Supersymétrie (SUSY)

 Rappel – Modèle Standard

La symétrie de jauge du modèle standard est 𝑆𝑈(3)𝑐 × 𝑆𝑈(2)𝐿 × 𝑈(1)𝑌 ce qui équivaut à
un certain contenu en particules :

Les interactions entre ces particules sont données par le Lagrangien du modèle standard

1 𝑎 𝜇𝜈 1 𝑖 𝜇𝜈 1 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
ℒ𝑆𝑀 = − 𝐺𝜇𝜈 𝑄̅𝛽 𝑖𝐷𝑄 𝑓 + 𝑢̅𝑅 𝑖𝐷𝑢𝑅 + 𝑑̅𝑅 𝑖𝐷𝑑𝑅 + 𝐿̅𝑓 𝑖𝐷𝐿𝑓 + 𝑒̅𝑅 𝑖𝐷𝑒𝑅 (+𝜈̅𝑅 𝑖𝐷𝜈𝑅 )
𝐺𝑎 − 𝑊𝜇𝜈 𝑊𝑖 − 𝐵𝜇𝜈 𝐵 𝜇𝜈 + ⏟
⏟4 4 4
ℒ𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 ℒ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
† 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑓′ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑓′ 𝑓𝑓 ′ ′
𝑓 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑓 ′
+ (𝐷 2 † † 2
⏟ 𝜇 𝐻) (𝐷𝜇 𝐻) − 𝜇 𝐻 𝐻 + 𝜆(𝐻 𝐻) −Γ ̅𝑓 ̃ ̅𝑓 𝐿̅𝑓 𝜙𝑒𝑅 + (−Γ𝑁 𝐿̅𝑓 𝜙̃𝜈𝑅 ) + ℎ. 𝑐.
⏟ 𝑢 𝑄 𝜙𝑢𝑅 − Γ𝑑 𝑄 𝜙𝑑𝑅 − Γ𝑙
ℒ𝐻𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑠 ℒ𝑌𝑢𝑘𝑎𝑤𝑎

Les brisures de symétrie spontanée sont :

1 0
- 𝐻 ⟶ 𝐻′ + ( )
√2 𝑣

- 𝑆𝑈(2)𝐿 × 𝑈(1)𝑄 ⟶ 𝑈(1)𝑄 ≡ symétrie de jauge électrofaible.

- 𝐴, 𝑊 3 ⟶ 𝛾, 𝑍 0 et 𝑊𝜇1 , 𝑊𝜇2 ⟶ 𝑊 + , 𝑊 −

- Les fermions acquièrent leur masse à travers le couplage de Yukawa du Higgs

Sachant que dans le modèle standard, toutes les particules élémentaires prédites ont été découvertes,
aucune autre particule n’a été découverte pour l’instant.
Le modèle standard est chiral, ce qui fait que nous travaillons avec 2 composantes du
spineur de Weyl. L’univers est asymétrique pour les spins, en effet la chiralité signifie que les
groupes de symétries (interaction faible) ne sont pas les mêmes dans la symétrie miroir
(droite ≠ gauche), par exemple : 𝑢𝐿 ~ (3,2)1/3 et 𝑢𝑅 ~ (3,1)4/3.

Pour chaque particule, il y a une antiparticule (qui n’est généralement pas listée).
A noter que 𝑢𝑅𝑐 est la charge conjuguée d’une particule de chiralité droite (right-handed
particle) et se transforme en une particule de chiralité gauche (left-handed particle).

Pour le boson de Higgs de spin nul et de masse 𝑚ℎ ≈ 125𝐺𝑒𝑉 : 𝑃 = 1, 𝐶 = 1 et 𝐶𝑃 = 1

↳ Il se couple (par le couplage de Yukawa) aux bosons vecteurs 𝑍, 𝑊 ± , 𝛾, 𝑔 ainsi qu’avec les
fermions 𝑡, 𝑏, 𝜏.

1) La matrice CKM

La matrice CKM est donnée par :

𝑉𝑢𝑑 𝑉𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑢𝑏

𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 = ( 𝑉𝑐𝑑 𝑉𝑐𝑠 𝑉𝑐𝑏 )
𝑉𝑡𝑑 𝑉𝑡𝑠 𝑉𝑡𝑏

Mais au vu des 4 paramètres de Wolfenstein (𝐴, 𝜆, 𝜌, 𝜂) avec 𝜆 ~ 0,22 ; 𝐴 ~ 0,83 ; 𝜌 ~ 0,15

et 𝜂 ~ 0,35 :

𝜆2
1− 𝜆 𝐴𝜆3 (𝜌 − 𝑖𝜂)
2
𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 = 𝜆2 + 𝑜(𝜆4 )
−𝜆 1− 𝐴𝜆2
2
(𝐴𝜆3 (1 − 𝜌 − 𝑖𝜂) −𝐴𝜆2 1 )

0,974 0,226 0,004 1 0 0

At leading order : 𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 = ( −0,226 0,973 0,041 ) ≈ (0 1 0) donc on remarque
0,009 −0,041 1 0 0 1
que 𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 est une matrice unitaire.
†
↳ 𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 𝑉𝐶𝐾𝑀 et par ailleurs on peut noter les propriétés suivantes

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑉𝑢𝑑 𝑉𝑢𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐𝑑 𝑉𝑐𝑏 + 𝑉𝑡𝑑 𝑉𝑡𝑏 =0
∗ ∗ ∗
{ 𝑉𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑢𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐𝑠 𝑉𝑐𝑏 + 𝑉𝑡𝑠 𝑉𝑡𝑏 = 0
∗
𝑉𝑢𝑑 𝑉𝑢𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐𝑑 𝑉𝑐𝑠∗ + 𝑉𝑡𝑑 𝑉𝑡𝑠∗ = 0

𝑉 𝑉∗
La quantité 𝜌̅ + 𝑖𝜂̅ est indépendante de la phase de convention : 𝜌̅ + 𝑖𝜂̅ = − 𝑉𝑢𝑑 𝑉𝑢𝑏
∗
𝑐𝑑 𝑐𝑏
 2) Hierarchy problem

Un problème de hiérarchie apparaît quand la valeur fondamentale d'un paramètre physique,

tel qu'une constante de couplage ou une masse, dans un lagrangien est profondément
différente de sa valeur mesurée (dite « effective ») lors d'une expérience. Ceci est dû au fait
que la valeur effective est reliée à la valeur fondamentale par le principe de renormalisation,
qui lui applique des corrections quantiques. En général, la valeur renormalisée des
paramètres physiques est proche de la valeur fondamentale, mais dans certains cas, il arrive
que la correction quantique donne un résultat incohérent avec cette valeur fondamentale.
Les problèmes de hiérarchie sont liés aux problèmes d'ajustement fin.

En physique des particules, le problème de la hiérarchie réside dans le fait de savoir

pourquoi la force faible est 1032 fois plus intense que la force gravitationnelle. Ces deux
forces impliquent des constantes de nature, la constante de Fermi pour la force faible et la
constante de Newton pour la force gravitationnelle. En outre, si le modèle standard est
utilisé pour calculer les corrections quantiques de la constante de Fermi, il apparaît que
ladite constante est anormalement grande et devrait être plus proche de la constante de
Newton ; à moins qu'il n'y ait une annulation délicate de la constante de Fermi et des
corrections quantiques.

Plus techniquement, la question est de savoir pourquoi le boson de Higgs est beaucoup plus
léger que la masse de Planck, quoique l'on s'attendrait à ce que les grandes contributions
quantiques fassent que le carré de la masse du boson de Higgs devienne énorme,
comparable à l'échelle à laquelle une nouvelle physique apparaît, à moins qu'il n'y ait eu une
incroyable annulation par ajustement fin entre les corrections quadratiques radiatives et la
masse simple.

So why does 𝑀𝐸𝑊 ≪ 𝑀𝑃𝑙 ? And why is hierarchy stable under quantum corrections ?

For scalar particles : quantum corrections → 𝛿𝑚ℎ2 ~ Λ2 where Λ is the scale of the new
physic.

↳ ∑ 𝜙𝜙 → −2𝑁(𝑓)𝜆𝑓2 Λ2
Λ→∞
𝑓

Possible solution : TeV-scale SUSY → additional contributions to the Higgs self-energy with
𝑓̃𝐿/𝑅 the superpartner of 𝑓𝐿/𝑅 .

↳∑ 𝜙𝜙 → −2𝑁(𝑓̃)𝜆̃𝑓 Λ2 and quadratic divergences are cancelled for

Λ→∞
𝑓̃

𝑁(𝑓̃𝐿 ) = 𝑁(𝑓̃𝑅 ) = 𝑁(𝑓𝐿 ) = 𝑁(𝑓𝑅 )

𝜆̃𝑓 = 𝜆𝑓2

There are same gauge numbers for supersymmetry. Complete corrections vanish it furthermore :

𝑚𝑓̃ = 𝑚𝑓
 2 2 2 2
For 𝑚
⏟𝑓̃ = 𝑚𝑓 + Λ , 𝜆
⏟𝑓̃ = 𝜆𝑓
soft SUSY ↳ cannot be broken (needed to cancel Λ2 )
breathing

↳∑ 𝜙𝜙 ~ 𝑁(𝑓)𝜆𝑓2 Λ2 + ⋯ → corrections stay acceptably small if mass splitting Λ is off

𝑓+𝑓̃ electroweak scale
↳ 𝑀𝑆𝑈𝑆𝑌 ≤ 1 𝑇𝑒𝑉

 Introduction to SUSY
SUSY makes a connexion between bosons and fermions.
↳ 𝑄|𝐵⟩ ~ 𝑓 and 𝑄|𝑓⟩ ~ 𝐵 where 𝑄 is a generator of a SUSY transformation.

1) Symmetries of a relativistic QFT

A symmetry is a group of transformation leaving the Lagrangian invariant.

𝑁𝑜𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
- Global, continuous → conserved quantity
- Respected by Nature in many cases

Rotations + space translations : 𝜃⃗ = (𝜃1 , 𝜃 2 , 𝜃 3 )

𝑎⃗ = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )

𝑋⃗ ⟶ 𝑋⃗ ′ = 𝑅(𝜃⃗)𝑋⃗ + 𝑎⃗ and for a quantum mechanics wave function :

⃗⃗
𝜓(𝑋⃗) ⟶ 𝜓(𝑋⃗ ′ ) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑎⃗⃗⋅𝑝⃗ 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃⋅𝐽⃗𝜓(𝑋⃗)

Where 𝐽𝑖 , 𝑝𝑖 with 𝑖 = {1,2,3} are 6 generators of rotation and translation.

Explicit forms of 𝐽𝑖 and 𝑝𝑖 depend on the representation.

We can explicit the algebra (independent of the representation) :

- [𝑝𝑖 , 𝑝𝑗 ] = 0
- [𝐽𝑖 , 𝐽𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽𝑘
- [𝑝𝑖 , 𝐽𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑝𝑘

Remarkable fact : nature respects rotational and translational symmetry.

↳ ℒ for any fundamental theory has to be invariant or more precisely the

action 𝑆 = ∫ ℒ𝑑4 𝑥

Minimal symmetry of a relativistic QFT is a Poincaré group → symmetry of a space-time,

equivalence of inertial frames.
Poincaré symmetry : 𝑃(Λ, 𝑎𝜇 ) where Λ is the Lorentz transformation and 𝑎𝜇 is the
translation.

Example : 𝑃(4) = 𝑆𝑂(1,3)Λ𝑇(4) → 𝑔(Λ′ , 𝑎𝜇 ′ ) ⋅ 𝑔(Λ, 𝑎𝜇 ) = 𝑔(ΛΛ′ , Λ′ 𝑎 + 𝑎′ ).

