah, grave inscriptions allicd to Lih- H~,
1 7
HeracïtUB, Pers!an< enter Egy~ in time Qf,
yanic,x~3 Haliardi, 04 ~39
t scuïp- Hall, H. R., cittd, a. <, !t6 n. 7 tegcnd o~hït dcuth in S~n, z55
Ghîrzfih, inscftpt'ons &~ 184. ?. I <9
Hercu!~
Hefm!ppu6[CotntCn~c!t€d,96;qu~ed, <~t
t~reso~)~7~,
sp· IHam, 1~8
GhHt)'i,A.,cited,xti,i~8,<}S)'.i1 1Hamadah,defined, xxi
Herodtan, cite~, z~
Gïbbon,E.~errorof,t~M.y7 Hamadahet-Homrab,
1 oasis of, 3, 12z Herodotus, cited, Kix M. 3, 7, 2~ x?,
Gichthis,
54 HamadahMurznt:,
1
<zZ ~.3, St, 32, $~ 64, 79
Hamadahet-Tinghert, n. )?, 8~ 9', 9., 3~
~~ç~t~o~~c~P~
GitigaLmae, as placed by Herodotus, !<

tMa, in their territory,

1
Maman,
1
Hamed
Bâal, tg8
)~
Gurush, L,ibyan ïetters at, ?~
tcx, t0~ 10:. n. t, <c6, 109, !t-~ tt)t.
tt4, 1 't .1 A1d-n.2, ,.8" 11.2, .2.'1
l,
zzg
Gin~nes, custom o~ no; ma-'r!age cus-
1
1Hamilton, J., c!ted, j~ K. t, !9, 98 n. 4, n 3, *39, t4~ i~z ~3, s~
t4~ tt%
tema of) m placed by Mcro'totus, jt '7ï) ')Mt«), t<~ t~ '66, t?'~ i7<, )73, )7~ t77~ T9'
G)n!idwel!ingtn'ayns,i72 Hamites, Atlantic, 44, 45 common ethnic
for western, ~ï jyy. general distribu-
tS~, tS~ ~?,
igE H.~ 201, 20~ H. 3, 2~6, 20? a. jf,
t~ '9~
G!ram)-Teuïon,A.,c!tect,ttxN.~
Gird)M,Libyan.)2S
G!rga3h~tes~it~6
¡.
tt i
'!on of, '7- Mediterranean,
onginal type, }~ physique of purer,
i ?~,2.:y,2~~8,X~Z~~M.Z~i,
23: N~. 3. S quoted, 23, 2?, $z, M,
Gizah, near apex of Det'a, 8 39. Saharan.~h~j 8a t, ~J, 93 n. 100, tO~, 1*3, !2~,
Cy,dt<'d,i)K.K.: z Hamitic dcSned, xxi ethnie name, 4! '33~ i~. ~3. 1+5 8, 13~ t63,
Gîyph,onrockmT!bcStî,:09 languages, y~ race,questîonaMeongin t74, 178, t7~ iXi Bn. 3, 5, <X3, ~$,
Glyphs, "Libyco-Berber,"tj7 o~ 39 type, character!st!cs ofpure~ 41 186, t87, tpo to, 20!, tc~, 2=~
zc6 N. 3

<
Gno, tail of, as badge ofroyatty, 133 «. 2 EI-Hammah,3
Goan in E. Libya, 08, 95 J~. Hammam 1~ $1 n. ili Her-pu krat, 13?
Goat: offered to "Aescutapius"et Ba!agrae, "Hammon" confused with Gurzil, tS? He~ ~6, ~7, 7t, 22~; Ïocatcd ~hh ft-setTre,
5 ~t!M~ 199 ~t name pcrhaps surviires in Hasah,
Gods, Sea-, Libyan, tS~ Sun-, :87 Hanna, so.n of Bad-Melkart, !nstr!pt;on of, 7'
Go)d,foundinHeofCyraunM,t~K.! 8 19! n. 5 Hesiod, Cttcd, xix 6
Go)e:Mch<:n',cited,~t~<1 Hanoteau,A., cited, 7~, St, ris n. }, t~~ < S Hess, J. J., cÏted, z~ i
Gotiath(Gatut),.t$7 Haratin Berbers, Hest~'w, ~8
Gon!atae,pïacfdbyPto!emy,6! Harcoris, makes treaty with Libyens, 23: Hcsychius, cited, 4. ïiS ~.2, tpt, 2=6,i
quoted,
Gord!anu9Pius,z3~
Gornnge,H.,cited,n
Gove!rnment,Libyan and ïmusha~h, ti~
K.
Hargah, 11
fever,
30 Eg)~t:an name of, ~S
} évidence of decreased population, Heta faYour
!~8 f.
p~an~
N. t
Mcr)€y, z 6
mud-bnck tombs, :$ · Hetihenker,govemor in Delta~ 229
<
5 ~2
GozzO, geographtcal relation to Libya, i8. Persian army at, 174, 231 place of Heuuy, L., c1ted, 93 n. 9
~MMatta exile for Egyptian cnmtna!s, 48 ?. 5, Heybar, taboo of garlic at, yS
Gtammes, Libyan, t~t zzg i populauon, ;z, ç Temehu in, I-Iides! some African burials n-repped in,
GrapM,inE.Libya,26,9S =8: n. 3 ta~ned by 1,'byans, j~z
Gratianus, condemn.s Count Theodosius, ~f of Libyan chiefs, ïog Jy. Hieroduli of~TH~r~, 193
Harkhuf of Elephantine, 2tt, 2~1 joins Hieronymus,St.; quoted, .69' 235
t37
Graves, drcutar,~6;divinationat,i7!
~y.,howmarked,t83;s~'eaf!ngat,
thech!efofYam,49
Harpeson, geneatogy ô~ Serapeum
HHdebmnd, G., c~e~ f~, 20, xt
H'Jial-Ben-Amar,incursion cf the, 72
ï6
109
tS3 stela o~ zï? N. 3 HiUs, sacred, 1~3
"Gr<!atBend,the,2~
22S Harra, 26 Himalayas, absence of blonds in, ~t
Greece, geographical relation to L!bya, 18 1 Hams papyrus, ~8, 95, 109 n. 7, 439 N. 6, Hindu Kush, absence of blonds in, ~<
Hippocrates, cite(", 93 c. 8, ~t n. 4
ëecondary sanetuanes of Sîwan Amon 120
~n,t~t Harn.on, J. E., <te< i?& n. z History of E. Lib~ans, :to
Greckburiaïs,t8ï,intercourKWithLib- Hartmann, J. M., cited, }t
yans,2<n;orîg!nofLibyanwt'it]ng 63 N. 10 quoted, ~63
B. 58 m. t~, History ofSîwah, Anonyjnous,quot~J, z~o
Hittitts. See Heta
Dot proved, 85 ï~arug es-Sod, 3 Hizam, z;g, x~z
Greenhow, R., cited, t4 Hasbitae, erroneoNstytocated by Pliny, ~i.
1
Hogarth, D. G., tit~ 236 j 5
Gregory, J. W., cited, t}S K. t See Asbystae. Hohler, T. B., cised, 7 tt. t
Grennah, S Hassah, 47, 47 n. t4. 70, 71 Homer, c~teJ, x~x jî. 6, 32 M. t~~ n. S,
Gr!tttm, J. and W., cited, ) 11 5 Hatshepsut, Queen, divinely assured of vie- n. 2p tgo n. 8 quotcd, 9 s
GryE'hon, Usertesen as a, ztx 0 tory, ~'3 in male dress, t~~ } tributé Honorius,Julius, 8q.
Gsell, S., cited, xvi, t6~, t~~ M. taken by, 48 n. ot Honsu, t~y
C«<!j;<t, )36 Hatsho, bttle oi, 22y, sïegô and relief ûf, Hophra- Y~ Apries
HOr.tçe) cited,o
Guanches, 44.
Guriih" n;6
t!4
Hauneoa, 4! H. 2
g. 3
Hornemann~ F~ titcd, <t5 N- S quo~ tC!
Horse, early in~oductjon into çre!e,
i
Gu~a, worahipped m Tnpot'tara, tSS Hausa cho!ce of ch!e&, t~~ r
GuMteMis, civîtas, t88 Hawah Segal, fort at; t6t n. in E. Libya, 28, ~6
Horses, Bedawln, endurance of, 16 pap-
Gun,!), c~tto~ 187 <o] anj ththateM Hawes, C. H. and H., cited, tS n. ,ç
turcd from Mcryey, StS; Cyr<na;<
iouthwind,i8!)).i!
8 Head, B. V., c!ted, )o6
t!t-ë"'tah, 7 Head-gear, Libyan, 117 sg. 97; JLibyan~ i$o. t?o; Lib~n, trap-
Gylippus delivers Euesperjs, 23~ Hecataeus, cited, 42, }t, 53 Il. t, t pmgs of, 97
Gyn,Mt.,t3t Heiss, A., cited, S6 Horse-buriabin Cy rcnaica, tSï ff. 3
Gyz~ntes, bec-keep~a, ~8, eat apcs, t0o, Heliopolis; city of Atum, 21 fi Houses, Lthyan,ofmud and s~Ït, 92
painted,.t~o; p)aced by Herodotus, HcHu? cpmpared w!th Ourx! t$8 Libyan, Hu, Pan-gr~tes at, :~j
c3~theZygantesofScyïa)f, tS? relation to **SaHtrnus," 20t
HeUan!cus,c!ted, 142, t~~ ~7, t~3, t6~
i_ Huarah, 70 worshtpped Gur~a, tSS
Hunting among E. L:b)-ans, 93 4q.
~ta-ab-ra. See Apries quoted, 143 ff. 6 Huntington, E., <r~ a~
HaMtuatKnseinBerbcr,~ Helms, hot in general use among thé Lib- Huts, modern Bc'bcr, t~o
jtft!~<M~33 yans, ;43, 1+8 f~. Huwarah. Se, Haarah
Ha~!ao Msits Matit<'tan!a, :}} Hematite, found in Libyan desert, tt3 n. l Hydnas, t~3
 Hy~tnu~ G. J, cncd, j[S~ )S~ <r. t~on~. lron, aversion uf the ginn to, *?3 Ïn ) Kc) Azgar. A~gar Confédération
7 \!armarica,~3 Ke) Fadeh men with :ide-)oc)H, < 36
of Libyandésert, 2:z
Hygrumctry tr~t, negrocs,46 Et-Krnayssiah,sculpture froin,
from, 18
<S88
Hyum~Ltby:inj,)~4 l'ammon r rgort, to Kenmct, ~8 a. $j
Isiderus Hispa!cnsis, Sf., quoted, tôt n. 3, Keppcr, capturcd, 224 fa)!s on Rebu and
Ial1\b:(Î{.hu~citcc4,tpa n. tA 'yS,If." t '4SM.9,:37M-8
8 Tehcnu, x:3 j famity o~ ~09
!b<dat[!t Pcn~nsuÏa, amvats in Africa from, Ïscgonu~t$)H<:z ~'r~ defincd, xxi ~fr<?~<7,t~, ï~t, i~~
]!26;mega!t[hsîn,t6o
Itxri;nns, usr of waetra by, v¢8 y n.
ftr~f/~f/t09K.4,2tS,2!9
ïssedon!anStburial customs ot~ tSx z
Kerben,townof,
Kerome, 228
a! ]::?.} S
tbn 'Abd eÏ-~tab-im, Cttcd~ 69, z~o, 240 R. i Ïtaty, arrival of Tyrrhenlans in, 2x6 i Kcytesh, t<47, !-t position of, unknown,
Ibn Abl'E-Dinar,cite<l, 6p, 111 2i~ :z:o x, S megatiths of southern, ~o, structures 5 See ij-
Ibn c][-i!r~ <}uot~ 6~, z~o, :~o T attributed to Cronus in, t66 Kh-.
Ibn.H.tfdun,cttcd,~8a.2,~2,3S~.)~, Itendidi,otKcer of Usertesen ) t v!s!t of, Khosrau. Set Chosrocs
~/t~?'7c't?'7~'S7,2o8~x. to Ïand uf the oas!s-dwe!)crs,"~8 ¢ n. f;t~, ty, n. ~<South w!n<)
on
z~7
a.uotfd,3S
B~turr characcer, }/ f~. i her, kngth of, xs~ n. 9
VjTta~r~~Mm~~on~~ cited, 63, y~
Kilt, worn by Libyans,
118
t )S by Egyptians,
1bn fi.otaykvht <«l, '57 a, 3 Ivory, in Te(~enu tri~utet i Libyan trade
1 J j K!ng, J. W. H., chett, 6j
Ichthyopha~~$ in,t0t Kings, cult ofdead Libyan, tS}
Iddayfah, oasis of, Ila JaMonskt, P. E., cne<t, 176 n. ?, tS8 n. 9 Kordofan, modem WMM in, ) jo oath-
Id~bn), name ofsptrt~ t~SS y~CJV~ch~ taking in, 184
!din~n n.rssif 171 4 Koshtamnah,cuprous ore at, 2<o M. t
d~, ~~mrA ~rcA. /nj~ cited, 169
Et-Unsf, t, ~t, 69, 7C, 7~ quctc~ Jaf~M'aLÏtn:gs,Nub!ao,±~ Krio, Cape, disance from Dernah,
~~tiot/m/j~~i', «t2 S8
208 N. t Jason~ at Lake Tritonis, iS6 ty.
Ie.rna, priest of Gurzil, 187 Javeit~ a characteristic Libyan weapon, Kubbah, circular tomb of, !t7
fcrnas,tt7 yb t ôenera! use of, ln E. Libya, r44 i Kubban, "C Croup" pottery in, t~ “. }
lèru,. Lub}-aa dh-inlt\88
Itr'en~t1 heads o~ amvng E. Libyans, ~3 cuprous ore a~. tso i
Jebusitesy'56 Kufra, ~S
Itu.n.C!~in late Roman times, 67 Jcphson, A. J. M., cîted, tSz /r. 5 Kumm, H. K. W- fjuot~, tSt n. }
tturen, yt1 Jequ!er, G., cîted, 20~ n. 2, 206 Et-Kuran, c!ted, too «. eating ofanimah
Igherrt oasis of, 10 Jerome, Si. See Hieronymus ibrbiddenby thé, t~
Ihagg:Lren, tt~, Jésus the son of Noah, 2~6 Kurkur, oasis ot, ) populationo)~ ~z
llagua'tc~ 67 Je~ in Benghazi 208 i rebellion of, Kushito-Hamites,4.j;
Ilasguae. Set Leuathae and tïagcaten in Cyrenaîca, toS
Ulynan~ reach Adriatic, 226 Johannes Troglita, sent by Justinian to 1-aMats, permutationsof, in Berber, 76
"IHyro-Pet~sgtc," ~-actantius, cited,
Imcngha.ssatcn,tfle, eu5
Libya, 23~; v!ctory o~ c~ebrated by t~, t!} quoted, 183
Imgba,à, "+
Conppus, 239 n. 3
JohannisBic1arensis(Abbas), cited, 208 M. 3 Laghwat, tj;
mgha.ren.~Amghar John of Nikiu, 239 Laguanta. See t!aguaten
Tmilcrn avrrcomcs drunken Librai15, 3+ n.
[nnmk~en. y~Amenutcat
1 John the Phrygian, 237 M. 6 34 n. t, 99
Joko, burial at, tSz rt. 3 Lampndius, Ae)ius, cited :}}
ma-t, ~8 Jornandes,c!te<J, 234. "land.theRM),"f,
in E, Libya, 10}
Impr)ri~5 Josephus, cited, 2~8~.88 Lander, R., cited, ;S!
ïmukehek, ~6, 4.7 captured, 2 [3 position Joshua. See Jésus Landolfus Sagax, c~ted, t~j quoted,
of unknown, qe[ Juba, cult of, t83 239 n. 6
Imush~h, abstain from certain foods, too Juba!nviHe, D'A. de, cï~ed, 86 Lane, E. W., cited, y~ S
arm-Ïca~es o~ 14.7 braceïets. of, 132 Judaic uprising in Cyrenaica, 23$ LaM-Poo!e, S., c!te<, 6'), !~o <t. to
character, 38 n. z code of honour of, Judaism jn E. Libya, 208 ~y. Langhans,P., cited, K. z
.1%; domestie possessions of, 152 dress
o~t22/î.3,factÏçmakcr~of
~4. government of, 114
verse,
.33Saturnas confused with,
grav!cy
o~3~,hatso~i.;y;!a.wsof!nhent- Jupiter,
f~t
Jugurtha, betrayed by Bocchus, 37
~~arM Orbis Descriptio, c!ted, 37
Langobardiceïement in ltaly,
Laquière, 173
Laribus, besieged by Leuathae, !]9
Lasamici or Lasanid, near Psylli, <t, caves
ance among, tf2; matriarchal taboos 20r of, <i
Just:n,dt€d,4xa.<2j,i77K.~23tN.i
o~ iï2; metncs of, f~
t:obie and
se~Me classes o)~ 114 tEboos oi, 176
Justin
1
1
I., Eg~pt raided in time of, 238 ttTJ~«f«m, 2S
Late New Empire, defined, xxii x. i
Justinian, forces Christianity on pagans, 238
îoc~
I.rbyan,Nomad
t;
women ot, 37 women of, with side-
See African, Berber,
Kabes,
1
juvenal, cited, ~78 a. ï, 197 a. 6
dogs eaten at, ~77
Laudations,evi', 181

'3°"M"5' tj}
LD, cited, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, ~9 n.
t
i i 6 H. ),
Imushagh, Azgar, superstition concerning Kabyle
1 rain-making,179 tattooing, tjS 1-eander, brothér ofNicoerates, 1,
Ïd'inen massif ~4. Kadesh poem, it~ j~. Lebanaeum, visited by Libyans, toï a. <
ïnaru3,revo!to~i~2,22S,23t i~a~tah,
I defined, xxi Lebdah, Huarah in 9icinity of,
Incjnerstfon, a doubtful case ofl.!&yan, tS: IKafr ex-Zayat, Perire not at,
ny n. t1 1 Lc~bure, conjunctureof, na 7 1
n. r
Indians American,war-dances of, ]~6
t Kahjnah, tt?
E)
I
Kalmuks, gher of, t68
Lefi, 26
` Legitimacy, Psyllic test of, )So
InennaKaten~the, ti$
InSata'h, t~
S Kanun,t$
t S
üKarbaniti, 222 n. $
Leg-rings, Libyan, t33
Lehabim, 2~8
t
Inscriptions,dateofLihyan, 8g; distributior. Kamatc, figures of Amon found at, 193 ~y. Leo Africanus, cited, ~t09< 09 0.6, ~S
ofJLibyan, 8~ how read, 89 .Libyan, reliefs at, 109, 133, 2)3 n. 12, 217 n. 176 M. 6 quoted,
84 Libyco-Latin bilingual, ~4 t
Karutz, R., c~ed, ?.
non- a. 6 Leptia, 63
t defined, xxi t~j
Mfthra~fnhonourûfthestin~TS?; ~a~r, Leptis Magna 71 revolt of, <3~ vicinity
ofGhîrzah,t84~.ï:z t of Tementit in Tuât, <733
K-asr ofravaged, 237
Intef L, dogs o~ with Libyan naes, 2): tKau negroes, ~6 Leuathae, chie6 of, murdered by Sergius
steYa of, 80 rq,
Invaafon9, cause of the Libyan, iz~
hKayruan, Aghlebitedynasty of,
Keane, A. H., cited, 32, 88
B
3~ t
1, 93
1
n. 7,
238 in )ate Roman times, 67, in
revoit, ~38 march on Carthage, 239
Io6acchi, place<! by pto(ém~i,6z '39~33 Leucaethiopes,
/OAfM.?, dedication, zot n. ty n. t ptaced by Pliny,
Kebrît,Gu]fof;
? 3, 23' ".8g 60
Iontn,<:4 ?
Keeling, B. F. E., 23 Leucon, bat¡le of, 3->
ïram,ïoo~.31 ~che~
K 46. 47 location of, $i war-songs, E)-Leyt9tbnSa'ad,quoted,2~o
Tr23a,di<nrictof,'79,ï~o alleged dîacotery o~ 76 2 x C~~M//M~ C))ed, 6j, 68
Libya, called X~a <ro~~f~~ xix jf. t 1 CambyM< Hf., i~o personat orna- Lutca,
L Men)tfi<raË6H<~ ~<~ y ÎH sH~Me
confused with Aethiopia, tgo n. 8, 230 mentation of, fx~ ~"7-! poÏygamom, with Mt:fy=y~ j~" ttx ï't~yarM
3 'n thc <?~
9j cxtcnt of,
X)x,~t;or)glnofnamcot,xtx~p!ace-
to8 j~. portion of thé Western agafn~~gypt,~6
Hamitex, pt~e~Md înhumatîon, L Lunaf ûbMfMnc~ t?~ #. 4
oames!n,y~term3Usct)ind?9cr!b- )?ï Pfocooimt~tory ofthe?r c'ng!n, Luta~H~
L cîït~ r~ Et x~ ~jtf~e~ t~/t
ing, xxii j?. See Africa Libya, Eastern î 2~6 pmhcff back from Maboard, ?! · M.X
H
Mauf!tan!a,etc. put fjo~n by MagM, 23:, rcbet!ed L
I.y<'îan~ ~f<! w.
Libya, Attantic, Carthagînian trade with, against King Ncfer-tta-ra, no; religion Lycas, br~fhsr afArce~HaMÏI~ 23'?
L
103 of, ~7~ ~y., fcUgïon partIaUy îcûnï<~ I.
Lycm Rheg!~ t~A y
L!bya, Eastern, atmosphenc phenomena !n, 207 répartition in )at? Roman timçs,
L
l-yd~w, Josnnct Laorent~~<~e~ <~< }
:4. boundaries of, xix jy., jy~
ceremonial progress of AJI10n in r56
~??- revolt against Cyrene, 230
ritual festival of, m 79 aacnficed te $un
L
Lyon, G- F~ cited, /t.~ t~?
'77 t t~oîe~ txj
<~
}
x.
Chnsttan~y in, 208 jr?. cHfnatc o~ and moon, tSy) Sattust on thé, 2~~{ Lysander
Ï~; reco~~ warning in a dream, t~f,
'9 ~?y' distribution of population ïn, Mc!oïogyand governmentof, t'ke those '9~
30 ethnogeography o~ 3~ Jyy. Fauna
and Flora of, z6 jyy. game in, 93 ~fy, i
f
of mpdcrn Berbera, 7 K'r!pt, re-
lated to Phoenician, 85 jy. tongt of, Msca~
M 6? beardcd, <37 c!~m?d deacen:i
habitations in 168 intertal geography ij~; spottcd by Memeptah, ~j; by irom Amp&!them~ ~37 estrency 0~,
of, t~ fyy. Judaism !n, xo3 mctah
in, t~z Mohammajan invasion
Rameses 111., j:2, 95 by Scsostns, 9$ 3
stfonghotds
ic€ dnve out Donc Greeks ~om
sowing among, 99 p Ctnyp~ ~~f gc'attÏEtn~wont by, t~i ·
of, t8, ~o natural goaL of eastward of, io~ 160 jyy. taboos among, t~C g hasr of, 1 J 3: nomad~'m or, ge x pta.rer~
ethnie shifts, t7; physiography of, t tactics in war*are of, !~o; tattooing by Diodùru~ 56 by HerodMEM, $2
tyy. popuïattono~ 3 rainfall in, among, jt~y ~y.; trade, with Sudan, PJmy, ~y by PtoÏemy, ~y Scy~,
20 ~y. r<atîvc geografhic position, toi by bartert toS dangers o~ 10~ shtcÏtM of, i4S oie of carda by,
iy;sa!ubntyof,tj!;sca*cityofgood ~:q. traditional origins of, zs5 tqq i i~<! t:
cloth !n, no; scare!ty of native in- uncircumcised, f~o; useofiongs~ords MacatutaL~
M 62 placed by Pto!~Eny, 6z
scriptions in, 84. tempemture of, 20,
2Z,x~;tow[iof,3o,i~~jy.;W€Stern
by, t~ } use of metals by,
war&re m cÏassîcaï period, 13'
jyy' Mace, A. C-, !etter o~ qucted, ï~i <. <
M
Maceta~ ïn !ate Roman cimes, 67
confines of, !2 jy. wind~ ï~, 21, 23. weapons o~ 143 ~y. women, occupa- JtfNf~N~r~ )47
JM
See Africa, Libya, etc. tions and status of, i 12 ~y. wore H
Machïyes, cÏaïmetÏ descent from Amp'M-
L!biyaegypt! 61,2~. ~Ltbyoaegypuae skins, 93 writing of, 84 themïs, 2~7 Jtaîr of, 3~ tocacioa o~,
Li6~yaethtopes, 69 Libyarchae, placed by Ptolemy, 6t 91 marriage ccs:omx o~ m p'aced
Libyans, Eastern, above Meroe, j6 Libyarchontes, 62 n. 2 by HerpdottM, 32. &v Macbrye~
accoutrements:of, tsz rq.; agriculture "Libyco-Berber" alphabet, 85 «
"Machmes," 32 n. t~
of, 98 sq. allied with Northerners,220 "Libyco-Roman" reliefs from Umm et- Macbr~as.
M Sre ;vlachryes
sq. arms
and warfare of, IH sqq,i Harab, 120 \f
Machryes, confoscd with Lûtopbag!, ~y e.
associated with Asiatics, i~ï, 239 with Libyoaegyptiae, in late Roman tïmes, 68. ~S by Ptolemy, 6~ Machryes an~
Carthage, 229 beardsof, 137 beaten See Libyaegypti Maghraw&h, 71. MacMyes
bySel.gius, 238 besiege EuesperÎs, 55; i Hbyphoenïces,pÏaced by Diodorus,~6 by ~fachy~~
M placed by Pto!emv, 6~
Mond, 40 burials of, 24.6 captives Pliny, ~7 by Pto!emy~6~ by Strabo, Macïver,
Ni D. R, Md WiHun, A-, <tte< xTui,
tattooed, Z06 chiefs of, aêcompanied 55.
bytheirwomeninwar,ï09;chief5, Lieblein, J., cited, 199 z
z e a. ng n zo n. 3, zi~ s.
2~9 quoted, ï&ojt. <
2î7
a.
tittes of, ti$ jry.; chteftamshîp of I.ifayah, a Sîwan fiction 17~ 175S \]
Mad~er, D. R~ and Woo!ey, C- L-, c3ted,
ïï~; converts to Judaism, 208 ~.t;i Ligatures in Tifinagh, 88
christianized,i38;c!a)ms~toorientat I.îhyaïUt, Gheytah inscriptions allied to,
or]g!n, zj;6 compared with "C Group" ~3
people, 2~t conception of sky among, Limes Bubensis, ~9
~20i;confusedwjthA<Ethtopians,~ 44 Liquids, permutationsof, in Berbe~, }6
XTtii, 1~9 z
Macler, F. Y~ Dussaud, R.
Marnmades,6;, 6;
Macrobi!, $~
t~
blacrobius, cjt~
H Af. S~lrram,63'"