2) Action on ℝ1,3
′ ′ 𝜇
𝑋𝜇 is given by : 𝑋𝜇 = Λ 𝜈 𝑋 𝜈 + 𝑎𝜇 . There are :

- 6 Lorentz transformation generators 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = −𝐽𝜈𝜇 → 6 degree of freedom

- 4 translation generators 𝑝𝜇

1
𝐽𝑖 = 2 𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽𝑗𝑘 (3 rotations)
{ 0 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝐽⃗ = (𝐽𝑥 , 𝐽𝑦 , 𝐽𝑧 ) = (𝐽23 , 𝐽31 , 𝐽12 ) 1
−𝐾 0 𝐽3 −𝐽2
𝐽𝜇𝜈 ⟺ 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = 2
−𝐾 −𝐽3 0 𝐽1
𝐾 𝑖 = 𝐽0𝑖 (−𝐾 3
𝐽2 −𝐽1 0 )
{
{ 𝐾⃗⃗ = (𝐾𝑥 , 𝐾𝑦 , 𝐾𝑧 ) = (𝐽01 , 𝐽02 , 𝐽03 )

Explicit form depends on representation.

𝐿𝜌𝜎 = 𝑖(𝑋𝜌 𝐽𝜎 − 𝑋 𝜎 𝐽𝜌 )
1
For spin 2 particles (fermions) : 𝑝𝜇 = 𝑖𝜕 𝜇 , 𝐽𝜌𝜎 = 𝐿𝜌𝜎 + Σ 𝜌𝜎 with {
𝑖
Σ 𝜌𝜎 = 4 [𝛾 𝜌 , 𝛾 𝜎 ]

For spin 0 particles : 𝑝𝜇 = 𝑖𝜕 𝜇 , 𝐽𝜌𝜎 = 𝐿𝜌𝜎

3) Action on classical fields

𝑖 𝜇𝜈
We have : 𝜑(𝑥) ⟶ 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑊𝜇𝜈𝐽 𝜑(𝑥) where 𝑊𝜇𝜈 = −𝑊𝜈𝜇 .

↳ Algebra : use (for example) 𝑝𝜇 = 𝑖𝜕 𝜇 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = 𝐿𝜇𝜈 so,

- [𝑝𝜇 , 𝑝𝜈 ] = 0
- [𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝐽𝛼𝛽 ] = 𝑖(𝑔𝜈𝛼 𝐽𝜇𝛽 − 𝑔𝜇𝛼 𝐽𝜈𝛽 + 𝑔𝜇𝛽 𝐽𝜈𝛼 − 𝑔𝜈𝜌 𝐽𝜇𝛼 )
- [𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝑝𝜌 ] = 𝑖(𝑔𝜈𝜌 𝑝𝜇 − 𝑔𝜇𝜌 𝑝𝜈 )

Note that this contains the algebra for rotations and space translations.
Important : all generations are mixed.

In addition internal symmetries, gauge symmetries :

 - QED : 𝜓 ⟶ 𝑒 𝑖𝑄𝜆(𝑥) 𝜓
𝐴𝜇 ⟶ 𝐴𝜇 + 𝜕𝜇 𝜆(𝑥) where 𝑄 is the generator of 𝑈(1)𝐸𝑀

- QCD : 𝑆𝑈(3)𝑐

- SM : 𝑆𝑈(3)𝑐 × 𝑆𝑈(2)𝐿 × 𝑈(1)𝑌

Lie algebras for generators : [𝑇 𝑎 , 𝑇 𝑏 ] = 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑇 𝑐 . Full symmetry “trivial” extension of

Poincaré symmetry. 𝑇 𝑎 commutes with Poincaré generators :

[𝑝𝜇 , 𝑇 𝑎 ] = 0, [𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝑇 𝑎 ] = 0

↳ Group level : direct production ⟺ algebra : direct sum of Poincaré generator and internal
generators.

↳ 𝐺 = (Poincaré group) × (Internal symmetry group).

↳ Space-time and internal symmetry independent of each other’s.

↳ Conserved space-time quantum numbers (mass, spin) don’t change under 𝑇 𝑎 .

↳ Conserved internal quantum numbers (electric charge) don’t change under 𝑝𝜇 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 .

↳ Particle states are characterized by maximal set of community observables

commute

|𝑚, ⏟𝐼3 , 𝐼, 𝑌3 , … ⟩
⏟ 𝑠 ; 𝑝⃗, 𝑠3 ; 𝑄,
space−time internal

Can 𝐺 be generalised ? → No ! ∃ general “no-go theorems” in QFT, most famous : Coleman-

Mandule’s theorem.

Any larger symmetry (i.e. Lie Algebra) of a relativistic QFT is the direct sum of the Poincaré
algebra {𝑝𝜇 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 } and a compact “internal symmetry”

↳ Algebra is a direct sum ⟺ group direct product : 𝑝𝜇 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 ; 𝑇 𝑎

- 𝐺 = 𝑝 is minimal symmetry
- There’s no bigger space-time symmetry {𝑝𝜇 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝑄𝛼 } containing 𝑝𝜇 and 𝐽𝜇𝜈 as
subalgebra with [𝑄𝛼 , 𝑝𝜇 ] ≠ 0 or and [𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝑄𝛼 ] ≠ 0

↳ No symmetry between particles with different mass or different spin. But if particles have
different spin → different irreps and/or different mass → different irreps too.
↳ End of SUSY

1
This theorem can be avoided if one allows for generators 𝑄𝛼 (with 𝛼 a spin 2 index : Weyl
spinors) and including anti-commutation {… } relations.
 [⋅,⋅] ; {⋅,⋅}

Lie algebra with external to include

commutations anti-commutations

Such algebras are called “super Lie algebra” or “graded Lie algebras”. So let’s consider a set
of ordinary “bosonic” generators 𝑋 and a new class of “fermionic” generators 𝑄 (of spin
1/2, 3/2, …).
Schematically : [𝑋, 𝑋 ′ ] = 𝑋 ′′ (Lie algebra) and {𝑄, 𝑄 ′ } = 𝑋 and [𝑄, 𝑋] = 𝑄 ′

4) HLS theorem

The new generators have to be spin 1/2 generators transforming as (1/2, 0) or (0, 1/2)
under Lorentz transformations Weyl spinors.
The resulting non-trivial enlargement of the symmetry of space-time is unique and is called
supersymmetry algebra

 SUSY algebra
Consider the simplest case with only one fermionic generator 𝑄𝛼 and its complex conjugate
𝑄̅𝛼̇ (with 𝛼 = 1,2 and 𝛼̇ = 1,2).
↳ This is called the 𝑁 = 1 SUSY algebra. For 𝑁 > 1 : extended SUSY algebra (see Wers and
Bagger – chapter 1)

1) 𝑵 = 𝟏 – SUSY algebra

- [𝑄𝛼 , 𝑝𝜇 ] = [𝑄̅𝛽̇ , 𝑝𝜇 ] = 0
𝛽
- [𝑄𝛼 , 𝐽𝜇𝜈 ] = 𝑖(𝜎 𝜇𝜈 )𝛼 𝑄𝛽
- {𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄𝛽 } = {𝑄̅𝛼̇ , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = 0
- {𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = 2(𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼𝛽̇ 𝑝𝜇
+ Poincaré algebra

𝛽 1 𝜇 𝜈 𝜎 𝜇 = (𝕀, 𝜎⃗)
With (𝜎 𝜇𝜈 )𝛼 = 4 (𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜎̅ 𝜈𝛼̇𝛽 − 𝜎𝛼𝛼 ̅𝜇𝛼𝛽 ) and {
̇𝜎 with 𝜎⃗ the Pauli’s matrix
𝜎̅𝜇 = (𝕀, −𝜎⃗)

Remarks :

 SUSY : symmetry that relates bosons and fermions, unique extensions of the Poincaré
symmetry of 𝐷 = 4 relativistic QFT and generalised the classical notion of a
dimension to the quantum dimension

conjugate
 𝑝𝜇 ↔ 𝑋𝜇
  𝑄𝛼 ↔ 𝜃 𝛼 which anti-commuting numbers

 {𝜃 𝛼 , 𝜃𝛽 } = {𝜃̅ 𝛼 , 𝜃𝛽 } = {𝜃̅ 𝛼 , 𝜃̅ 𝛽 } = 0 → superspace (𝑥 𝜇 ; 𝜃,

⏟ 𝜃̅ )
↳ fermionic dimension

Crucial relation :

{𝑄 ̅𝛼̇ } = 2 (𝜎
⏟𝛼 , 𝑄
⏟ ⏟ 𝜇 )𝛼𝛼̇ 𝑝𝜇
1 ↲ ↳ 1 1 1
(0, ) ( , )
( , 0) 2 2
2 2

↳ constant translation in space-time.

If SUSY transformations are mode local → space-time translation differing from point to
point → necessary ingredient of quantum gravity

Invariance under local SUSY transformations :

- Invariant under local coordinate charges needed for general relativity

- Local SUSY are called supergravity theories (SUGRA)

Some simple consequences of the SUSY algebra : a theorem that shows the ground state
(état fondamental) |Ω⟩ is supersymmetric :

𝑄𝛼 |Ω⟩ = 0 ⟺ ⟨Ω|𝑝0 |Ω⟩ = 0

Where 𝑝0 is the energy of the vacuum (= 0)

For each fermions state, there’s a bosonic state with same mass : 𝑄𝛼 changes the symmetry
of a particle by 1/2 :

𝑄𝛼 |𝐵⟩ = |𝑓𝛼 ⟩, 𝑄𝛼 |𝑓 𝛼 ⟩ = 𝐵

Now, let’s consider a fermionic state with mass 𝑚 :

𝑝2 |𝑓𝛼 ⟩ = 𝑚2 |𝑓𝛼 ⟩, [𝑄𝛼 , 𝑝𝜇 ] = 0

𝑝2 |𝑓𝛼 ⟩ = 𝑝2 𝑄𝛼 |𝐵⟩ = 𝑄𝛼 𝑝2 |𝐵⟩ = 𝑚2 |𝑓𝛼 ⟩ = 𝑄𝛼 𝑚2 |𝐵⟩

↳ 𝑝2 |𝐵⟩ = 𝑚2 |𝐵⟩

↳ not in agreement with experiment for SM particles

↳ TeV-scale SUSY needs to be broken.

There are possible multiplets combining particles with different spin :

generator
with spin 1
 spin 2 ⟶ spin 1 → spin 0
↑ ↑
In contradiction with Coleman-Mandule theorem

3
𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛 1

2
spin 2 → spin 2
↑
In contradiction with HLS theorem

3
 spin 2 ⟶ spin 2
↑ ↑
graviton gravitino

1
↳ gravity super-multiplet : spin 1 ⟶ spin 2
↑ ↑
photon photino

1
↳ vector super-multiplet : spin 2 ⟶ spin 0
↑ ↑
electron s-electron
higgsino higgs

↳ chiral super-multiplet :

3
 spin 2 ⟶ spin 2 ⟶ spin 1
} in contradiction with theorem
1
 spin 1 ⟶ spin 2 ⟶ spin 0
↳ cannot be all in same multiplet (unless 𝑁 ≥ 1)

 Representation of the SUSY algebra

1) 1-particle state

Labelled by maximal set of community observables :

[𝑝𝜇 , 𝑝0 ] = 0 → translations don’t change energy

[𝐽⃗, 𝑝0 ] = ⃗⃗
0 → rotations don’t change energy
[𝐾 , 𝑝 ] ≠ ⃗0⃗ → Boosts change energy
⃗⃗ 0

But [𝐽𝑖 , 𝐽𝑗 ] ≠ 0
 ⃗⃗ not used to bel physic states → 𝑝𝜇 , 𝐽𝑧 (or 𝑆𝑧 ) to label states.
Eingenvalue of 𝐾

Furthermore : Casimir operators commuting with Poincaré algebra.

1
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 , 𝑊 2 = 𝑊𝜇 𝑊𝜇 where 𝑊𝜇 = 2 𝜀𝜇𝜈𝜌𝜎 𝐽𝜈𝜌 𝑝𝜎 is the Pauli-Luberts vector → mass and
spin.

For 𝑚 ≠ 0 ∶ |𝑚, 𝑠, 𝑝⃗, 𝑆𝑧 ; internal⟩

⃗⃗ ; internal⟩ where 𝜆 ≡ helicity
For 𝑚 = 0 ∶ |𝜆, 𝐾

Since [𝑝𝜇 , 𝑄𝛼 ] = 0 → [𝑝2 , 𝑄𝛼 ] = 0 :

- 𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 remains to be a Casimir operator

- the mass is still a good quantum number
- same super-multiplet ⟺ same mass

1-particle : |𝑚, … ; internal⟩

↳ [𝑄𝛼 , 𝑇 𝑎 ] = 0 (doesn’t change)

[𝑊 2 , 𝑄𝛼 ] ≠ 0
However : } 𝑊 2 is not a Casimir operator anymore.
[𝑊 2 , 𝑄̅𝛼̇ ] ≠ 0

↳ Irreps/supermultiplet combine 1-particle states of different spin.