t;; e- 2 ¡ tS7~ tg%

i
ss
n. cI,11turalstagas of, 92 eg. domestic Littmann, E., cîted, 85y 2$~ n. t
animaÏs of, 9~ ~y. dress of, 118 sqq. Littoral, the, population of, 33
dress of wom-n of 12S-; drift into Livi, R., cited, 4t
Delta, 223 dutîes of chicfs among, Livy, cited, ~7 n. S, ~~2, t68, t6g, i8ï n. 2,
n6; eponymsof~ t~y ethnogeography
M ~.3,190
Magas marches from Cyrene to Egypt, 23:
M
Magempun. 69
Maghîïah,
M 6~ a- 8
Maghrawah, yt
23: quoted, ioS n. 2
of, 48 $99- ethnology of, 39 sqq. i Lizards, taboo against, 176, 177 Maglc~
M among Eastem Libyens, i~S
family among, ~08 food of, 99 i Lock of Youth, <37
7 i
"Nack," 180, in Greek [~ead, t~S <- s
fusion with Egyptians, 2 +6; general Locusts as food, too ~y. dévastations ïn
movemehts of, yi h~d, Capart's Cyrenaica, zg eaten by Aettuoptans,
Mahafïy,J. P~ t!te< 6:
M
El
Et-Maknx~Ctted, 69, yo
:~t
2
t
notice of a, 2~1 K. 2 government of, too 16 Malana,
M ~j
ttf). JM. groups and t-tbes of dis- Lotophagi, as agneutturaUst~99 extcatof, Et-Ma~M, cït':d, ï~o
El
tinguished,4.j;j~hadtentsof!eather, ~S nomadism of, 9:, placed by Mallet, D., <~ted, ~40, 20$, icj! t, :c6
M
168 harass the Persians, ~31 h!story Herodotus, ~t by Pliny, 57; by hlalta, geoa pl·ical relation '0 tibia, ts ¡
M
of, 210 t~. horsemanshipof, t~o Ptolemy, 63 by ScyÏax, Strabo gnun-storesin, t?t m~itithso~ t6j
huntingamong,93~inarmy on, \t
Mamalps, 6g e. to
pf Xerxes, tzz, t~t in Egyptian art, Lotus, in E. LIbya, 16 of Homer, z6 Mam~ukes
M driv~ the Zenamhout of E~Ypt,
4.0 intercourse with Greeks, 261 in- "wine," 99 ~9
yasîon& of Egypt by, 33, :i~ )anguage Lua, the etder, ~9 thé younger, 69 M
1-lampsar4 6.
of, 76 limited nomadism of, xx, Luatah Berbers, 69, ?o N. i pay tribute to M
Mainucensîs Limes, 6~
9!;mag:ca)~ong~ty8~.ttnake 'Amr Ibn et-Ast, t~o liamucü,
M in late Roman tim~ 67
treaty with Harcoris, 23: marriage Lub!m, i$8 allies of Egypt, 258 ofTyrc, Mancs-cuhus,
M anong E. IJbyM~ tSt ~y. ¡
customs o~
i matriarchate among,
tH~m!taryh!storytharacter!zed, Lucan, otcd, 39 n,
258 and kinship., m
Manetho, cued,
M
atAu~tta, i~S
~uoted,
~o, ~.2, 97, )So, t8o t!3 j
3
t~2 Mostem invasion of~ 31 physique KM. t, s* ~9° n. *33 ?. x Mannïer stc~a,
M 5
<
~~t
of,2~j,mus!eo~tj;3~cegro)d~ quoted, 97, 97 s- 9, 9S ?. 7, to6, ttS, ~r3.nSM3b el=A~azah, diatect of,'d;Siwan
~.3,.t.9~.S,~o;ofthc!!ttorai Berber sp<jk;n at, ~S $
ttS n. ~3n,a. 93
130 n. j;
under Romans, 133 of littoral with Lucian, cited, 9 n. 9: N.y, M
lManul2ah, Ikr'x.. in p,m'in"" of, 7"
foreIgn weapons, 107 i 01:1 Testament n. ~7 '33, t33 f~, Mapatia,
M <3) ~'no"g R~ ~ibyan~ t~$
notices of,258;ondefenâive;mcarty t68 n.~ quoted, 1333 M
MappaHa. Mapaïta
wars with Egypt, 2ti; opposed by
Armatius, .t37; pay t;rtbute to
~Luc~anJ, cited, tSS
Lucretiu3,citcd,t73
?.3 M
MaraJah~ d!atect o~ yS
Maraghî,
M at wcst end ofShvah Oas:~ o
 ~[.t.~uu~ A~'t.~i~ c~~jtB
t~î < <~ï u~t m.M~
!6S:~on~n
~S t \\f<y t~~arvd
ht!, memt
tn'a~rcf, 14~ name Rppcurs
Epy~
f C~un~<t:~
9~
tï~-e~ ?t ~3~ ~t-r<
ïs~~am Mth~ ~3 6< ~tV &,
twîw in anna]a, ax<~pmme
~~Ct~utef,7tMntti~st)~<:7)
\f.t.U~
M~j-~tm~
x~ M~fUMÏ th)'~neof,tS3
3
f

y~ ~taucî, B~rv-Rp~ && ~Nt~T~on~'s, o~d name tot~ N~samon~ ~t,

\f~r'~).'?~ ïË<f~H'H~ ~t~ MaMcu~hiMr df~n~pt; ~3 t
\Ï~t. f!t:~ tC-t t. $
T. f.
~ory t.'f~ngm f~ -s~~
)[*fccPi'Ïu~s
y<r MaHri
~37 7
Mt'shfshfr, ~~s on Rehu and Tc~cnu, ~93
I!
~ta,J;i: t,;f:t~a.n*

M~~of~~<JE &y i~.m~

1Jf., C,N:t~tll `ü.natt0 A~t\\)1:'t,.

Pt~ît'my~
~ï-t~M.~ a~
~UH~nu~ cru?h<:s thé <.)u!n~uegCMtc~ M<:shwcst), ~6, tz& n. i attack thc Rchu,
z~
t
Meshkfn, conquer~t by Ramcsca

ta~, Mcfshwfsttjctuetsof, t'~ eop'

t~t1

6c
&.j~Y~nt suy~t ttt~cu~. ï~fi
Ma~~unu~c<mj~!§a ?~ 93$
M~\mms Tyrîu~ cît~ <73 HpK'dotu~
pcr $won!s p~ !~s, t~
mo\'fmentot, 2:7~ fbrm of/fN~J~
x'?! castcrn
M.im'jt!~ K. ta tS6
Mx~ worn by, ,:¢, taj; i 11ah'-(h:~$$ing of,

t
1\b..r~)t1~ l;:tllt,. Sp batr p~ 'S~ i of and
t.'$ ~nut~
~~tmu&Tyrn.~cit~
M~m~t~. S~ t~? S 'MtKCtI'î U\ :$. U~H
g
7r,~ thc Mfshw~h, ~y i paînwt, )~o i
KHtt to be
)~ht'at)-gea<'of,i.t7i!ntirstL'byan
ptaced by Merc~totus, war of Ramées !U-, zx~ Ïocatîon of,
il1. ~+¡;:t~u:T:f,~f,. Fa. tributc tv (':un- ~Tf'Ojan Qrig;n. ~7 ~t; overcomcTehcnu, '50; p~n~ct
&J~~ tt! S~ Km.C' tf.SO~
n. na- Qwt1~r$" .u:r.tJ:b from_ ~¡ sg.'s
)&5 M~c~ hacry BIcntmyeS) ~38 m late Egypt, aao n.~t and Maxycs, 47
¡ Roman 66 r namr, 1. i oeerrun ltie~sah, supposed megaliths nt, ~i 6o n, 3
~p'a~cw~ ~j: Sja<N!js~ a~<?u.nt thc FcnMpctt~ 237 fy. p~undeï Eg"\p~ Meta!s,sc''rcityoftînB.t.)bynj,t43,uscof,
otf natims v~ ~+.$ \'I(in~ of 93 ~S tnE.I.iby~t&.aj~.
~[a.;wi:u-i..k~ ct.a:E ia ~A:tt~ 1, 11i ~ktrr.<J:
~~t~nc 6'cco. Acnp~ch~m~ 2~7 tîc- M~ur-tht 70
l\1,n~& e~7rtatrs, in Fayum, 1 S J
Mctathcstscommon in Bcrbcr, 76
if!M~ by P~ubu~ a. 4; (.f~a.r'~ by M~yes~ ~2 ~lo Metncs~ïmu~hagh,
~~nFu~ Bj~ g':n';raj tCbnic c~ ç M=UIXhdli, cditvr, 6p a, 6, 6$ e, 1 Mcyer)t E., cited, t ï M. 6
in !hK Kosun: cicn.<~ 65 p~cc~ &y M<~r, ~lerneptsh tnustcrs his forces m~ Mezatah, 70
IDi.,J"ru., ,~6p 6F Ÿ'I:aF, 57 î bF :t<! Miaedii, 6q
P1:o!<my,6r r 101 ScFTxx" H ï 3F Stro.ho, Mccaï~ in tate Roman times, 6S, of "Midd!c Nubians." ~ff "C Group
$y s cisf ;~nsE ~1.1~~ t~~ Conppus, 6t R. S Mideni, 6~.
"'l\hrnur..s, son of ° ArJ.bs.$# 2' x, %:57 McJe~ 2j3 hlighmadas, 63 rr.
?'t.t~c~ AmtLng:&i of !(b<c Rîf e~ t~û;i ~Ïcd~ad Habu, titcs from, 1:3, n8, 1x7, Migrations, Libyan
MJMlOOLO~ t0,. E ~S X3.R.ChoC&foMs tt!~ ~0
M.u-cM~ L~y~n~ m~
~E~rsa,, d~finct~ M~
custons, t to jyy.
tjt, 13~ t~
t3S,:IO,
22 j X.33
Medtsn~sa&. bis retort to thé Byzantine
2:
tt, i2, 2~7
Mi!ne, J. G., c!ted,
invasions were really,

tyg n. 8, ~36 n. 8, z~S

Mimaces, placed by Ptolemy, 64.
3.(arsa :l..Tatrvç arabte !an& at,. 7 g:eneral So2omon, nc8 M!n of Coptes, si archaic s!gn of, z~~ M. t i
~M. Stj~i&, X €)'i3''a~ subs~fencf a~ Me<ïr~5COt mausoteutn o~ 2~7 as guide, 20on.tî~o''m'ofshrineot,
6. n. t;: gra:n-3tore at, ),71:; t Aâinoan RI pabeLnh tribr, dogs eatea by the, 177 169 n. 8
gem
?.T.u"si To&t-u~ 6
ta t 5 MegaÏhh~c remans, absence of, in Eastcrn Minoan gem seen at Marsa Suzah, io< M. 5
Libya and the Sahara, ï~~ s7. found 1Minacius Felix, quxed, 183
;l,Earsa. Zalfr=. î in Spain, ~,1;no~, and 1'1' .60 1Mirage regarded an!m!st!calty in I.!bya, ~76
~u:H~ ma.!t:-d3a.rmt:~ 1179 Meheinushe~228 1Misdah, 30
M~t!~ J., eite'~ toas
l\.furtia!TqajJtef~ 396.s,x
Mebtis, C-, citd, ~.o S
~Mehnri, the CGW," Neith so catÏcd, tc6
P
1 aj8
M!sra!m~j8
1Mit Rahïnah, etchîng on mirror found at,

M~ a. E~
:\ra.rtin~ de S., (ite1~ z3 rt. J

pcbM~ o~ S~
Meîa, dted. M, 9, 51.
~.7,99, i.
66, 79, 93, 96
:oo, to8, ti6, izt, t~j,
i93
Mnev!s,
L

'73t ~7~ '77t '81, t83, 20~ ~.t; Mobilization,Libyan

1
cuÏt o~ in Egypt, 188
arcas of, 33
quoted, 92, 9~N.3, 99, ioo ~9, tï,
~r.MpfrOt G-, eifed,, x~~ 7, z& je.
?3i 3'
2:?), ÏIE q.tl0te'~ t~.5 <“ g
''9~ ~3-
So 6,
?' i F 4, tt6c 612, 11711.
t~S K.
I, 11.
~53, I68 12,
tS? N. t, 20t a. 1
r, Moghfeb,
z,
J or el-Moghreb, defined, xxi
first Arab incursion !nto, z~o mega-
lith builders in, 160~ traditional in-
M~uMe~yfE~, ertdd, ?S x. Mefanogaetuî~ 1.1x vasïon from Spain, 2~6
:4TasruCy,. xfi~ MéÏt~, C. L., c!ted, t~9 n. z JMoghreb!n,reputed magicians, 179
Si
M'33aac&[m~ Melka?t,Carthaginianftelty, tpS JMohammadan conquest of N. Africa, ~3
"'r:1:l:l£:eta<;m:1niage eustoms of, eao 1<3ettzer, 0, citedr 17° n, ?, 2::7 Ïnvss!on of Libys excepdonat, 18S
~i39u~ Ïmaahag~ E E2 MeiBphîa, Amon cultus at, i~X "-3î be- Et-Mokaddas!,
I 177
Maa3y!!î, $3~ i$o $“ proceness te? n~ght seged by Ïnaru~ 23* Libyen aggres- Mommsen, I T., eitel,8
M1~CX~, !)t ?? mens near, 222 IMoney, Libyans wrong!y said to have used
M~s~ni,. ~E x,~ Menhirs, scarctty o~ ~n E. Libya, 160 it in early times, roG
4
hlastinnaa, I.iÕyan go& 5
Ma.30'c~ p~ced by Ptoîemy~ <!t
,f Menmx, dyed ctothes of, i 20 K-1 Loto- 1
phagi in, 3$
defined, xxî
Mongar Lebuk, hacmatite at, 143 K. t
T
Ma-atic! 5~ mentuhatep 1. defeats Libpno, a..z Moon,
2 a11 Libyans sacrificed to, r87;~Lib-
M~&p:UT~ Cap~. ~~&nce C~ Ra~ eî-H~H~ tX Mefccnanea~Wawat, 49 a. 3 yan surrender because of increase !n
~Ï'a.cer D~um~ ïc6 Mercier, E, cited, 47 n. 1.4., 7 r Mzeof,zttt
).r.'l1d"'J1ll)~ FÍrmÍc~T cited (Be errarr, etc~), M&fCMf, C~ cîteJ, tS~ iS8 JMoon-god~tSS
0;6, n76 rc. y; gnotecD ~Matfrr.J, J7 11. Merg, 6, 30 Moore,G.F.,citcd,278a.i
P 1