However, one can shox that 𝑛𝐵 = 𝑛𝑓 on a SUSY multiplet (same number of bosonic and
fermionic degrees of freedom).

So Casimir operators are 𝑝2 but not 𝑊 2 but we need to find the 2nd Casimir operator :

1 𝛼̇𝛽 1
We define 𝐵𝜇 = 𝑊𝜇 − 8 𝜎𝜇 {𝑄𝛽 , 𝑄̅𝛼̇ } such that [𝐵𝜇 , 𝑄𝛼 ] = − 2 𝑝𝜇 𝑄𝛼 :

1
[𝐵𝜇 , 𝑄̅𝛼̇ ] = 2 𝑝𝜇 𝑄̅𝛼̇
[𝐵𝜇 , 𝐵𝜈 ] = −𝑖𝜀𝜇𝜈𝜌𝜎 𝐵 𝜌 𝑝𝜎
[𝐵𝜇 , 𝑝𝜈 ] = 0

Define 𝐶𝜇𝜈 = 𝐵𝜇 𝑝𝜈 − 𝐵𝜈 𝑝𝜇 and we can show that [𝐶𝜇𝜈 , 𝑄𝛼 ] = [𝐶𝜇𝜈 , 𝑄̅𝛼̇ ] = [𝐶𝜇𝜈 , 𝑝𝜌 ] = 0

But we can note that 𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 is Lorentz invariant.

↳[𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 , 𝐽𝛼𝛽 ] = 0
↳ 𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 ≡ 𝐶² is the 2nd Casimir operator of the SUSY algebra.

2
We can show that 𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 = 2 (𝐵𝜇 𝐵 𝜇 𝑝2 − (𝐵𝜇 𝑝𝜇 ) )

In the case where 𝑝2 > 0 → in the rest frame : 𝑝𝜇 = (𝑚, ⃗0⃗)

↳ 𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 = 2𝑚2 (𝐵𝜇 𝐵 𝜇 − 𝐵02 ) = −2𝑚2 𝐵 ⃗⃗ 2 and [𝐵 𝑖 , 𝐵 𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝑚𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐵 𝑘 and we
define 𝐽𝑘 = 𝐵 𝑘 → [𝐽𝑖 , 𝐽𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽𝑘 ≡ “angular momentum” and

𝐶𝜇𝜈 𝐶𝜇𝜈 = −2𝑚4 𝐽⃗2

Eigenvalues : −2𝑚4 𝑗(𝑗 + 1)

1 3
With 𝑗 = 0, 2 , 1, 2 , … called the superspin, massive irrep : |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑝⃗, 𝑗𝑧 ; internal⟩

With 𝑊⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑆⃗, 𝐽𝑘 = 𝑆 𝑘 − 1 𝐶𝑘𝛼̇𝛽 {𝑄𝛽 , 𝑄̅𝛼 } where 𝐽𝑘 is the superspin and 𝑆 𝑘 the ordinary
8𝑚
spin.

In the rest frame, 𝑝𝜇 = (𝑚, ⃗⃗

0) :

𝜇
{𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = 2𝜎𝛼𝛽̇ 𝑝𝜇 = 2𝑚𝛿𝛼𝛽̇ → {𝑄1 , 𝑄̅1̇ } = 2𝑚 = {𝑄2 , 𝑄̅2̇ }
{𝑄1 , 𝑄̅2̇ } = {𝑄2 , 𝑄̅1̇ } = 0 and {𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄𝛽 } = {𝑄̅𝛼̇ , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = 0

Define ground state |Ω⟩ ∶

|Ω⟩ = 𝑄1 𝑄2 |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩

Because 𝑄𝛼 |Ω⟩ = 0.

𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄2 |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩, 𝑄1 |Ω⟩ = 0 and 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩, 𝑄2 |Ω⟩ = 0

The possible states are |Ω⟩, 𝑄̅1̇ |Ω⟩, 𝑄̅2̇ |Ω⟩, 𝑄̅1̇ 𝑄̅2̇ |Ω⟩ but is the spin of these states ?
↳ What are the eigenvalues of 𝑆⃗2 and 𝑆𝑧 ?

By SUSY multiplet : |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩ with 𝑗𝑧 ∈ ⟦−𝑗, 𝑗⟧. For a given 𝑗𝑧 , we have 4 states :

|Ω⟩ ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = 𝑗𝑧

1
𝑄̅1̇ |Ω⟩ ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = 𝑗𝑧 + 2

1
𝑄̅2̇ |Ω⟩ ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = 𝑗𝑧 − 2

𝑄̅1̇ 𝑄̅2̇ |Ω⟩ ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = 𝑗𝑧

Example – if 𝑗 = 0 ⟺ 𝑗𝑧 = 0 :

1 1
↳ 𝑆𝑧 = {0, + 2 , − 2 , 0} → there are 2 real scalars (1 complex scalar) : 𝑛𝐵 = 2
↳ 1 fermion : 𝑛𝑓 = 2
1
Example – if 𝑗 = 2 :
 1 1 1 1 vector ∶ 𝑛𝐵 = 3
𝑗𝑧 = 2 ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = 2 , 1, 0, 2
1 1 1
{ 1 real scalar ∶ 𝑛𝐵 = 1
1
𝑗𝑧 = − 2 ∶ 𝑆𝑧 = − 2 , 0, −1, − 2 2 Weyl fermions of spin 2 ∶ 𝑛𝑓 = 4

 Recap and particle content of the SUSY

Here’s a recap about what we done now :

- ℤ2 – graded algebra : 𝑢1 ∘ 𝑢2 ∈ 𝐿0 ∀𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ 𝐿0 , 𝑢 ∘ 𝑣 ∈ 𝐿1 ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝐿0 ∀𝑣 ∈ 𝐿1 and

𝑣1 ∘ 𝑣2 ∈ 𝐿0 ∀𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ∈ 𝐿0
↳ Vector space : 𝐿 = 𝐿0 ⊕ 𝐿1 with a production

- ℤ2 – graded Lie-algebra : ℤ2 – graded algebra 𝐿 = 𝐿0 ⊕ 𝐿1 with :

𝑢(𝑖) ∈ 𝐿(𝑖) , 𝑣 (𝑗) ∈ 𝐿(𝑗) ∶ 𝑢(𝑖) 𝑣 (𝑗) ∈ 𝐿(𝑖+𝑗) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 2
𝑢(𝑖) ∘ 𝑣 (𝑗) = (−1)𝑖𝑗 𝑣 (𝑗) ∘ 𝑢(𝑖) (supersymmetry)
𝑢(𝑘) ∘ (𝑣 (𝑙) ∘ 𝑤 (𝑚) )(−1)𝑘𝑚 + 𝑣 (𝑙) × (𝑤 (𝑛) ∘ 𝑢(𝑘) )(−1)𝑙𝑘 + 𝑤 (𝑛) (𝑢(𝑘) ∘ 𝑣 (𝑙) )(−1)𝑚𝑙 = 0
↳ Jacobi identity.

Representation of SUSY algebra are :

- 1-particle state
- On a Hilbert space as 𝑁 × 𝑁 matrices

2
Representations on 1-particle states → multiplets {𝑚 2 ≠ 0 → massive
𝑚 = 0 → massless

In the massive case - |𝑚, 𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩ (where 𝑚 is the mass and 𝑗 the superspin) :

1 1
𝑗 = 0 → 𝑗𝑧 = 0 because 𝑠𝑧 = 𝑗𝑧 , 𝑗𝑧 = + 2 , 𝑗𝑧 = − 2 , 𝑗𝑧 and for :

1 1 2 real scalars (𝑛𝑏 = 2)

- 𝑗 = 0 → 𝑠𝑧 = 0, 2 , − 2 , 0 {
1 Weyl fermion (𝑛𝐹 = 2)

1 1
1
𝑗𝑧 = +1/2 → 𝑠𝑧 = 2 , 1, 0,
2
- 𝑗=2 { 1 1 1 → 𝑛𝐵 = 4 and 𝑛𝐹 = 4
𝑗𝑧 = − 2 → 𝑠𝑧 = − 2 , 0, −1, − 2

↳ 1 real massive vector field (𝑛𝐵 = 3)

↳ 1 real scalar (𝑛𝐵 = 1)
↳ 2 Weyl fermions (𝑛𝐹 = 4)
In the massless case : 𝑚2 = 0 → chose a reference frame where 𝑝𝜇 = (𝐸, 0,0, 𝐸) and
𝜎 𝜇 = (𝕀, 𝜎⃗) so we have the anticommuting {𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = 2(𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼𝛽̇ 𝑝𝜇 = 2𝐸(𝜎 0 − 𝜎 3 )
0 0
= 2𝐸 ( )
0 2

Which means {𝑄𝛼 , 𝑄̅𝛽̇ } = {𝑄2 , 𝑄̅2̇ } = 4𝐸 and all other = 0.

We define here :

1 1
𝑎= 𝑄2 𝑎† = 𝑄̅2̇
√4𝐸 √4𝐸

{𝑎, 𝑎† } = 1 and {𝑎, 𝑎} = {𝑎† , 𝑎† } = 0. 𝑎† and 𝑎 are the creation and annihilation operators.

Starting point : state with minimum helicity 𝜆0 : |𝜆0 ⟩

1
↳ 𝑎† |𝜆0 ⟩ ~ |𝜆0 + 2⟩

1
↳ 1 fermion state + 1 bosonic state. We need to add the antiparticle states : |−𝜆0 ⟩, |−𝜆0 , 2⟩

For example :

1 1 1
 𝜆0 = − 2 ∶ − 2 , 0 ⊕ 0, 2
↳ Chiral supermultiplet : 1 Weyl fermion (𝑛𝐹 = 2) ⟺ quarks, leptons
1 complex scalar (𝑛𝐵 = 2) ⟺ squarks, sleptons

1 1
 𝜆0 = −1 ∶ −1, − 2 ⊕ 2 , 1
↳ Vector supermultiplet : 1 real vector (massless 𝑛𝐵 = 2) ⟺ gauge bosons
1
1 spin − 2 Weyl fermion (𝑛𝐹 = 2) ⟺ gauginos

3 3
 𝜆0 = −2 ∶ −2, − 2 ⊕ 2 , 2
↳ Gravity supermultiplet : 1 graviton (massless 𝑛𝐵 = 2)
1 gravitino (𝑛𝐹 = 2)

The particle content of the Minimal SUSY Multiplet (MSSM) is composed of quarks and
leptons (which are chiral supermultiplets), gauge bosons (which are vector supermultiplets).

𝑈𝐿 𝑢𝐿
We write 𝑄 = ( ) (capital 𝑈 ≡ supermultiplet ≠ from the Standard Model sipnor (𝑑 ).
𝐷𝐿 𝐿

Like the SM, we can separate particles in 2 categories : fermions and gauge bosons (which
don’t have the same quantum numbers)
 𝐵 𝐼 𝑆𝑈(3) 𝑆𝑈(2) 𝑈(1)
𝑈 𝑢̃𝐿 𝑢𝐿 3 2 1/6
𝑄 ( 𝐿) 𝑞̃𝐿 ( ̃ ) 𝑞𝐿 (𝑢 )
𝐷𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝐿 (color quantum (chirality (hypercharge
number) quantum quantum
Quarks number) number)
̅
𝑈 (𝑢̃𝑅 )+ (𝑢𝑅 )+ 3̅ 1 −2/3
̅ +
{ 𝐷 (𝑑̃𝑅 ) (𝑑𝑅 )+ 3̅ 1 −2/3
𝑁𝐿 𝜈̃ 𝜈𝐿 1 2 −1/2
𝐿( ) 𝑙̃𝐿 ( 𝐿 ) 𝑙𝐿 ( 𝑒 )
𝐸𝐿 𝑒̃𝐿 𝐿
Leptons { ̅
𝑁 (𝜈̃𝑅 )+ (𝜈𝑅 )+ 1 1 0
𝐸̅ (𝑒̃𝑅 )+ (𝑒𝑅 )+ 1 1 1
𝐻0 ℎ𝑑0 ℎ̃𝑑0 1 2 −1/2
𝐻𝑑 ( 𝑑− ) ( − ) ( − )
𝐻𝑑 ℎ𝑑 ℎ̃𝑑
Higgs
𝐻+ ℎ+ ℎ̃𝑢+ 1 2 1/2
𝐻𝑢 ( 𝑢0 ) ( 𝑢0 ) ( 0)
{ 𝐻𝑢 ℎ𝑢 ℎ̃𝑢
Table of content of fermions in the SUSY theory

𝐵 𝐼 𝑆𝑈(3) 𝑆𝑈(2) 𝑈(1)

𝐺 𝑔 𝑔̃ 8 1 0
𝑊 𝑤 𝑤
̃ 1 3 0
𝐵 𝑏 𝑏̃ 1 1 0

Table of content of gauge bosons in the SUSY theory

We can add and sum up informations about the content of the SUSY :

 Scalar quarks ≡ squarks including stops and sbottoms particles → spin = 0

 Scalar leptons ≡ sleptons which are selectrons → spin = 0

1
 ̃, 𝑏̃ ≡ gluinos, winos, binos → spin 2 ≡ mix of same unbroken quantum
Gauge : 𝑔̃, 𝑤
numbers

1 neutralinos (𝑤 ̃ 3 , 𝑏̃, ℎ̃𝑑0 , ℎ̃𝑢0 ), 𝜒1/2

0
 Higgsinos : ℎ̃𝑑0 , ℎ̃𝑑− , ℎ̃𝑢+ , ℎ̃𝑢0 → spin 2 {
̃ ± , ℎ̃𝑑− , ℎ̃𝑢+ ), 𝜒3/2
charginos (𝑤 ±

The LSP (lightest supersymmetric particle) is stable (if property is conserved)

is neutral → can be a dark matter candidate.

↳ often 𝜒̃10 (the lightest neutrino) is the LSP.

  Fermions in QFT – some technical details
Mathematically, fermions are defined by : irreps of Poincaré algebra ⊃ fermions.
↳ We need irreps of the Lorentz group on the Hilbert space. We introduce the standard
procedure :

 Find Casimir operator

} both “conditions” build the multiplets
 Find ladder operator

Casimir operator are for example : 𝑝2 , 𝑊𝜇 𝑊𝜇 etc.

↳ We’ve got simple alternative : 𝑠𝑜(1,3) ≈ 𝑠𝑢(2)
⏟ ⊕ 𝑠𝑢(2)
↳ we know it from non-relativistic quantum mechanic

1) Non-relativistic quantum mechanic

In classic quantum mechanic, the Casimir operators are : 𝐽⃗2

𝐽𝑧 of the 𝑆𝑈(2) (rank = 1)

The ladder operators are 𝐽± = 𝐽1 ± 𝑖𝐽2 .

We start with the maximum (or the minimum) weight state |𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩ and we apply ladder
operators to reach the minimum (or maximum) weight state.
1 3
↳ As a result, on finds 𝑗 = 0, 2 , 1, 2 , … and 𝑗𝑧 = −𝑗, −𝑗 + 1, … , 𝑗
↳ dim 𝑉𝑗 = 2𝑗 + 1

For the irrep characterised by 𝑗 ∶ (𝐷𝑗 , 𝑉𝑗 ), states are |𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩. But why 𝑠𝑜(1,3) ≈ 𝑠𝑢(2) ⊕ 𝑠𝑢(2) ?
𝑖 𝑗 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑘
𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽𝑗𝑘 [𝐽 , 𝐽 ] = 𝑖𝜀 𝐽
1
2
Lorentz algebra tells us } [𝐽𝑖 , 𝐾𝑗 ] = 𝑖𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐾 𝑘
𝐾 𝑖 = 𝐽0𝑖 [𝐾 𝑖 , 𝐾𝑗 ] = −𝑖𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽𝑘

1
↳ this algebra allows us to form complex linear combination : 𝐽⃗± = 2 (𝐽⃗ ± 𝑖𝐾
⃗⃗ )
𝑗
↳ [𝐽±𝑖 , 𝐽± ] = 𝑖𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝐽±𝑘
𝑗
↳ [𝐽±𝑖 , 𝐽∓ ] = 0
↳ we have 2 𝑠𝑢(2) algebras commuting with each other
↳ independent, direct sum.

1
The irreps of the Lorentz algebra are labelled by 2 “spins” where 𝑗± = 0, 2 , 1, … as usual for
𝑠𝑢(2) :

 Spin : 𝑗 = 𝑗+ + 𝑗−
 𝐽±2 has eigenvalues 𝑗± (𝑗± + 1) and 𝐽± has too : (2𝑗± + 1)
 The dimension of the Hilbert space 𝑉𝑗± = (2𝑗+ + 1)(2𝑗− + 1)
↳ 1-particle state |𝑚, 𝑗, internal⟩ but how do the states transforms ? let’s start with non-
relativistic quantum mechanic :

 Spin 𝑗 : irrep (𝐷𝑗 , 𝑉𝑗 )

 Basis of 𝑉𝑗 : {|𝑗, 𝑗𝑧 ⟩}
 𝜓 ∈ 𝑉𝑗 : 𝜓 = 𝜓𝛼 |𝑗, 𝛼⟩ with 𝜓𝛼 ∈ ℂ → 𝜓 = (𝜓𝛼 )

𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛽 1 1
⃗⃗
↳𝜓 → 𝜓′ ≡ 𝜓𝛼′ = (𝑒 𝑖𝜃⋅𝐽⃗) 𝜓𝛽 and for 𝑗 = 2 → 𝐽⃗ = 2 𝜎⃗ (Pauli’s matrices)
𝑆𝑈(2) 𝛼

For the Lorentz algebra, the Lorentz transformation is an orthochronous transformation

(preserve the direction of time) : 𝐿↑+ .
𝜇 𝜇
↳ 𝐿↑+ = {Λ ∈ 𝑂(1,3)| det Λ = 1, Λ00 > 1} → 𝑥 ′ = Λ 𝜈 𝑥 𝜈

We can see the action of the Lorentz transformation on the Hilbert space :

𝛽
𝜓𝛼′ (𝑥 ′ ) = 𝑀(Λ) 𝛼 𝜓𝛽 (𝑥) and 𝛼, 𝛽 = 1, … , 𝑁 with 𝑁 = dim 𝑉𝑗
𝑖 𝜇𝜈
And 𝑀(Λ) = 𝑒 −2𝜔𝜇𝜈𝐽 with 𝜔𝜇𝜈 = −𝜔𝜈𝜇 ∈ ℝ (6 parameters)
𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗ ⋅𝐾
⃗⃗⃗⃗⋅𝐽⃗+𝛽
− (𝜔 ⃗⃗ )
=𝑒 2 where these parameters are :

1
 𝜔𝑖 = 2 𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜔𝑗𝑘 ≡ rotation angle
 𝛽 𝑖 = 𝜔0𝑖 ≡ boost parameters
1
 𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀 𝑖𝑗𝑘
2
 𝐾 𝑖 = 𝐽0𝑖

We also have the following property :

⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐽⃗ + 𝛽⃗ ⋅ 𝐾
𝜔 ⃗⃗ − 𝑖𝛽⃗ ) ⋅ 𝐽⃗+ + (𝜔
⃗⃗ = (𝜔 ⃗⃗ + 𝑖𝛽⃗ ) ⋅ 𝐽⃗−

⃗⃗⃗ )⋅𝐽⃗+
⃗⃗⃗⃗−𝑖𝛽 ⃗⃗⃗ )⋅𝐽⃗−
⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝑖𝛽
↳ 𝑀(Λ) = 𝑀𝐿 (Λ)𝑀𝑅 (Λ) = 𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝐿 with 𝑀𝐿 (Λ) = 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔 and 𝑀𝐿 (Λ) = 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔

⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ )⋅𝜎
1 𝛽 ⃗⃗⃗⃗−𝑖𝛽
For (2 , 0) : 𝜓𝛼′ = (𝑀𝐿 ) 𝛼 𝜓𝛽 with 𝑀𝐿 = 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔 2 ∈ 𝑆𝐿(2, ℂ) a complex version of 𝑠𝑜(1,3)).
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝜎
1 ′ ̇ ⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝑖𝛽
For (0, 2) : 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ = (𝑀𝑅 )𝛼𝛽̇ ̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛽 with 𝑀𝑅 = (𝑀−1 )† = 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔 )⋅2 ∈ 𝑆𝐿(2, ℂ)

↳ 𝑠𝑜(3) ≈ 𝑠𝑢(2), 𝑆𝑂(3), 𝑆𝑈(2) and 𝑠𝑜(1,3) = 𝑠𝑢(2) ⊕ 𝑠𝑢(2), 𝑆𝑂(1,3), 𝑆𝐿(2, ℂ) → the
Lorentz group in complex case, for :

 (0,0) ∶ 𝑁 = 1 → 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = 0 and spin = 0

1
 (2 , 0) ∶ 𝑁 = 2 ≡ left-handed Weyl spinor 𝜓𝛼 with 𝛼 = 1, 2
1
 (0, 2) ∶ 𝑁 = 2 ≡ right-handed Weyl spinor 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ with 𝛼̇ = 1, 2
1 1
 (2 , 2) ∶ spin = 1
Note : for 𝑀 ∈ 𝑆𝐿(𝑛, ℂ) : (𝑛 ≥ 2) exists 4 representations,

1
(2 , 0) : 𝜓𝛼 ∶ 𝐷1 (𝑀) = 𝑀 → self-representation
̃
1
} For 𝑛 = 2 : equivalent representations
(2 , 0) : 𝐷2 (𝑀) = (𝑀−1 )𝑇 → dual self-representation
*
1
(0, 2) : 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ ∶ 𝐷3 (𝑀) = (𝑀−1 )† → conjugate representation
̃
1
} For 𝑛 = 2 : equivalent representations
(0, 2) : 𝐷4 (𝑀) = 𝑀 ∗ → dual conjugate representation

For 𝑛 > 2 : all 4 representations are equivalent :

 Complexe conjugate : 𝛼 → 𝛼̇
 Inverse + transformation : raise/lower indices

∀𝐴, ∀𝑀 ∶ 𝐷2 (𝑀) = 𝐴𝐷1 (𝑀)𝐴−1 so 𝐷2 ~ 𝐷1 and 𝐴 = 𝜎 2 → 𝑖𝜎

⏟2 𝑀(𝑖𝜎 2 )−1 = (𝑀−1 )𝑇 .
𝜀
↳ we have : 𝜎 2 𝜎⃗ 𝜎 2 = −𝜎⃗ 𝑇

2) Raising and lowering indices

0 1
From the definition above : 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑖𝜎 2 = ( )
−1 0
𝜀 𝛼̇𝛽 = 𝑖𝜎 2

↳ the inverse : 𝜀 𝛼𝛾 𝜀𝛾𝛽 = 𝛿 𝛼𝛽 and 𝜀 is an 𝑆𝐿(2, ℂ) invariant tensor :

For 𝑀 ∈ 𝑆𝐿(2, ℂ) we have 𝑀𝑇 𝜀𝑀 = 𝜀.

Recall : A Lorentz transformation is when a metric (like 𝜂𝜇𝜈 ) is an Lorentz-invariant

tensor : Λ ∈ 𝑆𝑂(1,3)

Λ𝑇 𝜂Λ = 𝜂

↳ it defines Lorentz transformation Λ and 𝜀 is called the spinor-metric.

̇ ̇
↳ 𝜓𝛼 = 𝜀𝛼𝛽 𝜓𝛽 , 𝜓 𝛼 = 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 𝜓𝛽 and 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = 𝜀𝛼̇𝛽̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛽 , 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ = 𝜀 𝛼̇𝛽 𝜓̅𝛽̇

1
𝜓𝛼 and 𝜓𝛼 are dual equivalent representation of (2 , 0).
1
𝜓̅𝛼̇ and 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ are dual equivalent representation of (0, 2).

𝛼
We can show that 𝜓𝛼 ′ = (𝑀−1 )𝑇 𝛽 𝜓𝛽 and we note that 𝜓̅𝛼̇ (≡ (𝑀∗ )) and (𝜓𝛼 )∗ (≡ (𝑀)∗ )
have some transformation laws.