!\ofa, ~<K,t~ n
f.nPi·.nrT ""1'&011 to RahiapEa,
Mêli-Nit ro~al Damé in early Egypt, %°$ Moots,
r Trarza, +2
Mcmcp~sh eonqaer? Mcr;ey< ï$o, itf Morcelli,S. A.t c!tc.), 68 n. 7, î8$ n. 8, ~0~
P
ra} j: juins Garam~nfe~
~ht l\CI~ mu;ttn:1 ag zFz
enthHMMm at bis victory over Meryey, i33
2t~ mya~on tn cime of, 30~ xt~ J~?. i Mosa!c P ofUdnah, 169
~a~'l~û~~et~ï'x', H~ M. de~ €Hef~ t5a Libyans tiponed by, 9~, 98 punitive Mosaios P at e!AÏ!ah, t6t)
Ma.J'p~reh~ <~&oo~ <y&
~faf~c~at~. f~ m ~cthMp~ t < ï in
MpecHt~OMof, ~'9 records o~
MeroC, 49, queena of, M'u!pfured With
î~ Mosa!!ab~
D 70
rMoachua, J., cited, 66
~aF~rn Lthya, ï 11 ~y. beard~ tf4. Moaea,
D aueceedcdby Jeaua the son of Noah,
~f~fs ofgjr~sa,, Ltb~n', t~z of t!:m, t~j Mere~c kîngdom, mstnarchateîn, )<2z 236
Marrresse~ jL~ya~ t~ï t
Merottfc reÏtcfs, Il 2 a. Motuturii,
I' 64
"M'a.rït'efan~rr~" stiMse<f~yA~M~o~naeh~ Meryey, if~ i~; attactts thé Temetu) Mount
P ofthe Horn: of the Eftrth, tty, 224
Maarï,
S
d'efe~fe~ ~y Rofr~n~In A~t<~
Wtîh bowmen, i~; defcat of, 130;1
famîÏy û~ to~, Sight of, 2~8, nead
n,
Mountains, thé B!ae!t, 233, 234
P
anrt 5pa' polygamc"cS
2>5 ¡ ¡ o~ cûn~df-raey against Bgypf, t $o, Movcr~,
? J, C., cited, 177
ce~nt~e~ byFQFfM CeÏaa~ t~ tact~ 2t6; invasion of Egypt tjnder, zt6; bMt. Atlas, P!!ny'a a~count 0~73
Mttchthmi!,ptaccd by Plolcmy, 5~ tîgn 0~ z~ )t~ of, as ~t~O ~ar~ Ky~ CM-f~d et~th Ky< &}~ p7~~
byf~!erny,
Et-MudMmta ct-Hamathh, }
MubKr,}}
MQHcr,C.,cited,Xjii,~<},<')?<
<39 ~y.t Matus <~ tcnt M Cyrcn~
?. < tttîeo o~ fi. ?, <~6
Memctîan, cïtc~ 6<! } ~uetc~ 3? z
~7 X~'mpR~ < t

~],~9,6},6~,6~<,t8~«.7
<!t
7 NcphcfochcfM. Kder-tu-rx 0<K~ ~ST' M!'«!~<< t? K~'S<'3<~ t)t,
Ma)M',C.t':ttC'So,}7~.)},K'6,t)t cîtct!, <9<t
NeptM, !~y~ <)cha".tHe~fC<<?, t)~ e~TMt
M<'Hcr,W.M.,ciMd,)[ti,40)).
y,
))K.<e,tt)~.),<t<«.r,t:t0.t,
~CMm~nM. ~/f NasamfmcT
Notent, wife of NamÏot, < jfo
<~ ~< t
Xc~ra~ in Mt~.ettt,
HaffK~~
~MgN~fc-
t, o
y~~ ~y ~s-
)ttm.]!,9,<jcw.<3:,t!}"a, HcMmann, ?., ~t~, t~ t .)My c~nnect~<
t~
!t~h
!~M< Ptf!MS.<t
))70.t,~t,<4],~o,~)<9,t~
<)f~.7,ttt~M.),')"oted,
quoted, ~4. N. t~~ ~o
Ne-u~r-fe f<eft, <tt, tt~, :=~ JJ2, ''3~
1;4,
b!)'M) }~
tthM)<!)t~e'tt«i,~
M !}< )f

)ttK.t,t33"x U7t'47.x"cited 1
<~M M'~<, '7~ ~3<
Murzuk~oasîaO~ti~t~~O Newbeny,P. OMM fiinfi~ < t
Musent son ufBuyuwawa,itxS
Mf9i~Imu5))agh,t~;Libyan,~j<
E~
~îam JMtams, thapc cfhuM<jfthc, t%~
N'ccphorm Blemmyda, ciled, ~7 n.
96

t
< j Oa*~ T~B~ht~
OMiîa?, C!
?x.g
Muat~ches, worn by Et Libyans, < Nicephorua Ca!$tua, cÏteJ, ~2 <. 9, 97 0~!h, Lib;M <MM «6 <~
MMn)ami, 58 Nîcïves, 58 Oa!h~ Egyp~~jt, 'y? t
Mu!a!ini, defeatedby Romans, Nicocrates t!ays PhaedimM, ï3) Oberi!n, B<Ke d!mg ~.M*.t' <7} an
~ua~Un!y~Muauïam! pJ!co!ausDamascenu~cîte~6~tt0~7,m,
r, ViMtM S~N~tt, M <. <, .<r.
MusMnei,!<<!t <it <t2, it~ t4~ t47/'5' ~7*
1, ?.
M"gure9,p!Me<tbyPtoïetny~~
My'aKrus, t86
t~ fT.t,t8&&~ tS?
6, 176
~.t;qUOîcd, IJ2
Z
OtsMtmT]~jBi)!.)t d!<d, t~
Octa~ot cmj~ P~y!~
S
Myrt!t!i, looted by Libyans, :}7 a. 9, 143 N. n, 4, t79, '79 3
Niger, ancient journ~y to, t04. tcmtory of 0<~fK~, Liby~ <B iTf, M
the, t~, 30 Oea, fetoït <~ ï~
Nabuteam, dress of kings 06
Ni.b!e,7
«9 Nigeria, totem anîmah in, t77
N!g!ttm!, placed t~ Ptoïemy, 63
OcMtb', placed by Pio'cmT, ~t
Og<hani, pTMa! by Pt'ikmt, <t
OgdacQ1l1m ,MOUl'-J:Ü", 6a
Nachtiga), G., cited, Xti, 13, <70 <t. t,
zo~ Nigize GaetnU, 63
OgipïonMt,pSacKt by PsoTe~Bjr,
Namar, King, said to have war'ed against Nigligeme!a, ~33
thçL'byans,zt0~.z
x Nigretes, had cars, t~ Ci! prcsM-~ Rûm~a, m~JEsa <&f EMg~
Names, Libyans, personat, in the Egyptian Nile, JLtbyans on west bat~ of, 49 tbMjry a
annaÎ9,8o of Herodotus in regard to sources o~ 'OttbaJba Xaf! Kot into Lib~m docj!,
Nan)tot,tt~S,')ueeno<,«(! t04 traverse ofthe, 9 OU~cs, ïn Cyrano~ m Ub~
Nann~i,}9,:jt Nimr'Ali, t43 n. a Oti?c wood, i~
r~arsc~victoryovertheFranksa',2t8~.tr ~!ne Bo~tT," 48 z, 216 6 Ompbalmsy Siwr-an Amon cwGf^snaed bg
Nasa~ônes, n. 4,
C~. 6; as pirates to~
i Nîtens, 59, ~33 some to hare jbnn o~ t~}
attackth<;Psy))i,f74,!it,buria!sof Mtibrum, ~34 Omoss and g~t~c m MGCM Egyp!, i ~3
t~e, î 81 19~ chastised by Romans, Nitriotae,placed by Ptolemy, 6t Opheï!as ~n
by .~ashoc~s, ~3:
106; claimed descentfrom Nasamon, Nobadae. y~ Nobatae Oph!ogene~ sna~e~hanB~n~
Ophtha!m!a,
t~
2~7 coUect dates at Augi!a, 98 divî- Nobatae, cat!ed into Egypt by Dtocïetîsn, M
tiat~on at graves amohg, t?! dress, 236 give hostages to Majdtmno~ 238 Opp~'t, cited, ~y
n8;eatersofïocusts,ioc;fortsio Nomads, bravery o~ 36 coBserratistn o~ zo.6
Ops Regina,
.tMrttoryof,t~i,t66;tnLlateRoman 38 n. i force of puhlicopinion among, t~s of Bcrn, t~t
Otadc
M
Ammonium,

t!mes, 66 marnage customs of, < 10 36; modem, joy among, 36 in thé Onba~&s~Gt~t~S~B~tt~
methodoftakmgoath.iS~jmisphced Sahar 3t modern; vague ideas of OrtgB ~amot. ~Efr., Citcd, 6~. €6, ~S
by Ptolemy, 6: placed by Diodorus, time, 3b Semiti~ in Ma.-marü~, ç¢ Ornement,Liby~a, t:~ t~y-
56 by Herodotus, <
by Pliny, 57 n. z sexuat moraUty among, 37 i Omaïn~ptatioa,"C Groop, 2~0
by Seylax, {~ by Strabo, }{ revolt truthfutness o~ 36 -ry- western boucd- OnKitt!, Qttd, ~9 jt. ~9 t. 3, 6~ *-1,6!,
~r,a3~iStab!l!typf,yt;:hc!rmode ary of, accor~!ng to HerfdotttS, jt <9 e- <
t~je. t,:}~t.~;j t <)tM!Ki,
(]fp)edgingfaith,i79!t;~)ica),!)t;
ysed mdpaliat r68; wore wiegs on
tjeitd.ijoo.t 1
Nonnus, cited, Sz n. t, S8 Y<~ 13~ R. t.
i ~4 <, < ~o a. 3, x~y 6
Nardie invadcm of Africa, ¢t1
?. 6!
w. 2,
a
().àUabOn,d;man", ai '1'
y, x~ s- 2 qo~c<S,
M

Nasathontan youths, Herodotus story of the JVc~~ Dignitatum, cited, ~9, 63 quoted, Osmch in E. Lib~ t9, 9~
Ostr!eh~g~~&<'Hs, t~s~ 0~ t~~
Ostnch p!ame% s~ns of ne! 11~ <.
(!t<X~. ~7 z
"Nascimenia,"6j;
6S
~rt.
Nouns, Berber, 74 t,
ç
En Na~r, Mohammad Abu Ras Ahmed, ilroa·veJlesArthi.ver det ~isivas Scieiafijiy.,u;, wora by Libyâmsm behns, t~ z. t
tited,3H.ïz cited, ?o: n. 111 o.nich~¡"dd.of, a¢8
Natabudes,;8 N~I~~N.8 8 Ond,c]te<I,t?3
Natattros, 68 N. t~ I-'b) nation,
Nubae, a an 49 ?. 8 Strabo on O~H ~y~tt? &nj 0. &!Bg~~
OKcn, captured by M~~ept~h, tn E,
t~
Nathabres,M,68ft.3~ thé, 49 n. 8
Natb~bur River [M/. Wady], 68 Nubas, 4S Libya, iS. ~<' PaftoteB
Nsvi~at!oa between Libya and Mediter- N~be~ Firmus s~ o~ ~37 Owcers* maris t~m M~nu~nca, S~
ranean islands, 19 n. t Nubia, connected geographîc&Uywith the 0!HK*e,
Nav!~e,E.~t)uot<!d,tt},i~)".t
x Egyptian oasea, 49 denned, jud dis-
Nazabret.SSn.it tnct of Tcmeh m, jfuaon of Patho, J. R., dttd,
xn; ;S <t. >
Nebdeni.f~H.~f
t<cbne9t)!,ttS
Hamites and Ne~roes in, 43 Nobatae Pack~xen in Libya, <o~ s?.
Pa!a~~ p<rmut~tton& in B~rb~f, y~
NecHMes.Libym~t~tt
scttted în, Z3<!
Nubians, defeated by Aristomachus,t~~ fat &. f«<t~ s~r. SMf~ )~ t)! t
Heck-stat~s, for thé L!byan horse~ t ~o Muers, "Jancmg-bo\<of, ~4~ 7 *aboo ~&t,t~So.< a
Nefe~-ka-ra, E. Libyans rebelled against, !t t t of cows* ncsh hmong, 96 0 M)<)nUas,M:c Tntc"h ot)~, M~
Nef~it-ronpetj&~OM.~ 4
Nefuisah, 70
Numides, 64 M. 4 Paths, word)!p o<, in Synes,
Numidia, Ï.!b~ntaÏds ïn, ~34; ~dsîn, a~~ Mhry,P-,<-M,t<o
t~
Ne~d Arabs, hair-dressing of, ~36, t~y "Numîdian"alphabet, 83 Mr.)~ M Bjbtf!.th, tt, st t~hhh, «
Ncgr~ f~e~a with Attat)t!~ H~m!tes, N~m!tt!aas, eh'e& o~ net kissed, "7 Ca]u, t0, Hitt~h. tt{ M Sh<ah.
<H'uehabHatof,~tn.i¡ eatcrs of ro<)ts, !oo; taches of, ï~ï';
<o;MW~hh,'o;t<m<~ecfËhMo~
Nehi, commémorâtes EgypthrL power in used m~<t/t~, t68 why so called, &j;
S, 'Si !ogs «~ ustd in censtractie)), tjt
)reîgnofThutmoscï!Ï.,?~~
¡ ~33 Mmwm< ~tt !tM<
Neith.to~tCharMterof.tû~q.i con- Numidian steta, t43, t~a Mmynt, fortes of, m Ss~pt, J3<!
fection with Ausean Athen), 20~ q
Nycrii, pta~ed by Ptote~y, 63 P~neM, burM of <Mr Mn~ <S~ <t-
 P-m-Cmve p<*op~,
i
PhitiMu!, c!tc(), 6to.<, 6~a.C, 6]X.i6, < j Prc-historic, jimited meaa!ngo~
P.ut GrtYtt,"
Paraetotuuttt, 7
g
P~rthcy,G.,c!t~J~Sa.$
S
P.tpr';Hn~!turu9Mtthdt'awsto,2jt

P.trk,M,citt.\f,aojt.~

P.tnh!m!, titctCcs o~ contpMt-d to (hos; of

_6t!<o"-d.]
Pbt!ostorg.u!, <-ttn),
!37!quotcd,Ma.6 6
]
9, 66, 6S, 68
Ph![ostratus,quoted,totft.j
5
Phoenïcîan,inscrtptîon rcportcd
«.