↳ Let’s define : 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = (𝜓𝛼 )∗ = (𝜓𝛼 )†

↳ Grassman numbers : ∗ ≙ †
 ∗ †
↳ 𝜒 𝛼 = (𝜒̅ 𝛼̇ ) = (𝜒 𝛼̇ )

1 1
( , 0) (0, )
2 2
𝜇
𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ , 𝜎̅𝜇𝛼𝛼̇
𝜓𝛼′ 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇
(𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼𝛼̇ = (𝕀, 𝜎⃗)𝛼𝛼̇

(𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼𝛼̇ = (𝕀, −𝜎⃗)𝛼𝛼̇

∗
𝜀 𝜀
(𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼𝛽̇ = 𝜀𝛽̇𝛼̇ 𝜀𝛼𝛽 (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 = (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛽̇𝛼

(𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 = 𝜀 𝛽𝛼 𝜀 𝛼̇𝛽̇ (𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼𝛽̇ = (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛽𝛼̇

𝜓𝛼 𝜓̅𝛼̇
𝜇
𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ , 𝜎̅𝜇𝛼𝛼̇
1̃ 1̃
( , 0) (0, )
2 2

Examples :

 𝜓1 = 𝜀 12 𝜓2 = 𝜓2
 𝜓2 = 𝜀 21 𝜓1 = −𝜓1

↳ we have :

𝜇 ̇
𝜎 𝛼𝛼̇ = 𝜀𝛼𝛽 𝜀𝛼̇𝛽̇ (𝜎 𝜇 )𝛽𝛽

𝜓1 𝜓
From the example above : 𝜓𝛼 = ( ) and 𝜓𝛼 = ( 2 ) so we need to construct LI objects.
𝜓2 −𝜓1

 Bilinear forms
We introduce the scalar product :

𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓 = 𝜒 𝛼 𝜓𝛼 = 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 𝜒𝛽 𝜓𝛼
̇
𝜒̅ ⋅ 𝜓̅ = 𝜒̅𝛼̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ = 𝜀𝛼̇𝛽̇ 𝜒̅ 𝛽 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇

↳ the scalar product is invariant under Lorentz transformation 𝑀𝑇 𝜀𝑀 = 𝜀

 𝛾
We can show that 𝜒 ′ ⋅ 𝜓 ′ = 𝜒 𝛼 ′ 𝜓𝛼′ = 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 𝜒𝛽′ 𝜓𝛼′ = 𝜀⏟𝛼𝛽 𝑀 𝛽 𝑀𝛿𝛼 𝜒𝛾 𝜓𝛿 = 𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓
𝜀 𝛾𝛿

Note that :

 𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓 = 𝜓 ⋅ 𝜒 and 𝜒̅ ⋅ 𝜓̅ = 𝜓̅ ⋅ 𝜒̅
 (𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓)† = (𝜒 𝛼 𝜓𝛼 )† = (𝜓𝛼 )† (𝜒 𝛼 )† = 𝜓̅𝛼̇ 𝜒̅ 𝛼̇ = 𝜓̅ ⋅ 𝜒̅ = 𝜒̅ ⋅ 𝜓̅ = (𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓)†
↳ (𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓)† = 𝜒̅ ⋅ 𝜓̅

↳ the quantity 𝜒 ⋅ 𝜓 + 𝜒̅ ⋅ 𝜓̅ is a Lorentz invariant and Hermitian. (Candidate for ℒ)

We can also show that :

 (𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜓̅)† = 𝜓𝜎 𝜇 𝜒̅
 𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜓̅ = −𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜒

↳ 𝜎̅𝜇 doesn’t lead to independent LI quantities.

1
𝜎 𝜇𝜈 ≡ 4 (𝜎 𝜇 𝜎̅ 𝜈 − 𝜎 𝜈 𝜎̅𝜇 )
For theses properties, we can use (𝜎 𝜇𝜈 )𝛽𝛼 and (𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 )𝛼𝛽̇ ̇ with { 1 to
𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 ≡ 4 (𝜎̅𝜇 𝜎 𝜈 − 𝜎̅ 𝜈 𝜎 𝜇 )
construct Lorentz tensors.

For example :

 𝜒𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝜓 = 𝜒 𝛼 𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝛽𝛼 𝜓𝛽 = −𝜓𝛼 𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝛽𝛼 𝜒𝛽 = −𝜓𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝜒
↳ by using 𝜎 2 𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝜎 2 = −𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝑇

 𝜒̅ 𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 𝜓̅ = −𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 𝜒̅

 (𝜒𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝜓)† = 𝜒̅𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 𝜓̅

1) Rappel
1
We note (and remind) that Left-Handed (LH) Weyl spinor are : 𝜓𝛼 ~ (2 , 0)
1
Right-Handed (RH) Weyl spinor are : 𝜉 ̅𝛼̇ ~ (0, 2)

̇
↳ the metric is defined as 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 , 𝜀 𝛼̇𝛽 → 𝜓𝛼 = 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 𝜓𝛽 .

Lorentz invariant (LI) : 𝜒𝜓 ≡ 𝜒 𝛼 𝜓𝛼 and 𝜒̅𝜓̅ = 𝜒̅𝛼̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇ .

We introduce the 4-vector : 𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜓̅ and 𝜒̅ 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜓 and from these quantities, we can construct a
tensor of dimension 2 : 𝜒𝜎 𝜇𝜈 𝜓̅ and 𝜒̅𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 𝜓.
Weyl and 4-component Dirac spinors (𝜓 and 𝜓𝐷 ) can interact and the relation is given by :

1 1 𝜉𝛼
𝜓𝐷 ~ ( , 0) ⊕ (0, ) → 𝜓𝐷 = ( 𝛼̇ )
2 2 𝜂̅

For gamma matrices with Dirac’s algebra : {𝛾 𝜇 , 𝛾 𝜈 } = 2𝜂𝜇𝜈 𝕀4 with 𝜂𝜇𝜈 = diag(1, −1, −1, −1)

0 𝜎𝜇 −𝕀 0
In Weyl representation : 𝛾 𝜇 = ( 𝜇 ) and 𝛾 5 = 𝑖𝛾 0 𝛾 1 𝛾 2 𝛾 3 = ( 2 ) and
𝜎̅ 0 0 𝕀2
𝜇𝜈 𝑖 1 𝜇𝜈
[𝛾 𝜇 , 𝛾 𝜈 ] = (𝑖𝜎 0
1 𝜇𝜈 𝑖 ′ (𝑥 ′ )𝑒 2𝜔𝜇𝜈 2Σ
Σ = ) ⟹ 𝜓𝐷 → 𝜓𝐷 𝜓𝐷 (𝑥).
2 4 Weyl 0 𝑖𝜎̅𝜇𝜈
1 𝑖
We deduct 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = Σ 𝜇𝜈 = [𝛾 𝜇 , 𝛾 𝜈 ].
2 4

1𝕀2 0 1 0 0
Projector operators : 𝑃𝐿 = 2 (𝕀4 − 𝛾 5 ) = () and 𝑃𝑅 = 2 (𝕀4 + 𝛾 5 ) = ( )
0 0 0 𝕀2
𝜉𝛼 0
↳ 𝜓𝐿 ≡ 𝑃𝐿 𝜓𝐷 = ( ) and 𝜓𝑅 ≡ 𝑃𝑅 𝜓𝐷 = ( 𝛼̇ ).
0 𝜂̅

↳ For Dirac adjoint : 𝜓̅𝐷 = 𝜓𝐷† 𝛾 0 where 𝜓𝐷† = (𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ , 𝜂𝛼 ) → 𝜓𝐷𝑇 = (𝜉𝛼 , 𝜂̅ 𝛼 )
(𝜓𝐷𝑇 )∗ = ((𝜉𝛼 )∗ , (𝜂̅ 𝛼 )∗ )
= (𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ , 𝜂𝛼 )

0 𝕀2
↳ 𝜓̅𝐷 = (𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ , 𝜂𝛼 ) ( ) = (𝜂𝛼 , 𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ ) and let’s introduce the matrix 𝐴 :
𝕀2 0

0 𝛿𝛽𝛼̇ ̇
𝐴=( 𝛽
) → 𝐴𝛾 𝜇 𝐴−1 = (𝛾 𝜇 )†
𝛿𝛼 0

So 𝜓̅𝐷 = 𝜓𝐷† 𝐴 = (𝜂𝛽 , 𝜉𝛽̅ ̇ ) and numerically, 𝐴 = 𝛾 0 but with different index structure :

𝜇
𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ , (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼𝛼̇ 0𝛼𝛼̇ 𝛿𝛼𝛼̇
{ ⟹ 𝛾 0 = ( 𝛼𝛼̇ )
(𝜎 𝜇𝜈 )𝛼𝛽 , (𝜎̅𝜇𝜈 )𝛽𝛼̇ ̇ 𝛿 0𝛼𝛼̇

2) Charge conjugation matrix

𝜀𝛼𝛽 0
𝐶=( ) ⟹ 𝐶 −1 𝛾 𝜇 𝐶 = −(𝛾 𝜇 )𝑇
𝛼̇𝛽̇
0 𝜀
𝑇 𝜂𝛼 𝜉
For antiparticle : 𝜓𝐷𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝜓̅𝐷𝑇 = 𝐶(𝜓𝐷† 𝐴) = ( ̅𝛼 ) ⟺ 𝜓𝐷 = ( 𝛼 )
𝜉 𝜂̅𝛼
↳ Numerically : 𝐶 = 𝑖𝛾 0 𝛾 2 but with different index structure.

For a Weyl spinor : 𝜓 = (𝜉𝛼 ) → 𝜓𝐶 = 𝜀𝜓 ∗

̇
= 𝜀 𝛼̇𝛽 𝜉𝛽̅ ̇ = (𝜉 ̅𝛼̇ )
 Notice that 𝜉𝛼 = (𝜉 𝛼 )𝐶 and 𝜂̅ 𝛼̇ = (𝜂𝛼 )𝐶 .

𝐶 𝜉𝛼
Majorana spinor : it’s a 4-component Dirac spinor where 𝜓𝑀 = 𝜓𝑀 → 𝜓𝑀 = ( ̅𝛼̇ )
𝜉
↳ 2 degree of
freedom

𝜆𝛼 𝜓
̅ = (𝜑 𝛼 , 𝜆̅𝛼̇ ) and Ψ = ( 𝛼𝛼̇ )
̅ = (𝜒 𝛼 , 𝜓̅𝛼̇ ) → Φ
4-component spinors : Φ = ( 𝛼̇ ), Ψ
𝜑̅ 𝜒̅

3) Bilinear covariant

Degree of freedom Form of the quantity Expression

1 Scalar ΨΦ = χ 𝜆𝛼 + 𝜓̅𝛼̇ 𝜑̅ 𝛼̇ = 𝜒𝜆 + 𝜓̅𝜑̅
α

1 Pseudoscalar Ψ𝛾5 Φ = 𝜓̅𝜑̅ − 𝜒𝜆 = 𝜓̅𝛼̇ 𝜑̅ 𝛼̇ − 𝜒 𝛼 𝜆𝛼

𝜇 𝜇
4 Vector Ψ𝛾 𝜇 Φ = 𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜑̅ − 𝜆𝜎 𝜇 𝜓̅ = 𝜒 𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜑̅ 𝛼̇ − 𝜆𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇
𝜇 𝜇
4 Axial vector Ψ𝛾 𝜇 𝛾5 Φ = 𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜑̅ + 𝜆𝜎 𝜇 𝜓̅ = 𝜒 𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜑̅ 𝛼̇ + 𝜆𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜓̅ 𝛼̇
6 Tensor Ψ⏟𝛾 𝜇 𝛾 𝜈 Φ = 𝜒𝜎 𝜇 𝜎̅ 𝜈 𝜆 + 𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜎 𝜈 𝜑̅
Σ𝜇𝜈
𝜇
= 𝜒 𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ (𝜎̅ 𝜈 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜆𝛽
𝜈
+ 𝜓̅𝛼 (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛽 ̅^𝛽̇
̇𝜑

= 16

4) Dirac mass term

𝜓̅𝐷 = (𝜂𝛼 , 𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ )

ℒ ⊃ −𝑚𝜓̅𝐷 𝜓𝐷 and { 𝜉𝛼 = 𝜓𝐿 → −𝑚𝜓̅𝐷 𝜓𝐷 = −𝑚(𝜂𝛼 𝜉𝛼 + 𝜉𝛼̅ ̇ 𝜂̅ 𝛼̇ )
𝜓𝐷 = ( 𝛼̇ )
𝜂̅ = 𝜓𝑅

↳ ℒ𝐷 ⊃ −𝑚((𝜓𝑅 )† 𝜓𝐿 + (𝜓𝐿 )† 𝜓𝑅 ) with (𝜓𝑅 )† 𝜓𝐿 = (𝜓𝑅𝛼 )† (𝜓𝐿 )𝛼 = 𝜓̅𝑅𝛼 (𝜓𝐿 )𝛼

𝜑𝛼
In 4-component notation, define 𝑄𝑀 = ( ) we can show that [𝑃𝜇 , 𝑄𝑀 ] = 0
𝑄 𝛼̇
1
[𝐽𝜇𝜈 , 𝑄𝑀 ] = − Σ 𝜇𝜈 𝑄𝑀
2
{𝑄𝑀 , 𝑄̅𝑀 } = 2𝛾 𝜇 𝑃𝜇

† 0 1 𝑖
Where 𝑄̅𝑀 = 𝑄𝑀 𝛾 with 𝑃𝜇 and 𝐽𝜇𝜈 = 2 Σ 𝜇𝜈 = 4 [𝛾 𝜇 , 𝛾 𝜈 ] ≡ Lorentz algebra satisfying the
Weyl representation.