by Pro-
ro- «.!a
x. 7,
7,
~P' xxi
Priests, garlie and onions
tabooed to
rr'm.(ad!n<Ë.de,<'itcd,)ot.<oi.t!o

<'opius,t~<;scr!ptH!htedtoÏ-!byan, Pt!sc:!tn,c!tcd,~9t;.t
Libyans, s~t PhoeniCtan~
~rt~-tt~~nB<;cb~r~~ tegcndary migrations of, ï<6
PnscusPanitcs,c~ted,6!,tM,:j7

f.trts<:h,J.,cM,u<),t[?x.~t~.i!t!7 Probus, defeittt Marmaridae, !t(i, shya

Phrase in Bcrbcr, Arad!on,)S<
P~ro, Cape, d:tt.tmre to Bcngt.Mt, S x. 2 "Phr)~Nn" innufncc in Berber, 7~ Processions at Lake Tritonis, ~o~,
PaM~v? scnK ÎK Bert~T, 7~ Piankht stda, .09, tto, i~o, t~~ )~<, (', monia), )~~j of thé Dmt f~/t~M.
cere'
P~tcf~ bung from barque ufS!w~n Amon, zxS
'M~
Paulinus,Suetonius, puts doMa :hf Libyans
Ptette, E., <tK). 56 9t
Pro<:)u~<;tte<),t};);o~
P~tabccag-atn~tyy rfucop.tis, cited, xx, 40, 58 ee.
in the Att~ 2 j~ P'g'nîes, Nasamonian story of, to4 t., 1~,
<?,$Sn.o,)oo,)o)!,)<<))!t~);
.P.tu'mHt,t;!ttd,.to,~S,<S,tS~M- Ptteus, t~Q 't't.'t<t9".3.U'),'7!M 3,
t'j.t~t~o, [3~20~20~~3,20.ç
~uote~tSj
Pm.f.)r, ctted, t9o ;<, t~<, 2}; a. 'i6i "t.'97.'97'6,!07,MS,6,!)~
t~
quoted~
P:ndar,M~t6~ '39. z56 quoted,
~~S)
".t,'oe,tt<, ;!}< n. 2~5~o n. t, too
Pcctoraf ornjments, Libyan, t~t
Pfge,2~ z
Pine trees in E. Libya, 27, t~; 0.9g Promiseuity,sexual, unknown in E. Libya,
Pete~L-t, or Philiaines,6t n. 220, 222, 22C Pipe, double, oft-ihyans, t~~
wore fe.tEhcr head-dr~'ss, ?. t t~ Piquet, V., c:tcd, < ), t~) B. t
tt0~.
Pronouns,
Petere Islantrs, o s 1 n. personal, in Berber, 7~
Ff/f.t,t~ i Piracy, tôt sq. of
Prophccy, thé god Ammonium pnmaritv
F~Mf~ t22 Pirates, Thekel and Pelesct, zzz. Set Sea-
a- oneo<,n;i,
WithoMnkiît.nQ
rock-gtyph showm~,
t.t~, worn by women,'
Pent.!po[:s,bnt-.efYofChr;sMnspfthf,237i
p worn ); PeoptH
Piteh, mment, i~:
P!acc-names, ana!ys!s of E. Libyan, 78
19.
<t. 8
Prosoditae, placed by Pto)emy,
Prosop!s,6t
Prosopitac,6t
61
Berber, easten and western compared, J, Proto-Berber, denned, x)c!, car-ring from
r~id<~ï by MMÎces, 2,8 Kcoïomzed~ Berber, in E. Libya, 76 f~.
.~3ï" 1 77
P!ague, x~ grave, ;~i dément in Egyptian, St
Pepti.,2[t,W.iw.itoierccMresmtime the language of the E..Libyans, 76 m?.
Plataea, chronology of Greek cotonization Proto~ynas::c, denned, xxi
cf. ~9~!3 n
Pep:tt.,2;t of, n. S. ~f "Sea) h." Pmto-SemMc language, ~jJ
x Plato, cited, i~t o. 206
Perire, b.ittk of, 2)6 sq, focatK'tl of, !t6,
6, t~g jy. f~a~ Psammettchus, Intrus son o<, t~i
i
Psapnon," story of Maximus Tynus
2[?~.t 1
Permutationsin Berb~r~ j-~ j~y.
Perrol!, G., and Chipiez, C, d:<-<i, xvi
Pte~de~ Libyan observance 0~)7~~
Pliny, cited, 29
}) 7) ~7. 58, K. 7, j~, 60, 6; n. t,r,
t.53, ~7, cem!ng',iSo
PSBA, cited, So o, tS~ n. <
:!7 N. 3
t;
con-

.0,,
Perroud, C, e;ted, xx
!t'°J.'°~6,22}~2~t<t. t,
,02 mt.t, <'< °3. 9~ 7) 66, 6<, 6S'o;, «. tj, toj70, mt. 7~
9
Psebo, "Lake,"
Pselchis. See Dakkah
Strabo on, 49
Psylli, antipathetiz to po!sonous animais,
quoted,10~ a. 3
Penecs, brother of Arcesilaus H, 2~0
??. '°~,
6, ti~ <t. r2o K. t, t2i B. 3, i~ h
t~, <
180; attackecby Nasamones, t?~, !}.,
'~9. 't9 'j! t, bat:le with south w!ad, }S1,
Persians, 2~}
by Icinj!, jjt
beiMge Barca, 231
enter Egypt, 2j~
defeated
e):-
'7°, '7t. 'So,
15,
1:0 );
'69 n. tt,
iSi )t.t, 183,
'S7.lS7);.t,20.t);2~}X.t,2}7;
!3t «.
descended fro=n Psyllus,
tton of, told
2S7 destruc
by Herodotus, 17~
¡

pdMom agonit Ammoninm, t~,

hamsedbyLibyMts,2~t,:ttMM auoted,j!S,6S)!.i~,o!);<, 6,
i as
pedition of, against the South Wind,ex-
~P't *3?
10:0, t;6<t.2,
<3,l!o)t.3,t<t.],jjj
t73B.2, tSo tSo, to)dbyNonntB,t~e.6;neart.amn!< as
Feruv]~a bonaîa, 182 6: nomadism o~, ~i i placed byHero-
n. distribution of E. Libyans by, dotus, }! by Pliny, by Ptolemy,
Pe:hut,2i~ <
Phme, f!gure wearing, on *'C Group" ~7
Petne, W. F., thed, xiii, x:r, xv, o~ by Straho, snake-charming.
'4.j!t.t2".},)t!,tt!!

"t-
jar, *~9 oa Nubianjar-Ma)mg, watef-tanks of, 17)
8 Ptum<a, in ba!r of Nubian buna), among, t~~
PsyUie Gu)< ~2 9
n. 6, ~6Sx. 3,2~,2~ t~o );. 6 i
<t.2t<2;t.[,2[~j,
f. 122
<9;qmoted,~[:x.o~t~&
worn by chiefs, Il ç
Phra!, <brmation o~ in Berber, 7~.
Plutarçb, cited,
PsyHus, ancestot of PsyH!,
3!, <S3, ~7
tj~ tomb of;
'-J.~t9"¡ s
Petne, W. F. M., and Durcan, J. G, xviii
a~2~
179 n.
"9, '9° 'o, '9', '9'
i!o n. t, tSo
:uo, :oi, Mz, :o3, t]} quoted, 20!
i)~ x.
5, P'o'emy,7.,eitej,
Ptah-Tateaen, He)iopo)u stronghoid o~ !t<

Petrie f~ynif, 62 x.
Petm~typhs in N. Afnea, t~<
Petromm, dted, roz Sudanese cam-
paJgn of, +9
.Pe-Mt,Mmbof.atS!wath,23
Peuth,
Phaedimoa aî~n
by Nïcocr~EM, 29
Pha~t'~ t?O a. S
P!)ithara,)îj'
PhtfmS,
Mno by, 96 x. ;<
.4,.S7".3,M.Ï9'
i
Plynus, position of, ~t N. to
Poet:a,!mushagh,;}~ ~°~<'
°J,M,<7.7'.79,'02,tt~<t6S,
Pomsjt~t,L, cited, 201 a. t1
)!
Poittier, E., cJted, )~M.i,to,i:i!a.S,:3~«.t}~
Polemoa,quoted, 2~~ n. t distribution of the E. Libyans,
< 60 sqq. his work mathematica! rather
Po!);o, TrebeHiss, c;!<xt, t3<
Potyaentu, tited, t77 2~0 «. 9, :]2
thsn geographiea), 60 quoted, xx a.
~M.9,t!,t9K.a,}!«.t!,6t~
j quotcd,
t
Polyblos, cited, i!S x. :}i, ~j~
iS~, t~t
rectification
9 of h;s m<tp,
Po!ygamy,l,;b).m,)(;! r 6j
~j ci~ Po!yh)!)tor,Atexander, xix x.
Ptokmy Apion bequeaths CyrenaiM to
Rome,:)t

5..
Pomegranate, 2< wo<xf, Pto)emySoter,20o
PhM.tn!j)r.agr;e,jtture!n,t,tro- Porphynea,
]1
~7
quoted byEcsebiu3, < n. ] Pudentius,adviceo~ to Sergius, ij!!
glodytes of, too "PortBardia,io..o
Phazanf!, phced by Pliny, 2~
< Puemreînscnptïoh.~S~.j
]PoKMon, (ather of Athena,
Phename, Met~ a)<{ of Aryanda, :o.t dotus on, tgy7
20~, Hero- Punic pcrtonaf names, ~aman rare in, t~

t
Ph!ta<Stnt')Oat,~f) Pun!cterra-cottas,tp~
49 ]Potshard, Sardinian, design Punie War, nrat, !j; third, t]!
Philaen?, barrow of the, t9t temb 9!jd on, 121
Pottery, classes of "C Group,"
aharo~ïX~ t<o l,ib- Punt, Min of, 169 n. 8
Ph~cnorumArac.t, ~7, ~7, T~. )~: yan, !~j Punsta,<ta.}5
I
PK-dyna~tie, <!eSnt<), xxi Egyptian
Philistines, Berbers identified wi'tt, by c)- ostrich eggs in, M «. t graves,
Bdb- 2~7. See Pettset Quadriga, said to be derived from Libyans,
tPre-dyna~tMEgypt;an9, burials of, <:t 14.9
 Quttrefagcs,J.L.A.dc,<t<:d,tt ~i Ritual ~cstiva! tn B. Libya, ~9 Santar~h~ 70 t ~~ry ~f <bt bt<
<~u)be)t,J.E.,c!tcd,xv,o3~.9,9~M,~ Robe, Libyan, 1t6, < t~ with bordera < z, Mam!c k!n~; o~ <y~
t22,t8~,2t0~.t J ~9~.<t8 Sard L!b~an tfa~~în, <?~
Quinquegentes, rebettion ofthe, 230
d Rochemontei~M. de, cîtcd, 8< Ss~!nîa, ge~fapbt<<() fs~two t<? ï~byx, t? ¡
Qu!:r!n!ua. P. Suïp!c!ua,defcataLibyans, 23~ Rocky Mauntaina, absence ofHondi in, ~t j'am'<-h~d afnu!fî< in, '99; ~!t i.)
Quiver!,Libyan,)t;,tt9 Rocdcr, C, citcd, t~, z!~ a. 6 mftaît, t!fu'~M~~ <t~fi~?4 f?
Rohlfs, C, cited, t8 n. t, t73
Ra,<tt9
Berber, 7~ j pronomina), in
R(~ah~ cran!a trom~ x~6
Roman, apotheosis ofTmpcror~ <Sï M. 3;
Cronutin t66
Satuna~ dt-~t-D<!e<) bjr ÏJbyant and
~rïre~o~ t~
A~
Radicals,
Egyptiah and Bçrb< $t influence at SÏunt, tjjS inscriptions,
ï39t
Saturne the AMca~ ~ct ~g:t
<<!?, t28 <t. 3
t, t8 A. i
Râ!Maud, R., c!te<t, 26
Ra!nbow, regarded animistically in Libya,
tS~ ?. 2 t inscnptton near Constantinc,
~88, jsntp, head of Gurzil on, tM;
pcnetratfon ofthc §a~ara, to~ temples
1 :9Z
SauÏcy~ M. de,
Sccp~rce, !t<S
cï:~
~6 in Africa, Mt Schat~ P, cited, 136 jy. to
Ra!nfaM in E. Libya, <o Roman Africa, natives used Latm names in, Scharutana~ 6t n. S. See Shcr<~o
j
Raia-makin~, t~~ AuK.in, 20~ sq. ï36 Scina, 208 n, <
Rant), bronze, charmaga!nstatcnt!ty,202 Remanies,nomad~m of, ~f Scipio, Ëred camp of S)'phax, <~X, in
M. tï Dtonysus
guioes
or Hcracks
fugitives
saved by
city,
Romans, engage
Phazania,
Libyan cavaîry, t~f in
Acthi-
Âfrica,
Schtaparenî,
'3'
E~ aïct~ yô 2
a, tS~ to désert 23~ penetrate to
2.00 position of, among the.Lib5 an op!a, tj~ protect Egypt from Libyan Schînnct, 1 H., cited, 3~ «. f2 a. z
sacra, ~93 thé sacrer animal of raîds, 236 ruleE. Libya, 2~3 Schnondi, Coptic life of, cited, 23?
thé Deus ~~W/f~ Roscher, W. H., citéd, 20: f, 206 1 t Scbolz, J. H. A~ cited,
Ramis,gtyphsof,i~6fy.;h~adso~a3 Rosellini, L, c!ted, xvi, ~t~ tzC nn. < Schr&det, P~ ~te~, 80 n. 5
amulets, t~<) and 3, ~6 M. tA? M. 4, 9, ~6 < Schwetn~rth,
1 G, cited, s~ n.8, x~: 1.1)à
Ran1t-sk!ns,dyedred~i2SM-3g Rougé,J. de, cited, 20~ 1SciÏIïtan~ m&rtyr~m of, 23$
Ramcsesïï.,storntsSatuna,t$t;trouHed Roy!c, L. V., cited, M. 6, 32 N. t, t~} u Scorp!on~ PsyHï carcd tïings o~ t??
-3

by Libyans, 214 RT, Cited, 80 n. 6, 20$ n. 2~4~ N. ï Script. Wnnng

Kanjese! UI.,
)~<, i~!
::S booty taken by,
captiver o~ n~j conquers
t~ ~M~Ruad~tae,ptaccd by PtoÏemy, <St
Psyllic conjuring with, 180
Ded, Meshken, Meryey, Wermer, and Ruinart, D, cited, ,69, 235
Themer, 22t Egypttan eases under, Ruperti, G. A., cited, t?~ n. z
5<:ufptur"" Lnir~-an, '57
Scy!ax,cited, xix 6, xx K. i, ~t SN. )p, ) r,
~x M. 7, t~ i~ ict 3, ~j, t~!
n. i quotec-~o n. ~t 7, 99 i, 2~
t
q8 n. S, 229 Libyan wars ~f, :120 tqq. /!M-, absenceof, in East Libyanpïace-cames, j n. i, t03 < date o~ $~ disïnba-
second Libyan victory of, 22~ spoit 78 tton of jLibyan tnbes by, j~.
taken in second Libyan war, 9S Sea-bunaî~
c i2tg
Rameses V., tomb of,
Rap~a, t3t
t~ Sabaean 0rigia ofLibyaa
a a~ pngin
o i ~n writing
~nting no,not proved, SSea-gods, Libyan, iS~
Sea-peopÏcs,LïbyEDS a~û)3ated wjïh, ~t, tS5
S
Ras ed-Dabbah, Sabarbares, ~8S "Seai Js!and," stonc enclosures on, tS~
Ratd-H'n!<t<!stan<:t toCape Ss~rah, 7t rgam on, x~y ~y. P~ati'~
~Iatapan,i! t8 Sabrata, 133 Sea!~
S Minoan, 28 a. _ç'