We can show that ℒ = 𝜓̅𝐷 (𝑖𝛾 𝜇 𝜕𝜇 − 𝑚)𝜓𝐷

= 𝑖(𝜓𝐿 )† 𝜎 𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝐿 + 𝑖(𝜓𝑅 )† 𝜎 𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝑅 − 𝑚[(𝜓𝑅 )† 𝜓𝐿 + (𝜓𝐿 )† 𝜓𝑅 ]
  Supersymmetric Lagrangians

1) Lagrangians for a massive fermion

1
𝜓𝐿 ~ (2 , 0) ∶ 𝜒𝛼 (= (𝜓𝐿 )𝛼 ) so 𝜓𝐿 = (𝜒𝛼 ) → ℒ = 𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜒̅𝛼 (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜒𝛼 : no mass term.
= 𝑖𝜕𝜇 (𝜓𝐿 )† 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜓𝐿

1 𝜇
𝜓𝑅 ~ (0, 2) ∶ 𝜉 ̅𝛼̇ (= 𝜓𝑅𝛼̇ ) so 𝜓𝑅 = (𝜉 ̅𝛼̇ ) → ℒ = 𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜉 ̅𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜉 ̅^𝛼̇ : no mass term.
= 𝑖𝜕𝜇 (𝜓𝑅 )† 𝜎 𝜇 𝜓𝑅

If both 𝜒𝛼 and 𝜉 ̅𝛼̇ are present :

ℒ = 𝜒̅𝑖 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜒 + 𝜉𝑖𝜎 𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜉 ̅ − 𝑚(𝜒̅𝜉 ̅ + 𝜒𝜉)

↳ ℒ is a Lorentz invariant.

Let’s assume we only have a LH field 𝜒𝛼 , can we construct a Lorentz scalar ? What about 𝜒𝜒?
↳ 𝜒𝛼 𝜒 𝛼 = 𝜀 𝛼𝛽 𝜒𝛼 𝜒𝛽 = 0

2) The chiral supermultiplet (as the simplest case)

In SUSY : 𝑄|𝐵⟩ = 𝐹 and 𝑄|𝐹⟩ = 𝐵.

↳ Chiral supermultiplet : 1 complex scalar of mass 𝑚 : 𝜙

1 fermion of mass 𝑚 ∶ 𝜓𝛼 where 𝛼 = 1,2

For a free Lagrangian : ℒ = (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 † )(𝜕 𝜇 𝜙) + 𝑖𝜓 † 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 = ℒ𝜙 + ℒ𝜓 .

How to transform 𝜙, 𝜓 so that 𝑆 = ∫ ℒ𝑑4 𝑥 is invariant ?

𝜙 → 𝜙 + 𝛿𝜙
For an infinitesimal transformation : { so 𝑒 𝑖(𝜀𝑄+𝜀̅𝑄̅) 𝜙 = (1 + 𝑖(𝜀𝑄 + 𝜀̅𝑄̅ )𝜙
𝜓 → 𝜓 + 𝛿𝜓
= 𝜙 + 𝛿𝜀 𝜙
With 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 = 𝑖(𝜀𝑄 + 𝜀̅𝑄̅ )𝜙 with a suitable representation of 𝜀 𝛼 𝑄𝛼 acting on 𝜙 (and 𝜓).
𝜉 are anticommutating Grassman numbers
↳ Where : { 𝛼
𝑄𝛼 are the SUSY generators

Hypothesis : 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 = 𝜀𝜓 = 𝜀 𝛼 𝜓𝛼
↳ infinitesimal parameter of a SUSY transformation.

↳ 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 ∗ = (𝜀𝜓)† = 𝜀̅𝜓̅ and we can show later that thus satisfies the SUSY transformation.

We can see that this is linear in 𝜙 → linear rep of SUSY algebra.

But 𝜀 ≠ 𝜀(𝑥) : global SUSY transformation (= theory called SUGRA : Super GRAvity)

But how does ℒ𝜙 transform ? 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 𝛿𝜀 ((𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕𝜇 𝜙)) = 𝛿𝜀 (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ 𝛿𝜀 (𝜕 𝜇 𝜙)

= (𝜕𝜇 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 ∗ )𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ (𝜕𝜇 𝛿𝜀 𝜙)
Because 𝛿(𝜕𝜇 𝜓) = 𝜕𝜇 (𝛿𝜓).

↳ 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 𝛿𝐸 ((𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕𝜇 𝜙)) = (𝜕𝜇 𝜀̅𝜓̅)𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ (𝜕𝜇 𝜀𝜓)

= 𝜀̅𝜕𝜇 𝜓̅𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜀𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ 𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 and with the product rule :

𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 𝜕𝜇 (𝜀̅𝜓̅𝜕 𝜇 𝜙) − 𝜀̅𝜓̅⧠𝜙 + 𝜕𝜇 (𝜙 ∗ 𝜕 𝜇 𝜀𝜓) − ⏟

𝜀𝜓⧠𝜙 ∗
̅ ⧠𝜙∗
𝜀̅ 𝜓

We need 𝛿𝐸 ℒ𝜓 such that 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜓 + 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 0 + 𝜕𝜇 𝐾𝜇 , ℒ𝜓 = 𝑖𝜓 † 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓. But 𝛿𝜀 𝜓 ?

𝜇
↳ 𝛿𝜀 𝜓 ~ 𝜀, 𝜕𝜇 𝜙, 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ where 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 is necessary to cancel 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 in 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙
𝜇
𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ is needed for an LI transformation.

𝜇 ̇
Ansatz (𝛿𝜀 𝜓)𝛼 = 𝑐𝜎𝛼̇𝛽 𝜀̅𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 where 𝑐 ∈ ℂ (only sensible choice)
𝜇
𝛿𝜀 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = 𝑐 ∗ 𝜀 𝛽 𝜎 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ where 𝛿𝜀 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝛼 )†
𝛽𝛼̇

𝛽 𝛽
And we can show that (𝜎 𝜈 𝜎̅𝜇 + 𝜎 𝜇 𝜎̅ 𝜈 )𝛼 = 2𝜂𝜇𝜈 𝛿𝛼
̇ ̇
(𝜎̅𝜇 𝜎 𝜈 + 𝜎̅ 𝜈 𝜎 𝜇 )𝛽𝛼̇ = 2𝜂𝜇𝜈 𝛿𝛼𝛽̇

↳ 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜓 = 𝛿𝜀 (𝑖𝜓 † 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓) = 𝛿𝜀 (𝑖𝜓̅𝛼̇ (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛽 )

= 𝑖(𝛿𝜀 𝜓̅𝛼̇ )(𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛽 + 𝑖𝜓̅𝛼̇ (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝛽
𝜈
= 𝑖(𝑐 ∗ 𝜀 𝛾 𝜎𝛾𝛼 ∗
̇ 𝜕𝜈 𝜙 )(𝜎 ̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛽 + 𝑖𝜓̅𝛼̇ (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜕𝜇 (𝑐𝜎𝛾̇𝜈𝛽 𝜀̅𝛾̇ 𝜕𝜈 𝜙)
𝜈
= 𝑖𝑐 ∗ 𝜀 𝛾 𝜎𝛾𝛼̇ (𝜎 ̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 ⏟
𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛽 𝜕⏟ ∗ ̅ ̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜎𝛾̇𝜈𝛽 𝜀̅𝛾̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙
𝜈 𝜙 + 𝑖𝑐𝜓𝛼̇ (𝜎
𝑓′ 𝑔
∗ 𝛾 𝜈 (𝜎 𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛽 𝜈 𝜇 𝛼̇𝛽
= 𝜕𝜇 [𝑖𝑐
⏟ 𝜀 𝜎𝛾𝛼̇ ̅ 𝜓𝛽 𝜕𝜈 𝜙 ∗ ] − 𝑖𝑐 ∗ 𝜀 𝛾 𝜎
⏟𝛾𝛼̇ (𝜎̅ ) 𝜓𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙
∗

𝜇 1 𝜈 𝜇
𝐾1 ̅ +𝜎𝜇 𝜎
(𝜎 𝜎 ̅ 𝜈 )𝜓𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙∗
2
+𝑖𝑐𝜓̅𝛼̇ (𝜎 𝜇 𝛼̇ 𝛽 𝜈 𝛾̇
⏟̅ ) 𝜎𝛾̇ 𝛽 𝜀̅ 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙
1 𝜇 𝜈
(𝜎 ̅ 𝜈 𝜎𝜇 )𝜓𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙
̅ 𝜎 +𝜎
2

1
Where 𝜎 𝜈 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 = 𝜎 𝜈 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝜇 = 𝜎 𝜇 𝜎̅ 𝜈 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 = 2 ⏟
(𝜎 𝜈 𝜎̅𝜇 + 𝜎 𝜇 𝜎̅ 𝜈 ) 𝜓𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙 ∗
𝛽
2𝜂 𝜇𝜈 𝛿𝛼
𝜇
↳ 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜓 = 𝜕𝜇 𝐾1 − 𝑖𝑐 ∗ 𝜀𝜂𝜇𝜈 𝜓𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙 ∗ + 𝑖𝑐𝜓̅𝜂𝜇𝜈 𝜀̅𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜈 𝜙

𝜇
𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜓 = 𝜕𝜇 𝐾1 − 𝑖𝑐 ∗ 𝜀𝜓⧠𝜓 ∗ + 𝑖𝑐𝜓̅𝜀̅⧠𝜓 with 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 𝜕𝜇 (… ) − 𝜀̅𝜓̅⧠𝜙 − 𝜀⧠𝜙 ∗
↳ 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜓 + 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝜙 = 𝜕𝜇 𝐾𝜇 + 𝜀𝜓⧠𝜙 ∗ (−1 − 𝑖𝑐 ∗ ) = 𝜕𝜇 𝐾𝜇 + 𝜀𝜓̅⧠𝜙(−1𝑖𝑐).

So : −1 + 𝑖𝑐 = 0 and −1 − 𝑖𝑐 ∗ = 0 so we have : 𝑐 = −𝑖 → 𝑐 ∗ = 𝑖
We need to consider the commutator of 2 SUSY transformation (only the commutator of 2
elements of an algebra makes sense !)

[𝛿𝜀1 , 𝛿𝜀2 ] = 𝛼 𝜇 𝑃̂𝜇 𝜙 where 𝛼 𝜇 = 𝜀1 𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅2 − 𝜀2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅1 and 𝑃̂𝜇 = 𝑖𝜕𝜇 by correspondence principal.

Commutator of 2 SUSY transformation is a space-time translation. Similar calculation for the

fermion field :

[𝛿𝜀1 , 𝛿𝜀2 ]𝜓𝛼 = 𝛼 𝜇 𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛼 + 𝑖𝜀1 𝛼 (𝜀̅2 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓) − 𝑖𝜀2 𝛼 (𝜀̅1 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓) that leads to the equation of
motion (Weyl) :

𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 = 0

↳ [𝛿𝜀1 , 𝛿𝜀2 ]𝜓 = 𝛼 𝜇 𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓 → the SUSY algebra closes but only if we use the classical equations
of motion.

We would like to have the SUSy algebra satisfied without using the classical equation of
motion :

 To be valid at the quantum level

 Called “off-shell” formulation.

We introduce an auxiliary (no propagator) complex scalar field 𝐹 : ℒ𝐹 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹.

The equation of motion given by Euler-Lagrange :

𝜕ℒ 𝜕ℒ 𝜕ℒ
𝜕𝜇 [𝜕(𝜕 𝐹)] − 𝜕𝐹 = 0 → 𝜕𝐹 = 0 → 𝐹 ∗ = 𝐹 = 0 : on-shell, F vanishes.
⏟ 𝜇
0

Ansatz : 𝐹 → 𝐹 + 𝛿𝜀 𝐹 with 𝛿𝜀 𝐹 = 𝑖𝜀̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 to cancel the unwanted term in [𝛿𝜀1 , 𝛿𝜀2 ]

↳ 𝜕𝜀 𝐹 ∗ = −𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜀.

When we look about the action :

𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑4 𝑥(𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ 𝜕 𝜇 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 + 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹) = ∫ 𝑑 4 𝑥(ℒ𝜙 + ℒ𝜓 + ℒ𝐹 )

With (𝜙, 𝜓, 𝐹) a multiplet and 𝐹 is a new scalar degree of freedom. We need to generalize
also the other SUSY transformation.
𝜇 𝜇
𝜓 → 𝜓 + 𝛿𝜀 𝜓 with 𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝛼 = −𝑖𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜀̅𝛼 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜀𝛼 𝐹 → 𝛿𝜀 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = 𝑖𝜀 𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ + 𝜀̅𝛼̇ 𝐹 ∗

𝜙 → 𝜙 + 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 with 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 = 𝜀𝜓 → 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 ∗ = 𝜀̅𝜓̅

𝐹 → 𝐹 + 𝛿𝜀 𝐹 with 𝛿𝜀 𝐹 = 𝑖𝜀̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 → 𝛿𝜀 𝐹 ∗ = −𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜀.

Remark :
 ℒ𝐹 or 𝐹 is called 𝐹-term
 Important in SUSY : SUSY breaking, interactions in the superpotential

We can show that :

 The free action is invariant under the off-shell SUSY transformations

 [𝛿𝜀1 , 𝛿𝜀2 ]𝑋 = 𝛼 𝜇 𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝑋 where 𝑋 = 𝜙, 𝜓𝛼 , 𝐹

 Adding interaction in SUSY

For free Lagrangian : ℒ0 = ℒ𝜙 + ℒ𝜓 + ℒ𝐹
= (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕 𝜇 𝜙) + 𝑖𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 + 𝐹𝐹 ∗

↳ ℒ remains invariant under SUSY transformation : 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 = 𝜀𝜓, 𝛿𝜀 𝜙 ∗ = 𝜀̅𝜓̅

𝜇
𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝛼 = −𝑖𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜀̅𝛼̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 + 𝜀𝛼 𝐹

𝜇
𝛿𝜀 𝜓̅𝛼̇ = 𝑖𝜀 𝛼 𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ + 𝜀̅𝛼̇ 𝐹 ∗

𝛿𝜀 𝐹 = 𝑖𝜀̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓

𝛿𝜀 𝐹 ∗ = −𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜀

We have 𝛿𝜀 𝑆 = 0 with 𝑆 = ∫ ℒ𝑑 4 𝑥 ≡ the action.

Ansatz : for the most general (renormalisables) interaction Lagrangian ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 for 𝑛 chiral
supermultiplets (𝜙𝑖 , 𝜓𝑖𝛼 , 𝐹𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 ∶ 𝜙 = (𝜙1 , … , 𝜙𝑛 ).

1
ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = − 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ )𝐹𝑖 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ )𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 − 𝑈(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) + ℎ. 𝑐.
2
3
Remark : → [ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 ] = 4, [𝜓𝑖 ] = , [𝐹] = 2, [𝜙𝑖 ] = 1
2
↳ 𝐹𝐹 ∗ already in ℒ0 → (𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝑖 )𝜓𝑗 already in ℒ0 in form of 𝜓̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 (Lorentz scalar)
↳ ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 arranged in powers of 𝜓, ie : 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 , 𝑤 𝑖 , 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 , 𝑈 are polynomials in 𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ .
↳ [ℒ] = 4 → 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 1 power in 𝜙 and/or 𝜙 ∗
→ 𝑤 𝑖 = 2 powers in 𝜙 and/or 𝜙 ∗
→ 𝑈 = 4 powers in 𝜙 and/or 𝜙 ∗
→ 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 = 0 power in 𝜙 and/or 𝜙 ∗
We can show that :

 𝑢(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) = 0
 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 = 0
 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 contains only 𝜙 and no 𝜙 ∗ (holomorphic)
↳ 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) = 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙), [𝑤 𝑖𝑗 ] = 1

 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑗𝑖 since 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑗𝑖 𝜓𝑗 𝜓𝑖 with 𝜓𝑗 𝜓𝑖 = 𝜓𝑗𝛼 𝜓𝑖𝛼 = 𝜓𝑖𝛼 𝜓𝑗𝛼 = 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗

↳ so we have 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑗𝑖

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
 is cyclic in 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘:
𝛿𝜙𝑘

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑤 𝑘𝑖 𝛿𝑤 𝑗𝑘
= =
𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑗 𝛿𝜙𝑖

↳ 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 is cyclic too

𝜕2 𝑤(𝜙) 𝜕𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑤 𝑖𝑗
 By c) + d) + e) → 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 ⟹ = 𝜕𝜙 is cyclic
𝑖 𝑗 𝜕𝜙𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝜙𝑖 𝜕𝜙𝑗
1 1
↳ 𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 𝜙𝑖 + 2 𝑀𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 6 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 is called the superpotential

𝜕𝑊
𝑤 𝑖 is holomorphic, ie : 𝑤 𝑖 = 𝑤 𝑖 (𝜙) and is given in term of the superpotential : 𝑤 𝑖 = 𝜕𝜙
𝑖
Where 𝑊 generates all interaction including the mass of fermions and bosons. It’s not a
potential, it’s an auxiliary function.

In summary, for 𝑛 chiral supermultiplets (𝜙𝑖 , 𝜓𝑖𝛼 , 𝐹𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 :

1
ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = − 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙)𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖 (𝜙)𝐹𝑖 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) + 𝑈(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) + ℎ. 𝑐.
2
1 ∗
= − (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝑤𝑖 𝑤𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓̅𝑖 𝜓̅𝑗 ) + 𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 + 𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖∗
2

𝜕2 𝑤(𝜙) 𝜕𝑤(𝜙)
With 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 and 𝑤 𝑖 = and the most general superpotential :
𝑖 𝑗 𝜕𝜙𝑖

1 1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 𝜙𝑖 + 𝑀𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘
2 6

↳ Wess-Zumino Model.

↳ 𝑈(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) must be zero. 𝑈 contains only scalar fields : 𝜕𝜀 (𝜙𝑖 , 𝜙𝑗 , 𝜙𝑘 , 𝜙𝑙 ) = 𝛿𝜀 (𝜙𝑖 )𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙
+𝜙𝑖 𝛿𝜀 (𝜙𝑗 )𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙
⋮
𝛿𝜀 𝑈 ~ 𝜀𝜓𝑈 ̃1 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) + 𝜀̅𝜓̅𝑈
̃2 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) needs to be cancelled by the other terms in 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 →
𝑖[𝛿𝜀 𝑆𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 ] = 0
But 𝛿𝜀 (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) = (𝛿𝜀 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 )𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 (𝜕𝜀 𝜓𝑗 ) with :

 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 contains 2 4-field
 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 ) ~ 𝑎𝜕𝜇 𝜙 + 𝑘𝜀𝛼 𝐹
 (𝜕𝜀 𝜓𝑗 ) ~ 𝑎𝜕𝜇 𝜙 + 𝑏𝐹

↳ cannot cancelled 𝛿𝜀 𝑈 !

 𝛿𝜀 (𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 ) = (𝛿𝜀 𝑤 𝑖 )𝐹𝑖 + 𝑤 𝑖 (𝜕
⏟𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )
~ 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝛼
 𝑖𝑗
𝛿𝜀 (𝑥 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 ) = (𝛿𝜀 𝑥 𝑖𝑗
)𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )𝐹𝑗 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 𝐹𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑗 )

↳ cannot cancel 𝛿𝜀 .

By the way and with the same arguments : 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) must be zero : [𝑥 𝑖𝑗 ] = 0 → 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 does
not depend on 𝜙 or 𝜙 ∗ → 𝛿𝜀 (𝑥 𝑖𝑗 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 ) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 [(𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )𝐹𝑗 + 𝐹𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑗 )]

𝛿𝜀 (𝑥 𝑖𝑗 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 ) = 𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑗 [(𝜀̅𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝑖 )𝐹𝑗 + 𝐹𝑖 (𝜀̅𝛼̇ (𝜎̅𝜇 )𝛼̇𝛼 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝑗𝛼 )] → This must be cancelled by the
terms in 𝛿𝜀 (ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) .

 𝛿𝜀 (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) = (𝛿𝜀 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 ) 𝜓
⏟
𝑖𝑗
⏟ (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 )𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤
𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤
𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
⏟ 𝜓𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑗 ) → cannot cancel 𝛿𝜀 (𝑥 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 )
(𝐴) (𝐵) (𝐶)

 𝛿𝜀 (𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 ) = (𝛿 𝑖
⏟𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 ) → cannot cancel 𝛿𝜀 (𝑥 𝑖𝑗 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑗 ) → 𝑥𝑖𝑗 = 0
⏟ 𝜀 𝑤 )𝐹𝑖 + 𝑤
(𝐷) (𝐸)

(𝐴) ≡ 2 𝜓 −field
(𝐵), (𝐶), (𝐷) ≡ no 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 term
(𝐸) ≡ no 𝐹-term

We can show that 𝜒𝛼 (𝜉𝜂) + 𝜉𝛼 (𝜂𝜒) + 𝜂𝛼 (𝜒𝜉) = 0 (Fierz identity)

- 𝜀𝛼𝛽 (𝜒𝜂) = 𝜀𝛼𝛽 𝜒 𝛾 𝜂𝛾 = 𝜀𝛼𝛽 𝜀 𝛾𝛿 𝜒𝛿 𝜂𝛾

𝛾 𝛾
= (𝛿𝛼𝛿 𝛿𝛽 − 𝛿𝛼 𝛿𝛽𝛿 ) 𝜒𝛿 𝜂𝛾 = 𝜒
⏟𝛼 𝜂𝛽 − 𝜒𝛽 𝜂𝛼
↓
- 𝜒𝛼 (𝜉𝜂) = 𝜒𝛼 𝜉𝛽 𝜂𝛽 = −𝜉𝛽 𝜒𝛼 𝜂𝛽 = −𝜀 𝛽𝛾 𝜉𝛾 𝜒𝛼 𝜂𝛽
= −𝜀 𝛽𝛾 𝜉𝛾 (𝜒𝛽 𝜂𝛼 + 𝜀𝛼𝛽 (𝜒𝜂))
= −𝜀 𝛽𝛾 𝜉𝛾 𝜒𝛽 𝜂𝛼 − 𝜀 𝛽𝛾 𝜀𝛼𝛽 𝜉𝛾 (𝜒𝜂)
= −𝜉𝛽 𝜒𝛽 𝜂𝛼 − 𝜀 𝛾𝛽 𝜀𝛽𝛼 𝜉𝛾 (𝜒𝜂)
𝛾
= −(𝜉𝜒)𝜂𝛼 − 𝛿𝛼 𝜉𝛾 (𝜒𝜂) = −(𝜉𝜒)𝜂𝛼 − 𝜉𝛼 (𝜒𝜂)

!
We remind that 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) = 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙) and 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 is an arbitrary holomorphic function.
 1
ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = − 2 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 since 𝑈 = 0 and 𝑥 𝑖𝑗 = 0.
1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 ∗
1 𝑖𝑗 1 𝑖𝑗
𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 =− (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝜓 𝑖 𝜓𝑗 − ∗ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 − 𝑤 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 )𝜓𝑗 − 𝑤 𝜓𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑗 )
2 𝛿𝜙𝑘 2 𝛿𝜙𝑘 2 2
𝛿𝑤 𝑖 𝛿𝑤 𝑖 ∗ 𝑖
+ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝐹𝑖 + ∗ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝐹𝑖 + 𝑤 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )
𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑘

1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
− 2 𝛿𝜙 (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 − 2 𝛿𝜙∗ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘∗ )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ≡ 4 𝜓-field (1)
𝑘 𝑘

1 1
− 2 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 )𝜓𝑗 − 2 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑗 ) + 𝑤 𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 ) ≡ contains 1 space-time derivative (2)

𝛿𝑤 𝑖 𝛿𝑤 𝑖
+ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝐹𝑖 + (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘∗ )𝐹𝑖 ≡ linear in 𝐹 (3)
𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑘∗

Red, blue and green terms have to cancel separately.