Ras ~t-Kapays, y Saburbnres, 6t Seasonst

S cbanga in, aoz
Ras i~Iizratah=Cepha!aePromof)tor!om, Saci, 64. n. 4.. Sebek, coït of,
S x. S
Ras ~î-Mudawr, jf, 6 supposed coastal sub- Sacrifice, Libyan, to sun and moon, tSy7 Sebbab, xxii
S
Mdenceat,6~.t1t SACTVT ÏHIMIR, ïS~ Sedira, Belkassem Ben, t~9
S
Rastr-Rami!4 Saddles, L)b~n horscs ridden wîthoQt, 1~0 SeÏden, J., dted, <S6, ~6
S
S
Ras'J"cyones, 4
t Sa~aJtïc, and L.ibyaa scripts, 8~ Gheytah SeÏene-Lana,re!aîtoo to *'SaïurDa~" 2=:

6
S
Ras t~-Tîn, distance to Gaudo, n. t inscriptions atUcd to, zj~ Seli,
S in late Romaathn~ 66 and SeJacon~
Rebqud, V., cited, xvi, 8~ K. 3, 89, 89 H. Safsaf (in Cyrenaica), Libyan letters ai, 89 63 towns o~ 66 x- !3S
tS~.K.6 y~HMwora by Libyan notables, ttn Setïmah, t~ 16
S
Rebd, ~6 attacked by Meshwesh, 223
~efeated by Egyptians, :z,:Z;' war of
Sahara, absence ofmegaHthsîn,!
beads in, i~
90 ;arrow- Semerus,
S 6z
elliptical tombs in SSemÏte~ Africanseta!mm~ de&Mst &om, 2~6
Ratneses Hï. with, 2~2 force Tehenu northem, iyS Libyco-Berbér pyphs Sctnmcgods S in ban!c, !Sy t~ hngua~cs,
to juin confederaeyagainst Egypt,216; in the, 196 permanentcentres in, conjectared ~fEn'ty o~ to Berber, ?~
învaded by Egyptians, ~c location petroéiyphs ,n, i4g rigans of the, iuHuence ia Cyrenai-ea, 18; j .socrjpt~
of, ~t movement eastmard of, 227 24.7 western, climatic changes of, Gheytahînscnpnons aHïcd to, ï~j
bttooing of, <}! a~f~r~ in, t~~ Seaam ~i1ah~ 2+7
S
Reciprocal sfnse in Berber, 7~ Sahel, defined, xxii SencgaÏ River, 3~, Mohammadan Bc~rMs
S
"R~)I-an<i,the,t99 Sa-hu-re~~S, 9~, $6, )oS ?. i, n~, t2t, t2~ of 9 thé, ~6 Uppe~ cow~a~ûo IB, <i&
Refusées tattooed, t39 n. 6 Uo, '3', u~
es-Saïd, BerbeR in, 70
'S~ tït n. 9
Sen~unbja, Berbcf fun&a with Xeg?~es ïn,
r
~~t~-vcssels in spoiï of Merye7, s 188 S
Rein~ch, S-, cited, zët n. t Saît~pr Sacî, 64 n. 4
h°" 'h''H.9!3i
ReMt*r,G.A.,cited,xv,xxii,i22a.<27, Saint-Martin,V. de, cïted~, 58 a.t 3, ë~N.8 Sentîtes,
i Sais, Athetia of, and Ausean Athena
parcd, xo6 ehief scat of Neith cultus, Seped,
com-
S
S
Seaus! at
placed bj PtoÏfmy, 62
G=bub a!?d Z~ytun, to
46, ~y m ~rst Libyan war of
<auoted, 2jH
Reiipon, Libyan, 172 207 Egyptian 20$'~
~na!ogiesto,207,of"CGroup," Saliva, t~cd as cure for snat:c-bîtes, ty~, tSo
S
Rameses îï~ 22: p~nder Egypt,
?. pos!t)0r. of, unknown,
s.
~~°~ Sallust, cited, 37, So M. 4, i68,169 N. 3, & Septimius Sévère skiHed in astro!og\, ~6
Renan, JE, tited, 73 t70, 183 quoted, toS, to8 L). 93$, ~stahHshes se~nty ofTnpot]S,
Renitr, L., cited, 80, 236 o. 3 i~6 Serapeum ste!a of Harp<~on, tc~ 22? 3
Si
!ttL<)t)f,P.t<'P,t!te<),~OK.<2!)«.3 3 Sa!t, Libyan, ica used in buHdtn~ t~t Seî~
& G~ ated, xut, S5 i& t tS 9
RetntD~t30t).t vaxçd and waned with the moon, tS~ Serges, S< go<remo< of TnpoÏïta~a, ~38 i
Rhea,2oi
201 M. 3. '.) .1 mut~crschich of Leuathae, ~~S
Rhïnoceros borns~ Libyan trafnc 4n, tôt SamamycH,placed by Ptokmy, 63 S'
Serpemts, xrce as-puides to A!e"3.n(Jcr~ :2;~
Rhytipein Imushagh poetics.
RH~way,W.,e!t'!<),t!t'<
t~ Sanda!s, ti6, txy
SaOfî-dweUers, As!atie, jtï' Sel10rius
&
Snakc9
opens: gr':iV"e of Anbei.1~ 1 1

ty4..
4
K'K denned, xxii $and-stormj,army of Santartah ovefwhctmcd S< Scrvîus, Cttpd, f~S tS~ c.S, ~~o, !~j
Rifa'hah detnshes a) snake-chartners, by, t73; Persian ~rce.overwheïmed MN. a, 3, 200 quêter t~S S, t~o~. ta
t RtO~O''o,negro!t)Bcrbersof,~j6
R.itcsofdesolation,203
6
179
b
Sanhagah Berbère :~t
Sesostrss,
S. captures Lib)';m cattk, ~j~ `St,s
Usertcsc~
 ac:crof,super9t!t!on$concern!ng Strabo, distribution of t.ibyan tribes by,
~ctî engages Libyens,
tomb
2tt; p~nttngxt *ayM at, t?2 use of patm-timber ~<:ited,xxx.7,<it«.7,
!79.)6K.)<7,
&~m tt~ t~S Libyan
cam- în, town, to.
:y See Ammon!um
p~f~a o~:x6 $kÏnS), as mat~ t~3 i ~fffï~ t~ panther, 9~m;.t,),too,)OQK.)tS,tt9,
&'tn~:ht,beginsXXth DyM$tv,2=o,220K.t
t in Tehenu tribute, St~ skin-gantient, t:t,t:7,):S<t.t,<]~~}0.<,
S~t~n-K~rr, H, W.~ cit~ xix th\tng~, ïxS~3; nsc~ as dpthing, '~tt.),<o,)~,)S~,)~t,~t
Shab~t: Cmm cÏ-tïarab~ r?Ht:& ai, ~2?, t~S i
~un of basjhca at, 2oS a.
t2<
Sky, "iea~etÏ" at Cyrene, :ot
'9!9i'MO".i.'3]'<. 6,
~}~.<,<)u~ed,e.<}<,)o:,
SÏav~tra~,L)byan,<o'j
Sha.h(',J.ct, I.ib}'an dh'i:n1tJ ¡ Si
Shst, ~.6~ 4.7. 22.t posmon of,. untnoi.\n~t
Hhar~nh Ïs.~ ?. 11A t
rt
5funtrelirl~te$ a,
S!tngSj,Utyan,!J[~i~)
SïuntreHt-t~tTita.tjjt~tj8 rt;, tz8t rs$
)0!<t.9,)«,<3j,)j0
~d~U9
Strcng diatcct: h Berber, 7~
·

~h~-neu~y, x~-t Smith, G. A., citcdt S6, gz Stronghotds, Libyen, in Cyrenaic!),t6o!

Shaw, T., ntcd~
Shaytarsr 75
t~
?. 2~6 M. 1 Smith, G. E~ cited,
~X
t~ 159 a. 3 quote<), !nE,Libya,ijit 1

StumNing.Siwansupersutiottineonncction.
f<'K~
She~ths.
~M Smith, R. M. and Porcher,E. A., cMed, iS with.~j
Sheep, among
ancientl found
E. Ubyan~
with milk and fttsh, 100
E. Libya, tg5 fed
10
6 6
Shl;'kd;~bt 6t rs.5, 5,. :;zo identification of,
g6

m .lUtancs with Mc~'ey, t5oç

Barbary, ~.tt
t~
Smith, W. R., Cttcd, ~ïS N. j, t~g o. 6,
M.2,iy~M.2,t8oM.<iSyM.tj;,t~t
N.tjj~uoted~tSya.z z
Smyth, Captain,YtStt of, to Ghîrxah, 157
Suah,orEenu-~ï"\Vasuah,yo~.i1
Sudan, Negro gravcs of thé, !~6 j trade of
Elephantinewi:h, 1 t t
~udanese, ancientty wore plumes,
bhcksatSiwah,i7)i t]o,i
2 )L6 K. 7
long stconis of, 1.l-f. See Sicels
ShcUe~ G. E., eited, zg 3
Sn a Nigertan totem, 177 possibly the
Psyllic totem, i So n. 6 sn.ike-charmmg,
S~dCrana!s,ca!rnsE'fthe~x~y
Suetontus,dted,~t
S~rdf)' 6 t 2tt~, 220~ 226 as allies of 179~.
7- Suh, atï Libyans 5acr!~ceJ te the, i8y i
l~iierycy,.A5o as
eradérs to Libya, tzt;
circuni~i5ton among, t~o; emptoyed
Sobarenstsltitte of Saturnus, loi
Socnopaeus, cuit of, 179 n. 8
u, t6 Founta~n ofth~, at Ammonium, 173
Sun-BuU,inEgypt,)SS
mft:~ t-f.3 Hrst mentîoued, 21~ <- $ among modern Berbers, ~<! Sun-God.tSy~.
~tf:nt!ficatffn f~ z x6 y in pardinta, Sottnah,ï~bt~~o Supersl;tions, SiKah, 172
ï44 Soïar embletr~s on Satufnus-steÏae, 201 Sur el -Gha2hlan, ïnier!pt!on ot, z~6 n A
Shcahonk Ï.~ g';nca!o~- o~ 2=3 s<rnJs com- symbolst crudfo011, Z09 Sus, rams worsh!ppe<) between AghmM and,
m:Lssnjnen M Dahhh, 229 SoÏeym-Bes-Man~ur, 47 jt. t~ incursionof '97
"?
Shc'Shook. Ill., Lüyan officers of,
Sheykh Sidt Suleyman, maledef, [56
th<y.t
Sotmus,cited),t02,i20B.i,2~on.<,23~ ~ic~inGheytah inscription,
Suteth,

Ion, 2~~
25+
Shields, Libyan, ofostrich-skin, t~S ?.77 Swearing.~fOatts
~h~ps, Carchaginian, with ram's head at So'iuo), guÏfo~ 6 Swn]e,notbre<iinLibya,;Si)
pFOW, iqt) Solomon, Byxintme general, toS defeated Swords, among Libyans, t~x, 1~3, ï~.6 of
~o~ de~ned, xxu
Shott el-Cerî~ Zr 3
J~ar~ false, 236 t by the Leuathae, z~~
Solomon (Ki6g), synagogue at Borium
attributed to~ 208
theMcshwesh.ity
Sycamore, 27
y