(1) : vanishes due to the Fierz identity (demonstrated earlier).

1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
↳ (1) = − 2 𝛿𝜙 (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 − 2 𝛿𝜙∗ (𝛿𝜀 𝜙𝑘∗ )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 = − 2 𝛿𝜙 (𝜀𝜓𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 − 2 𝛿𝜙∗ (𝜀̅𝜓̅𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
1 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 1 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
= − 2 3 [ 𝛿𝜙 𝜀𝜓𝑘 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) + 𝜀𝜓𝑘 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) + 𝜀𝜓𝑘 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 )] − 2 𝛿𝜙∗ (𝜀̅𝜓̅𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗
𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝑘

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
If were cycle in 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 → the term in brackets (… ) would cancel as a consequence of the
𝛿𝜙𝑘
Fierz identity :

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
(… ) = [𝜀𝜓𝑘 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) + 𝜀𝜓𝑗 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑘 ) + 𝜀𝜓𝑖 (𝜓𝑗 𝜓𝑘 )]
𝛿𝜙𝑘
𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝛼
= 𝜀 [(𝜓𝑘 )𝛼 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) + (𝜓𝑗 )𝛼 (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑘 ) + (𝜓𝑖 )𝛼 (𝜓𝑗 𝜓𝑘 )] = 0 by Fierz identity.
𝛿𝜙𝑘

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
As (… ) = 0 ⟹ is cyclic in 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 then As (… ) = 0 ⟺ is cyclic in 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘
𝛿𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝜙𝑘

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
Note : there’s no Fierz (or other) identity which could make vanish the term (𝜀̅𝜓̅𝑘 )𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 .
𝛿𝜙𝑘∗
These terms have the form 𝜓𝑘† (𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 ) and if we permute the indices, everytime another filed
will carry the dagger and a cancellation is impossible (unless if the fields are real).

𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
↳ in order to have (1) vanishing : † = 0 → 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙) (holomorphic)
𝛿𝜙𝑘

We can show that :

1) 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝜙) → 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑀𝑖𝑗 + 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑘

2) 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑤 𝑗𝑖 → 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = 𝑀𝑗𝑖
𝛿𝑤 𝑖𝑗
3) is cyclic → Yukawa couplings 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 are cyclic in 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘.
𝛿𝜙𝑘
 𝜕2 𝑊(𝜙)
With 1) + 2) + 3) : 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = with the most general 𝑊 :
𝜕𝜙𝑖 𝜕𝜙𝑗

1 1
↳ 𝑊(𝜙) = 𝐿𝑖 𝜙𝑖 + 2 𝑀𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 6 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘

But what’s the dimension of 𝑊 ? we have [𝑤 𝑖𝑗 ] = 1 so [𝑊] = 1.

The blue term (2) in 𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 have to vanish too. As a result, we will find that : 𝑤 𝑖 = 𝑤 𝑖 (𝜙)
𝜕𝑊
(holomorphic) and 𝑤 𝑖 = 𝜕𝜙
𝑖

1 1𝛼
𝛿𝜀 ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 ⊃ − 2 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖 )𝛼 𝜓𝑗𝛼 − 2 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓 𝑖
⏟𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑗 )𝛼 + 𝑤 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )
(𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑗 )𝜓𝑖
𝑖𝑗 (𝛿 𝛼 𝑖 𝑖𝑗 𝛼
= −𝑤 𝜀 𝜓𝑖 ) 𝜓𝑗𝛼 + 𝑤 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 ) = −𝑤 𝜓𝑗 𝛿𝜀 𝜓𝑖𝛼 + 𝑤 𝑖 (𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖 )
𝜇 𝜇
= −𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖𝛼 (𝑖𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜀̅𝛼̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜙𝑗 + 𝜀𝛼 𝐹𝑗 ) + 𝑤 𝑖 ⏟ (𝑖𝜀̅𝜎̅𝑖 𝜕𝜇 𝜓)
𝛿𝜀 𝐹𝑖

𝜇
= −𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖𝛼 (𝑖𝜎𝛼𝛼̇ 𝜀̅𝛼̇ 𝜕𝜇 𝜙𝑗 + 𝜀⏟ 𝑖 𝜇
𝛼 𝐹𝑗 ) + 𝑤 (−𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝜎 𝜀̅)
Where (∗) will be cancelled
(∗)
𝜕2 𝑊(𝜙)
𝑖𝑗 𝜇
= −𝑖𝑤 𝜕𝜇 𝜙𝑗 (𝜓𝑖 𝜎 𝜀̅) + 𝑤 (−𝑖𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝜎 𝜀̅) − 𝑤 𝑖 𝜇 𝑖𝑗
𝜓𝑖𝛼 𝜀𝛼 𝐹𝑗 against (3) and 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 = .
𝜕𝜙𝑖 𝜕𝜙𝑗
𝜕2 𝑊(𝜙)
= −𝑖 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜇 𝜙𝑗 (𝜓𝑖 𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅) − 𝑖𝑤 𝑖 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅ + green term
⏟ 𝑖 𝑗
= 0 + total derivative
𝜕𝑊(𝜙)
= −𝑖 (𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜙 ) (𝜓𝑖 𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅) − 𝑖𝑤 𝑖 𝜕𝜇 𝜓𝜎 𝜇 𝜀̅ + green term
⏟ 𝑖
𝜕𝑊(𝜙)
this is a total derivative ⟺ 𝑤 𝑖 =
𝜕𝜙𝑖

We can show that −𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖𝛼 𝜀𝛼 𝐹𝑗 and (3) cancel each other.

 The phenomenology of the Wess-Zumino model

In chiral supermultiplets (𝜙𝑖 , 𝜓𝑖 , 𝐹𝑖 )(𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛) :

ℒ = ℒ0 + ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡
1 ∗ ∗
= (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕 𝜇 𝜙) + 𝑖𝜓̅𝑖 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 + 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖∗ − 2 (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓̅𝑖 𝜓̅ 𝑗 ) + 𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 + 𝑤 𝑖 𝐹𝑖∗

1 1
Where 𝑤 = 𝐿𝑖 𝜙𝑖 + 2 𝑀𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 6 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 . We can express the 𝐹𝑖 by the 𝑤𝑖 using the
equation of motion (Euler-Lagrange’s equation of motion) :

𝜕ℒ 𝜕ℒ 𝜕ℒ
𝜕𝜇 [𝜕(𝜕 𝐹 )] − 𝜕𝐹 = 0 ⟺ 𝜕𝐹 = 0 so we have : 𝐹𝑖∗ = −𝑤 𝑖 .
⏟ 𝜇 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
0
 ∗
Similarly 𝐹𝑖 = −𝑤 𝑖 → we can now eliminate the term 𝐹𝑖 in ℒ.

∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
ℒ = (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕 𝜇 𝜙) + 𝑖𝜓̅𝑖 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 + 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 − 2 (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓̅ 𝑖 𝜓̅ 𝑗 ) − 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 − 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖
1 ∗ ∗
= (𝜕𝜇 𝜙 ∗ )(𝜕𝜇 𝜙) + 𝑖𝜓̅𝑖 𝜎̅𝜇 𝜕𝜇 𝜓 − (𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓̅ 𝑖 𝜓̅ 𝑗 ) − 𝑤⏟𝑖 𝑤 𝑖
2
2
|𝑤 𝑖 |

∗ 2 𝜕𝑊
The term 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 = |𝑤 𝑖 | ≡ 𝑉(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) is called the scalar potential with 𝑤 𝑖 ≡ 𝜕𝜙 .
𝑖
𝑖 1 𝑖𝑗 1 𝑖𝑗𝑘
From 𝑊 = 𝐿
⏟ 𝜙𝑖 + 2 𝑀 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 6 𝑌 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 we can calculate the scalar potential :
cste

2 ∗ 𝜕𝑊 𝜕 1 1
𝑉(𝜙, 𝜙 ∗ ) = |𝑤 𝑖 | = 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 knowing that 𝑤 𝑖 ≡ 𝜕𝜙 ≡ 𝜕𝜙 (2 𝑀𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 + 6 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 )
𝑖 𝑖

1 1 1
↳ 𝑤 𝑖 = 2 𝑀𝑘𝑙 𝛿𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑙 + 2 𝑀𝑘𝑙 𝛿𝑖𝑙 𝜙𝑘 + 6 𝑌 𝑘𝑙𝑚 (𝛿𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑙 𝜙𝑚 + 𝜙𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑙 𝜙𝑚 + 𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙 𝛿𝑖𝑚 )
1 1
= 2 𝑀𝑖𝑙 𝜙𝑙 + 2 𝑀𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑘 + ⋯
1
= 𝑀𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑘 + 2 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘

∗ 1
↳ 𝑤𝑖∗ = 𝑀𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑘∗ + 2 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑗∗ 𝜙𝑘∗ and we deduct :

1 1 ∗
𝑉 = (𝑀𝑘𝑖 𝜙𝑘 + 2 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 ) (𝑀𝑖𝑙 𝜙𝑙∗ + 2 𝑌 𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝜙𝑙∗ 𝜙𝑚
∗
)
1 ∗ 1 ∗
= (𝑀2 )𝑘𝑙 𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙∗ + 2 ⏟ 𝑌𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑌𝑗𝑙𝑚 𝜙𝑗 𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙∗ 𝜙𝑚
𝑀𝑘𝑖 𝑌 𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝜙𝑘 𝜙𝑙 𝜙𝑚 + ℎ. 𝑐. + 4 ⏟ ∗

𝜆𝑘𝑙𝑚
3
𝑗𝑘𝑙𝑚
𝜆4

Note : quartic coupling 𝜆4 ~ 𝑌𝑌 square of Yukawa due to SUSY. If we only have one chiral
supermultiplet :

1 1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝜙 + 2 𝑀𝜙 2 + 6 𝑌𝜙 3
𝜕𝑊 1
𝑊𝑖 = = 𝑀𝜙 + 2 𝑌𝜙 2
𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝑊 2 1 1 1 1 1
𝑉 = | 𝜕𝜙 | = (𝑀𝜙 + 2 𝑌𝜙 2 ) (𝑀𝜙 + 2 𝑌𝜙 2 ) = 𝑀2 𝜙𝜙 ∗ + 2 𝑀𝑌 ∗ 𝜙𝜙 ∗ 2 + 2 𝑀∗ 𝑌𝜙 2 𝜙 ∗ + 4 𝑌 2 𝜙 2 𝜙 ∗ 2

Note that 𝑉 ≡ |𝑊𝑖 |2 ≥ 0 → 𝑉 is bounded from below.

∗
 Scalar potential : 𝑉 = 𝑤𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 → scalar masses and interaction

 𝑤 𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑖 𝜓𝑗 + ℎ. 𝑐. → masses and Yukawa interaction for fermions.

↳we can show that the scalar and fermion masses are the same (thanks to SUSY)

 Trilinear coupling : 𝜆𝜓𝑖 ,𝜓𝑗,𝜙𝑘 = 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑘

 ∗
Quartic couplings : 𝜆𝜙𝑖 ,𝜙𝑗,𝜙𝑘,𝜙𝑙 = 𝑌 𝑖𝑗𝑚 𝑌𝑘𝑙𝑚 → needed to cancel the quadratic
divergence.

↳ SUSY relates different couplings of the theory