Synagogue atBoriuT),!o!
Sibilania, permutations of, in Ikt"L~rl 75S Solubb1¡ nomadism of, 91 Synesius, active against robbers, :37 c!t€d,
Sicela, zt6 n.7; pushed out by Umbro- Somalis, plumes as tokens among the, 66,67,$S,t!~<«,!j~x.t,!)?«.6,
6,
~tms, 226. See Shekelesh 130 n. 1 2~8;~uot€<J,)S8~.t,py~.ij[
Skily; geographica~ retition to I~bya, tS i Songs, Libyan, t Syphax, camp b<, tred by Scipio, i6S
mc~tths of, t6c structurMxttnbuted Sophoclcs, quoted, $7, t-)~ Syphilis, !j,
eat!ng ofpupp!es .'M cure for, t
to Cronus in, 166 Soerces ofLibyan history, Z JO
o Syna,cthnicshiftm,ï~o,2ï6;megaï!ths
Snle-lo<;kas badge ofofEce, ny ~of)muihagh
wctfnen, 133 of Libyans, 13). on
SourdiUe, C.~ cited, tS~ ?. 190,
tf~j; n. j, in,<6o
Syrïan character of Libyan metal vases, t~~
20~
fJ.JD of Amon, 197 rea-wns for, 136 South wmd, batïïe of Psyili Wtth, 58; Syrian, reproduction of, as a Libyan by
S)don!ans,estab!ishfacloryofCamb~, 229 n.6 dreaded in North Africa, 17~ possibte Serg!,ttS<p
SMon~!3, Apûllînans~ cited, 66, 66 K. t~ 6~ connection of with Gum~ t88 n. 8 SynansandJL)byans,aj;~
x3p
63 n. 7~ t76 Tt. 6 stone sacred to the, 17. Syrtes, regarded as sacred to Triton and
Silius Ic~Ucus, cited, tt7, 104. t, 103, to6, Spain, firing of bronze age sites in, ~6 PaUas,:o~
i.t7, n~ n.6, .2t, 122, ~7, t~ ~8, Mauntn,:33;ntegaîhhso<,t6o;
ï.t.9~1~36, ïSiyî.
ïC3, to6, 126, tx?~
~7, T~ T~,
t~ ~quoteft, traditional invasîon of el-Moghreb
&om,M.
Syrtic coas', withdrawa)of Psylli from, }i `
littoral zone, towns of, ~o nav!gat!on
of, dangerous, ] 03
ï~t! tt, t~7 a. 3, r~8 n/r. t, n,
~o~ i8[, [99
SiII>hïvmyz$ f perfiaps t:aded from Libya ta
t~~ Spear, thé f~
Spartianus, oted, ty6, 2~$
t~} Libyan, t~6
Spcnd~~ mutiny of, ~z
Synica Regio, coins of, to6
<y7;tocat<t€S~cat!onot,t?
fish-eaters of,
Syrtis Major, 2, 6;, 6~ Berbers south of
Minoan Crete, toi Spoons~ïj;2 the, 7:; entrante to thé, 22<s.y;
S!Iv3.nua, 202 Spo-,4" figure on Group"jar, Zf9 forts in the, :5~ Jcws In, tc8 ?.1
¡
StÏverdf]nkmg-?e3aeÎ3,2t8g ~(j~&t~KJ JM~rH Magni, cited, 108 nn. z~ tombofPsyHuton,2~7;Mm~,6~
Stn~ I.ibyan înacrtptf&n o~
frf]'ïri, 2
nomads quoted, 161 e.
xg4 r..4 4
Staîe of goats, 96 3~ ï i J Ta))~, against birds, zS against cow's
s
Smtfe~ Libyan go~ tS~. ftesh,g<SN.p,i~i.fy.,agaînstt!sh
i!
Stanley, C. V., citeJ, 84, 84 n. ï, 173, i73 6sh
Sinuhe, R°mance °f, cited, 95, zrz
S!ret~ L, eyred, 22~
~t'77
Stara,ant[nîa:)cvïewo~i76
among Aethiopians, J~ï aga~n~ pig,
associatedw!t') moon-cu)tùs,
SinM, !L'by&n beïtefrega.rdtn~t~J K. y Statins, cited, ~o Scho!<3st on, ~89 g pos.s!b!yofmat."iarchato'rtg!n,iy6
ea-S!ut, 30 Statue with/<~M~~f~ )ïj5 Tabud!um,233
Stwah Oaa!9, 7o ?. t, 96 ~/M~y~MfH ~~Mr~ Steindorf, G., cited, 28, !j0, t7i n. <, 230 TaMa fm/M~Mt~, c!te<), <},«o«.tj,
t7~ x~a-tt~y~tT~M~ arc~- :~7) !97 to, (jubted,
tet~arat re~d a:, z3o C!C:aa wood Stelae,"C Group," ai Dakkah~ 2~0; of 18~,108 N.i 1
of, tôt di~). o~ 76{ dûg~ eaten as Satufnus,2ot;ffomTan~it~ Tacfar!nas,revo!to~i~2,xj~
mt:ificine at, r 77 aQyptiatt name QF, Stellar observance,Libyan, 176 ?, 7
~? EgypHan occupation of, t8g ¡
Etearchus dyna<t of, lOf ¡ gtes psd
Stephanus Byzantinus, cited, xix,
9~ '3* '9' 33
"s.3,
't ~t 7~ 3~ ~4 auote~
Tact!<'s,Liby.ih,t~
Tacitus, cited, S8, z34
T-amxc9,p!acenam.:awith,y6~.
tn,, t~~i garÏfe-eanng ar~ 177, 203;
Ïarigcsg~ NM~ of Sheykh Sïd!
Safeymar~ '3~~ copuî~t~on; ~.t ~y.;
o
i~o,
~2 ~3 n. l, 66 n. 6, 77 N. t, 185,
Stonea~ for slinging, 1~3 sact~d, ~73 jy.
Tai)3,ceremoniat,t~6
Ta)ga:}f),}<),~
6

7<t<m~ft, the yff':< tn~ !o! K,

z
nsc and dechne 197 } sacred char- S~oza~ reinforces the Lcuathae, 239 Tama.riska.j:
 Tari!9S<;cta,zt~ Th<Kjd~!t)< Il., act~ïty or Btem~ye~ ïn Tnt~tî~~M-~<ec'3'uJ:tefpa~i<~T.n~t, t%6,
Tanit, ta8 African cynophagy ard, )?y reign 0~237~. tn~ïhcr of Athmx,
cont~sed with Dea
o~ Carthage, iyy
Cc<
~03, eult t~p;
Theophanca, Cited, ~30 ~t.t, quoted, Tntonï~t~ke.
c~ jt~;caUad**MÏ~t~M/'
of Ath~a at,
~39~~ 6 x?~, }
Tank Potnt," g Theophrastut, cited, toz, ~49 M. 230 n. < dchïct j dt~d't n~n~~
of, ~'5 M<I
Tann!n~agenta,~y TheoPompus,cited, ~3' et,
sed~ntarjc~ xx, ~2 p<M!tton xm j~~
~*an~h, Moa~m JMo~at, 92 Thera, Grcck coton!sts from, 97, xz9 xx n. )[ ycarïy t~iy~ ait 9'
Tapanitae,placed by Ptolemy, 62
Tatahuin, 30} cyMophagya~ <~y
Thestc, battïe o~ 230
Thothmes IV., panel of, 127, tjtt
Tro~Hta~Joannes. Johannc: Trpg:~
TfOg!o<JiHcaj, Aeth~opta, H~tfdt am~fn~y
-Tattoo'n&t among E..Libyans, t~y i Thraciane, puMed ïnto the Bat;kan~ x~ q caten Ïï~ <?y
fan!!c designated by, )t6; Thracian, tattooing among, 139 TjFtigÏodyîot, ActhjCpmn, n~ )a ~3~~<
'39;fe!!gîp~ )87; pf"C G~oup," Threa<t, ~3 t6S. ~~Ph~zan~
250
Tauche~~
Neith symbo!, 206 Thrige, J. P., ited, 28 tt ï33 n. t
Thr~e, ofMeryey, ij;~
1

from, ~~6
tfom~ 226
?
TrojaM, Ma~yet~<jE 19 bare t~nï d~trn~sd
ba~c 1xm ~T3<c~K~
jx 5 sf
Tautfmpb6~68
Teda, tj:I
Thuben~ 233
Thucydide~ cited, n. t, 131, 232
f TSC$ Mape, x n. z,
Tu, t:, J)
j) 0

T~dejmaiitOases,'3 Thugga, bilingual of, 8. 20% sr. n. Tuafe~ îadutie toany tri~et, AS i~, See
Tegehe m abbar, ti~s Thutmose ï.~ victory over Ekbe~ 213 Bcrbm, îmosha~ Libjant
Tegehe ? beddat, si 3~ Thutmose IIL srhitesTehenu, 213 Tt~at, apro~th m K~r of Tementitin, t~;1
Tepcn-tfuyuwawa,xx? n. 3 ?~'o~ ~f Citrus wood* Tuggurt~t~pcmtur~sa4zz; terwtqry of, .}.
Tu~h, 6, 30n. t:z
~x~ confounded by Egyptians
Tehenu, ~6,TemeÎ~u, Thysdrus, élévation of Gordiaaus Pius at, Tnguria, t6S
with 252 1 congu.-red by Tibb~~3
235
An]!enhotepin.,xt3ibyRamesesn., IL,. TTummo,
n~; by Set! ï-, zf~; defeated by Tibesti, buts of, tyoa.t;mounta!M o~ Tusic~ Libyan, n6, n$
Egypt!ans,xn genenc~rW~sterne! i~ 13; rock glyphs of, 130, ~c~;i TiinLha, eastem, P01"'lat\ou,3z, film_
57 ?. 1
9;, `,zr.3
Hatshepsut'stribute from thé,
i în conflict with TSUtmose
ïn.,i 2*3; tnvade~ ~23; location o~ Tidt mta Musa.
Tibesti range, ~ff Tu
T:damensii,placed hy Ptolemy, 63
'Ayn Musa
tureo~ 85 n.
"TuMo-F~sg~?~ r
Turdetan~ alphabet p~ ?6 3 ~~ncs Hïer~-

$t meanmg of name, 40; o~ercoine Tifinagh alphabet, S~ compared Wtth TM?-N~ (ihroTFm~-stic~),SsdaDQt,
by Mcshwesh, t ~o
Tebcnut~ district of, 2~2
Libyan,88 car!t?st€xamp!esmed~evat, Tusidde, inountain, 3 J
Tvbj, E. B., €]ted, ~<, i% zo! ~s.
7~w,
Te! Am~n, thé "HiU ofAmon," t~S8
2~
et-Tigattt, cited, '77 M. S
Tigré and Assynan, ?}
Tylor, J. J~ cited, x~
Ty-tn-ow, zt~ N. x
3

Tel eI-Amarna paintings, n. i, ] 18 n. ?, T)me,tntheBerberverb,y~;I.ibyan Tyre, aided by Lubim, 2~8

'37 methodofreckonîhg, '76 + Tyrrhemans enter ït~~ 226
g!yph, 93 M. 9, 9~
TcIi-Sagha 1~ Timhy stones of Wawat, ~8 Tyrsî, 2t6 n. 7
Te)!,def!jned,xxn Tmc)AusaLfï,~3
Temeh.'distnct of, zïï, jnhabitacts o~ Tissot,C.,Ctted,x!v,jc~~t,~2a.~?8~. tjdan, Mountain, szpersddon coNcenlIng,
plut~der Egypt:, 220 n. 4 inv~ded by 4. 79. 86, 99, toz, 102 ~.6, 169 3,
Yath, ~(/ penetrated by Merneptah,21 g 17f
iyo, 185 ):, 204 a- t UdBàh, mosaic ai, 16~
TTcmchu., ~6 *'wcsterners,"~6 M. 9
caHed Tîsuah, Suah, or Benu el-Wasuah, 70 n. t Uhct road, 2n
cbie~tams o~ in tomb of Seti I., 138
location of, ~9, ~i ànd C Gfoup,"
Tlemsan,?i7'
To!!s, growth of, lo?
Umbritulrrm, fm
of Amon resembling, r9p
pmbro-Latjas, ItaHo~ 2x6
2~9 n. 2~ï; southern extehston of, Totmeylah,3,6,30 Umm, Beydah, telief at, i 3a; ste4 i3o
4.3 jry. spears o~ t~6 M.
nëgjroeSotYam,xii
Temetiti~ aerolith in
r.:war with
ot, 173; scuîp-
Tomatoes, :t6
Tomb~~u de !a Chrêt~ssne, z.y
?o)''cH/crpresses,99,tS9~.
1
Umm es-Sog&ayr,assss o~ 36
t Umm esh-Shiattah, s 3

llll~
1 1 Un-Amon,
turfiat~i~y 230 n- q
Totem, secpeotperhapsthe Psyllic, 180 s. 6 Ungsr, ~3~ cited, 61 <. 5
Temper~f,~ures,'in E. Libya, ao rg. Totem taooos, 176, tyy Uni, Egyptian officer Dnder Pept Ï., a!:
Temple~ Afro-Roman,201 Totius Orbis D~fr~~o, cited, 68 H.? y. recruitsWawat
Temsepeh,2z8 Touareg- Tuareg, Berbers, Ïmushaghj Usertesen. 1, pector~;merceBaneSj, ~9~-3 3
of, 2]2 r~ds Rcba~
~Tens"orcounciÏtors,Ltbyan, ït~, <t~ s, Libyens
2~\ Tour, E. du, ched, 1~8 212. ~SeaosfTS
Usertesen ïn~
Tents,Hhyan,t6$r6$ Toutaîn, J., c!ted, <6~ tSj 20: i Psermare-Menamon-M -Cb~sëser-oï-TeiBe~,
r~M~vessdsin spoiï of Meryey, 21:E quoted, 201, 203 M. S
Tcrence, çhed, 103~. i1 Towas~ agrculturaland trade, Libyan, xxz
30 Usermarc-Menamon(town). 22~
Tercsh, ~dentincàtion of~ 216 M. y in alli- 92~93,107 Ut-re~S~5
anc~ with Meryey, t~o join the, Lib~ Toyeh, the district of, 2ï6 Uza~a~, placed by Pic~my, 6~
yans against Egypt, 2:66 Trade, générât characterofLïbyan, ïoy
Terms, dennitions of, xxi sq. Trade-routesin interior of E. Libya, T~
Terra d'Otianto, megaliths of, t6o Transport, means o~ ~03 jy- Valcrius Maximus,ûteJ, 1~3 ?. quoted,
"Terra fossa" ofCyfena!ca,~t TrarzaMoOrs, S~N.3, Ït?~.? y
Tertuïtitjtn, cited, T43~ tS9 K. 8, 202 quoted, Travel, desert, t6 Vamacures, 38
~3 M. 3 Te~v< of the Libyan Des~st,~8; of the, VanJaÏs, ~o cr<Ms m~o Ainca, 2~? did not
Thamudeàn and Libyan scripts, 8j Ghey- littoral zone, originate Ljbyaw wndn~ S~ ËJt of
tah Inscriptions allied to, z $ 3 Tremearne,A. J. N, c!ted, 195 If. 1. the, 238
Thanyrdis installed in place' of Inaru3, z3i Trenchers,Libyan, t~t Vases~ otmetMs, ~~2, t~
Thapsagum, 134 Trinitheos Oasis, ti H. 4 Vater,cïtcd, 1 S6 n. 3
arrus, C~a,rçhaginian imports at, ] ~9 Tripoli, neighbourhood of ¡Tripoli Vau~ C- t!e, cïte<t, ?~ t. 5
f~ pf
Th
Thebes,Amon of, tdentihud with the DfM~ town, 30 native quarter of, 169 Vaux, W. S. W., citc~, T9S 3
Stwah, t8p, ~n Boeotia, Tnpol!tana, e!stvaensof, 160 fortresses o~ VegetÏus, ateti, t~S ja. <
'9~ rena!rcd by Ju?tîn!an, 138 popuhtton ~fn~a< t~6 +
Theket 22i, :6;defëated,m; ethnie o~ 3~ 33 VcnetÎM trade with, <ai, VcnÈtc~rexch Adn~~ 226
shtft o~ xzo hetd Do)~ 22~, 2=~ ~03 wadyso~, 3 V~mce, trade of, w!th Tnpoth~na, i<s~ <~j[
Themer, beaten by Rameses IIL, 2211 Tnton, venerated at Lake Tritonis, tS6, d Verb, m Berber, ?~ Egyptian, ~emMc
leader in Ht'st Libyan waf against 18~ ~orsh!p of, in Syrtes. zo~. Rïvër, eh~raet~rot, St
Ra~csesHi.jZZï
OZ% western h~er of thé Mach)ycs, xx a. t, Verg!~ cïted, 'S<~ <6S c[uot~ 66~ gs ?* 3~
Theodo~tUB, Count, erushes Fîrmus, 237 i03 H. q
 ~$
Victori,n
5
Vertumnus 202
Vespasûan, revoÏt of Oca and Leptis Magna
tnt!mec~.[3~

V!tSC~
baik, x44
Vessc~ Libyan, of bark,

Nyanza,
Ïaftdsabou~~t
t.~
Meryey,2t7,tS. ~Ctps~Jars,

absence

VUius Scc[~~tcr, c~tc~, 66 n.

quoted, 66, 68 n. x3
s,

of

<
bioncle

Vt~ntty, tHorùt conscîousnessof, m t

VirgiM, in fcstivA! ofAusean Athena, 20~
Vischet, H., cited, i~, t~6 n. t, t6S
Vjvîan! D., cited, 26 n. t
Vopiscus~citcd).66,t20~236;quoted,tSt
t
[a

taken from
froin

in

6S, 6~, '73 9

n

up-
WawM, location of, 49 negroes of,

7~
Timhy stones from, ~8
WayheMt,tt7,MnttoDajjhh,<29
Weak diaïects,"
"WedDraa." ~fWadyDra'ah
Victor, S. Aurelius, Citttt~3~, 2.36
Victor Vitensis, cited, ~.2 N. 12, 98 ~3)
in Berber,
Wdsgtrber, H., cited, 39
to6)!.6,t~S,t3j)
We)~er,F.G.,citK),tS)n.~
q
Wens,supcrst!t)onsconccm!ng,t72~.
Wermer,beatenbyRamesesIIÏ-,22t
Weshesh, 2>0'
Vieus ludaeorutii,the modern Gh~tnh~ 2~3 Wcshtehet,master-caravanecr, :29
m.

WMemMe,A., t!t<x), tS~, ie} rt. t}o M.

Wild beasts in E. Libya, 93
L!by.),9
K. t
Wilken, S., cited, 111
WiI)!n,A.~Macher,D.R.
WiM-Bcast
i,

Wilkinson, J. G., cited, xv, xvi, t6 n. t,

2
Winds, animist;c conception of, 17~ pré-
+6 g

t'. t3. 7!.

elYahud!ah,xo8~.t 1
et-Ya'kuM,69j?Q
Yam. expedtUùn oF, against Tem<:h,
Negroesof,46,xni
et-Yemen~t$7
Yesh!chunsofDardestan,<M.7
Ycwepet~t~
5
254
7
Yezid Ibn Abî ~ab~b, qu6ted, 240
'Ybhcb-mMh,
Yumanas, burials of the, tSi
Zabbar, graves of the, tyS
Zacynthus,brother ofAccM~aus H., z~o
~<?~or~ the, descnbed, t~
ZaghaiN,ah z6
Z~~ro,<itH.j;
5
Zarzis, promontory occupled by Lotophagi,
~t~.t~
Zaueces, placed by Herodotus,$3 women
of, drivers of chariots, 1~9
~.99 valent, in E.Libya,t~Wtnd-, 'Zawîh:~as'Okbah Ibn Naft sent toward,
Wady, dc~ned, xxii daemons,Assyr!an, i?6 M. z. See South 2~0
Wady AkarÏt, 2 Wind Zayr, mythicat arcestor of the Luatah
Wa.dy Augtdtt, divination at graves at, 178 Wine, among Libyans, p~ Nasamenes tose Berbcrs~Cg
Wady Dernah, $ a victoryby indulgence in, ZeUah,t~,3o
Wady Ora'ah, 39 Winnebagos, burials of the, iS: Zenaga, rock-glyph at Col de, tp6 ·
Wady 'Et-T~at, 8 WMn!g, F., c!M<<, :< t 2enarah, ~9
Wady Farag~ 3 Women, as seeresses among thé MaMri, i 7 S ç Zenatah,7o
Wady Gharrah, 5 dréss of Libyan, rzS; drove their Zenob!a, gênerais oF, atli~d with Blemmyes,
Wady Igharghar, 2~ husbands' chariots in battte, tt9 236
Wady:K<:ray~63 fractured arms of the Predynastic Zeus, Amon, legenc!. of, ipô~; Z. Apomyius,
Wady Natrun, 8, 6t, 218 4 Egyptian, 205 t hair-dressing of, <86 as weather- and sky-god, 20*
Wady Zemzem, 1$? 13~ in Berber tradition, 113 in pro- Thcban,igo `
Wag!tah, Oasis of, 3, 9 dïaÏect o~ 76 ç
cessions of the Deus Fatidicus, 193 Zeytun, at eastern end of Slwah Oasis, roa
town of, ~o PsylUc,did not charm serpents, 179 m. 9 ZlgaŒa,z3~.
Wag2ia,ns, pipes of the, a5; Writirg, Libyan, S~ Zonaras, J., cited, to6, t?~ N.8, ïSo, 234.
Wam~ Gaetulian, 1~.9 ?..8,136 M.~9
Waîter~ H. B., cited, 26: n. ti Xanthoe).roids,inAfrica,39~their Zosimus, cited, 236
Wanyanga or Wad}-anga, 15 origin, 41 Nordiç ado ZuchîsPromonto~unt, ~2 n. t~ 92
WarOasis, 12,15 Xerxes, Aethiopiansïn army of, t~~ leather Zygenses, placed by S~yÏax,
War-bonnets,Amerind, [30 n. t coats used by Libyans in army o~ 1~! Zyg~nte~ placed b~ Ptolemy, 6z
War-damces, t~ Libyan charioteers of, 1~9 Libyans Zyg!s,6t,6t
Wargtat, 15, 30
sq.
offert!'t!
m army 2ygr!s,<St~.3,03
o;
Water-skm, 1~ "X-Group"aK!tfN~<&S~
/<
qe~b,

if", 18 z Zygritae, pïaced by PtoÏemy, 6:

THEENO

<~ R. & R. CLARK, LïMtTBD, JM'i.

WORKS ON ARCH~OLOGYANDANTIQUITIES
THE NINE MINOAN PERIODS. A Summary Sketch of the Chara=teristic Stages of
Cretan Civilisation, from thé Close of the Neo)ith!e to the Beginhing of the trcn Age, with spccia!
référence to the Antiquities of Knossos. By Sir ARTHUR EVAKS, F.R.S. Illustrated. 4to.
AN ATLAS OF KNOSSIAN ANTIOUITIES. Edited, ith Explanatory Text, by Sir
ARTHUR EVÂNS, F.R.S. In a Box, ~to.
ACCIDENTS OF AN ANTIQUARY'S LIFE. ByD.G.HocARTH, Ulustrated. 8vo.
~s. 6d. net.
RU!NS OF DESERT CATHAY. Personal NafrativeofExpIofattons in Centrât Asiaand
Westernmost China. By Sir AuREL STEIN. IHustrated. 2 vols, Royal 8vo. ~2s. net.
MONUMENTAL JAVA. By J. F. ScHEL.EMA, M.A. Illustrated. Svo. i2s. 6d. net.
PERSIA PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof. A. V.W.JACKSON. Illustrated. 8vo. !7s.n€t.
FROM CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE HOME OFOMARKHAYYAM. Travels
iritranscaucasia and Northern Persia. ByProf.A.V.W.jACKSON. H:ustra)ed. 8vo. ~s-net.
PAUSANIAS'S DESCRIPTION OF GREECE. Trarislated by Prof. J, G. FRAZER,
J. D.C.L. WithCoTtmentary.îtIustrations.MdMAps.Second Edition. Six vols. 8vo. t~s.net-
THE CITY-STATE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS; By W. WAROE Fo~ER,
t. M.A. CrownSv..). 5s.
SOCIAL L!FË AT ROME IN THE AGE OF CICERO. By W. WARDE Fo~ER,
M.A. With Map and Dans. 8vo.. ios. net.
THE REUGIOUS EXPERIENCE OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE FROM THE
EARLIEST .TtMES TO THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS. By W. WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
8vo. 12s. net.
ROMAN SOCIETY DURING THE LAST CENTURY OF THE EMPIRE OF
THÈWËST. BySirSAMU.Et,DiLL,M.A. New Edition, revised. Extra Crown 8vo. 8s.6d.net.
ROMAN SOCIETY FROM NERO TO MARCUS AURELIUS. By Sir SAMUEL
DILL, M.A. Second Edition. Svo. iss.net..
LIFE IN THE ROMAN WORLD OF NERO AND ST. PAUL. By Prot T. G.
TUCKER.Litt.D. IHustrated. 8vo. tM.6d.net
GREEK DIVIÎ'JATipN: A STUDY OF :TS METHODS AND PRINCrpLES. By W. R.
HALLIDAY,B.A.,B.Litt. Crown8vo. ss.net.
HFE IN THE HOMERIC AGE. ByProfTHOMAs DAY SEYMOUR. Illustrated. 8vo.
t~s. net.
SCHOÔLS OF HELLAS. An Ëssay on the Practice and Theory of Ancient Greek
y

Education, 600 to 300 B.C. By KËNNETH J. FREEMÀH. Edited by M.J. RE~D~I.. With a
Préface by A. W. VERRALL,Litt.D. lUustfated. Second Edition. Svp. 53. net.
RELIGION OF NUMA, and other Essays on the Rel!g:on of Ancient Rome. By JESSE
LBÉNE~CT CARTER. Crown8vo." 3s, 6d. net,
MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.
t
 WORKS ON ARCHJEOLOGY. AND A~TIQUITIES
THE PRINCIPLES OF 'GREEK ART. ByPro~PERcvGARDNËR,L!tt.D. Crownovo.

net..
SCUL.PTUREDTOMBSOFHELLAS, ByProf.PEpcvGARDNER.Litt.D. Illustràted.
Super Royal 8vo. s 5s. net.
ANCIENT ATHENS. ByERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. DÏustrated. 8vo. aïs. net.
THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. By Prof. MART!N L, D'OoGE. Htustrated. &vo.
!?s.
HANDBOOKS 0F
ARCH~EOLOGY ANDÀNTIQUïTIEë
EDITED BY
PROF. PERCY GARDNER, LiTT.D., of the Universityof Oxford, anc
PROF. FRANCIS W. KELSEY, of the Un:versity of Michigan.
Extra Crown 8vo.

6s..6s..
GREEK SCULPTURE. By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A. New Edition, Revised

separatety.
GREEK AND ROMAN
8vo. Sewed, t s. net.
and Enlarged. Ulustrated. Part I., 55. Part ÎI., 55..Complète in one vo)., !0s. Appendix

COINS. ByG.F.HtLX.oftneCoinsDepartmentoftheBritish
Museum. Diustrated. ~s-
THE ROMAN FESTIVALS OF THE PERIOD OF THE REPUBUC. By W.
WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
A HANDBOOK OF GREEK CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. By A. H. J.
GREENIDGE,M.A. With Map. 55.
THE DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME. A Sketch of the History of thé
Monuments. By Prof. RODOLFO LANCtAN!. Illustrated.
ROMAN PUBLIC LIFE. By A. H. J. GREENIDGE, M.A. tos. 6d..
CHRISTIAN ART AND ARCH~BOLOGY. A Handbook to the Monuments of the
EarlyChurcb. By W. LOWRIE, M.A. Illustrated. :os.6d.
GRAMMAR OF GREEK ART. ByProf:PERCvGARDHER,Lttt.D..HIu&trated. ?s.6à.
LIFE IN ANCIENT ÀTHENS. The Soç!al and Publie Lifeof a ClassicalAthenian
from Day to Day. By Prof. T. G. TUCKER, Litt.D. !)!ustrated. 55.
THE MONUMENTS OF CHRISTIAN ROME. FromConstantineto thé Renaissance.
By Prof. ARTHUR L. FROTHtNGHAM.Ph.D. 11'ustrated. t0s.6d.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. By Prof ALLANMARQUAND. Illustrated. ïos.net.
GREEK ATHLETIC SPORTS AND FESTIVALS, By E. NORMAN GARD'INER,
Htustrated. !0s.6d.
ÀTHENS AND ITS MONUMENTS.
oflowa. liiustrated..

MACMILLANANDCO.LTD,LONDON.
[/f.
By Prof. CHARLES H. WELLBR,

2
M.A.

of the Umversity